1.
Licchavi (kingdom)
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Licchavi was an ancient kingdom in Nepal, which existed in the Kathmandu Valley from approximately 400 to 750 CE. The Licchavi clan originated from Vaishali in modern northern Bihar and conquered Kathmandu and this was likely through Mithila, a region now situated mainly in India with a small part in Nepal. A table of the evolution of certain Gupta characters used in Licchavi inscriptions prepared by Gautamavajra Vajrācārya can be found online. It is believed that a branch of the Lichhavi clan, having lost their fortune in Bihar, came to Kathmandu. In the Buddhist Pali canon, the Licchavi are mentioned in a number of discourses, most notably the Licchavi Sutta, the popular Ratana Sutta, the Mahayana Vimalakirti Sutra also spoke of the city of Vaisali as where the lay Licchavi bodhisattva Vimalakirti was residing. The earliest known record of the kingdom is an inscription of Manadeva 1. It mentions three preceding rulers, suggesting that the Licchavi dynasty began in the late 4th century, the Licchavi were ruled by a Maharaja, who was aided by a prime minister, in charge of the military and of other ministers. Nobles, known as samanta influenced the court whilst simultaneously managing their own landholdings, at one point, between approximately 605 and 641, a prime minister called Amsuvarman actually assumed the throne. The population provided land taxes and conscript labour to support the government, most local administration was performed by village heads or leading families. The economy was agricultural, relying on rice and other grains as staples, villages were grouped into dranga for administration. Lands were owned by the family, nobles, temples or groups of Brahmans. Trade was also important, with many settlements positioned along trading routes. Tibet and India were both trading partners, settlements already filled the entire valley during the Licchavi period. Further settlement was made east toward Banepa, west toward Tisting, the following list was adapted from The Licchavi Kings, by Tamot & Alsop, and is approximate only, especially with respect to dates
Licchavi (kingdom)
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Copper coin of Jishnu Gupta (c. 622-633) of the Nepalese Licchhavi Dynasty. Obverse. The inscription above the winged horse is Sri Jishnu Guptasya
2.
Malla (Nepal)
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The Malla Dynasty was a ruling dynasty of Nepal c. They have claimed Kshatriya status themselves, the Mallas means wrestlers in Sanskrit. The first of the Malla kings came to power in Kathmandu Valley around 1200, the Malla period was a golden one that stretched over 600 years, though it was peppered with fighting over the valuable trade routes to Tibet. The Mallas were noted for their patronisation of the Maithili language which was afforded a status to that of Sanskrit in the Malla court. Maithil Brahmin priests were invited to Kathmandu and many Maithil families settled in Kathmandu during Malla rule, beginning in the early twelfth century, leading notables in Nepal began to appear with names ending in the term malla, indicating a person of great strength and power. Arimalla was the first king to be so called, and the practice of adopting such a name was followed regularly by rulers in Nepal until the eighteenth century. This long Malla period witnessed the continued importance of the Kathmandu Valley as a political, cultural, other areas also began to emerge as significant centers in their own right, increasingly connected to the Kathmandu Valley. The time of the earlier Malla kings was not one of consolidation, in the twelfth century, Muslim Turks set up a powerful kingdom in India at Delhi, and in the thirteenth century they expanded their control over most of northern India. During this process, all of the kingdoms in India underwent a major reshuffling. This process resulted in an increasing militarization of Nepals neighbors and sections of Nepal as well and these Khas kings expanded into parts of western Tibet and sent raiding expeditions into the Kathmandu Valley between 1275 and 1335. In 1312 the Khas king, Ripumalla, visited Lumbini and had his own inscription carved on Ashokas pillar and he then entered the Kathmandu Valley to worship publicly at Matsyendranath, Pashupatinath, and Swayambhunath. These acts were all public announcements of his overlordship in Nepal, the first Malla rulers had to cope with several disasters. In 1255, one-third of the population of Kathmandu were killed when the valley suffered an earthquake with the right below the city. A devastating Muslim invasion by Sultan Shams-ud-din of Bengal in 1345-46, during the reign of Jayaraja Deva, left plundered Hindu, the invasion however did not leave a lasting cultural effect. In India the damage was widespread and many Hindus were driven into the hills and mountains of Nepal. In fact, none of the buildings in the valley proper dates from before this raid. He is said to have destroyed the Lichchhavi palaces of Managriha and he also damaged all the temples in the Kathmandu valley except the Changu Narayan Temple, which he could not locate as it lies some hills away from Kathmandu. He returned after 3 days of looting and burning, apart from this, the earlier Malla years were largely stable
Malla (Nepal)
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Portrait of Jayasthiti Malla (r. 1382-1395)
Malla (Nepal)
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Portrait of King Bhupatindra Malla (r. 1696-1722)
Malla (Nepal)
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Bhaskar Malla of Kathmandu (r. 1700-1714) dressed in Mughal fashion
3.
Shah dynasty
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The Shah dynasty was the ruling dynasty of the Kingdom of Gorkha until 1768 and of the Kingdom of Nepal from 1768 to 28 May 2008. According to legends, one of the earliest Shah rulers was Rishi-raj Rana-ji and he was made ruler of Chittorgarh and received the title of Bhattarak. The lunar dynasty remained in power for thirteen generations, then, the Muslim Yavanas took power. The Bhattarak had to abdicate and could retain his caste family name. The rajas were titled Rana-ji for four generations and Rana-ji Rava for a further seventeen generations, akbar, the Mughal emperor, wished to marry the daughter of Fatte Sinha Rana-ji Rava. Akbar was refused because he was of an unsatisfactory caste, many rajput, including Fatte Sinha Rana-ji Rava, were killed. The survivors of the war were led by Udaybam Rana-ji Rava, manmath Rana-ji Rava went to Ujjain. His son went to Ridi in the hills and in 1417 AD, to Sargha. The new ruler of Khium had sons, Kancha and Micha, plans for the boys to marry the daughters of the Raghibanshi Rajputs were made. Kancha, the son went to Dhor. He conquered Mangart and reigned over Garhon, Sathum and Birkot, Micha, the younger son, went to Nuwakot in the far west and became ruler there. From Micha, a dynasty of seven rajas commenced in Nuwakot, kumandan, the eldest son of Jagdeva, became ruler of Kaski. He was favoured and became Sah and succeeded his father, kalu, the second son was sent to Dura Danda in Lamjung at the peoples request to become their king. Kalu was killed by the Sekhant tribe, in the 1500s, another son, Yasobramha, became the ruler of Lamjung. The descendants of Yasobramha conquered the Ghale people of neighbouring Ligligkot, Dravya Shah was the first Shah king of Gorkha. Previously, the local Ghale people had chosen their king from the winners of a running race. Dravya Shah was not a physically robust man but he tricked his way to the win and he was backed by the Bhattarai, Aryal, Adhikari, Pant and Acharya clans who were Brahmin. By 1570, when Dravya Shah died, the race was
Shah dynasty
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Mohar of king
Prithvi Narayan Shah dated
Saka Era 1685 (AD 1763)
4.
Common Era
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Common Era or Current Era is a year-numbering system for the Julian and Gregorian calendars that refers to the years since the start of this era, i. e. since AD1. The preceding era is referred to as before the Common or Current Era, the Current Era notation system can be used as a secular alternative to the Dionysian era system, which distinguishes eras as AD and BC. The two notation systems are equivalent, thus 2017 CE corresponds to AD2017 and 400 BCE corresponds to 400 BC. The year-numbering system for the Gregorian calendar is the most widespread civil calendar used in the world today. For decades, it has been the standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations. The expression has been traced back to Latin usage to 1615, as vulgaris aerae, the term Common Era can be found in English as early as 1708, and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish academics. He attempted to number years from a reference date, an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus. Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi, numbering years in this manner became more widespread in Europe with its usage by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed was the year of birth of Jesus, in 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. The first use of the Latin term vulgaris aerae discovered so far was in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler, Kepler uses it again in a 1616 table of ephemerides, and again in 1617. A1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English – so far, a 1701 book edited by John LeClerc includes Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,6. A1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux says, before the beginning of the vulgar æra, a 1796 book uses the term vulgar era of the nativity. The first so-far-discovered usage of Christian Era is as the Latin phrase aerae christianae on the page of a 1584 theology book. In 1649, the Latin phrase æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac, a 1652 ephemeris is the first instance so-far-found for English usage of Christian Era. The English phrase common Era appears at least as early as 1708, a 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to the common era of the Jews. The first-so-far found usage of the phrase before the era is in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms. The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era, the Catholic Encyclopedia in at least one article reports all three terms being commonly understood by the early 20th century. Thus, the era of the Jews, the common era of the Mahometans, common era of the world
Common Era
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Key concepts
5.
Nepalese Civil War
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The Maoist was an armed conflict against The Government of Nepal fought from 1996 to 2006. The rebellion was launched by the Communist Party of Nepal on 13 February 1996 with the aim of overthrowing the Nepalese monarchy. It ended with the Comprehensive Peace Accord signed on 21 November 2006, More than 19,000 people were killed during the conflict. National Geographic Magazine, p.54, November 2005, douglas lists the following figures, Nepalis killed by Maoists from 1996 to 2005,4,500. Nepalis killed by government in same period,8,200. however, communist groups uncomfortable with the alliance between ULF and Congress formed a parallel front, the United National Peoples Movement. The UNPM called for elections to a Constituent Assembly, and rejected compromises made by ULF, in November 1990 the Communist Party of Nepal was formed, including key elements of constituents of UNPM. The new party held its first convention in 1991, the adopted a line of protracted armed struggle on the route to a new democratic revolution, the CPN set up Samyukta Jana Morcha, with Baburam Bhattarai as its head, as an open front ten contest elections. In the 1991 elections, SJM became the force in the Nepali parliament. However, disagreements surged regarding which tactics were to be used by the party, One sector argued for immediate armed revolution whereas others claimed that Nepal was not yet ripe for armed struggle. In 1994 CPN/SJM was split in two, the militant faction later renamed itself the Communist Party of Nepal. The Maoists labeled the government forces feudal forces, and included in this accusation was the monarchy, the armed struggle began soon afterward with simultaneous attacks on remote police stations and district headquarters. Initially, the Nepali government mobilized the Nepal Police to contain the insurgency, the Royal Nepal Army was not involved in direct fighting because the conflict was regarded as a matter for the police to sustain control. Furthermore, controversy regarding the army not assisting the police during insurgent attacks in remote areas. The popularly elected prime minister resigned his post, due to the refusal of the Royal Army to take part in the conflict and this situation changed dramatically in 2002 when the first session of peace talks failed and the Maoists attacked an army barracks in Dang District in western Nepal. Overnight, the army was unleashed against the insurgents, mobilizing both tanks and artillery and this material support to the Nepali government dried up after King Gyanendra seized full control in February 2005 to get rid of civil war for once and all. The government responded to the rebellion by banning provocative statements about the monarchy, imprisoning journalists, several rounds of negotiations, accompanied by temporary cease-fires, were held between the insurgents and the government. The government categorically rejected the demand for an election to the constituent assembly. At the same time, the Maoists refused to recognize the installation of a constitutional monarchy, throughout war, the government controlled the main cities and towns, whilst the Maoist dominated the rural areas
Nepalese Civil War
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Communist mural in
Kathmandu. It reads: "Long Live
Marxism-Leninism-Maoism and Prachanda Path."
Nepalese Civil War
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Three
Maoist rebels wait on top of a hill for orders to relocate in the Rolpa district
Nepalese Civil War
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2006 democracy movement in Nepal
6.
Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal
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Lumbini, listed as the birthplace of
Gautama Buddha by the
UNESCO World Heritage Convention
Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal
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Flag
Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal
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Former royal palace at
Basantapur, Kathmandu
Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal
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Hindu temples in
Patan, capital of one of the three medieval
Newar kingdoms
7.
