1.
V12 engine
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By using split crankpins or ignoring minor vibrations, any V angle is possible. The 180° configuration is referred to as a flat-twelve engine or a boxer although it is in reality a 180° V since the pistons can. This is not important in a car if all-out performance is the only goal. Since cost and fuel economy are usually important even in luxury and racing cars and it is often used in marine engines where great power is required, and the hull width is limited, but a longer vessel allows faster hull speed. In twin-propeller boats, two V12 engines can be enough to sit side-by-side, while three V12 engines are sometimes used in high-speed three-propeller configurations. Large, fast cruise ships can have six or more V12 engines, after World War II, the compact, more powerful, and vibration-free turboprop and turbojet engines replaced the V12 in aircraft applications. The first V-type engine was built in 1889 by Daimler, to a design by Wilhelm Maybach, by 1903 V8 engines were being produced for motor boat racing by the Société Antoinette to designs by Léon Levavasseur, building on experience gained with in-line four-cylinder engines. In 1904, the Putney Motor Works completed a new V12 marine racing engine—the first V12 engine produced for any purpose, a single camshaft mounted in the central V operated the valves directly. As in many engines, the camshaft could be slid longitudinally to engage a second set of cams. Starting is by pumping a charge into each cylinder and switching on the trembler coils, a sliding camshaft gave direct reversing. The camshaft has fluted webs and main bearings in graduated thickness from the largest at the flywheel end, displacing 1,120 cu in, the engine weighed 950 pounds and developed 150 bhp. Little is known of the achievements in the 40-foot hull for which it was intended. One V12 Dörwald marine engine was still running in a Hong Kong junk in the late-1960s. Two more V12s appeared in the 1909-1910 motor boat racing season, the Lamb Boat & Engine Company of Clinton, Iowa built a 1,559 cu in engine for the companys 32-foot Lamb IV. It weighed in at 2,114 pounds, no weight is known for the massive 3,464 cu in F-head engine built by the Orleans Motor Company. Output is quoted as nearly 400 bhp, by 1914, when Panhard built two 2,356 cu in engines with four-valve cylinder heads the V12 was well established in motor boat racing. In October 1913, Louis Coatalen, chief engineer of the Sunbeam Motor Car Company entered a V12 powered car in the Brooklands short, the engine displaced 9 L, with bore and stroke of 80 x 150 mm. An aluminum crankcase carried two blocks of three cylinders each along each side, with a 60 degree included angle, the cylinders were of iron, with integral cylinder heads with L-shaped combustion chambers
2.
Reciprocating engine
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A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the features of all types. The main types are, the combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution. There may be one or more pistons, the hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is known as the Bottom Dead Center, or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the top by a flywheel. This is where the forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or exhausted gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke, the exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction, in some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod. A flywheel is used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders an engine has, generally, the more vibration-free it can operate. The power of an engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons displacement. A seal must be made between the piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the wall to form a seal. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm³ or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimetres in ships engines, the compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine
3.
Aircraft engine
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An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines, in commercial aviation, the major players in the manufacturing of turbofan engines are Pratt & Whitney, General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and CFM International. In general aviation, the dominant manufacturer of engines has been Pratt & Whitney. General Electric announced in 2015 entrance into the market,1848, John Stringfellow made a steam engine for a 10-foot wingspan model aircraft which achieved the first powered flight, albeit with negligible payload. 1903, Charlie Taylor built an inline aeroengine for the Wright Flyer,1903, Manly-Balzer engine sets standards for later radial engines. 1906, Léon Levavasseur produces a successful water-cooled V8 engine for aircraft use,1908, René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine. 1908, Louis Seguin designed the Gnome Omega, the worlds first rotary engine to be produced in quantity. In 1909 a Gnome powered Farman III aircraft won the prize for the greatest non-stop distance flown at the Reims Grande Semaine dAviation setting a record for endurance of 180 kilometres. 1910, Coandă-1910, a ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust gases into the duct to augment thrust,1930, Frank Whittle submitted his first patent for turbojet engine. June 1939, Heinkel He 176 is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a rocket engine. August 1939, Heinkel HeS3 turbojet propels the pioneering German Heinkel He 178 aircraft,1940, Jendrassik Cs-1, the worlds first run of a turboprop engine. It is not put into service,1943 Daimler-Benz DB670, first turbofan runs 1944, Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet, the worlds first rocket-propelled combat aircraft deployed. 1945, First turboprop powered aircraft flies, a Gloster Meteor with two Rolls-Royce Trent engines,1947, Bell X-1 rocket propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound. 1948,100 shp 782, the first turboshaft engine to be applied to aircraft use,1949, Leduc 010, the worlds first ramjet-powered aircraft flight. 1950, Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, enters service,1968, General Electric TF39 high bypass turbofan enters service delivering greater thrust and much better efficiency. 2002, HyShot scramjet flew in dive,2004, NASA X-43, the first scramjet to maintain altitude. This is typically to differentiate them from radial engines, a straight engine typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-cylinder engines
4.
Hispano-Suiza
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Hispano-Suiza was a Spanish automotive/engineering company and, after World War II, a French aviation engine and components manufacturer. It is best known for its cars and aviation engines pre-World War II. In 1923, its French subsidiary became a partnership with the Spanish parent company. In 1946, the Spanish parent company sold all its Spanish automotive assets to Enasa, in 1968, the French arm was taken over by the aerospace company Snecma, now a part of the French SAFRAN Group. Hispano-Suiza designed the first 4-cylinder 16-valve engine and the car considered to have been the first sports car, in 1898 a Spanish artillery captain, Emilio de la Cuadra, started electric automobile production in Barcelona under the name of La Cuadra. In Paris, De la Cuadra met the Swiss engineer Marc Birkigt, La Cuadra built their first gasoline-powered engines from a Birkigt design. At some point in 1902, the ownership changed hands to J. Castro and became Fábrica Hispano-Suiza de Automóviles, yet another restructuring took place in 1904, creating La Hispano-Suiza Fábrica de Automóviles, under Castros direction, also based in Barcelona. Four new engines were introduced in the year and a half, a 3. 8-litre and 7. 4-litre four-cylinder. This company managed to avoid bankruptcy and its largest operations remained in Barcelona until 1946, other factories in Spain were at Ripoll, Seville, and Guadalajara. France was soon proving to be a market for Hispanos luxury cars than Spain. In 1911, a factory called Hispano France began operating in the Paris suburb of Levallois-Perret. Production was moved to larger factories at Bois-Colombes, under the name Hispano-Suiza in 1914, with the start of World War I, Hispano-Suiza turned to the design and production of aircraft engines under the direction of Marc Birkigt. His chief engineer during this period was another Swiss, Louis Massuger, traditionally, aircraft engines were manufactured by machining separate steel cylinders and then bolting these assemblies directly to the crankcase. Birkigts novel solution called for the block to be formed from a single piece of cast aluminum. Manufacturing an engine in this way simplified construction and resulted in a lighter, thus, Birkigts new construction method created the first practical, and what are commonly known today as, cast block engines. Another major design feature, for the later HS. 8B line was the use of a propeller shaft for both the 8B and 8C gear-reduction versions, which when used for the HS. After World War I, Hispano-Suiza returned to manufacturing and in 1919 they introduced the Hispano-Suiza H6. Licences for Hispano-Suiza patents were much in demand from prestige car manufacturers world-wide, Rolls-Royce used a number of Hispano-Suiza patents
5.
Dewoitine D.520
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The Dewoitine D.520 was a French fighter aircraft that entered service in early 1940, shortly after the beginning of World War II. It was slower than the Bf 109E but superior in manoeuvrability, because of a delayed production cycle, only a small number were available for combat against the Luftwaffe. The D.520 was designed in response to a 1936 requirement from the French Air Force for a fast, modern fighter with a climbing speed. Other fighters were designed to meet the specifications but none of them entered service, or entered service in small numbers, too late to play a significant role during the Battle of France. The specifications called for a speed of 500 km/h at 4,000 m. The armament was to be two 7.5 mm machine guns and one 20 mm Hispano-Suiza HS.9 cannon, or two HS.9 cannon. Dewoitine had been disappointed with the performance of his last design, the Dewoitine D.513, in response, Dewoitine renamed the further development, the D.520. In March 1937 the firm part of a number of design-and-manufacturing pools. These changes were enough to allow the aircraft to reach its design speed, the maximum diving speed was 825 km/h. The prototype was followed in 1939 by two examples, the D, the third prototype also introduced a small tailwheel instead of the original skid. The second prototype was fitted with a Hispano-Suiza 12Y-31 engine and achieved a maximum speed of 550 km/h. Flight tests proceeded successfully, resulting in a contract issued in March 1939 for 200 production machines to be powered by the newer -31 engine, a contract for an additional 600 aircraft was issued in June, albeit reduced to 510 in July 1939. With the outbreak of war, a new contract brought the total of D. 520s on order to 1,280, the Aéronautique Navale then ordered 120. Another French Air Force order in April 1940 brought the total to 2,250, the first production D.520 flew in October 1939. Most production examples were powered by the 935 CV Hispano-Suiza 12Y-45 with the new Szydlowski-Planiol supercharger, the production standard armament was a 20 mm HS.404 cannon firing through the propeller hub and four belt-fed MAC1934 M397.5 mm machine guns in the wings. As the first batch of D. 520s rolled off the line, they failed acceptance tests due to insufficient top speed. An all-metal structure was used, except for fabric-covered ailerons and tail surfaces, the wing, even if single-spar, was a solid and rigid unit with a secondary spar and many reinforced parts. The inwardly retracting undercarriage had a broad 2.83 m track, the ferry range was from 1,300 km to 1,500 km at 450 km/h which, from June 1940, allowed D. 520s to escape to North Africa when France fell
6.
Ikarus IK-2
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The Ikarus IK-2 was a 1930s high-wing, single-seat, monoplane fighter aircraft of Yugoslav design built for the Royal Yugoslav Air Force. The IK-2 was designed by French-trained engineers Kosta Sivčev and Ljubomir Ilić, a gull-wing design, it was armed with a hub-firing autocannon and fuselage-mounted synchronised machine guns. After the defeat of Yugoslavia, the four aircraft were taken onto the strength of the air force of the Axis puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia. In the late 1920s, a scheme promoted by the Royal Yugoslav Air Force and it was intended that after this advanced training, they would return to Yugoslavia and be offered specialist roles in the VVKJ or in the aeronautical industry. Ljubomir Ilić and Kosta Sivčev went through this program, but when they returned to Yugoslavia, frustrated by this, in 1931 they decided to design a replacement for the Czechoslovakian-built Avia BH-33E biplane fighter then in service with the VVKJ. Working in a basement in Belgrade, then in Ilićs apartment in Novi Sad, the gull-wing design emphasised power and manoeuvrability over other characteristics. This powerful 860 shaft horsepower engine combined with the hub-firing cannon mandated the use of a metal fuselage, other armament consisted of two synchronised French-made 7.9 mm Darne machine guns, mounted under and to each side of the engine. The wing was braced with two struts on each side of the fuselage, the conventional landing gear was spatted and mounted off the wing struts. The fixed tailwheel was also spatted, the enclosed cockpit was located behind the wing. The horizontal stabilizer on each side was braced from below with two rigid braces from the lower tailcone, and tied from above with two flying wires from the vertical stabilizer, the three-bladed propeller was manually adjustable in pitch. Up to this point, the two men had received no help, and had been forced to borrow from family to keep the project going. They then decided to approach the head of the department of the VVKJ. Stanojević was surprised but impressed with their work and a report proposing to build the design was presented on 22 September 1933. The prototype was designated IK-1, with the IK standing for Ilić and it is believed that the prototype was complete by September 1934, but the first flight was delayed due to concerns about the wing structure. The following month, Bajdak was appointed as test pilot for the prototype, but he did not co-operate in the preparations for the maiden flight, and decided to develop his own test program. Permission was granted for flight testing to begin in April 1935, for this initial uneventful flight, no weapons were installed and a light fuel load was used. The following day, Bajdak put the IK-1 into unplanned aerobatic manoeuvres, an official from Ikarus checked it and stated that this would resolve once the fabric varnish had completely dried. Bajdak took the aircraft for a third test flight the next day, the aircraft dropped into a spin to starboard, and Bajdak baled out safely while the IK-1 crashed into the ground
7.
Morane-Saulnier M.S.406
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The Morane-Saulnier M. S.406 was a French fighter aircraft built by Morane-Saulnier starting in 1938. Numerically, it was Frances most important fighter during the stages of World War II. Although sturdy and highly maneuverable, it was underpowered and weakly armed when compared to its contemporaries, most critically, it was outperformed by the Messerschmitt Bf 109E during the Battle of France. The M. S.406 held its own in the stages of the war. In return M. S.406 squadrons achieved 191 confirmed victories, the type was more successful in the hands of Finnish and Swiss air forces who developed indigenous models. Morane-Saulniers response was the M. S.405 developed by Engineer in Chief Paul-René Gauthier, the MS.405 was a low-wing monoplane of mixed construction, with fabric-covered wooden tail, but a bonded metal/wood material skin fixed to duralumin tubing. Plymax consisted of a sheet of duralumin bonded to a thicker sheet of plywood. Morane-Saulnier had a history of producing warplanes dating back to pre-World War I years. The aircraft was a departure for them, being their first low-wing monoplane, first with an enclosed cockpit, prior to this, their most modern designs were fixed-gear parasol monoplanes. The new 641.3 kW Hispano-Suiza 12Ygrs engine driving a two-pitch Chauvière propeller powered the first M. S405-1 prototype, which flew on 8 August 1935. Development was very slow, and the second M. S. 405-2 prototype with a 671.1 kW Hispano-Suiza 12Ycrs engine didnt fly until 20 January 1937, almost a year and a half later. With the new engine the fighter reached 443 km/h, fast enough to secure an order for a further 16 pre-production prototypes, the result of these changes was the M. S.406. The two main changes were the inclusion of a new wing structure which saved weight, and a retractable radiator under the fuselage, powered by the production 641.3 kW HS 12Y-31 engine, the new design was over 8 km/h faster than the 405, at 489 km/h. Armament consisted of a 20 mm Hispano-Suiza HS.9 or 404 cannon with 60 rounds in the V of the engine and fired through the propeller hub, a weakness of the MAC1934 was its operation at high altitudes. It was found that at altitudes over 6,000 m, heaters were added to the guns for high-altitude use. While the 406s were entering service in 1939, a series was started to improve the design. The added thrust boosted the top speed to 509 km/h, an improvement of about 16 km/h over the 406, production had just started when France fell, and only five examples had been completed. Production was allowed to continue under German supervision, converting earlier 406s to the 410 standard, a single example of the M. S.411 was constructed by converting the 12th aircraft of the pre-production line with the 406 wing and the 745.7 kW Hispano-Suiza 12Y-45 engine
8.
Hispano-Suiza 12Z
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The 12Z, designated Type 89 by the company, was the final evolution of the series of Hispano-Suiza V-12 aircraft engines. The Z model had just entered production when France fell to the Germans during World War II, a small number were produced during the war but the German occupation government would not allow full-scale production to start. After the war small numbers were built to new designs. The 12Z differed from the earlier 12Y primarily in the use of four valves per cylinder operated by dual overhead cams and this gave the cylinders considerably better volumetric efficiency and faster operation, raising the RPM from 2,400 to 2,700. The engine was designed to run only on 100 octane fuel which allowed the compression ratio to rise from the 12Ys 5.8,1 to the 12Zs 6.75,1. These changes raised the power from 1,000 to 1,300 hp at sea level, the engine continued to use a single-stage, single-speed supercharger and therefore lacked the all-altitude performance of German and British designs. But tuning the supercharger for a different critical altitude improved high-altitude performance considerably, delivering 1,500 hp at 6,400 m as opposed to 930 hp at 900 m for the 12Y. Small prototype runs started in 1939, and were fitted to the French Air Forces front-line fighter aircraft, production of the main model, the 12Z-17, was just starting at the time of the armistice. Production was undertaken in Hispano-Suizas Spanish factories, but these engines had many problems and were never used in any numbers, after the war a new version tuned to operate with 92 octane fuel, as opposed to the -17s 100/130, was built in limited numbers as the 12Z-89. Compression ratio was raised slightly to 7,1, but with the lower grade fuel the power dropped slightly to 1,280 hp at 2,600 rpm. These engines apparently had the same sorts of reliability issues as the earlier -17s made in Spain, 12Z-1 The initial version of the engine used for development 12Z-17 development peak at time of the Fall of France in May 1940 12Z-89 post-war development, not successful. 16.3 kg/cm² List of aircraft engines Hispano Suiza 12B a 1949 Flight article
9.
French Air Force
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The French Air Force is the air force of the French Armed Forces. It was formed in 1909 as the Service Aéronautique, an arm of the French Army. The number of aircraft in service with the French Air Force varies depending on source, the French Air Force has 233 combat aircraft in service, with the majority being 125 Dassault Mirage 2000 and 108 Dassault Rafale. As of early 2016, the French Air Force employs a total of 42,607 regular personnel, the reserve element of the air force consisted of 5,187 personnel of the Operational Reserve. The Minister of Defence is responsible for execution of military policy and he is advised by the Chief of Staff of the Armies in regard to the use of forces and the control of military operations. The Chief of Staff of the French Air Force determines the air force doctrines and advises the CEMA how to deploy French air assets and he is responsible for the preparation and logistic support of the air force. The French took active interest in developing the air force from 1909 and had the first World War I fighter pilots, in the post–World War II era, the French made a successful effort to develop a domestic aircraft industry. Dassault Aviation led the way mainly with delta-wing designs, which formed the basis for the Mirage series of jet fighters. The Mirage demonstrated its abilities in the Six-Day War, Yom Kippur War, the Falklands War, the French Air Force participated in several protracted colonial wars in Africa and French Indochina after the Second World War, and continues to employ its air power in Africa. The Military Air Transport Command had previously formed in February 1962 from the Groupement dUnités Aériennes Spécialisées. The Dassault Mirage IV, the principal French strategic bomber, was designed to strike Soviet positions as part of the French nuclear triad, also created in 1964 was the Escadron des Fusiliers Commandos de lAir, seemingly grouping all FCA units. CFAS had two squadrons of S-3 IRBMs at the Plateau dAlbion, six squadrons of Mirage IVAs, coTAM counted 28 squadrons, of which ten were fixed-wing transport squadrons, and the remainder helicopter and liaison squadrons, at least five of which were overseas. CAFDA numbered 14 squadrons mostly flying the Mirage F. 1C, two other commands had flying units, the Air Force Schools Command, and the Air Force Transmissions Command, with four squadrons and three trials units. In 1994 the Commandement des Fusiliers Commandos de lAir was established, the French Air Force is expanding and replacing aircraft inventory. After an absence lasting several decades, the French President Nicolas Sarkozy confirmed that France will rejoin the NATO integrated command, from 2008-2010 the Air Force underwent an organisational streamlining process. This project was called Air 2010, which was the year of the deadline for all transitions, the main targets of this project were to simplify the command structure, to regroup all military and civil air force functions and to rationalise and optimise all air force units. Five major commands, were formed, instead of the former 13, CDAOA CFA CSFA DRHAA SAGF The last remaining squadron of Dassault Mirage F1s were retired in July 2014 and replaced by the Rafale. The Chief of Staff of the French Air Force determines air force doctrine and he is responsible for the preparation and logistic support of the air force
10.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
11.