Himalaya
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The Himalayas, or Himalaya, form a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The Himalayan range has the Earths highest peaks, including the highest, the Himalayas include over a hundred mountains exceeding 7,200 metres in elevation. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia – Aconcagua, in the Andes – is 6,961 metres tall. The Himalayas are spread across five countries, Bhutan, India, Nepal, China, the Himalayan range is bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Some of the major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges, and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, rise in the Himalayas. The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia, many Himalayan peaks are sacred in Hinduism and Buddhism. Lifted by the subduction of the Indian tectonic plate under the Eurasian Plate and its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river. Its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, is just west of the bend of the Tsangpo river. The range varies in width from 400 kilometres in the west to 150 kilometres in the east, the name of the range derives from the Sanskrit Himā-laya, from himá and ā-laya. They are now known as the Himalaya Mountains, usually shortened to the Himalayas, formerly, they were described in the singular as the Himalaya. This was also previously transcribed Himmaleh, as in Emily Dickinsons poetry and Henry David Thoreaus essays. The mountains are known as the Himālaya in Nepali and Hindi, the Himalaya or The Land of Snow in Tibetan, the Hamaleh Mountain Range in Urdu, the flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice, the amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall and soil conditions combined with the high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant. The extremes of high altitude combined with extreme cold favor extremophile organisms, the unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to climate change. The increase in temperature is shifting various species to higher elevations, the oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some species, especially rhododendron, apple. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica located at 4,900 metres in Southeastern Tibet, the Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock
Himalaya
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The north face of
Mount Everest seen from the path to the base camp in
Tibet Autonomous Region,
China
Himalaya
Himalaya
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Panoramic view of Langtang Range in
Nepal
Himalaya
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Indus River
8.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
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Flag
India
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The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
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Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
9.
Tibet
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Tibet is a region on the Tibetan Plateau in Asia, spanning about 2.4 million km2 and nearly a quarter of Chinas territory. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an elevation of 4,900 metres. The highest elevation in Tibet is Mount Everest, Earths highest mountain, the Tibetan Empire emerged in the 7th century, but with the fall of the empire the region soon divided into a variety of territories. The current borders of Tibet were generally established in the 18th century, following the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing dynasty in 1912, Qing soldiers were disarmed and escorted out of Tibet Area. The region subsequently declared its independence in 1913 without recognition by the subsequent Chinese Republican government, later, Lhasa took control of the western part of Xikang, China. There are tensions regarding Tibets political status and dissident groups that are active in exile and it is also said that Tibetan activists in Tibet have been arrested or tortured. The economy of Tibet is dominated by agriculture, though tourism has become a growing industry in recent decades. The dominant religion in Tibet is Tibetan Buddhism, in there is Bön, which is similar to Tibetan Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism is an influence on the art, music. Tibetan architecture reflects Chinese and Indian influences, staple foods in Tibet are roasted barley, yak meat, and butter tea. The Tibetan name for their land, Bod བོད་, means Tibet or Tibetan Plateau, although it meant the central region around Lhasa. The Standard Tibetan pronunciation of Bod, is transcribed Bhö in Tournadre Phonetic Transcription, Bö in the THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription and Poi in Tibetan pinyin. Tibetan people, language, and culture, regardless of where they are from, are referred to as Zang although the geographical term Xīzàng is often limited to the Tibet Autonomous Region. The term Xīzàng was coined during the Qing dynasty in the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor through the addition of a prefix meaning west to Zang, the best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is Tubo. This name first appears in Chinese characters as 土番 in the 7th century, in the Middle Chinese spoken during that period, as reconstructed by William H. Baxter, 土番 was pronounced thux-phjon and 吐蕃 was pronounced thux-pjon. Other pre-modern Chinese names for Tibet include Wusiguo, Wusizang, Tubote, the English word Tibet or Thibet dates back to the 18th century. Historical linguists generally agree that Tibet names in European languages are loanwords from Semitic Ṭībat orTūbātt, itself deriving from Turkic Töbäd, literally, according to Matthew Kapstein, From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembles Burmese among the major languages of Asia. More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is part of a larger language family, called Sino-Tibetan
Tibet
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"Greater Tibet" as claimed by Tibetan exile groups
Tibet
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Tibetan family in
Kham attending a horse festival
Tibet
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King
Songtsän Gampo
Tibet
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Tibet in 1734. Royaume de Thibet ("Kingdom of Tibet") in la Chine, la Tartarie Chinoise, et le Thibet ("China, Chinese
Tartary, and Tibet") on a 1734 map by
Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, based on earlier Jesuit maps.
10.
Nepali language
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Nepali, originally known as Khas Kura, Parbate Bhasa or Gorkhali, is an Indo-Aryan language. It is the language and de facto lingua franca of Nepal. It is also spoken in parts of India, particularly by Indian Gorkha. In India, Nepali language is listed in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India having a status in the Indian state of Sikkim. Nepali developed in proximity to a number of Indo-Aryan languages, most notably the Pahari languages and Magahi, however, owing to Nepals geographical area, it has also been influenced by Tibeto-Burman languages. Nepali is mainly differentiated from Central Pahari, both in grammar and vocabulary, by Tibeto-Burman idioms owing to close contact with the language group. Nepali language shares 40% lexical similarity with the Bengali language, in the nineteenth century, the British resident at Kathmandu Brian Houghton Hodgson observed that it was, in eight-tenths of its vocabulary, substantially Hindi. Historically, the language was first called the Khas language, then Gorkhali or Gurkhali before the term Nepali was adopted, in 1920, during Rana regime in Nepal, the term Nepal which resembled the Nepal Mandala was taken from its people. Soon after that, Nepal Bhasa was renamed into Newari and Parbate/Khas language took over as Nepali language, other names include Parbatiya and Dzongkha Lhotshammikha. It is also known as the Khey language or Partya language among the Newar people and Pahari language among Madhesi, however, due to protests for identity, Newars have restored their languages name as Nepal Bhasa and voices have been raise to re-instate Parbate language in its original name. Nepali developed a significant literature within a period of a hundred years in the 19th century. This literary explosion was fueled by Adhyatma Ramayana, Sundarananda Bara, Birsikka, a collection of folk tales. The contribution of trio-laureates Lekhnath Paudyal, Laxmi Prasad Devkota, the contribution of expatriate writers outside Nepal, especially in Darjeeling and Varanasi in India, is also notable. In the past decade, there have been many contributions to Nepali literature from the Nepali diaspora in Asia, Europe, America, according to the 2011 national census,44.6 percent of the population of Nepal speaks Nepali as a first language. The Ethnologue website reports 12,300,000 speakers within Nepal, Nepali is traditionally spoken in the Hill Region of Nepal, especially in the western part of the country. Although the Newar language dominated the Kathmandu valley, Nepali is currently the most dominant, Nepali is used in government and as the everyday language of a growing portion of the local population. Nevertheless, the use of Nepali in the courts and government of Nepal is being challenged. Recognition of other languages in Nepal was one of the objectives of the Communist Party of Nepals long war
Nepali language
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Calligraphy
Nepali language
–
The word "Nepali" written in
Devanagari
11.
Constituent assembly
–
A constituent assembly is a body or assembly of representatives composed for the purpose of drafting or adopting a constitution. A constituent assembly is set up for its specific purpose. A constituent assembly is a form of representative democracy, as described by Columbia University Social Sciences Professor Jon Elster, Constitutions arise in a number of different ways. At the non-democratic extreme of the spectrum, we may imagine a sovereign lawgiver laying down the constitution for all later generations, at the democratic extreme, we may imagine a constituent assembly elected by universal suffrage for the sole task of writing a new constitution. And there are all sorts of intermediate arrangements, right after the 1948 Costa Rican Civil War that overthrow Rafael Angel Calderón Government, the leaders of the victorious side call for an election of a Constituent Assembly in the same year. The Assembly successfully drafted and approved the current Costa Rican Constitution, louis XVI recognized the validity of the National Constituent Assembly on June 27,1789. See also French Constituent Assembly election,1848 On 27 November 2010, Iceland held an election for a constitutional assembly, with 522 people vying for 25 delegate seats. The constitutional assembly, in session for four months from early April until late July 2011, drafted a new constitution, Parliament put the bill to a national referendum 20 October 2012 in which 67% of the voters declared their support for the bill. Further, 67% of the voters declared their support for voting rights and 83% declared their support for national ownership of natural resources. The Constituent Assembly of India was elected to write the Constitution of India and it was set up as a result of negotiations between the leaders of the Indian independence movement and members of the British Cabinet Mission. The constituent assembly was elected indirectly by the members of the Provincial legislative assembly and it first met on December 9,1946, in Delhi. On August 15,1947, India became an independent nation, dr. Ambedkar drafted the Constitution of India in conjunction with the requisite deliberations and debates in the Constituent Assembly. The Assembly approved the Constitution on November 26,1949, once the Constitution took effect, the Constituent Assembly became the Provisional Parliament of India. (It was provisional until the first elections under the new Constitution took place, the whole process took 2 years,11 months and 18 days from start to finish. The Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia was established to draw up a permanent constitution and its membership was elected in November 1955, and it met for the first time in November 1956. After four sessions, it failed to agree on the basis for the state. It was dissolved in 1059, and the constitution imposed by presidential decree. The Constituent Assembly of Italy was established in 1946 in the wake of Fascist Italys defeat during World War II and it was elected with universal suffrage, simultaneously with a referendum about the adoption of Republic or the continuation of monarchy
Constituent assembly
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The Virginia Constitutional Convention, 1830 (George Catlin, ca. 1830). Many state constituent assemblies, like the 1830 Virginia Constitutional Convention, were highly formalized but the legitimacy of the constitution they drafted depended on whether it was authorized by the people, not whether a particular procedure was followed.
12.
Monarchy
–
The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to partial and restricted, to completely autocratic. Traditionally and in most cases, the monarchs post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication, occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy, Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Currently,47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state,19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia reign, the word monarch comes from the Greek language word μονάρχης, monárkhēs which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule. Depending on the held by the monarch, a monarchy may be known as a kingdom, principality, duchy, grand duchy, empire, tsardom, emirate, sultanate, khaganate. The form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric, the Greek term monarchia is classical, used by Herodotus. The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as king, the Chinese, Japanese and Nepalese monarchs continued to be considered living Gods into the modern period. Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of democracy, where power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome, much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism. Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones, most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court. Growing up in a family, future monarchs are often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority. While most monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned in history, rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy, such as that of family dictatorships or political families in many democracies. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of leadership
Monarchy
–
Richard I of England being anointed during his coronation in
Westminster Abbey, from a 13th-century chronicle.
Monarchy
–
Thutmose I, the third
Pharaoh of the
Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt.
Monarchy
–
King George III of the United Kingdom, Portrait by
Allan Ramsay, 1762
Monarchy
–
King
Salman of Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarch.
13.
Sanskrit
–
Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
Sanskrit
–
Rigveda (
padapatha) manuscript in
Devanagari, early 19th century
Sanskrit
–
Devi Mahatmya palm-leaf manuscript in an early
Bhujimol script,
Bihar or
Nepal, 11th century
Sanskrit
–
A poem by the ancient Indian poet Vallana (ca. 900 – 1100 CE) on the side wall of a building at the Haagweg 14 in Leiden, Netherlands
Sanskrit
–
Kashmir Shaiva manuscript in the
Śāradā script (c. 17th century)
14.