Klimov M-105
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The Klimov M-105 was a V12 liquid-cooled piston aircraft engine used by Soviet aircraft during World War II. The M-105, designed in 1940, drew heavily on Klimovs experience with the Hispano-Suiza 12Y, in addition to a two-speed supercharger, the M-105 had several improvements like two intake valves per cylinder and a counterbalanced crankshaft. About 129,000 M-105 and its variants were built, during the war, Klimovs engines were redesignated from M to VK for the lead designers initials. M-105 - First version produced at the end of 1939, m-105P - First mass production engine. Able to accept an autocannon in the vee between cylinder banks, installed on the majority Soviet pre-war fighters - Yak-1, LaGG-1 and several experimental aircraft. M-105PF -1942 Modification with significantly increased power output at the expense of decreased high-altitude performance, the PF was installed on the most numerous versions of Yak fighters - Yak-1B, Yak-7B, Yak-9. VK-105PF2 & PF3 - Further increase in output, which was believed to have exhausted the potential of the M-105 design for greater performance. The PF2 was installed in the Yak-3, m-105PD - Engine with 2-stage E-100 turbocharger, experimental high-altitude version, unsuccessful. M-105R - Decreased propeller reduction gear ratio for bomber aircraft, installed on Pe-2, BB-22 and others. M-105RA - M-105PA with decreased propeller reduction gear ratio for bomber aircraft, valve lift,13 mm Supercharger, Gear-driven two-speed centrifugal type compressor. Maximum boost for take-off,965 mm Hg, subsequent variants had 1,100 or 1,200 mm Hg, maximum boost at altitude,920 mm Hg, subsequent variants had 1,100 mm Hg. Emergency boost,1,100 mm Hg at 2,800 RPM, critical altitude,2,000 m at 1st speed,4,000 m at 2nd speed. Fuel system, Six K-105 Carburettors, three on each side of cylinder banks Fuel type,94,95 or 100 octane rating gasoline
12.
Yakovlev Yak-1
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The Yakovlev Yak-1 was a World War II Soviet fighter aircraft. It was a monoplane with a composite structure and wooden wings. The Yak-1 was manoeuvrable, fast and well armed, and it was easy to maintain and it formed an excellent basis for subsequent developments from the Yakovlev bureau. It was the founder of a family of aircraft, with some 37,000 being built. As a reward, designer Alexander Yakovlev was awarded the Order of Lenin - the highest decoration bestowed by the Soviet Union - a 100,000 ruble prize, prior to World War II, Yakovlev was best known for building light sports aircraft. The design took advantage of Yakovlev OKBs experience with sports aircraft. Since the M-106 was delayed, the design was changed to incorporate the Klimov M-105P V-12 engine, with a 20 mm ShVAK cannon in the vee of the engine block, i-26-I first flew on 13 January 1940. The prototype suffered from oil overheating problems which were never completely resolved, then, on 27 April 1940, I-26-1 crashed, killing its test pilot Yu. I. The investigation of the found that the pilot had performed two consecutive barrel rolls at low altitude, which was in violation of the test flight plan. It was believed that during the first roll, the landing gear became unlocked. The many defects caused I-26-2 to fail government testing in 1940, fortunately for Yakovlev, its competitors, I-200 and I-301, also failed testing. Requested improvements were incorporated into I-26-3, which was delivered for testing on 13 October 1940, although it passed on 9 December 1940, the aircraft was still very much unfinished, with unresolved engine problems. The goal of this gamble was to reduce the lag time between the prototype and production aircraft, as backups, the I-200 and I-301 were also ordered into production. Due to the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, development and implementation of other upcoming promising designs, like the Polikarpov I-185. Yakovlev might have been Joseph Stalins personal favorite, which may have been in the Yak-1s favor, simultaneous manufacturing and testing of a design that required as many improvements as I-26 wreaked havoc on the production lines. Almost 8,000 changes were made to the blueprints by 1941, with an additional 7,000 implemented the following year. Production was further slowed by shortages of engines, propellers, radiators, wheels, shortages of quality materials resulted in plywood being torn off the wings on several aircraft. To make matters worse, Factory No.292 which was the manufacturer of Yak-1s was bombed on 23 June 1943
13.
Lavochkin-Gorbunov-Gudkov LaGG-3
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The Lavochkin-Gorbunov-Gudkov LaGG-3 was a Soviet fighter aircraft of World War II. It was a refinement of the earlier LaGG-1, and was one of the most modern aircraft available to the Soviet Air Force at the time of Germanys invasion in 1941. Overweight despite its construction, at one stage 12 LaGG-3s were being completed daily and 6,528 had been built when factory 31 in Tbilisi switched to Yak-3 production in 1944. The prototype of the LaGG-3, I-301, was designed by Semyon A. Lavochkin, Vladimir P. Gorbunov and it was designated LaGG-3 in serial production. Its airframe was almost completely made of wood used for the crucial parts. This novel construction material had tensile strength comparable to that of non-hardened aluminum alloys and it was also incombustible and completely invulnerable to rot, with service life measured in decades in adverse conditions. The full wooden wing was analogous to that of the Yak-1, the only difference was that the LaGGs wings were built in two sections. The fuselage was of construction to the MiG-3s.7 mm Berezin UBS machine guns with 170 rpg. Consequently, the weight of rounds fired per second was 2.65 kg/s, making the LaGG-3 superior in burst mass to all contemporary Russian fighters. Most other Russian fighters of that era were considered under-gunned in relation to contemporary fighters. This is somewhat true even for the Yak-1, which had a 20 mm cannon and two 7.62 mm machine guns, but not the versions of the Polikarpov I-16. The LaGG-3 rapidly replaced the LaGG-1, although the new fighter was too heavy for its engine. As a result, the LaGG was slow, its top speed was just 575 km/h, while its rate of climb, the LaGG-3 proved to be somewhat hard to control as it reacted sluggishly to stick forces. In particular, it was difficult to pull out of a dive, as a consequence, sharp turns were difficult to perform. A more powerful version of the engine was installed, but the improvement was small, the LaGG team re-examined the design and pared down the structure as much as possible. Fixed slats were added to the wings to climb and maneuverability. But the improvement was slight and, thus, without an alternative powerplant, later in 1941, the LaGG-3 appeared with new armament options, an internally balanced rudder, retractable ski landing gear for the winter, retractable tailwheel and wing pipes for drop tanks. The result was not good enough
14.
Petlyakov Pe-2
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The Petlyakov Pe-2 was a Soviet light bomber used during World War II. It was regarded as one of the best ground attack aircraft of the war and it was successful in the roles of fighter, reconnaissance. It was similar in respects to the British de Havilland Mosquito. Pe-2s were manufactured in greater numbers during the war than any other twin-engined combat aircraft except for the German Junkers Ju 88, the Pe-2 was fast, maneuverable and durable. Several Communist nations flew the type after the war, when it became known by the NATO reporting name Buck, six captured Pe-2s were also transferred from the Germans to the Finnish Air Force during the Continuation War, with the serial code PE- and the unofficial nickname Pekka-Eemeli. The Pe-2 was designed in a design bureau, Vladimir Petlyakov had been arrested and imprisoned in 1937 for allegedly delaying design work on the Tupolev ANT-42 bomber. In the sharashka, Petlyakov was put in charge of a team to develop a fighter escort for the ANT-42 under the designation VI-100. It is said that Petlyakov and his team could see the VI-100 prototype from their prison as it was put through its paces for the crowds watching the annual May Day parade in 1940. Just as production was ready to begin, the air force ordered a re-design of the aircraft, Petlyakovs team was given 45 days to redesign their aircraft as a dive bomber. Cabin pressurization and superchargers were deleted, dive brakes and a bombardiers position were added, a fuselage bomb-bay was added, along with smaller bays in each engine nacelle. The aircraft was initially designated PB-100, but Joseph Stalin was impressed enough with Petlyakov to free him, the first aircraft flew on December 15,1940, rushed through production without a prototype under severe threats from Stalin. Deliveries to combat units began the following Spring, while the Pe-2s flying characteristics were generally favorable once it was airborne, it took a good amount of force to pull the elevators up to rotate the plane for takeoff. Russian night bombing missions often flew with female pilots and some of the women were not strong enough to get the airplane airborne by themselves. When such a situation occurred, the procedure was to have the navigator get behind the seat and wrap her arms around the control wheel. Once the aircraft was airborne, the returned to her duties. Its armament was insufficient, however. The dorsal ShKAS machine gun had a high rate of fire, however. The mounting for the ventral Berezin UB had a limited field of view
15.
Czechoslovakia
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From 1939 to 1945, following its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, the state did not de facto exist but its government-in-exile continued to operate. From 1948 to 1990, Czechoslovakia was part of the Soviet bloc with a command economy and its economic status was formalized in membership of Comecon from 1949, and its defense status in the Warsaw Pact of May 1955. A period of liberalization in 1968, known as the Prague Spring, was forcibly ended when the Soviet Union, assisted by several other Warsaw Pact countries. In 1993, Czechoslovakia split into the two states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Form of state 1918–1938, A democratic republic, 1938–1939, After annexation of Sudetenland by Nazi Germany in 1938, the region gradually turned into a state with loosened connections among the Czech, Slovak, and Ruthenian parts. A large strip of southern Slovakia and Carpatho-Ukraine was annexed by Hungary, 1939–1945, The region was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the Slovak Republic. A government-in-exile continued to exist in London, supported by the United Kingdom, United States and its Allies, after the German invasion of Russia, Czechoslovakia adhered to the Declaration by United Nations and was a founding member of the United Nations. 1946–1948, The country was governed by a government with communist ministers, including the prime minister. Carpathian Ruthenia was ceded to the Soviet Union, 1948–1989, The country became a socialist state under Soviet domination with a centrally planned economy. In 1960, the country became a socialist republic, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. It was a state of the Soviet Union. 1989–1990, The federal republic consisted of the Czech Socialist Republic, 1990–1992, Following the Velvet Revolution, the state was renamed the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic, consisting of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. Neighbours Austria 1918–1938, 1945–1992 Germany Hungary Poland Romania 1918–1938 Soviet Union 1945–1991 Ukraine 1991–1992 Topography The country was of irregular terrain. The western area was part of the north-central European uplands, the eastern region was composed of the northern reaches of the Carpathian Mountains and lands of the Danube River basin. Climate The weather is mild winters and mild summers, influenced by the Atlantic Ocean from the west, Baltic Sea from the north, and Mediterranean Sea from the south. The area was long a part of the Austro Hungarian Empire until the Empire collapsed at the end of World War I, the new state was founded by Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, who served as its first president from 14 November 1918 to 14 December 1935. He was succeeded by his ally, Edvard Beneš. The roots of Czech nationalism go back to the 19th century, nationalism became a mass movement in the last half of the 19th century
16.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
17.