Ganges Plain
–
The region is named after the Indus and the Ganges, and encompasses a number of large urban areas. The Indus-Ganga plain is bound on the north by the Himalayas which feed its numerous rivers and are the source of the alluvium deposited across the region by the two river systems. The southern edge of the plain is marked by the Chota Nagpur Plateau, on the west rises the Iranian Plateau. The region is known for the Indus Valley Civilization, which was responsible for the birth of ancient South Asian culture, during the Vedic and Epic eras of Indian history, this region was referred to as Aryavarta. According to Manusmṛti, Aryavarta is the tract between the Himalaya and the Vindhya ranges, from the Eastern Sea to the Western Sea. During the Islamic period, the Turkish, Afghan and Iranian rulers referred to this region as Hindustan, some geographers subdivide the Indo-Gangetic Plain into several parts, the Sindh, Punjab, Doab, and Bengal regions. This divide is only 300 metres above sea level, causing the perception that the Indus-Ganga Plain appears to be continuous between the two drainage basins, the middle Ganga plain extends from the Yamuna River in the west to the state of West Bengal in the east. The lower Ganges plain and the Assam Valley are more verdant than the middle Ganga plain, the lower Ganga is centered in West Bengal, from which it flows into Bangladesh. After joining the Jamuna, a distributary of Brahmaputra, both form the Ganges Delta. The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo River and flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, as a large plain, the exact extent can vary from source to source. The fertile Terai region is the Nepalese extension of the Plain, the rivers encompassed are the Beas, the Chambal, the Chenab, the Ganga, the Gomti, the Indus, the Ravi, the Sutlej and the Yamuna. The soil is rich in silt, making the one of the most intensely farmed areas of the world. Even rural areas here are densely populated, the Indus-Ganga plains, also known as the Great Plains, are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga–Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east, the plains encompass an area of 700,000 km² and vary in width through their length by several hundred kilometres. The major rivers of this system are the Ganga and the Indus along with their tributaries, Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej, extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia. As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground, the bhabar is generally narrow about 7–15 km wide. The Terai belt — lies next to the Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium, the underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly forested and it also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife
Ganges Plain
–
Clusters of yellow lights on the Indo-Gangetic Plain reveal numerous cities large and small in this astronaut photograph of northern India and northern Pakistan.
Ganges Plain
–
Indo-Gangetic Plain
Ganges Plain
–
The
Prinsep Ghat which is located on the bank of the
Hooghly River in the city of
Kolkata,
West Bengal
Ganges Plain
–
Boatmen row between
Barrackpore and
Serampore on the Hooghly river. A photograph shot in 2006
15.
Newar people
–
The Newar or Newah are the historical inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley and its surrounding areas in Nepal, and the creators of its historic heritage and civilization. Newars form a linguistic and cultural community of primarily Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman ethnicities following Hinduism and Buddhism with Nepal Bhasa as their common language, Newars have developed a division of labour and a sophisticated urban civilization not seen elsewhere in the Himalayan foothills. Newars have continued their traditions and practices, and pride themselves as the true custodians of the religion, culture. The valley and surrounding territories constituted the former Newar kingdom of the Nepal Mandala, Indo-Aryan immigrants like the Licchavis and Mallas that arrived at different periods eventually merged with the local population by adopting their language and customs. Newar rule in Nepal Mandala ended with its conquest by the Gorkha Kingdom in 1768, Newars are known for their contributions to culture, art and literature, trade, agriculture and cuisine. Today, Newars consistently rank as the most economically, politically and socially advanced community of Nepal, nepals 2011 census ranks Newars as the nations sixth-largest ethnicity/community, with 1,321,933 Newars throughout the country. The terms Nepāl, Newār, Newāl and Nepār are phonetically different forms of the same word, Nepal is the learned form and Newar is the colloquial form. The term Newar referring to inhabitant of Nepal appeared for the first time in an inscription dated 1654 in Kathmandu, italian Jesuit priest Ippolito Desideri who traveled to Nepal in 1721 has written that the natives of Nepal are called Newars. It has been suggested that Nepal may be a sanskritization of Newar, according to another explanation, the words Newar and Newari are vulgarisms arising from the mutation of P to V, and L to R. As a result of the process of dropping the last consonant and lengthening the vowel, Newā for Newār or Newāl. For about a thousand years, the Newar civilization in Central Nepal preserved a microcosm of classical North Indian culture in which Brahmanic, snellgrove and Richardson speak of the direct heritage of pre-Islamic India. The different divisions of Newars had different historical developments, the common identity of Newar was formed in the Kathmandu Valley. Until the conquest of the valley by the Gorkha Kingdom in 1769, so, the history of Newar correlates to the history of the Kathmandu Valley prior to the establishment of the modern state of Nepal. The earliest known history of Newar and the Kathmandu Valley blends with mythology recorded in historical chronicles, one such text, which recounts the creation of the valley, is the Swayambhu Purana. According to this Buddhist scripture, the Kathmandu Valley was a giant lake until the Bodhisattva Manjusri, with the aid of a sword, cut a gap in the surrounding hills. This apocryphal legend is supported by evidence of an ancient lakebed. According to the Swayambhu Purana, Manjusri then established a city called Manjupattan, now called Manjipā, a shrine dedicated to Manjusri is still present in Majipā. No historical documents have been found after this era till the advent of the Gopal era, a genealogy of kings is recorded in a chronicle called Gopalarajavamsavali
Newar people
–
Nyatapola Temple in
Bhaktapur
Newar people
–
Statue in
Lalitpur
Newar people
–
Swayambhunath in
Kathmandu
Newar people
–
Newar traders in Lhasa in the 1940s.
16.
Kathmandu Valley
–
The Kathmandu Valley, located in Nepal, lies at the crossroads of ancient civilizations of Asia, and has at least 130 important monuments, including several pilgrimage sites for Hindus and Buddhists. There are seven World Heritage Sites within the valley, historically, the valley and adjoining areas made up a confederation known as the Nepal Mandala. Until the 15th century, Bhaktapur was its capital, when two other capitals, Kathmandu and Lalitpur, were established. After the annexation of the valley by the Gorkha Kingdom, and subsequent conversion of the valley as the capital of their empire, the Kathmandu Valley is the most developed and populated place in Nepal. The majority of offices and headquarters are located in the valley and it is popular with tourists for its unique architecture, and rich culture that includes the highest number of jatras in Nepal. The valley itself was referred to as Nepal Proper by British historians, thousands of people died and tens of thousands of buildings and structures collapsed in Kathmandu Valley in the April 2015 Nepal earthquake. The city of Kathmandu is named after a structure in Durbar Square called by the Sanskrit name Kāsṣtha mandapa Wooden shelter and it was destroyed in the 2015 earthquake. This unique temple, also known as the Maru Sattal, was built in 1596 by King Lakshminarasimha Malla, the entire structure contained no iron nails or supports and was made entirely from wood. Legend has it that the used for this two-story pagoda was obtained from a single tree. The Kathmandu Valley may have been inhabited as early as 300 BCE, the earliest known inscription is dated 185 CE. The oldest firmly dated building in the valley is almost 1,992 years old. As with the tales of the Buddhas visit, there is no evidence supporting Ashoks visit, the Licchavis, whose earliest inscriptions date to 464, were the next rulers of the valley and had close ties with the Gupta Empire of India. His victory in the Battle of Kirtipur was the beginning of his conquest of the valley, the Newars are the indigenous inhabitants and the creators of the historic civilization of the valley. The language is known as Nepal Bhasa. They are understood to be the descendants of the various ethnic, scholars have also described the Newars as a nation. They have developed a division of labour and an urban civilization not seen elsewhere in the Himalayan foothills. They are known for their contributions to art, sculpture, architecture, culture, literature, music, industry, trade, agriculture and cuisine, newa architecture consists of the pagoda, stupa, shikhara, chaitya and other styles. The valleys trademark is the pagoda which may have originated in this area and spread to India, China, Indochina
Kathmandu Valley
–
The
Durbar Square in Kathmandu
Kathmandu Valley
–
Pashupatinath Temple, dedicated to
Pashupati.
Kathmandu Valley
–
Swayamhbu Stupa
17.
Nepal Bhasa
–
Although Nepal Bhasa literally means Nepalese language, the language is not the same as Nepali, the countrys current official language. The two languages belong to different language families, but centuries of contact have resulted in a significant body of shared vocabulary, Newar was Nepals administrative language from the 14th to the late 18th centuries. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Newar has suffered from official suppression, from 1952 to 1991, the percentage of the population in the Kathmandu Valley speaking Newar dropped from 75% to 44%, and Newar culture and language are under threat. The language has been listed as being endangered by UNESCO. The earliest occurrences of the name Nepālabhāṣā can be found in the manuscripts of a commentary to the Nāradasaṃhitā, dated 1380 AD, since then, the name has been used widely on inscriptions, manuscripts, documents and books. Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the national anthem entitled Shreeman Gambhir was changed to Nepali in 1951. On 8 September 1995, following years of lobbying to use the old name, however, the decision was not implemented, and on 13 November 1998, the Minister of Information and Communication issued another directive to use the name Nepal Bhasa instead of Newari. However, the Central Bureau of Statistics has not been doing so, Newar is spoken by over a million people in Nepal according to the 2001 census. In Nepal, Kathmandu Valley, Dolakha District, Banepa, Dhulikhel, Bandipur, Bhimphedi, Panauti, Palpa, Trishuli, Nuwakot, Bhojpur, Chitlang, Narayangarh, Chitwan. West Bengal In Tibet, Khasa With an increase in emigration, various bodies and societies of Newar-speaking people have emerged in such as the US. The exact placement of Newar within the Tibeto-Burman language family has been a source of controversies, the linguist Warren W. Glover classified Newar as a part of Bodic subdivision using Shafers terminology. Professor Van Driem classified Newar within Mahakiranti grouping but he retracted his hypothesis in 2003. Moreover, he proposed a new grouping called Maha-Newari which possibly includes Baram–Thangmi, T. R. Kansakar attributes the difficulty about the placement of Newar is due inability of scholars to connect it with the migration patterns of the Tibeto-Burman speakers. Since Newar separated from rest of the very early in history. He underscored the point that the language evolved from mixed racial/linguistic influences that do not lend easily to a neat classification. The date indicates a time when the language diverged. ɞ Van Driem labelled this branch as Parakiranti. However, he would drop this hypothesis. ʌ All languages within this branch have extensive Indo-Aryan vocabulary. It is hypothesized that either ancient IndoAryan admixture happened before Newar-Thangmi-Baram split or that Thangmi-Baram borrowed through Newari, according to the linguist Glover, Newari and the Chepang language must have diverged around 2200 BC
Nepal Bhasa
–
A stone inscription in
Classical Newari at Bhaktapur Durbar Square.
Nepal Bhasa
–
Copper plate inscription at
Swayambhunath, dated
Nepal Sambat 1072 (1952 AD).
Nepal Bhasa
–
Newspaper clipping about Nepal Bhasa.
Nepal Bhasa
–
Sit-in outside the prime minister's residence to mark Black Day on 1 June 2013.
18.
Lepcha people
–
The Lepcha are also called the Rongkip meaning the chidren of God and the Rong, Mútuncí Róngkup Rumkup, and Rongpa, are among the indigenous peoples of Sikkim and number between 30,000 and 50,000. Many Lepcha are also found in western and southwestern Bhutan, Tibet, Darjeeling, the Mechi Zone of eastern Nepal, the word Lepcha is considered to be the anglicized version of the Nepalese word lepche meaning vile speakers or inarticulate speech. This was at first a nickname but is no longer seen as negative. The origin of the Lepcha is unknown and they speak a Tibeto-Burman language which some classify as Himalayish. Based on this, some anthropologists suggest they emigrated directly from Tibet to the north, while migrating westward through India, they are surmised to have passed through southern Bhutan before reaching their final destination near Kanchenjunga. In the Mechi Zone, they form 7% of the population of Ilam District, 2% in Panchthar District, in Sikkim as a whole they are considered to be around 15% of the population of the state. The Lepcha have their own language, also called Lepcha and it belongs to the Bodish–Himalayish group of Tibeto-Burman languages. The Lepcha write their language in their own script, called Róng or Lepcha script and it was developed between the 17th and 18th centuries, possibly by a Lepcha scholar named Thikúng Mensalóng, during the reign of the third Chogyal of Sikkim. The worlds largest collection of old Lepcha manuscripts is found with the Himalayan Languages Project in Leiden, Netherlands, Lepchas are divided into many clans, each of which reveres its own sacred lake and mountain peak from which the clan derives its name. While most Lepcha can identify their own clan, Lepcha clan names can be quite formidable, for example, Simíkmú and Fonyung Rumsóngmú may be shortened to Simik and Foning, respectively. Some of the name of the clans are Sada, Rongong, Karthakmu, Sungutmu, Phipon, Brimu, most Lepchas are Buddhist, a religion brought by the Bhutias from the north, although a large number of Lepchas have today adopted Christianity. Some Lepchas have not given up their religion, which is known as Mun. In practice, rituals from Mun and Buddhism are frequently observed alongside one another among some Lepchas, for example, ancestral mountain peaks are regularly honored in ceremonies called cú rumfát. According to the Nepal Census of 2001, out of the 3,660 Lepcha in Nepal,88. 80% were Buddhists and 7. 62% were Hindus, many Lepchas in the Hills of Sikkim, Darjeeling and Kalimpong are Christians. The traditional clothing for Lepcha women is the ankle-length dumbun, also called dumdyám or gādā and it is one large piece of smooth cotton or silk, usually of a solid color. When it is worn, it is folded over one shoulder, pinned at the other shoulder, a contrasting long-sleeved blouse may be worn underneath. The traditional Lepcha clothing for men is the dumprá and it is a multicolored, hand-woven cloth pinned at one shoulder and held in place by a waistband, usually worn over a white shirt and trousers. Men wear a round cap called a thyáktuk, with stiff black velvet sides
Lepcha people
–
A Lepcha man
19.
Hinduism in Nepal
–
Hinduism is the major religion of Nepal. In the 2011 census, approximately 81, the national calendar of Nepal, Vikram Samvat, is a solar Hindu calendar essentially the same to that widespread in North India as a religious calendar, and is based on Hindu units of time. The geographical distribution of religious groups revealed a preponderance of Hindus, among Tibeto-Burman-speaking communities in Nepal, those most influenced by Hinduism are the Magars, Sunwar, and Rai peoples. He performed religious ceremonies at Teku, the confluence of the Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers, according to legend he selected a pious cowherd to be the first of the many kings of the Gopala Dynasty. These rulers are said to have ruled Nepal for over 500 years and he selected Bhuktaman to be the first king in the line of the Gopal Dynasty. The Silncan Gopal dynasty ruled for 621 years, yakshya Gupta was the last king of this dynasty. According to Skanda Purana, a rishi called Ne or Nemuni used to live in Himalaya, in the Pashupati Purana, he is mentioned as a saint and a protector. He is said to have practiced penance at the Bagmati and Kesavati rivers, the pennant is an important Hindu flag that is help atop Hindu temples. It is believed that Lord Vishnu had organized the Nepali people and given them their flag, with the sun and moon as emblems on it. In a Hindu Purana, it is written that it was Lord Shiva who handed the flag to Lord Vishnu, many of the people regarded as Hindus in the 1981 census could also in some senses be called Buddhists. Hindus long have worshipped at Buddhist temples and Buddhists at Hindu temples, there are many temples where both Hindus and Buddhists can enter and worship. The figures are based on the Census 2011 of Nepal, NEG denotes newly listed ethnic group, for which 2001 census figures are not available. As seen from the 2001 and 2011 Census data, the percentage of Hindus have went up by 0. 72%, however, the overall trend remains largely negative. All the major racial group except the Sino/Tibetans showed a decline in the percentage of Hindus, among the Sino/Tibetans, the percentage of Hindus went up by 2. 37%, from 49. 74% to 52. 11%. Janakpur 99. 95% This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http, //lcweb2. loc. gov/frd/cs/
Hinduism in Nepal
–
Hindus as percentage of total population in districts of Nepal
20.
Neolithic
–
It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated
Neolithic
–
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Neolithic stone artifacts are by definition polished and, except for specialty items, not chipped.
Neolithic
–
Algerian cave paintings depicting hunting scenes
Neolithic
–
Female figure from
Tumba Madžari,
Republic of Macedonia
Neolithic
–
Skara Brae, Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves)
21.
Indus Valley Civilization
–
The Indus Valley Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread, at its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft, the Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo-Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj, excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, as of 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. Among the settlements were the urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala in Cholistan. The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered, a relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistans northwestern Frontier Province as well, other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Maharashtra. The largest number of colonies are in the Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira. There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan, many Indus Valley sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds. Among them are, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, Harappan Civilisation remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilisation after its first findspot. John wrote, I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway and they were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, convinced there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles of the track running from Karachi to Lahore. In 1872–75, Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal and it was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein
Indus Valley Civilization
–
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization
–
Ceremonial vessel, Harappan, 2600–2450 BCE.
LACMA
Indus Valley Civilization
–
Excavated ruins of
Mohenjo-daro, with the
Great Bath in the front
Indus Valley Civilization
–
Indus Valley pottery, 2500–1900 BCE
22.
Tharu people
–
The Tharu people are an ethnic group indigenous to the southern foothills of the Himalayas, most of the Tharu people live in the Nepal Terai. Some Tharu groups also live in the Indian Terai, foremost in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, the Tharus are recognized as an official nationality by the Government of Nepal. The Government of India recognizes the Tharu people as a scheduled tribe, as of 2011, the Tharu population of Nepal was censused at 1,737,470 people, or 6. 6% of the total population. In 2009, the majority of Tharu people were estimated to live in Nepal, in 2001, Tharu people were the largest of five scheduled tribes in Uttarakhand, with a population of 256,129 accounting for 33. 4% of all scheduled tribes. In the same year, they constituted 77. 4% of the tribal population of Uttar Pradesh with a population of 83,544. The Tharu people themselves say that they are a people of the forest, in Chitwan, they have lived in the forests for hundreds of years practicing a short fallow shifting cultivation. The Tharus never went abroad for employment – a life that kept them isolated in their own localities, in this isolation they developed a unique culture free from the influence of adjacent India, or from the mountain groups of Nepal. Much of the design is rooted in devotional activities and passed on from one generation to the next. The Deukheri Tharu are known for their colorful, shell and/or feather decorated basketry, in the western Terai, most Rana Tharu prefer living in Badaghar called longhouses with big families of many generations, sometimes 40-50 people. All household members pool their labor force, contribute their income, share the expenditure, Tharus from the mid west and far west of Nepal have been practicing the Badghar system, where a Badghar is elected chief of a village or a small group of villages for a year. The election generally takes place in the month of Magh, after celebrating the Maghi Festival, in most cases, each household in the village which engages in farming has one voting right for electing a Badghar. Thus the election is based on a count of households count rather than a headcount, the role of the Badghar is to work for the welfare of the village. The Badghar direct the villagers to repair canals or streets when needed and they also oversee and manages the cultural traditions of the villages. They have an authority of punishing those who do not follow their orders or who go against the welfare of the village, generally the Badghar has a Chaukidar to help him. With the consent of the villagers the Badghar may appoint aGuruwa who is the medic, as Tharus society is mainly involved in farming, irrigation is one of the most important aspects of the community. Tharus in western Nepal built canals that irrigate thousands of hectares of land, hundreds of years ago, without using any sophisticated tools, they built hundreds of kilometers of irrigation canals in the Kailali and Bardiya districts of Nepal. An irrigation canal could be used by several villages and its water and diversion works need to be managed fairly. For this purpose, the Badghars of different villages elect a person for the position of Chaudhary to manage a canal system, when needed, the Chaudhary orders the Badghars to send people to repair or build the canals
Tharu people
–
Tharu people थारू
Tharu people
–
Tharu woman
Tharu people
–
Tharu woman in traditional dress
Tharu people
–
Tharu village near
Bardia National Park
23.
Dravidian peoples
–
Dravidians are native speakers of any of the Dravidian languages. There are around 200 million native speakers of Dravidian languages and they form the majority of the population of South India. Dravidian-speaking people are found in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, Maldives, Bangladesh. Historically the word drāviḍa is used to denote the region of South India. In Prakrit, words such as Damela, Dameda, Dhamila and Damila evolved from Tamila could have used to denote an ethnic identity. Tamil has a tradition dating back to the 3rd century BCE. The third century BCE onwards saw the development of large Dravidian political states, Chola dynasty, Pandyan dynasty, Chera Dynasty and a number of smaller states. The Satavahana dynasty, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Western Chalukya Empire, Kakatiya dynasty, Hoysala Empire, the Vijayanagara Empire, the Chola Empire was one of the biggest maritime empires in medieval India, stretching from Southern India to Southeast Asia including Philippines, Malaysia, Southern Thailand and Indonesia. Medieval Tamil guilds and trading organizations like the Ayyavole and Manigramam played an important role in the Southeast Asia trade, traders and religious leaders travelled to Southeast Asia and played an important role in the cultural Indianisation of the region. Locally developed scripts such as Grantha and Pallava script induced the development of many scripts such as Khmer, Javanese Kawi script, Baybayin. Certain communities of Marathis from Maharashtra are considered as Scytho-Dravidians, Dravidian visual art is dominated by stylised Temple architecture in major centres, and the production of images of stone and bronze sculptures. The Nataraja sculpture from the Chola period, has become notable as a symbol of Hinduism, the Sanskrit word drāviḍa is used to denote the geographical region of South India. Southern Brahmins are known as Pancha Dravida while northern Brahmins are known as Pancha Gauda, in Prakrit, words such as Damela, Dameda, Dhamila and Damila, which later evolved into Tamila, could have been used to denote an ethnic identity. The Hathigumpha inscription of the Kalinga ruler Kharavela refers to a Tmira samghata dated to 150 BCE and it also mentions that the league of Tamil kingdoms had been in existence for 113 years by that time. In Amaravati in present-day Andhra Pradesh there is an inscription referring to a Dhamila-vaniya datable to the 3rd century CE, another inscription of about the same time in Nagarjunakonda seems to refer to a Damila. A third inscription in Kanheri Caves refers to a Dhamila-gharini, in the Buddhist Jataka story known as Akiti Jataka there is a mention to Damila-rattha. Thamizhar is etymologically related to Tamil, the language spoken by Tamil people, southworth suggests that the name comes from tam-miz > tam-iz self-speak, or ones own speech. Zvelebil suggests an etymology of tam-iz, with tam meaning self or ones self, alternatively, he suggests a derivation of tamiz < tam-iz < *tav-iz < *tak-iz, meaning in origin the proper process
Dravidian peoples
–
Avvaiyar
Dravidian peoples
Dravidian peoples
–
Indra Nooyi
Dravidian peoples
–
A. R. Rahman
24.
Austro-Asiatic
–
The name Austroasiatic comes from the Latin words for south and Asia, hence South Asia. Of these languages, only Vietnamese, Khmer, and Mon have a recorded history. On the subnational level, Khasi has official status in Meghalaya while Santali, Ho, in Myanmar, the Wa language is the de facto official language of Wa State. The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups and have no official status and these form thirteen established families, which have traditionally been grouped into two, as Mon–Khmer and Munda. However, one recent classification posits three groups while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as a taxon altogether, making it synonymous with the larger family, Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Southeast Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. They appear to be the languages of Southeast Asia, with the neighboring Indo-Aryan, Tai–Kadai, Dravidian, Austronesian. The Austroasiatic languages are known for having a sesquisyllabic pattern, with basic nouns. Many of them also have infixes, languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast. However, some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases, such as Vietnamese, much work has been done on the reconstruction of Proto-Mon–Khmer in Harry L. Shortos Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary. Little work has been done on the Munda languages, which are not well documented, with their demotion from a primary branch, Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic. Paul Sidwell reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as follows, This is identical to earlier reconstructions except for *ʄ, *ʄ is better preserved in the Katuic languages, which Sidwell has specialized in. However, no evidence for classification has ever been published. Each of the families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade, by contrast, the relationships between these families within Austroasiatic is debated. In addition to the classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accept traditional Mon–Khmer as a valid unit. However, little of the used for competing classifications has ever been published. He therefore takes the view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & Blench discuss this proposal in detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node. If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward
Austro-Asiatic
–
Paul Sidwell and
Roger Blench propose that the Austroasiatic phylum had dispersed via the
Mekong River
drainage basin.