Water cooling
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Water cooling is a method of heat removal from components and industrial equipment. As opposed to air cooling, water is used as the heat conductor, the main mechanism for water cooling is convective heat transfer. Cooling water is the water removing heat from a machine or system, cooling water may be recycled through a recirculating system or used in a single pass once-through cooling system. Recirculating systems may be if they rely upon cooling towers or cooling ponds to remove heat or closed if heat removal is accomplished with negligible evaporative loss of cooling water. Environmental regulations emphasize the reduced concentrations of waste products in non-contact cooling water, the advantages of using water cooling over air cooling include waters higher specific heat capacity, density, and thermal conductivity. This allows water to heat over greater distances with much less volumetric flow. The water jacket around an engine is very effective at deadening mechanical noises. Water accelerates corrosion of parts and is a favorable medium for biological growth. Dissolved minerals in water supplies are concentrated by evaporation to leave deposits called scale. Cooling water often requires addition of chemicals to minimize corrosion and insulating deposits of scale, an open water cooling system makes use of evaporative cooling, lowering the temperature of the remaining water. This method was common in internal combustion engines, until scale buildup was observed from dissolved salts. Modern open cooling systems continuously waste a fraction of recirculating water as blowdown to remove dissolved solids at low enough to prevent scale formation. Some open systems use inexpensive tap water, but this requires higher rates than deionized or distilled water. Purified water systems still require blowdown to remove accumulation of byproducts of chemical treatment to prevent corrosion, modern automotive cooling systems are slightly pressurized, often to 15 psi. This raises the boiling-point of the coolant and reduces evaporation, the use of water cooling carries the risk of damage from freezing. Automotive and many other engine cooling applications require the use of a water, antifreeze also inhibits corrosion from dissimilar metals and can increase the boiling point, allowing a wider range of water cooling temperatures. Its distinctive odor also alerts operators to cooling system leaks and problems that would go unnoticed in a cooling system. The heated coolant mixture can also be used to warm the air conditioning system inside the car by means of the heater core, other less common chemical additives are products to reduce surface tension
18.
Cylinder head
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In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder head sits above the cylinders on top of the cylinder block. It closes in the top of the cylinder, forming the combustion chamber and this joint is sealed by a head gasket. In most engines, the head also provides space for the passages that feed air and fuel to the cylinder, the head can also be a place to mount the valves, spark plugs, and fuel injectors. With a chain drive to a camshaft, the extra length of chain needed for an overhead cam design could give trouble from wear. Early sidevalve engines were in use at a time of simple fuel chemistry, low octane ratings and this made their combustion chamber design less critical and there was less need to design their ports and airflow carefully. One difficulty experienced at this time was that the low compression ratio also implied a low expansion ratio during the power stroke, exhaust gases were thus still hot, hotter than a contemporary engine, and this led to frequent trouble with burnt exhaust valves. A major improvement to the engine was the advent of Ricardos turbulent head design. This reduced the space within the chamber and the ports. Most importantly, it used turbulence within the chamber to thoroughly mix the fuel and this, of itself, allowed the use of higher compression ratios and more efficient engine operation. Despite common knowledge, the limit on performance is not the gas flow through the valves. With high speed engines and high compression, the limiting difficulty becomes that of achieving complete and efficient combustion, modern, efficient engines thus tend towards the pent roof or hemi designs, where the valves are brought close in to the centre of the space. Where fuel quality is low and octane rating is poor, compression ratios will be restricted, in these cases, the sidevalve engine still has much to offer. Such engines remained in production into the 1990s, only being replaced when the fuels available in the field became more likely to be diesel than petrol. In the overhead valve design, the head contains the poppet valves. In the overhead camshaft design, the head contains the valves, spark plugs and inlet/exhaust tracts just like the OHV engine. The number of heads in an engine is a function of the engine configuration. Almost all inline engines today use a cylinder head that serves all the cylinders. A V engine has two heads, one for each cylinder bank of the V
19.
Cylinder bank
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Internal combustion piston engines are usually arranged so that the cylinders are in lines parallel to the crankshaft. Where they are in a line, this is referred to as an inline or straight engine. Where engines have a number of cylinders, the cylinders are commonly arranged in two lines, placed at an angle to each other as a vee engine. Each line is referred to as a cylinder bank, the angle between cylinder banks is described as the bank angle. Engines with six cylinders are common as either straight or vee engines. With more cylinders than this, the vee configuration is more common, fewer cylinders are more usually arranged as an inline engine. There are exceptions to this, straight-8 engines were found on some luxury cars with the bonnet length to house them. A few V4 engines have also produced, usually where an extra-compact engine was required. Although twin-cylinder engines are now rare for cars, they are commonly used for motorcycles. An obvious advantage to an engine is that it can be shorter in length. This allows a torsionally stiffer construction for both the crankshaft and crankcase, the most important advantage though is less obvious, a multi-plane engine can be arranged to have better balance and less vibration. The W or broad arrow arrangement uses three banks, usually a W-12 with three banks of four cylinders. Narrow-angle vee engines, such as the Lancia V4 and the Volkswagen VR6, have such a bank angle that their cylinders are combined into a single cylinder block. These are still described as vee engines, although they may be described as having two or one cylinder bank. In a radial engine, cylinders are arranged radially in a circle, simple radials use one row of cylinders. Larger radials use two rows, or even four, most radials are air-cooled with separate cylinders and so there are no banks as such. Most radials also have odd numbers of cylinders in each row, a few rare radial engines, such as the Armstrong Siddeley Deerhound and the Zvezda M503 have arranged their multiple rows so as to align their cylinders into banks
20.
Crankcase
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In an internal combustion engine of the reciprocating type, the crankcase is the housing for the crankshaft. The enclosure forms the largest cavity in the engine and is located below the cylinder, crankcases have often been discrete parts, but more often they are integral with the cylinder bank, forming an engine block. Nevertheless, the area around the crankshaft is still called the crankcase. Crankcases and other basic engine components are typically made of cast iron or cast aluminium via sand casting. Today the foundry processes are highly automated, with a few skilled workers to manage the casting of thousands of parts. A crankcase often has an opening in the bottom to which an oil pan is attached with a bolted joint. Some crankcase designs fully surround the main bearing journals, whereas many others form only one half. Some crankcase areas require no structural strength from the oil pan itself, besides protecting the crankshaft and connecting rods from foreign objects, the crankcase serves other functions, depending on engine type. A large number of small engines use a sealed crankcase as a compression chamber for their mixture. These are hugely common as petrol or gasoline engines for motorcycles, generator sets. Both sides of the piston are used as working surfaces, the side is the power piston. As the piston rises, it pushes out exhaust gases and produces a vacuum in the crankcase. As the piston downward, the compressed fuel/air charge is pushed from the crankcase into the cylinder. Unlike larger engines, the crankcase does not contain only engine oil because it handles the fuel/air mixture, instead, oil is mixed in with the fuel supply as petroil, and this mixture provides splash lubrication for the cylinder walls, crankshaft and connecting rod bearings. These engines have used in larger sizes for small cars. Small diesel engines may use this type of crankcase compression. Such engines are uncommon, compared to petrol engines, but they are used for generators. Large two stroke engines do not use compression, but instead a separate scavenge blower or supercharger
21.
Rolls-Royce Merlin
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The Rolls-Royce Merlin is a British liquid-cooled V-12 piston aero engine of 27-litres capacity. Rolls-Royce designed the engine and first ran it in 1933 as a private venture, initially known as the PV-12, it was later called Merlin following the company convention of naming its piston aero engines after birds of prey. After several modifications, the first production variants of the PV-12 were completed in 1936, the first operational aircraft to enter service using the Merlin were the Fairey Battle, Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire. A series of rapidly applied developments, brought about by wartime needs, markedly improved the engines performance, post-war, the Merlin was largely superseded by the Rolls-Royce Griffon for military use, with most Merlin variants being designed and built for airliners and military transport aircraft. Production ceased in 1950 after 160,000 engines had been delivered, Merlin engines remain in Royal Air Force service today with the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight, and power many restored aircraft in private ownership worldwide. The PV-12 was first run on 15 October 1933 and first flew in a Hawker Hart biplane on 21 February 1935, the engine was originally designed to use the evaporative cooling system then in vogue. This proved unreliable and when supplies of ethylene glycol from the U. S. became available, the Hart was subsequently delivered to Rolls-Royce where, as a Merlin testbed, it completed over 100 hours of flying with the Merlin C and E engines. In 1935, the Air Ministry issued a specification, F10/35, fortunately, two designs had been developed, the Supermarine Spitfire and the Hawker Hurricane, the latter designed in response to another specification, F36/34. Both were designed around the PV-12 instead of the Kestrel, and were the only contemporary British fighters to have been so developed, production contracts for both aircraft were placed in 1936, and development of the PV-12 was given top priority as well as government funding. Following the company convention of naming its piston engines after birds of prey, Rolls-Royce named the engine the Merlin after a small. Two more Rolls-Royce engines developed just prior to the war were added to the companys range and this was to be used in larger aircraft such as the Avro Manchester. Although the Peregrine appeared to be a design, it was never allowed to mature since Rolls-Royces priority was refining the Merlin. As a result, the Peregrine saw use in two aircraft, the Westland Whirlwind fighter and one of the Gloster F. 9/37 prototypes. The Vulture was fitted to the Avro Manchester bomber, but proved unreliable in service and the planned fighter using it – the Hawker Tornado – was cancelled as a result. With the Merlin itself soon pushing into the 1,500 hp range, the Griffon incorporated several design improvements and ultimately superseded the Merlin. Early production Merlins were also unreliable, Common problems were cylinder head cracking, coolant leaks, the prototype, developmental, and early production engine types were the, PV-12 The initial design using an evaporative cooling system. Two built, passed bench type testing in July 1934, generating 740 horsepower at 12, Merlin B Two built, ethylene glycol liquid cooling system introduced. Passed Type Testing February 1935, generating 950 horsepower at 11, Merlin C Development of Merlin B, crankcase and cylinder blocks became three separate castings with bolt-on cylinder heads
22.