Austro-Asiatic
–
Austroasiatic languages
25.
Terai
–
The Terai is a lowland region in southern Nepal and northwestern India that lies south of the outer foothills of the Himalayas, the Siwalik Hills, and north of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. This lowland belt is characterised by tall grasslands, scrub savannah, sal forests, in northern India, the Terai spreads from the Yamuna River eastward across Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Terai is part the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecoregion, the corresponding lowland region in West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Assam in the Brahmaputra River basin is called Dooars. In Nepal, the Terai lies at an altitude of between 67 and 300 m and comprises more than 50 wetlands, north of the Terai rises the Bhabhar, a narrow but continuous belt of forest about 8–12 km wide. In Hindi the region is called तराई, tarāī meaning foot-hill, in Nepali, the region is called तराइ tarāi meaning the low-lying land, plain and especially the low-lying land at the foot of the Himālayas. The regions name in Urdu is ترائي tarāʼī meaning lands lying at the foot of a watershed or on the banks of a river, low ground flooded with water, valley, basin, marshy ground, marsh, swamp, meadow. Medium rivers such as the Rapti rise in the Mahabharat Range, the geological structure of the region consists of old and new alluvium, both of which constitute alluvial deposits of mainly sand, clay, silt, gravels and coarse fragments. The new alluvium is renewed every year by fresh deposits brought down by active streams, old alluvium is found rather away from river courses, especially on uplands of the plain where silting is a rare phenomenon. A large number of small and usually seasonal rivers flow through the Terai, the soil in the Terai is alluvial and fine to medium textured. Forest cover in the Terai and hill areas has decreased at a rate of 1. 3% between 1978 and 1979, and 2. 3% between 1990 and 1991. With deforestation and cultivation increasing, a mixture of gravel, boulders and sand evolves. The reduction in slope as rivers exit the hills and then transition from the sloping Bhabhar to the nearly level Terai causes current to slow and this deposition process creates multiple channels with shallow beds, enabling massive floods as monsoon-swollen rivers overflow their low banks and shift channels. Many areas show erosion such as gullies, there are several differences between the climate on the western edge of the Terai at Chandigarh in India and at Biratnagar in Nepal near the eastern edge. Moving inland and away from sources in the Bay of Bengal. In the far western Terai, which is five degrees latitude further north, total rainfall markedly diminishes from east to west. The monsoon arrives later, is less intense and ends sooner. However, winters are wetter in the west, in India, the Terai extends over the states of Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Inner Terai refers to the valleys in the lowlands of southern Nepal located between the Mahabharat and Shivalik ranges
Terai
–
Aerial view of Terai plains near Biratnagar, Nepal
Terai
–
Buddha statue at
Kathauna Bazar
26.
Barbarika
–
In the Skanda Purana, Barbarika, Baliyadev was the son of Ghatotkacha and Maurvi, daughter of Muru, a Yadava king. Barbarika was originally a yaksha, and was reborn as a man and he was bound by his principle of always fighting on the losing side, which led him to stand witness to the battle of Mahabharata without taking part in it. In Nepali culture Kirata King Yalamber of Nepal is portrayed as Barbarika, in return for his sacrifice, he was deified by a boon given by Krishna. Barbarika alias Khatushyamji Baliyadev alias Shyam was a grandson of Bhima, Ghatotkacha was the son of Bhima and Hidimbi. Even in his childhood, Barbarika was a brave warrior. He learnt the art of warfare from his mother, the gods gave him the three infallible arrows. Hence, Barbarika came to be known as Bearer of Three Arrows, when Barbarika learnt that battle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas had become inevitable, he wanted to witness what was to be the Mahābhārata War. He promised his mother if he felt the urge to participate in the battle. He rode to the field on his Blue Horse equipped with his three arrows and bow, before the Mahabharata war began, Lord Krishna asked all the Pandavas how many days they would take to finish Mahabharata war alone. Bhishma answered that he would take 20 days to finish the war, dronacharya replied that it would take him 25 days. When Karna was asked, he said he would take 24 days, arjuna told Krishna it would take 28 days for him to complete the battle by himself. In this manner, Lord Krishna asked each warrior and received an answer, Krishna disguised as a Brahmin, stopped Barbarika to examine his strength. When asked how many days he would take to finish the war alone, Krishna then asked Barbarika how hed finish the great battle with just three arrows. Barbarika replied that an arrow was enough to destroy all his opponents in the war. He stated that, the first arrow is used to all the things that he wants to destroy. If he uses the arrow, then the second arrow will mark all the things that he wants to save. On using the arrow, it will destroy all the things that are not marked. In other words, with one arrow he can fix all his targets, Krishna then challenged him to tie all the leaves of the Peepal tree under which he was standing, using his arrows
Barbarika
–
Barbarika worshipped as Khatushyamji.
Barbarika
–
Barbarika donates his head to Krishna.
Barbarika
–
Books (parva s)
27.
Ashram
–
Traditionally, an ashram is a spiritual hermitage or a monastery in Indian religions. The word ashram comes from the Sanskrit root śram- which means to toil, according to S. S. Chandra, the term means a step in the journey of life. In contrast, according to George Weckman, the term ashram connotes a place where one strives towards a goal in a disciplined manner, such a goal could be ascetic, spiritual, yogic or any other. The residents of an ashram regularly performed spiritual and physical exercises, other sacrifices and penances, such as yajnas were also performed. Many ashrams also served as gurukulas, residential schools for children under the guru-shishya tradition, sometimes, the goal of a pilgrimage to the ashram was not tranquility, but instruction in some art, especially warfare. In the Ramayana, the protagonist princes of ancient Ayodhya, Rama and Lakshmana, after they prove their mettle, the princes receive martial instruction from the sage, especially in the use of divine weapons. In the Mahabharata, Krishna, in his youth, goes to the ashram of Sandipani to gain knowledge of intellectual and spiritual matters. Residential schools, especially in the areas of Maharashtra and elsewhere in India, are called ashram shala or ashram schools. One such school is the Lok Biradari Prakalp Ashram Shala, in recent years, a number of ashrams have been established outside of India. Typically, these ashrams are connected to Indian lineages, focus on imparting Yoga-related teachings and are headed by spiritual teachers
Ashram
–
Sivananda Ashram,
Rishikesh, the headquarters of
Divine Life Society, founded by
Sivananda Saraswati in 1936.
Ashram
–
Sabarmati Ashram where
Mahatma Gandhi stayed.
Ashram
–
Kailash Ashram,
Muni Ki Reti,
Rishikesh, established by
Dhanraj Giri
28.
Rajput
–
Rajput is a member of the patrilineal clans of the Indian subcontinent. They rose to prominence from the late 6th century AD and had a significant role in regions of central. The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found spread across India where they are spread in north, west, in Pakistan they are found on the eastern parts of the country. These areas include Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, the origin of the Rajputs is the subject of debate. Writers such as M. S. Naravane and V. P, one theory espouses that with the collapse of the Gupta empire from the late 6th century, the invading Hephthalites were probably integrated within Indian society. At the same time, some tribes were ranked as Rajput, examples of which are the Bhatis, Bundelas, Chandelas. Actually vary greatly in status, from princely lineages, such as the Guhilot and Kachwaha, aydogdy Kurbanov says that the assimilation was specifically between the Hephthalites, Gurjars, and people from northwestern India, forming the Rajput community. Pradeep Barua also believes that Rajputs have foreign origins, he says their practice of asserting Kshatriya status was followed by other Indian groups thereby establishing themselves as Rajputs. Thereafter, in the late 12th century Muhammad of Ghor attempted to invade Gujarat but was defeated by the Chaulukya dynasty of Rajputs. The Rajput kingdoms were disparate, loyalty to a clan was more important than allegiance to the wider Rajput social grouping, meaning that one clan would fight another. This and the jostling for position that took place when a clan leader died meant that Rajput politics were fluid. Even after the Muslim conquest of the regions in Punjab and the Ganges River valley, the Rajputs maintained their independence in Rajasthan and the forests of central India. Later, Sultan Alauddin Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate took the two Rajput forts of Chittor and Ranthambhor in eastern Rajasthan in the 14th century but could not hold them for long. In the 15th century, the Muslim sultans of Malwa Sultanate, accordingly, Rana Sanga came to be the most distinguished indigenous contender for supremacy but was defeated by the Mughal invader Babur at Battle of Khanwa in 1527. From as early as the 16th century, Purbiya Rajput soldiers from the regions of Bihar and Awadh, were recruited as mercenaries for Rajputs in the west. After the mid-16th century, many Rajput rulers formed close relationships with the Mughal emperors and it was due to the support of the Rajputs that Akbar was able to lay the foundations of the Mughal empire in India. Some Rajput nobles gave away their daughters in marriage to Mughal emperors, for example, Akbar accomplished 40 marriages for him, his sons and grandsons, out of which 17 were Rajput-Mughal alliances. Akbars successors as Mogul emperors, his son Jahangir and grandson Shah Jahan had Rajput mothers, the ruling Sisodia Rajput family of Mewar made it a point of honour not to engage in matrimonial relationships with mughals and thus claimed to stand apart from those Rajput clans who did so
Rajput
–
During their centuries-long rule, the Rajputs constructed several palaces. Shown here is the
Junagarh Fort in
Bikaner, Rajasthan, which was built by the
Rathore Rajputs.
Rajput
–
An 1876 engraving of Rajputs of
Rajasthan, from the
Illustrated London News
Rajput
–
A royal Rajput procession, mural at the fort in
Jodhpur.
Rajput
–
Mayo College was established by the
British government in 1875 at
Ajmer, Rajputana to educate Rajput princes and other nobles.
29.
Stonework
–
The craft of stonemasonry has existed since humanity could use and make tools - creating buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone from the earth. These materials have been used to construct many of the long-lasting, ancient monuments, artifacts, cathedrals, quarrymen split veins, or sheets of rock, and extract the resulting blocks of stone from the ground. Sawyers cut these rough blocks into cuboids, to required size with diamond-tipped saws, the resulting block if ordered for a specific component is known as sawn six sides. Banker masons are workshop-based, and specialize in working the stones into the shapes required by a design, this set out on templets. They can produce anything from stones with simple chamfers to tracery windows, detailed mouldings and the more classical architectural building masonry. When working a stone from a block, the mason ensures that the stone is bedded in the right way. Occasionally though some stones need to be orientated correctly for the application, the basic tools, methods and skills of the banker mason have existed as a trade for thousands of years. Carvers cross the line from craft to art, and use their ability to carve stone into foliage, figures. Fixer masons specialize in the fixing of stones onto buildings, using lifting tackle, sometimes modern cements, mastics and epoxy resins are used, usually on specialist applications such as stone cladding. Metal fixings, from simple dowels and cramps to specialised single application fixings, are also used, the precise tolerances necessary make this a highly skilled job. Memorial masons or monumental masons carve gravestones and inscriptions, the modern stonemason undergoes comprehensive training, both in the classroom and in the working environment. Hands-on skill is complemented by intimate knowledge of each type, its application and best uses. The mason may be skilled and competent to carry out one or all of the branches of stonemasonry. In some areas the trend is towards specialization, in other areas towards adaptability, stonemasons use all types of natural stone, igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary, while some also use artificial stone as well. Igneous stones, Granite is one of the hardest stones, with great persistence, simple mouldings can and have been carved into granite, for example in many Cornish churches and the city of Aberdeen. Generally, however, it is used for purposes that require its strength and durability, such as kerbstones, countertops, flooring, igneous stone ranges from very soft rocks such as pumice and scoria to somewhat harder rocks such as tuff and hard rocks such as granite and basalt. Metamorphic, Marble is a fine stone easily workable, that comes in various colours and it has traditionally been used for carving statues, and for facing many Byzantine and Renaissance Italian buildings. Their work was preceded by older sculptors from Mesopotamia and Egypt, the famous Acropolis of Athens is said to be constructed using the Pentelicon marble
Stonework
–
Stonemason working on a fountain with pneumatic tools
Stonework
–
A stonemason at
Eglinton Tournament bridge with a selection of tools of the trade
Stonework
–
Typical
Aberdeen city street showing the widespread use of local
granite
Stonework
–
The foreground tool with serrated blades is a cockscomb, cock's comb or stonemason's drag, used on soft limestone
30.
Changu Narayan
–
The ancient Hindu temple of Changu Narayan Listen is located on a high hilltop that is also known as Changu or Dolagiri. The temple was surrounded by forest with tree and a small village. The temple is located in Changunarayan VDC of Bhaktapur District, Nepal and this hill is about 7 miles or 12 km east of Kathmandu and a few miles north of Bhaktapur. The Manahara River flows beside the hill and this shrine is dedicated to Lord Visnu and held in especial reverence by the Hindu people. This temple is considered as the oldest temple in the history of Nepal and it is an interesting place to be in. In ancient times, a Gwala, or cow herder, had brought a cow from a Brahmin named Sudarshan, the cow was known for producing large quantities of milk. The Gwala used to take the cow to Changu for grazing, at that time Changu was a forest of Champak trees. While grazing, the cow went to the shade of a particular tree. In the evening, when the Gwala took the cow home and started milking her and he grew very sad, so he called on the Brahmin saying the cow was not giving enough milk. After observing this with his own eyes, Sudarshan agreed with the Gwala they should observe the cows daytime activity while she was grazing in the forest, Brahmin and Gwala both hid behind the trees and watched the cow. She went into the shade of one particular champak tree, to their surprise, a small black boy came out of the tree and started drinking the cow milk. The two men were furious because they thought the boy must be the devil and tree must be its home, so the Brahmin cut down the champak tree. When he was cutting it down, fresh human blood came out of the tree, both Brahmin and Gwala got worried, believing they had committed a great crime and began to cry. Lord Vishnu emerged from the tree and told the Brahmin and cowherd it was not their fault, Vishnu told the story of how he had committed a heinous crime by unwittingly killing Sudarshan’s father while hunting in the forest. After that, cursed for the crime, he wandered the earth on his mouth, there he lived in anonymity, surviving on milk stolen from a cow. When Brahmin cut down the tree, Vishnu was beheaded, which freed Lord Vishnu from his sins, after hearing these words from Vishnu, Brahmin and Gwala resolved to worship the place and established a small temple in the name of Lord Vishnu. Ever since, the site has been sacred, even today, we find Sudarshans descendant as priest of the temple and the Gwalas descendants as ghutiyars. About 400 years ago, a mighty warrior named pranjal lived and he was the strongest in the entire country
Changu Narayan
–
Changu Narayan temple
31.
UNESCO
–
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
UNESCO
–
UNESCO offices in
Brasília
UNESCO
–
UNESCO
UNESCO
–
UNESCO Institute for Water Education in
Delft
UNESCO
–
The Garden of Peace, UNESCO headquarters, Paris. Donated by the Government of Japan, this garden was designed by American-Japanese sculptor artist Isamu Noguchi in 1958 and installed by Japanese gardener Toemon Sano.
32.
Unification of Nepal
–
Before Shah dynasty took over Nepal, Nepal was limited to Kathmandu valley and surrounding territories which consist many kingdoms. After conquering the valley in the century, King Prithvi Narayan Shah moved his ruling state to Nepal from Gorkha. He then started his campaign with the banner of Nepal than Gorkha. With this conquer, Nepal was expanded covering more area forming the shape of modern Nepal, King Prithvi Narayan Shah was born in the Shah dynasty of Gorkha on 11 January 1723 After the death of Narabhupal Shah on 25 Chaitra he became the king of Gorkha. He ascended to the throne of Gorkha kingdom on 3 April 1743 and he was interested in politics and diplomacy and had interests in both visiting and conquering other countries since his days as prince. He decided to enlarge his kingdom, which was confined to the small Gorkha region of present-day Nepal and had an area of just 2,500 square km. He defeated major principalities in wars and unified them under his rule starting from the 1740s, while he was successful at conquering the Kathmandu valley and the Sen kingdoms further east, his efforts were limited in the west of his homeland. He then attacked and absorbed dozens of small principalities and gave a new name Nepal to his Gorkha kingdom. Kalu Pandey employed a strategy involving a blockade of the Kathmandu Valley, in the next two years he captured Mahadevpokhari, Pharping, Chitlang, Dharmasthali, Naldrum, Siranchok and Shivapuri. He then focused his attention on Kirtipur and Makawanpur, two palaces which were also strategic military targets, Kirtipur was in an elevated position with a fort surrounded by walls and jungles, an ideal place to make inroads into the valley. Shah thought that if he could take over Kirtipur, occupying the rest of the valley would be much easier, on 4 December 1757 he made his first attack on Kirtipur. In this war he lost his strong general Kalu pandey which was a loss for gorkha. Kalu Pandey had told him that it was not the time to attack Kritpur. His body was buried in Kirtipur, Prithvi Narayan Shah himself was nearly killed in the battle. As a result, the Gorkha army, having lost a great deal of morale, was defeated and it is said that as revenge for his two earlier defeats, The Gorkha army was repelled again in August 1765. After two defeats, the Gorkha army changed its strategy again and surrounded Kirtipur during the harvest season, the Gorkha army also took over the nearby Balaju fort. After several months of blockade, the people of Kirtipur could not even get water to drink and were forced to surrender to the Gorkha army on 17 March 1766. This time the Gorkha army took over Kirtipur without a fight, Prithvi Narayan Shah had his army cut off the noses and lips of all the people of Kirtipur
Unification of Nepal
–
Mohar of king Prithvi Narayan Shah dated
Saka Era 1685 (AD 1763)
33.
Shalivahana era
–
This is about the historical calendar era. For the Śaka calendar of 1957, see Indian national calendar, the Shaka era is a historical calendar era, corresponding to Julian year 78. It is also known as Shalivahana Śaka era or rtgs, Mahasakkarat Greater Era), the origin of the Shaka era is highly controversial. The other is called Saka Era of 78 AD, or simply Saka Era, a parallel northern India system is the Vikrama Era, which is related to the Bikrami calendar linked to Vikramaditya. The beginning of the Shaka era is now equated to the ascension of king Chashtana in 78 CE. His inscriptions, dated to the years 11 and 52, have found at Andhau in Kutch region. These years are interpreted as Shaka years 11 and 52, a previously more common view was that the beginning of the Shaka era corresponds to the ascension of Kanishka I in 78 CE. However, the latest research by Henry Falk indicates that Kanishka ascended the throne in 127 CE, moreover, Kanishka was not a Shaka, but a Kushana ruler. Other historical candidates have included such as Vima Kadphises, Vonones. Sircar also suggests that the association of the northern king Vikramaditya with Vikrama era might have led the southern scholars to fabricate a similar legend of their own. Another similar account claims that the legendary emperor Vikramaditya defeated the Shakas in 78 CE, and this legend has been mentioned in the writings of Brahmagupta, Al-Biruni, and others. However, this is an obvious fabrication, over time, the word Shaka became generic, and came to be mean an era, the era thus came to be known as Shalivahana Shaka. The earliest known users of the era are the Western Satraps, from the reign of Rudrasimha I, they recorded the date of minting of their coins in the Shaka era, usually written on the obverse behind the kings head in Brahmi numerals. The use of the era survived into the Gupta period. It was in use by the 6th to 7th centuries, e. g. in the works of Varāhamihira and Brahmagupta. The calendar era remained in use in India and Southeast Asia throughout the medieval period and it was used by Javanese courts until 1633, when it was replaced by Anno Javanico, a hybrid Javanese-Islamic system. It was adopted as the era of the Indian national calendar in 1957, the Shaka era is the vernal equinox of the year AD78. The year of the modern Shaka Calendar is tied to the Gregorian date of 22 March every year, except in Gregorian leap years when it starts on 21 March
Shalivahana era
–
A silver coin of the
Western Satrap ruler
Rudrasena I (200-222). This coin bears a date of the Saka era in the Brahmi script on the reverse: Saka era 131 Saka era (corresponding to AD 209). 16mm, 2.2 grams.
Shalivahana era
–
Mohar of Gorkhali king
Prithvi Narayan Shah dated Saka era 1685 (AD 1763)
34.
Prithvi Narayan Shah
–
Prithvi Narayan Shah, King of Gorkha was the first King of unified Nepal. He is credited for starting the campaign for a unified Nepal and he was the ninth generation descendant of Dravya Shah, the founder of the ruling house of Gorkha. Prithvi Narayan Shah succeeded his father, King Nara Bhupal Shah, to the throne of the Gorkha Kingdom in 1743, Prithvi Narayan Shah was born as a prince in the Gorkha Kingdom. Chandra Pravawati raised him, although his mother was Kaushalyavati Devi. From a young age, he took interest in the affairs of his fathers state, Prithivi Narayan Shah had an early dream of conquering Nuwakot, partially as his father had lost it to the Mallas of Kathmandu in an earlier war. After the death of his father in 1743, Prithivi Narayan Shah ascended to the throne of Gorkha at the age of 20, as king, he valued his people and enjoyed talking to his subjects about their general concerns. This practice helped him to build a rapport with his people, King Shah sealed his borders and maintained a peaceful environment except for distant relations with the British, who were refusing to trade with Nepal at the time. Prithvi Narayaṇ was succeeded by his son, Pratap Singh, King Prithvi Narayan Shahs reign began with an immediate military defeat, his invasion of Nuwakot in 1743 CE failed. Conquering Nuwakot was essential for the unification, as it lay between Kathmandu and the Gorkha District, making it a trading route to Tibet. However, he successfully conquered Nuwakot in a subsequent attack in 1744 CE, after capturing Nuwakot, he took possession of the strategic locations in the hills surrounding the Kathmandu Valley. The valley was cut off from the outside world and was controlled solely by Shah. He also occupied the Kuti Pass in c.1756 CE, halting all trade through the pass, after two humiliating defeats in Kirtipur, King Prithvi Narayan conquered the ancient city on his third attempt. Consequently, Jaya Prakash Malla of Kathmandu fled with his wife and took asylum in Patan and he eventually began to unify his conquered lands. King Prithvi Narayaṇ Shah was ultimately able to capture small principalities and this expansion was crucial as the British colonial forces had already begun colonizing the small kingdoms that form present-day India. Shah was convinced that the British forces would eventually approach his kingdom and he believed that 50 small principalities would easily be conquered by the British as part of their colonization strategy. Expanding his kingdom made it difficult for British forces to make their move. His expansion campaign was very ambitious, especially as he was the king of a small kingdom surrounded by strong. In January 1775, at the age of 52, Prithvi Narayan Shah died before he could organise the administration of his new country at Devighat
Prithvi Narayan Shah
–
Prithvi Narayan Shah
Prithvi Narayan Shah
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King's palace on a hill in Gorkha.
Prithvi Narayan Shah
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Mohar silver coin of Prithvi Narayan Shah, struck in Saka Era 1685 (AD 1763) when he was king of Patan. (Obverse)
35.
House of Tulsipur
–
Tulsipur was a small kingdom in the Awadh region of India that became the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh under the British Raj. Tulsipur also extended north beyond Dundwa Range of the Siwaliks to include the Dang and it was one of the areas traditionally inhabited by the Tharu people. The Tulsipur kingdom was about 150 by 150 miles and it bordered Salyan Rajya and Pyuthan in the north, Balarampur Principality in the south, Madi Khola and Arnala River in the east and Bahraich in the west. Until annexation in 1786 the Tulsipur kingdom counted as one of the Baise confederated principalities centered in the Hill Region, tradition traces the origins of Tulsipur to the legendary Sravasti Kingdom. The Rajas of Tulsipur-Dang belonged to the Raikwar clan, from Chaughera they ruled the Dang and Deukhuri Valleys as well as territories around Tulsipur State south of the Siwaliks, now in India. During the unification of Nepal, the part in the Siwaliks, remaining lands became known as Tulsipur State, a feudatory state of Oudh in India. The ruling family engaged in warfare for control of the estate during the 1850s and, in 1856. He was one of several talukdars who had been refusing to pass on the land revenues exacted by him as agent for the EIC, and the EIC was now seeking not only current revenues but also the arrears. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857,500 of the men had formed a part of the rebel force at the Siege of Lucknow. After the rebellion, Tulsipur State was annexed by the British Raj, becoming part of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, citations Bibliography House of Tulsipur Rani of Tulsipur
House of Tulsipur
–
Chauhan Sirdar Hardayal Singh of the Tulsipur dynasty
House of Tulsipur
–
Map showing the
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh
36.