Connecting rod
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In a reciprocating piston engine, the connecting rod or conrod connects the piston to the crank or crankshaft. Together with the crank, they form a mechanism that converts reciprocating motion into rotating motion. Connecting rods may also convert rotating motion into reciprocating motion, historically, before the development of engines, they were first used in this way. As a connecting rod is rigid, it may transmit either a push or a pull, earlier mechanisms, such as chains, could only pull. In a few two-stroke engines the connecting rod is required to push. Today, connecting rods are best known through their use in internal combustion piston engines and these are of a distinctly different design from earlier forms of connecting rods, used in steam engines and steam locomotives. The earliest evidence for a connecting rod appears in the late 3rd century AD Roman Hierapolis sawmill and it also appears in two 6th century Eastern Roman saw mills excavated at Ephesus and Gerasa. The crank and connecting rod mechanism of these Roman watermills converted the motion of the waterwheel into the linear movement of the saw blades. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a − albeit mechanically misunderstood − compound crank, a sound understanding of the motion involved is displayed by the painter Pisanello who showed a piston-pump driven by a water-wheel and operated by two simple cranks and two connecting-rods. The first steam engines, Newcomens atmospheric engine, was single-acting, its piston only did work in one direction and their output rocked back and forth, rather than rotating continuously. Steam engines after this are usually double-acting, their internal pressure works on each side of the piston in turn. This requires a seal around the rod and so the hinge between the piston and connecting rod is placed outside the cylinder, in a large sliding bearing block called a crosshead. In a steam locomotive, the pins are usually mounted directly on one or more pairs of driving wheels. The connecting rods, run between the pins and crossheads, where they connect to the piston rods. Crossheads or trunk guides are used on large diesel engines manufactured for marine service. The connecting rods of smaller steam locomotives are usually of rectangular cross-section but, on small locomotives, stephen Lewin, who built both locomotive and marine engines, was a frequent user of round rods. Gresleys A4 Pacifics, such as Mallard, had an alloy steel connecting rod in the form of an I-beam with a web that was only 0.375 in thick. On Western Rivers steamboats, the rods are properly called pitmans
23.
Overhead camshaft
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Compared to OHV pushrod systems with the same number of valves, the reciprocating components of the OHC system are fewer and have a lower overall mass. Though the system drives the camshafts may be more complex, most engine manufacturers accept that added complexity as a trade-off for better engine performance. The fundamental reason for the OHC valvetrain is that it offers an increase in the ability to exchange induction. Another performance advantage is gained as a result of the better optimised port configurations made possible with overhead camshaft designs, with no intrusive pushrods, the overhead camshaft cylinder head design can use straighter ports of more advantageous cross-section and length. The OHC design allows for higher speeds than comparable cam-in-block designs. The higher engine speeds thus allowed increases power output for a given torque output, in earlier OHC systems, including inter-war Morrises and Wolseleys, oil leaks in the lubrication systems were also an issue. Single overhead camshaft is a design in which one camshaft is placed within the cylinder head, in the SOHC design, the camshaft operates the valves directly, traditionally via a bucket tappet, or via an intermediary rocker arm. SOHC cylinder heads are less expensive to manufacture than double overhead camshaft cylinder heads. Timing belt replacement can be easier since there are fewer camshaft drive sprockets that need to be aligned during the replacement procedure, SOHC designs offer reduced complexity compared to overhead valve designs — when used for multivalve cylinder heads, in which each cylinder has more than two valves. Exhaust and inlet manifolds were both on the side of the engine block. This did, however, offer excellent access to the spark plugs, in the early 1980s, Toyota and Volkswagen Group also used a directly actuated, SOHC parallel valve configuration with two valves for each cylinder. The Toyota system used hydraulic tappets, the Volkswagen system used bucket tappets with shims for valve clearance adjustment. Honda later used a similar system in their motorcycles, using the term Unicam for the concept. This system uses one camshaft for each bank of cylinder heads, with the cams operating directly onto the valve and indirectly, through a short rocker arm. This allows a compact, light valvetrain to operate valves in a combustion chamber. The Unicam valve train was first used in single cylinder dirt bikes, a dual overhead camshaft valvetrain layout is characterised by two camshafts located within the cylinder head, one operating the intake valves and the other one operating the exhaust valves. This design reduces valvetrain inertia more than is the case with a SOHC engine, a DOHC design permits a wider angle between intake and exhaust valves than do SOHC engines. This can allow for a less restricted airflow at higher engine speeds, DOHC with a multivalve design also allows for the optimum placement of the spark plug which, in turn, improves combustion efficiency
24.
Poppet valve
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A poppet valve is a valve typically used to control the timing and quantity of gas or vapour flow into an engine. It consists of a hole, usually round or oval, the portion of the hole where the plug meets with it is referred to as the seat or valve seat. The shaft guides the plug portion by sliding through a valve guide, in exhaust applications a pressure differential helps to seal the valve and in intake valves a pressure differential helps open it. Poppet valves date from at least the 1770s, when James Watt used them on his steam engines, the word poppet shares etymology with puppet, it is from the Middle English popet, from Middle French poupette, which is a diminutive of poupée. The use of the poppet to describe a valve comes from the same word applied to marionettes. In the past, puppet valve was a synonym for poppet valve, however, the main advantage of the poppet valve is that it has no movement on the seat, thus requiring no lubrication. In most cases it is beneficial to have a balanced poppet in a direct-acting valve, less force is needed to move the poppet because all forces on the poppet are nullified by equal and opposite forces. However, they are most well known for their use in combustion and steam engines. Presta and Schrader valves used on pneumatic tyres are examples of poppet valves, the Presta valve has no spring and relies on a pressure differential for opening and closing while being inflated. Poppet valves are employed extensively in the launching of torpedoes from submarines, poppet valves are used in most piston engines to open and close the intake and exhaust ports in the cylinder head. The valve is usually a disk of metal with a long rod known as the valve stem attached to one side. The stem is used to push down on the valve to open it, at high revolutions per minute, the inertia of the spring means it cannot respond quickly enough to return the valve to its seat between cycles, leading to valve float. The engine normally operates the valves by pushing on the stems with cams, the shape and position of the cam determines the valve lift and when and how quickly the valve is opened. The cams are normally placed on a camshaft which is then geared to the crankshaft. On high-performance engines, the camshaft is movable and the cams have a height so, by axially moving the camshaft in relation with the engine RPM. For certain applications the valve stem and disk are made of different steel alloys, or the stem may be hollow and filled with sodium to improve heat transport. Although a better conductor, an aluminium cylinder head requires steel valve seat inserts. Such a condition occurs when changing gear, five valve designs are also in use
25.
Sodium
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Sodium is a chemical element with symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal, Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table, because it has a single electron in its outer shell that it readily donates, creating a positively charged atom—the Na+ cation. Its only stable isotope is 23Na, the free metal does not occur in nature, but must be prepared from compounds. Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the Earths crust, Sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. Among many other useful compounds, sodium hydroxide is used in soap manufacture, and sodium chloride is a de-icing agent. Sodium is an element for all animals and some plants. Sodium ions are the major cation in the fluid and as such are the major contributor to the ECF osmotic pressure. Loss of water from the ECF compartment increases the sodium concentration, isotonic loss of water and sodium from the ECF compartment decreases the size of that compartment in a condition called ECF hypovolemia. In nerve cells, the charge across the cell membrane enables transmission of the nerve impulse—an action potential—when the charge is dissipated. The melting and boiling points of sodium are lower than those of lithium but higher than those of the alkali metals potassium, rubidium. All of these high-pressure allotropes are insulators and electrides.3 nm, spin-orbit interactions involving the electron in the 3p orbital split the D line into two, at 589.0 and 589.6 nm, hyperfine structures involving both orbitals cause many more lines. Twenty isotopes of sodium are known, but only 23Na is stable, 23Na is created in the carbon-burning process in stars by fusing two carbon atoms together, this requires temperatures above 600 megakelvins and a star of at least three solar masses. Two nuclear isomers have been discovered, the one being 24mNa with a half-life of around 20.2 milliseconds. Sodium atoms have 11 electrons, one more than the stable configuration of the noble gas neon. This process requires so little energy that sodium is oxidized by giving up its 11th electron. In contrast, the ionization energy is very high, because the 10th electron is closer to the nucleus than the 11th electron. As a result, sodium usually forms ionic compounds involving the Na+ cation, the most common oxidation state for sodium is +1. It is generally less reactive than potassium and more reactive than lithium, Sodium metal is highly reducing, with the reduction of sodium ions requiring −2.71 volts, though potassium and lithium have even more negative potentials
26.
Supercharger
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A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to an internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the more oxygen, letting it burn more fuel and do more work. Power for the supercharger can be provided mechanically by means of a belt, gear, shaft, when power is provided by a turbine powered by exhaust gas, a supercharger is known as a turbosupercharger – typically referred to simply as a turbocharger or just turbo. Common usage restricts the term supercharger to mechanically driven units, in 1848 or 1849 G. Jones of Birmingham, England brought out a Roots-style compressor. The worlds first functional, actually tested engine supercharger was made by Dugald Clerk, gottlieb Daimler received a German patent for supercharging an internal combustion engine in 1885. Louis Renault patented a centrifugal supercharger in France in 1902, an early supercharged race car was built by Lee Chadwick of Pottstown, Pennsylvania in 1908 which reportedly reached a speed of 100 mph. The worlds first series-produced cars with superchargers were Mercedes 6/25/40 hp, both models were introduced in 1921 and had Roots superchargers. They were distinguished as Kompressor models, the origin of the Mercedes-Benz badging which continues today, on March 24,1878 Heinrich Krigar of Germany obtained patent #4121, patenting the first ever screw-type compressor. Later that same year on August 16 he obtained patent #7116 after modifying and improving his original designs and his designs show a two-lobe rotor assembly with each rotor having the same shape as the other. Although the design resembled the Roots style compressor, the screws were clearly shown with 180 degrees of twist along their length, unfortunately, the technology of the time was not sufficient to produce such a unit, and Heinrich made no further progress with the screw compressor. Nearly half a century later, in 1935, Alf Lysholm and he also patented the method for machining the compressor rotors. There are two types of superchargers defined according to the method of gas transfer, positive displacement. Positive displacement blowers and compressors deliver an almost constant level of pressure increase at all engine speeds, dynamic compressors do not deliver pressure at low speeds, above a threshold speed, pressure increases with engine speed. Positive-displacement pumps deliver a nearly fixed volume of air per revolution at all speeds, Roots superchargers are external compression only. External compression refers to pumps that transfer air at ambient pressure into the engine, if the engine is running under boost conditions, the pressure in the intake manifold is higher than that coming from the supercharger. That causes a backflow from the engine into the supercharger until the two reach equilibrium and it is the backflow that actually compresses the incoming gas. This is an inefficient process and the factor in the lack of efficiency of Roots superchargers when used at high boost levels. The lower the boost level the smaller is this loss, and Roots blowers are very efficient at moving air at low pressure differentials, all the other types have some degree of internal compression
27.
Intake
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An intake or inlet is an opening on a car or aircraft body capturing air for operation of an internal combustion engine. An ideal intake system should increase the velocity of the air until it travels into the chamber, while minimizing turbulence. However, in aircraft, particularly supersonic aircraft, the purpose of the intake is to slow, early automobile intake systems were simple air inlets connected directly to carburetors. The first air filter was implemented on the 1915 Packard Twin Six, the modern automobile air intake system has three main parts, an air filter, mass flow sensor, and throttle body. Some modern intake systems can be complex, and often include specially-designed intake manifolds to optimally distribute air. Many cars today now include a silencer to minimize the noise entering the cabin, silencers impede air flow and create turbulence which reduce total power, so performance enthusiasts often remove them. All the above is accomplished by flow testing on a flow bench in the port design stage. Cars with turbochargers or superchargers which provide pressurized air to the engine usually have highly refined intake systems to improve performance dramatically, production cars have specific-length air intakes to cause the air to vibrate and buffet at a specific frequency to assist air flow into the combustion chamber. These designs became more complex as aircraft speeds increased to Mach 3.0 and Mach 3.2, design points for the XB-70, the inlet is part of the fuselage or part of the nacelle. Cold air intake Warm air intake Short ram air intake Ram-air intake Intake ramp Inlet manifold
28.
Altitude
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Altitude or height is defined based on the context in which it is used. As a general definition, altitude is a measurement, usually in the vertical or up direction. The reference datum also often varies according to the context, although the term altitude is commonly used to mean the height above sea level of a location, in geography the term elevation is often preferred for this usage. Vertical distance measurements in the direction are commonly referred to as depth. In aviation, the altitude can have several meanings, and is always qualified by explicitly adding a modifier. Parties exchanging altitude information must be clear which definition is being used, aviation altitude is measured using either mean sea level or local ground level as the reference datum. When flying at a level, the altimeter is always set to standard pressure. On the flight deck, the instrument for measuring altitude is the pressure altimeter. There are several types of altitude, Indicated altitude is the reading on the altimeter when it is set to the local barometric pressure at mean sea level. In UK aviation radiotelephony usage, the distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured from mean sea level. Absolute altitude is the height of the aircraft above the terrain over which it is flying and it can be measured using a radar altimeter. Also referred to as radar height or feet/metres above ground level, true altitude is the actual elevation above mean sea level. It is indicated altitude corrected for temperature and pressure. Height is the elevation above a reference point, commonly the terrain elevation. Pressure altitude is used to indicate flight level which is the standard for reporting in the U. S. in Class A airspace. Pressure altitude and indicated altitude are the same when the setting is 29.92 Hg or 1013.25 millibars. Density altitude is the altitude corrected for non-ISA International Standard Atmosphere atmospheric conditions, aircraft performance depends on density altitude, which is affected by barometric pressure, humidity and temperature. On a very hot day, density altitude at an airport may be so high as to preclude takeoff and these types of altitude can be explained more simply as various ways of measuring the altitude, Indicated altitude – the altitude shown on the altimeter
29.
Drive shaft
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As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia. The term drive shaft first appeared during the mid 19th century, in Stovers 1861 patent reissue for a planing and matching machine, the term is used to refer to the belt-driven shaft by which the machine is driven. The term is not used in his original patent, another early use of the term occurs in the 1861 patent reissue for the Watkins and Bryson horse-drawn mowing machine. Here, the term refers to the transmitting power from the machines wheels to the gear train that works the cutting mechanism. In the 1890s, the term began to be used in a closer to the modern sense. In 1899, Bukey used the term to describe the shaft transmitting power from the wheel to the machinery by a universal joint in his Horse-Power. In the same year, Clark described his Marine Velocipede using the term to refer to the shaft transmitting power through a universal joint to the propeller shaft. Crompton used the term to refer to the shaft between the transmission of his steam-powered Motor Vehicle of 1903 and the driven axle, an automobile may use a longitudinal shaft to deliver power from an engine/transmission to the other end of the vehicle before it goes to the wheels. A pair of short drive shafts is commonly used to power from a central differential, transmission. In front-engined, rear-drive vehicles, a drive shaft is also required to send power the length of the vehicle. Two forms dominate, The torque tube with a universal joint. This system became known as Système Panhard after the automobile company Panhard et Levassor patented it, most of these vehicles have a clutch and gearbox mounted directly on the engine, with a drive shaft leading to a final drive in the rear axle. When the vehicle is stationary, the drive shaft does not rotate, some vehicles, seeking improved weight balance between front and rear, use a rear-mounted transaxle. This places the clutch and transmission at the rear of the car, in this case the drive shaft rotates continuously with the engine, even when the car is stationary and out of gear. A drive shaft connecting a rear differential to a wheel may be called a half-shaft. The name derives from the fact that two such shafts are required to one rear axle. Early automobiles often used chain drive or belt drive mechanisms rather than a drive shaft, some used electrical generators and motors to transmit power to the wheels
30.
Hispano-Suiza HS.404
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The HS.404 was an autocannon originally designed and produced by Hispano-Suiza. It was widely used as both an aircraft, naval and land based weapon in the 20th century by French, British, American and numerous other military services, particularly during the Second World War. The cannon is also referred to as Birkigt type 404, after its designer Marc Birkigt, firing a 20 mm caliber projectile, it delivered a useful load of explosive from a relatively light weapon. The HS.404 was produced by the French subsidiary of Hispano-Suiza, in the 1930s, Hispano Suiza S. A. This made the relatively slow, with typical firing rates on the order of 500 rounds per minute. The Hispano-Suiza version was called the Hispano-Suiza Automatic Cannon Type HS.7, shortly after production began, the Hispano-Suiza and Oerlikon companies disagreed over patent rights and their business connection came to an end. The result was the Type 404, or HS.404, while the HS.404 resembled the parent Oerlikon FF S in many respects, its repeating mechanism was a gas-operated locking bolt. On firing the 404, when the projectile passes a hole cut into the barrel about half way along its length hot gas behind the projectile is siphoned off and enters a chamber. Inside the chamber is a piston that presses on a rod running along the top of the back to the bolt, unlocking it and allowing it. Since the bolt was locked during firing, it could be lighter than that of the Oerlikon, thus facilitating an increase in rate of fire to 700 rounds per minute, in 1938, Birkigt patented it and started production in their Geneva factory. The HS. 404s predecessor, the Oerlikon type S auto-cannon, was heavy and this. In contrast the lighter bolt of the HS.404 made it well suited to mounting on vehicles, the M16, an anti-aircraft version of the M3 Half-track, could be equipped with single or double American made copies of the Hispano-Suiza auto-cannon. This variant of the M3 Half-track was used by US and Commonwealth forces late in the Second World War, in 1938, an aircraft based version of the HS.404 was produced at the request of the French government. The HS.404 was fed by drum magazines that could accommodate 60 rounds at most, since in most installations the magazine could not be switched during flight, the small ammunition capacity was a weakness. In 1940, Hispano-Suiza was developing a system, as well as derivatives of the HS.404 in heavier calibres such as 23 mm. In the buildup to the Second World War, the United Kingdom had embarked on a programme to develop cannon-armed fighters and they acquired a licence to build the HS.404, which entered production as the Hispano Mk. I intended as aeroplane armament. Its first use was in the Westland Whirlwind of 1940, and later in the more powerful Bristol Beaufighter and this led to the Air Ministry for a brief period specifying 12-machine gun armament for new fighters. Subsequently a suitable belt-feeding system was developed by Martin-Baker, and the new design was adopted by the RAF, four cannons replaced the eight.303 Browning machine guns in the Hurricane and in some tropical versions of the Spitfire, becoming standard armament in later fighters
31.