Kingdom of Nepal
–
The Kingdom of Nepal, also known as the Kingdom of Gorkha, was a kingdom formed in 1768 by the unification of Nepal. Founded by King Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gorkhali monarch of Rajput origin, during this period, Nepal was formally under the rule of the Shah dynasty, which exercised varying degrees of power during the kingdoms existence. During the early-nineteenth century, however, the expansion of the East India Companys rule in India led to the Anglo-Nepalese War, beginning with Jung Bahadur, the first Rana ruler, the Rana dynasty reduced the Shah monarch to a figurehead role. Rana rule was marked by tyranny, debauchery, economic exploitation, the mid-twentieth century began an era of moves towards the democratisation of Nepal. In 1923, Britain formally recognised Nepalese sovereignty and ended its protectorate, but continued to exercise political influence through the Rana rulers and its rule in India, which ended in 1947. In July 1950, the independent republic of India signed a friendship treaty in which both nations agreed to respect the others sovereignty. With Indian support for a new government consisting largely of the Nepali Congress, unsuccessful attempts were made to implement reforms and a constitution during the 1960s and 1970s. An economic crisis at the end of the 1980s led to a movement which brought about parliamentary elections. The 1990s saw the beginning of the Nepalese Civil War, a conflict between government forces and the insurgent forces of the Communist Party of Nepal, as a result of the massacre, King Gyanendra returned to the throne. His imposition of rule in 2005 provoked a protest movement unifying the Maoist insurgency and pro-democracy activists. He was eventually forced to restore Nepals House of Representatives, which in 2007 adopted an interim constitution greatly restricting the powers of the Nepalese monarchy. Until the abolition of the monarchy, Nepal was the only country to have Hinduism as its state religion. Prithvi Narayan Shah dedicated himself at an age to the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley and the creation of a single state. The country was called the Gorkha Kingdom. In addition, he says that Gorkhali take their name from the legendary eighth-century Hindu warrior-saint Guru Gorakhnath, a more detailed description of Chauhans thesis is available under the first three sections in the entry on the Gorkha Kingdom. More importantly, Chauhans overall thesis claiming the existence of a Gurkha identity way before the Shahs came to the Nepali hills is not supported by historical evidence available in Nepal. In Nepal the warrior people are not referred to as Gurkhas, they are called Gorkhalis and their famed battle cry is Ayo Gorkhali, meaning the Gorkhali has come. The etymology of the geographical name Gorkha is indeed related to the Hindu mendicant-saint Gorakhnath, in the village of Gorkha is situated a temple dedicated to Gorakhnath as well as another dedicated to Gorakhkali, a corresponding female deity
Kingdom of Nepal
Kingdom of Nepal
–
Territory of the Kingdom of Nepal in 2008
Kingdom of Nepal
–
The old king's palace on a hill in
Gorkha.
Kingdom of Nepal
–
Rani (Queen) of Nepal surrounded by her Ladies-in-Waiting, 1920.
37.
Gurkha
–
The name may be traced to the medieval Hindu warrior-saint Guru Gorakhnath who has a historic shrine in Gorkha. The word itself derived from Go-Raksha, raksha becoming rakha, rakhawala means protector and is derived from raksha as well. Ethnically, Chhetri or Khas, Thakuri, Gurung and Magar mainly were the Gorkha tribes who united erstwhile Gorkha kingdom, but today, Gorkha soldiers mostly belong to the Gurung, Chhetri, Magar, Rai, Limbu, Sunuwar there is no ethnicity based restriction to join. There are Gurkha military units in the Nepalese, British and the Indian army enlisted in Nepal, United Kingdom and India. Although they meet many of the requirements of Article 47 of Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions regarding mercenaries, Gurkhas are closely associated with the khukuri, a forward-curving Nepalese knife, and have a well known reputation for fearless military prowess. The former Indian Army Chief of Staff Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw, once stated that If a man says he is not afraid of dying, he is either lying or he is a Gurkha. During the Anglo-Nepalese War between the Gorkha Kingdom and the East India Company, the Gorkhali soldiers made an impression on the British and their war cry was and is to this very day, Jai Mahakali, Ayo Gorkhali. In the peace treaty the parties agreed that Gorkhalis could be recruited to serve under contract in the East India Companys army, once more I hear the laughter with which you greeted every hardship. Once more I see you in your bivouacs or about your fires, on forced march or in the trenches, now shivering with wet and cold, now scorched by a pitiless and burning sun. Uncomplaining you endure hunger and thirst and wounds, and at the last your unwavering lines disappear into the smoke, bravest of the brave, most generous of the generous, never had country more faithful friends than you. Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab started recruiting Gurkha soldiers in his army, the elite wing of his Sikh Khalsa Army, the Fauj-i-Khas had one rajman of Gurkhas. The rajman was known for its excellent morale, gallantry, discipline, the well-known Gurkha freedom-fighter Balbhadra Kunwar was an officer in the Gorkha rajman. One of the best battles in which the Gurkhas served was the Battle of Nowshera, even though the Sikhs were losing in the beginning, Maharaja Ranjit Singh launched a decisive charge at the Afghan positions. The Gurkhas climbed the Pir Saibak hill, and together with their Sikh comrades, after the battle, Ranjit Singh personally met and awarded the Gurkhas, and promoted Balbhadra Kunwar into the captain of the regiment. The Gurkhas served also during the Sino-Sikh War, where they were praised for their excellent skirmishing at the Tibetan Hills and they also fought the First Anglo-Sikh War, where the Dogra commanders of the Sikh Khalsa Army, betrayed their forces and delivered battle plans to British. After the Treaty of Lahore, this regiment was added into the Bengal Army, the Anglo-Nepalese war was fought between the Gurkha Kingdom of Nepal and the British East India Company as a result of border disputes and ambitious expansionism of both the belligerent parties. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, david Ochterlony and the British political agent William Fraser were among the first to recognize the potential of Gurkha soldiers in British service. During the war the British were keen to use defectors from the Gurkha army and his confidence in their loyalty was such that in April 1815 he proposed forming them into a battalion under Lieutenant Ross called the Nasiri regiment
Gurkha
–
Monument to the Gurkha Soldier in
Horse Guards Avenue, outside the
Ministry of Defence,
City of Westminster,
London.
Gurkha
–
A
khukuri, the signature weapon of the Gurkhas
Gurkha
–
Sri Panch (5) Maharaja Dhiraj Prithvi Narayan Shahdev First King of Unified
Kingdom of Gorkha
Gurkha
–
Gurkha soldiers during the
Anglo-Nepalese War, 1815 AD.
38.
Nepal
–
Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
Nepal
–
Lumbini, listed as the birthplace of
Gautama Buddha by the
UNESCO World Heritage Convention
Nepal
–
Flag
Nepal
–
Former royal palace at
Basantapur, Kathmandu
Nepal
–
Hindu temples in
Patan, capital of one of the three medieval
Newar kingdoms
39.
Gorkha Kingdom
–
Gorkhā was a former kingdom in the confederation of 24 states known as Chaubisi rajya located in present-day western Nepal. The Kingdom of Gorkha extended from the Marshyangdi River in the west to the Trishuli River in the east, the inhabitants of Gorkha were known as Gorkhali. Shah/Jha/Khan controlled whole area of Ganges and Brahmaputra basin or simply whole land between Himalayas and Vindhyas, soon the empire divided into several kingdoms. Mughal Empire, Bengal and Gorakhpur formed after division, from 1736, the Gorkhalis engaged in a campaign of expansion begun by King Nara Bhupal Shah, which was continued by his son, King Prithvi Narayan Shah and grandson Prince Bahadur Shah. Over the years, they conquered huge tracts of land to the east and west of Gorkha, among their conquests, the most important and valuable acquisition was the wealthy Newar confederacy of Nepal Mandala centered in the Kathmandu Valley. Starting in 1745, the Gorkhalis mounted a blockade in a bid to starve the population into submission, the Newars appealed to the British East India Company for help, and in 1767, it sent an expedition under Captain Kinloch which ended in failure. The three Newar capitals of Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur fell to the Gorkhalis between 1768 and 1769, the Gorkhali king subsequently moved his capital to Kathmandu. In 1788, the Gorkhalis turned their attention north and invaded Tibet and they seized the border towns of Kyirong and Kuti, and forced the Tibetans to pay an annual tribute. When the Tibetans stopped paying it, the Gorkhalis invaded Tibet again in 1791 and this time the Chinese army came to Tibets defence and advanced close to Kathmandu. The alarmed Gorkhalis appealed to the British East India Company for help, eventually, the Gorkhalis were forced to sign a peace treaty under which they had to pay tribute to Beijing every five years. The Gorkha dominion reached its height at the beginning of the 19th century, extending all along the Himalayan foothills from Kumaon and they were made to return much of the occupied territories after their defeat in the Anglo-Nepalese War. The Gorkha dominion continued to be known as Gorkha Rajya until the beginning of the 20th century, since the 1930s, the name Nepal was used to refer to the entire country as the capital was located in Kathmandu. The name Gorkha Sarkar was also changed to Nepal government, similarly, the Gorkhali language was renamed as Nepali in 1933. The term Gorkhali in the national anthem entitled Shreeman Gambhir was changed to Nepali in 1951. The government newspaper, launched in 1901, is known as Gorkhapatra. The Shah dynasty ruled Nepal until 2008 when it became a republic following a peoples movement, today, Gorkha District, roughly corresponding to the old kingdom, is one of the 75 administrative districts of Nepal. The community name is actually Gorkha/ Gorkhali as it was also called even in Nepal. Not to be confused with the inhabitants of the old Gorkha Kingdom only and their history goes back to the Anglo-Gorkha War and the Sugauli Treaty of 1816
Gorkha Kingdom
–
Hilltop palace of Shah kings
Gorkha Kingdom
–
Mohar of king Prithvi Narayan Shah dated
Saka Era 1685 (AD 1763)
Gorkha Kingdom
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Postage stamp issued by Gorkha government (गोर्षा सर्कार) in 1907
Gorkha Kingdom
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Gorkhapatra dated January 9, 1933
40.