Avgas
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Avgas, also known as aviation spirit in the UK, is an aviation fuel used in spark-ignited internal-combustion engines to propel aircraft. Avgas is distinguished from mogas, which is the everyday gasoline used in motor vehicles, turbine and diesel engines are designed to use kerosene-based jet fuel. The main petroleum component used in blending avgas is alkylate, which is essentially a mixture of various isooctanes, all grades of avgas that meet CAN 2-3, 25-M82 have a density of 6.01 lb/U. S. Gal at 15 °C, or 0.721 kg/l, density increases to 6.41 lb/US gallon, or 0.769 kg/l, at -40 °C, and decreases by about 0. 1% per 1 °C increase in temperature. Avgas has an coefficient of 18.355 pounds CO2 per U. S. gallon or about 3.05 units of weight CO2 produced per unit weight of fuel used. Avgas has a lower and more uniform vapor pressure than automotive gasoline so it remains in the state despite the reduced atmospheric pressure at high altitude. The high octane ratings are achieved by the addition of tetraethyllead, avgas is currently available in several grades with differing maximum lead concentrations. As of 2013, numerous certificated reciprocating-engine aircraft require high-octane fuels, teledyne-Continental Motors states, Current aircraft engines feature valve gear components which are designed for compatibility with the leaded ASTM D910 fuels. In such fuels, the acts as a lubricant, coating the contact areas between the valve, guide, and seat. The use of unleaded auto fuels with engines designed for leaded fuels can result in excessive exhaust valve seat wear due to the lack of lead, the result can be remarkable, with cylinder performance deteriorating to unacceptable levels in under 10 hours. Lycoming has also provided a list of engines and fuels that are compatible with them, a number of their engines are not compatible with unleaded fuel according to their chart. Jet fuel is similar to kerosene and is used in turbine engines, confusion can be caused by the terms Avtur and AvJet being used for jet fuel. In Europe, environmental and cost considerations have led to increasing numbers of aircraft being fitted with fuel-efficient diesel engines run on jet fuel. Civilian aircraft use Jet-A, Jet-A1, or in cold climates Jet-B. There are other systems for military turbine and diesel fuel. The annual US usage of avgas was 186 million US gallons in 2008, from 1983 through 2008, US usage of avgas declined consistently by approximately 7.5 million US gallons each year. As of 2008, the consumers of avgas are in North America, Australia, Brazil. Care must be taken by small airplane pilots to select airports with avgas on flight planning, for example, US and Japanese recreational pilots ship and depot avgas before flying into Siberia
32.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
33.
Joseph Szydlowski
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Joseph Szydlowski, was a Polish-Israeli aircraft engine designer who founded Turbomeca in France. At the time of Szydlowskis birth Chełm was part of Lublin Governorate in the Russian Empire and he was taken prisoner by the German Empire during World War I. He started working in Germany and applied for his first patents in 1920, with the rise of Nazism he emigrated to France in 1930. During the 1930s, he designed an unusual supercharger compressor which was used by the Hispano-Suiza 12Y in the Dewoitine D.520 fighter and it utilized an axial compressor rather than the usual centrifugal compressor that was predominant at the time in aircraft engines. He founded Turbomeca in Paris in 1938 and built the company on licensed production during World War II, in June 1940, when Germany invaded France he evacuated his company to Saint-Pé-de-Bigorre in southern France. Once the war was over he developed small turbine engines for helicopters, Turbomeca became a major supplier of helicopter turboshaft engines, providing 30% of the non-United States market according to the company. After the Six-day war, in response to Charles De Gaulles embargo on Israel, Szydlowski established a factory for the production of jet engines, Beit Shemesh motors, in 1984, Szydlowski received an honorary PhD from the Technion
34.
Armistice of 22 June 1940
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The Armistice of 22 June 1940 was signed at 18,36 near Compiègne, France, by officials of Nazi Germany and the French Third Republic. It did not come into effect until after midnight on 25 June, the best, most modernised French armies had been sent north and lost in the resulting encirclement, the French had lost their best heavy weaponry and their best armored formations. Between May and June, French forces were in general retreat, the French government was forced to relocate to Bordeaux on 10 June to avoid capture and declared Paris to be an open city the same day. By 22 June, the German Armed Forces had losses of 27,000 dead, French losses were 92,000 dead and more than 200,000 wounded. The British Expeditionary Force apparently lost about 10,000 men, the often seen casualty figure of over 68,000 British men seems to include those killed, those wounded as well as those captured. When Adolf Hitler received word from the French government that they wished to negotiate an armistice, as Compiègne was the site of the 1918 Armistice ending the Great War with Germanys conflict cessation, Hitler saw using this location as a supreme moment of revenge for Germany over France. Hitler decided that the signing should take place in the same carriage, Compiègne Wagon. Furthermore, in Article 3, Clause 2, the stated that their intention was not to heavily occupy North-West France after cessation of hostilities with Britain. William Shirer, who was present on that day, reports, I am, I have seen that face many times at the great moments of his life. It is afire with scorn, anger, hate, revenge, Adolf Hitler had a number of reasons for agreeing to an armistice. He wanted to ensure that France did not continue to fight from North Africa, in addition, leaving a French government in place would relieve Germany of the considerable burden of administering French territory, particularly as he turned his attentions towards Britain. All persons who had granted political asylum had to be surrendered and all occupation costs had to be borne by France. A minimal French Army would be permitted and this was envisaged to last until a final peace treaty would be negotiated. At the time, both French and Germans thought the occupation would be a state of affairs and last only until Britain came to terms. For instance, none of the French delegation objected to the stipulation that French soldiers would remain prisoners of war until the cessation of all hostilities, nearly one million Frenchmen were thus forced to spend the next five years in prisoner of war camps. The French delegation – led by General Charles Huntziger – tried to soften the terms of the armistice. Given the military situation that France was in, Huntziger had no choice, the cease-fire went into effect at 00,35 on 25 June 1940, more than two days later, only after another armistice was signed between France and Italy, the main German ally in Europe. The Armistice site was demolished by the Germans on Hitlers orders three days later, VANQUISHED BY THE FREE PEOPLES WHICH IT TRIED TO ENSLAVE
35.
Avia
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Avia is a former Czechoslovak aircraft and automotive company notable for producing biplane fighter aircraft and most recently trucks. The company was founded by Pavel Beneš, Miroslav Hajn, Jaroslav František Koch and Václav Malý in 1919 and became part of Akciová společnost, during the 1930s the factory became the biggest aircraft producer in Czechoslovakia and moved to Letňany near Prague, where production continues until present. During World War II Avia produced aircraft for the German Luftwaffe, after the war the company was nationalized and became involved in the automotive industry. It manufactured aircraft up to 1963, then targeted on truck production, the company was split in 1992 into propeller and truck sections, both using the Avia brand. Soon after the war, the manufacture of fuel pumps, jets. The factory also provided repair of trucks, in frame of the Czechoslovak industry post-war reorganization it was subsequently decided that Avia would be fully transformed into the manufacture of new trucks. As early as 1946 a prototype of the Škoda R-706 vehicle was developed, and these products were successfully exported to many countries First of all, the enterprise concentrated on assembling T-805 vehicles. In 1961, it switched to the manufacture of Praga V3S/ S5T, the legendary three-tone off-road V3S was maintained in Avias manufacturing program until 1988. The vehicle was manufactured not only as a car but with different types of bodies as well. It fully utilised its construction designed for heavy use in the army, on site. The modifications of the Praga S5T model also included a semitrailer truck, in 1963, manufacture of chassis units for the OT64 armoured carrier was launched. Praga and Tatra enterprises, but also some Polish manufacturers participated on the manufacture, in 1965, structural changes of demand concerning a small tonnage lorry appeared both in national and international market. At the Avia enterprise, they were considering two ways ahead, i. e. own development and/or use of a suitable licence strategy, as a conclusion, the French Renault-Saviem manufacturers offer for two types of trucks was accepted. In the autumn of 1968, the first products started to leave the assembly line, the larger vehicle was named Renault-Saviem SG4 Super Galion, and the smaller was named SG2 Super Goelette. The new manufacture as well as its scope required new buildings as well as modernization of existing enterprises premises, new big buildings containing advanced equipment were constructed and thus Avia was included among the largest Czechoslovak car manufacturers. The yearly production reached 17,000 vehicles, during the years, the manufacture of the Avia vehicles was continuously modernized. The volume of the engine increased from original 3.32 up to 3.61. In 1983, the Avia A31 developed from the Avia A30 model, from 1974 to 1978, modernization of A20,30, and 40 models was prepared, bringing small wheels, redesigned axles, new dashboard, enhanced cab interior, etc
36.
Avia B-34
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The Avia B-34 was a biplane fighter aircraft built in Czechoslovakia in the early 1930s. It was the first design of František Novotný for the Avia company and although built in small numbers. The B-34 was an all-metal single-bay biplane of conventional configuration, with tailwheel undercarriage, the mainwheels of the prototype were fitted with large spats. The first prototype underwent testing from 2 February 1932, leading to a number of modifications being made, in particular the tail. The resulting B-34.1 served as the prototype for the 12 production machines ordered by the Czechoslovakian Air Force and these had an even larger vertical tail, interplane struts of narrower chord, and no wheel spats. A second prototype, the B-34.2 was fitted with an Avia Rr 29 radial engine and it was, however, offered to the Air Force under the redesignation B-234. The second prototype was fitted with an inline Hispano-Suiza 12Ybrs piston engine. The twelve production B-34s entered service with the 37 Stíhací Letka of the Czechoslovakian Air Force in September 1934 and they were retired to training duties in 1937. Despite inferior overall performance and some unpopularity, the aircraft was robust, until the end of the First Czechoslovak Republic in March 1939, only one aircraft was lost, B-34.4 crashed and was written off in April 1937. Eight of the B-34s were handed over to the German Luftwaffe when the Czechoslovakian state ceased to exist in March 1939, at least three were soon lost in crashes and it is likely that the others were retired from use rather than being used for training purposes. The remaining three B-34s were retained by the new Slovenské vzdušné zbrane, one, perhaps two of these were still being used for training at Tri Duby airfield in August 1944. They then effectively became part of the Kombinovaná letka of the Slovak Insurgent Air Force during the Slovak National Uprising against the Germans in September 1944. B-34.1 First prototype, flew Feb 1932 B-34.2 Second prototype redesignated B-234 with Avia Rr 29 engine, then again as B-34.2 with Hispano-Suiza 12Ybrs engine and resignated Avia B-534.1
37.
Avia B-534
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The Avia B-534 is a Czechoslovak biplane produced during the period between the Great War and World War II. In 1932, the Czechoslovak aircraft company flew a first prototype of a fighter biplane. After modification, the Czechoslovak Ministry of Defence placed an order for B-34s and this engine proved prone to overheating and vibration, however, and it was decided to re-engine the B. 34/2 before it flew, fitting it with a Hispano-Suiza 12Ybrs V12 engine. The Avia B-34/2 made its flight on 25 May 1933. The prototype was sent for testing in September and was redesignated as B-534.1, on 10 September, the B-534 was displayed to the public for the first time at an Army Air Day. It was to compete against the Praga E-44 and Letov Š-231, a second prototype, the B-534/2 was completed in September 1933. It differed from the first prototype in having an enclosed cockpit, on 14 April 1934 test pilot Václav Kočí successfully gained a Czechoslovak national speed record of 365.7 kilometres per hour. More testing followed and an order for 34 aircraft for the Czechoslovak Air Force. At that time, the B-534 was well ahead of its contemporaries, the United Kingdom was still dependent on Hawker Furies, with the first Gloster Gladiators being produced at this time. The Soviet Union was placing its hope on its Polikarpov aircraft designs, the United States was still using descendants of the Curtiss Hawk series, with the Seversky P-35 and Curtiss P-36 just about to fly as prototypes. The B-534 was designed as a biplane fighter with a license-built Hispano-Suiza inline powerplant. The air forces of the 1930s were reluctant to abandon the maneuverability and climb rates of biplanes for the speed of monoplanes, even in the face of new and better technology. The success of the Soviet pilots with biplanes may have contributed to this reluctance, they were known to strip their aircraft of sliding canopies, aircraft with two fabric-covered wings and fixed landing gear were also less expensive to manufacture. First deliveries of the B-534 to the Czechoslovak air force began in October 1935, the first 100 of these were of the first series. The second prototype was the blueprint for the I series, although it was built with an open cockpit and these early series aircraft were initially armed with four 7. 92mm vz.28 guns. Two were located in the either side of the engine in a similar manner to the Avia B-34. At an early stage of production it was recognised that the wing mounted guns were troublesome. Aircraft from serial number B-534.47 were completed without the wing guns, the first to fourth series aircraft were fitted with the Avia licence built version of the Hispano-Suiza 12Ydrs engine
38.
Avia B-71
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The Tupolev ANT-40, also known by its service name Tupolev SB and development co-name TsAGI-40, was a high speed twin-engined three-seat monoplane bomber, first flown in 1934. The Tupolev design was advanced but lacked refinement, much to the dismay of crews, maintenance personnel and of Stalin and it was produced in Soviet Union and licensed production in Czechoslovakia also took place. Many versions saw extensive action in Spain, the Republic of China, Mongolia, Finland and it was also used in various duties in civil variants, as trainers and in many secondary roles. Successful in the Spanish Civil War because it outpaced most fighters, by June 1941,94 percent of bombers in the Red Army air force were SBs. In 1933 the Soviet Air Force ministry issued a requirement for a high-speed bomber. Work on this proposal at TsAGI began in January 1934, the SB was designed and developed in the Tupolev KB by a team led by A. A. Arkhangelski. Two versions were planned – with Wright Cyclone radial engines, the skills gained in the design of the MI-3 and DI-8 aircraft were widely used. The first two prototypes were designed as ANT-40.1 and ANT-40.2, the second Hispano-Suiza powered aircraft, the ANT-402 was considered a production prototype, and its performance was impressive. On seeing these placards, Ordzhonikidze summoned Tupolev to a meeting at the Kremlin to discuss these shortfalls, the first production aircraft, designated SB, rolled off the production line before the end of 1935, and before ANT-402 had completed its flight test programme. The aircraft entered production in 1936, and was produced in two plants, State Aircraft Factory No 22 at Moscow and No 125 at Irkutsk until 1941. Giving excellent performance in the Spanish Civil War, it acquired the popular name Katyusha, the version of the SB to be supplied to, and subsequently license-built as the Avia B-71 was the SB 2M-100A but fitted with the Avia-built Hispano-Suiza 12-Ydrs engine. A single 7.92 mm ZB-30 machine gun supplanted the twin ShKAS machine guns in the nose, sixty aircraft were to be flown to Czechoslovakia by mid-1938. The planned licensed production program took a leisurely course, despite the increasingly dangerous political situation. By 15 March 1939, when the German Wehrmacht occupied Bohemia and Moravia, development of the SB continued, meanwhile, with revisions being made to reflect the lessons of early operations in Spain. As problems were encountered in converting pilots to fly the SB, a trainer version, problems were also encountered with the armament, the nose guns having limited traverse and so being little use against head-on attacks and later aircraft were modified with a better field of fire. From 1940, the gun position was replaced by an enclosed turret, while the ventral gun position. The aircraft was also fitted with improved engines. Alexeev set an altitude record of 12,246 m with load of 1,000 kg in an M-103 powered SB
39.
Avia B.35
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The Avia B.35 was a fighter aircraft built in Czechoslovakia shortly before World War II. It was designed to meet a 1935 requirement by the Czechoslovakian Air Force for a replacement for their B-534 fighter biplanes, the B.35 was an elegant, low-wing monoplane with an elliptical wing. The fuselage was constructed from welded steel tube, covered in metal ahead of and including the cockpit and fabric aft of the cockpit, the first prototype, the B-35/1 displayed excellent flying characteristics and high speed and was originally powered by a Hispano-Suiza 12Ydrs piston engine. The powerplant was changed to a 12Ycrs with an identical power output. Testing continued until 22 November 1938, when the aircraft was destroyed in a crash that killed Avia test pilot Arnošt Kavalec, nevertheless, a second prototype, B-35/2, was already reaching completion, and was fitted with redesigned ailerons and flaps. It first flew on 30 December with testing beginning in earnest in February 1939, a preproduction series of ten aircraft was ordered, but before these could be built, Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany in March 1939. Development however was resumed under German control, with the substantially revised B. 35/3 flying in August 1939, the elliptical leading edges of the wings had been replaced with straight ones, and an outwardly-retracting main undercarriage was fitted. This prototype was the first to carry its intended armament.135
40.
Avia B-135
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The Avia B.135 was a Czechoslovak cantilever monoplane fighter aircraft. It was the version of the Avia B.35 developed shortly before the war, based on the B. 35/3 prototype. However, the DAR facilities proved to be incapable of producing the aircraft, plans for further production were stopped by the RLM, which also interrupted engine deliveries after 35 units, and the Bulgarian Air Force was encouraged to purchase the Messerschmitt Bf 109 instead. In service, the B. 135s gave continual engine problems and were relegated to training roles. Four aircraft did, however, see combat on 30 March 1944 when they intercepted USAAF bomber formations encroaching on Bulgarian airspace after attacking Ploieşti, some sources credit Lieutenant Yordan Ferdinandov with a B-24 Liberator kill that morning. According to Bílý all four Avias, led by Captain Atanasov, the downed aircraft crashed in the area of Tran and Breznik according to the log of Lieutenant Yordan Ferdinandov
41.
EKW C-35
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The EKW C-35 was a 1930s Swiss two-seat reconnaissance biplane aircraft built by the Swiss Federal Construction Works, Thun. Two aircraft were designed by the Eidgenössische Konstruktions Werkstätte to replace the Fokker C. Ve which the Swiss Air Force were using, the two projects were the EKW C-35 biplane and the EKW C-36 monoplane. After evaluation the air force ordered 40 C-35s in 1936, additional aircraft were built from spares. The C-35 was a biplane with fixed tailwheel landing gear. The aircraft was powered by a Hispano-Suiza HS-77 V-12 piston engine, the first aircraft was delivered to the Swiss Air Force in May 1937, and all had been delivered by the end of 1938. To supplement the aircraft in-service a further eight aircraft were built between 1941 and 1942 from spares, the aircraft were removed from front-line service in 1943 when replaced by the F&W C-3603 and transferred to night-flying units. The aircraft was withdrawn from service in 1954
42.
EKW C-36
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The EKW C-36 was a Swiss multi-purpose combat aircraft of the 1930s and 1940s, built by the Eidgenoessische Konstruktionswerkstaette. It was a monoplane with a crew of two. It entered service in 1942, and despite being obsolete, remained in front line use until the early 1950s, and as a target tug until 1987. In 1935, the Swiss Air Force developed a requirement for a replacement for Switzerlands Fokker C. V-E biplanes, which were used as reconnaissance aircraft, escort fighters and patrol aircraft. To meet this requirement, the Swiss Federal Constructions Works proposed two designs, a modernised C. V, the EKW C-35 and an all new monoplane, the C-36. These attempts failed, however, and in 1938 approval was given for EKW to complete detailed design of the C-36, the first prototype, the C-3601, carried out its maiden flight on 15 May 1939. It was a cantilever monoplane of all-metal construction. It was powered by a single licence-built Hispano-Suiza 12Y engine driving a three-bladed variable-pitch propeller, a crew of two sat in tandem under a long, continuous canopy. The aircraft was fitted with a tail, and had a fixed tailwheel undercarriage. The C-3601 crashed on 20 August 1939 due to wing flutter, but a prototype, the C-3602, which had a more powerful engine. Testing was successful, and orders were placed in 1940 for a batch of 10 C-3603 with a retractable undercarriage. The C-3603s, along with EKW D-3801s, fought off trespassing aircraft to defend Swiss neutrality, the last variant of the C-36 aircraft family, the turboprop powered C-3605, had its maiden flight in 1968 remaining in service with the Swiss Air Force until 1988. Thanks to its Black and yellow striped colouration, the C-3605 was called Flying Zebra Crossing, after retirement several aircraft were kept airworthy on the Civil aircraft register. C-3601 First prototype with wings, fixed undercarriage and powered by 641 kW Hispano-Suiza 12YCrs engine. C-3602 Second prototype powered by 746 kW Hispano-Suiza 12 Y-51, C-3603 Production version with retractable undercarriage, powered by Hispano-Suiza 12 Y-51. Armed by one 20mm Oerlikon moteur-canon cannon firing through propeller hub, c-3603-0 Service trial aircraft with long-span wings. 10 built, of which 9 were later converted to C-3603-1 standard, C-3603-1 Main production version, with short span wings. 142 built by 1944, plus further 6 assembled from parts in 1947–48