Sino-Nepalese War
–
The Sino-Nepalese War was an invasion of Tibet by Nepal from 1788-1792. The war was fought between Nepalese and Tibetan armies over a trade dispute related to a long-standing problem of low-quality coins manufactured by Nepal for Tibet. However, the initial Nepalese success in subduing the Tibetans, who were under the rule of the Qing dynasty. The Nepalese were eventually driven out and forced to sign a peace treaty, Tibet had been using Nepalese silver coins since the time of the Malla kings. After Prithvi Narayan Shah successfully conquered the Kathmandu Valley in 1769 and firmly established the rule of the Shah dynasty in Nepal, but by then the damage to the confidence of the Nepalese minted coins had already been done. The Tibetans demanded that all the coins in circulation be replaced by pure silver ones. Prithvi Narayan Shah was not willing to bear such a loss for a matter he was not responsible. Thus two kinds of coins were in circulation in the market, the case remained unresolved due to his untimely demise in 1775, and the problem was inherited by successive rulers of Nepal. By 1788 Bahadur Shah, the youngest son of Prithivi Narayan Shah, on the plea of debased coins, Tibet had started to spread rumors that it was in a position to attack Nepal, and the Nepalese merchants in Tibet were likewise harassed. Another sore point in Nepal-Tibet relationship was Nepal’s decision to provide refuge to the 10th Shamarpa Lama, Mipam Chödrup Gyamtso and he had fled from Tibet to Nepal on religious and political grounds. Yet another cause for conflict was the low quality of salt being provided by Tibetans to Nepal, since in those days, a Nepalese delegation was sent to Tibet to resolve these issues, but the demands made by the Nepalese were rejected by the Tibetans. The Nepalese found the quarrel over coinage a good pretext to expand their kingdom, thus, Nepal launched multi-directional attacks on Tibet. In the year 1788, Bahadur Shah sent Gorkha troops under the joint command of Damodar Pande, the Gorkha troops entered Tibet through Kuti and reached as far as Tashilhunpo. A fierce battle was fought at Shikarjong in which the Tibetans were badly defeated, the Panchen Lama and Sakya Lama then requested the Gorkha troops to have peace talks. So the Gorkha troops left Shikarjong and went towards Kuti and Kerung, when the Qianlong Emperor of China heard the news of the invasion of Tibet by Nepal, he sent a large troop of the Chinese army under the command of General Chanchu. Chanchu came to know the situation from the Tibetan Lamas and he decided to stay in Tibet till the dispute was settled. The representatives of Tibet and Nepal met at Khiru in 1789 to have peace talks, in the talks Tibet was held responsible for the quarrel and were required to give compensation to Nepal for the losses incurred in the war. Tibet had also to pay tribute to Nepal a sum of Rs.50,001 every year in return for giving back to Tibet all the territories acquired during the war, the Nepalese representatives were given Rs.50,001 as the first installment
Sino-Nepalese War
–
Fuk'anggan captures Camu from the Nepalese
Sino-Nepalese War
–
Fuk'anggan storms the fortress of Xiebulu
Sino-Nepalese War
–
A scene of the Gurkha Campaign (Nepal) 1792
Sino-Nepalese War
–
The Victory banquet for the victorious army of the Gurkha Campaign (Nepal) 1792
41.
Tashilhunpo Monastery
–
Tashi Lhunpo Monastery, founded in 1447 by the 1st Dalai Lama, is a historic and culturally important monastery in Shigatse, the second-largest city in Tibet. The monastery is the seat of successive Panchen Lamas, the second highest ranking tulku lineage in the Gelug tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. The Tashi or Panchen Lama had temporal power over three districts, though not over the town of Shigatse itself, which was administered by a dzongpön appointed from Lhasa. Located on a hill in the center of the city, the name in Tibetan of the monastery means all fortune. It presented a view wonderfully beautiful and brilliant, the effect was short of magic. Pilgrims circumambulate the monastery on the lingkhor outside the walls, however, during 1966 Red Guards led a crowd to break statues, burn scriptures and open the stupas containing the relics of the 5th to 9th Panchen Lamas, and throw them in the river. Some remains, though, were saved by locals, and in 1985, Choekyi Gyaltsen, 10th Panchen Lama, began the construction of a new stupa to house them and honour his predecessors. It was finally consecrated on 22 January 1989, just six days before he died aged fifty-one at Tashi Lhunpo and it was as if he was saying now he could rest. The monastery was founded in 1447 CE by Gedun Drub, the disciple of the famous Buddhist philosopher Je Tsongkhapa, the construction was financed by donations from local nobles. Later Lobsang Chökyi Gyalsten, the Fourth Panchen Lama and the first Panchen Lama to be recognized as such by the rulers of Mongolia, since then, all Panchen Lamas have resided at Tashi Lhunpo, and have managed to expand it gradually. In 1791 the monastery was attacked and looted by an army of Nepalese Gurkha warriors but were out by the Chinese who simultaneously strengthened their control over the temple. Tashi Lhunpo in its heyday housed over 4,000 monks and had four Tantric colleges, in 1960, the monastery was dismantled by the Chinese army whilst the Panchen Lama was absent, although less damage was inflicted on the monastery than on most others around Tibet. During the 1960s many senior lamas and monastics left Tibet and helped re-establish new monasteries in India, Nepal, the late Panchen Lama did not leave Tibet and consequently many of the senior lamas from Tashi Lhunpo Monastery remained inside Tibet. Since the early 1980s parts of the Tashi Lhunpo monastery have been open to the public, the Maitreya Temple known as on the west side is the tallest building of the monastery. It was erected in 1914 by the Ninth Panchen Lama to house a statue of the Maitreya Buddha and is 26.2 metres in height. The statue sits on a lotus throne in the European posture with its hands in the symbolic teaching pose. A single finger of the giant figure is almost 4 feet in length, the statue contains 279 kg of gold and 150,000 kg of copper and brass moulded on a solid wooden frame by Tibetan and Nepalese craftsmen. Small versions of the Maitreya are positioned in all four corners of the chamber, on the east side of the monastery is the old living quarters of the Panchen Lama, the Panchen Lamas Palace known as Gudong
Tashilhunpo Monastery
–
Entrance to Tashilhunpo Monastery
Tashilhunpo Monastery
–
Monks hurrying to services, Tashilhunpo, 1993
Tashilhunpo Monastery
–
The
Thanka Wall overlooking the monastery
Tashilhunpo Monastery
–
Two novice monks. Tashilhunpo, 1993
42.
Shigatse
–
Shigatse, officially known as Xigazê, is a prefecture-level city of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, with an area of 182,000 km2. It is located within the historical Tsang province of Tibet, the administrative center of the prefecture-level city is the Samzhubzê District. Some of the towns in the prefecture are, Gyantse, Tingri, on 11 July 2014 Shigatse Prefecture was upgraded into a prefecture-level city. The Lhasa–Xigazê Railway connects Xigazê Railway Station with Lhasa and further connects with Qinghai via Qinghai–Tibet Railway. It takes about 3 hours to travel between Lhasa and Shigatse by train and it can be returned from Lhasa within one day. Shigatse Peace Airport began operations on 30 October 2010 after an Airbus A319 landed safely and it is located 43 kilometres from Samzhubzê District at Jangdam Township at an altitude of 3,782 metres. The airport is designed to handle up to 230,000 passengers annually by 2020, China National Highway 318 and China National Highway 219 are the main roads in and out of Shigatse. Shigatse Photovoltaic Power Plant Media related to Shigatse at Wikimedia Commons
Shigatse
–
Xigazê 日喀则市 · གཞིས་ཀ་རྩེ་གྲོང་ཁྱེར།
Shigatse
–
Sakya Monastery
Shigatse
–
Mountains in Shigatse Prefecture
Shigatse
–
Monastery along the road from Shigatse to
Mount Everest
43.
Qianlong Emperor
–
The Qianlong Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. This turned around in his years, the Qing empire began to decline with rampant corruption and wastefulness in his court. Hongli was adored both by his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor and his father, the Yongzheng Emperor, some historians argue that the main reason why the Kangxi Emperor appointed the Yongzheng Emperor as his successor was because Hongli was his favourite grandson. He felt that Honglis mannerisms were similar to his own. As a teenager, Hongli was very capable in martial arts, after his fathers enthronement in 1722, Hongli was made a qinwang under the title Prince Bao of the First Rank. For many years, the Yongzheng Emperor did not designate any of his sons as the crown prince, Hongli went on inspection trips to the south, and was known to be an able negotiator and enforcer. He was also appointed as the regent on occasions when his father was away from the capital. Honglis accession to the throne was already foreseen before he was proclaimed emperor before the assembled imperial court upon the death of the Yongzheng Emperor. The name in the box was to be revealed to other members of the family in the presence of all senior ministers only upon the death of the emperor. When the Yongzheng Emperor died suddenly in 1735, the will was taken out and read before the entire Qing imperial court, Hongli adopted the era name Qianlong, which is composed of the characters 乾 and 隆 and which collectively mean Lasting Eminence. The Qianlong Emperor was a military leader. Immediately after ascending the throne, he sent armies to suppress the Miao rebellion and his later campaigns greatly expanded the territory controlled by the Qing Empire. This was made not only by Qing military might, but also by the disunity. Under the Qianlong Emperors reign, the Dzungar Khanate was incorporated into the Qing Empires rule and renamed Xinjiang, while to the west, the incorporation of Xinjiang into the Qing Empire resulted from the final defeat and destruction of the Dzungars, a coalition of Western Mongol tribes. The Qianlong Emperor then ordered the Dzungar genocide, historian Peter Perdue has argued that the decimation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of massacre launched by the Qianlong Emperor. Khalkha Mongol rebels under Prince Chingünjav had plotted with the Dzungar leader Amursana, the Qing army crushed the rebellion and executed Chingünjav and his entire family. Poems glorifying the Qing conquest and genocide of the Dzungar Mongols were written by Zhao, Zhao Yi wrote the Yanpu zaji in brush-notes style, where military expenditures of the Qianlong Emperors reign were recorded. The Qianlong Emperor was praised as being the source of eighteenth-century peace, the Dzungar genocide has been compared to the Qing extermination of the Jinchuan Tibetan people in 1776, which also occurred during the Qianlong Emperors reign
Qianlong Emperor
–
Qianlong Emperor 乾隆帝
Qianlong Emperor
–
Military attire of the Qianlong Emperor.
Musée de l'Armée, Paris.
Qianlong Emperor
–
A soldier from the Qianlong era, by
William Alexander, 1793.
Qianlong Emperor
–
The Qianlong Emperor Viewing Paintings
44.
Qing Dynasty
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It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
Qing Dynasty
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History of China
Qing Dynasty
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Flag (1889–1912)
Qing Dynasty
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An Italian map showing the "Kingdom of the
Nüzhen " or the "
Jin Tartars", who "have occupied and are at present ruling China", north of
Liaodong and
Korea, published in 1682
Qing Dynasty
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Qing era brush container
45.
Jung Bahadur Rana
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Maharaja Junga Bahadur Rana was a ruler of Nepal and founder of the Rana Dynasty of Nepal. His real name was Bir Narsingh Kunwar but he became famous by the name Junga Bahadur, given to him by Mathabarsingh Thapa and his mother was daughter of Kaji Nayan Singh Thapa, brother of PM Bhimsen Thapa. His maternal uncle was PM Mathabarsingh Thapa, through the influence of his maternal side, he enjoyed privileges. Others exclusively blame his nephews, the Shumsher Ranas, for Nepals dark period of history, Rana rule was marked by tyranny, debauchery, economic exploitation and religious persecution. His father, Bal Narsingh Kunwar, was in court the day Rana Bahadur Shah was murdered by his own half-brother Sher Bahadur Shah, as a retaliation Bal Narsingh killed him on the spot. For this action, he was rewarded with the position of Kaji and he was great grandson of Ram Krishna Kunwar, a great military leader at the times of King Prithvi Narayan Shah. Through his mother Ganesh Kumari, he was related to the aristocratic Thapa family of PM Bhimsen Thapa, through his maternal grandmother he was related to the aristocratic Pande family as his maternal grandmother Rana Kumari was the daughter of Kaji Ranajit Pande, an influential royal courtier. Jung Bahadur Kunwar joined the service at the age of sixteen. As maternal grandson of Bhimsen Thapa, he lost his job, after wandering in north India for several years, he returned to Nepal as a captain in the artillery in 1840. In November 1841, he was asked by the king to join his bodyguard, when his maternal uncle Mathbar Singh Thapa returned to power, Jung Bahadur rose with him. However Mathbar Singh disliked Jung Bahadurs ambition and had him removed to a position on the staff of the heir apparent. A caree opportunist, he was ready and waiting when the time came to act at the Kot massacre, Queen Rajya Lakshmi Devi, the favourite wife of King Rajendra Bikram was not pleased by the new prime minister. She conspired to eliminate Jung Bahadur Kunwar and elevate her son to the throne, a meeting of leading notables packed with Rana supporters found the queen guilty of complicity in the plot, stripped her of her powers, and sent her into exile in Banaras along with King Rajendra. The king still had delusions of grandeur and began plotting his return from India, in 1847 Jung Bahadur informed the troops of the exiled kings treasonous activities, announced his dethronement, and elevated Rajendras son to the throne as Surendra Bikram Shah. King Rajendra Bikram was captured later that year in the Tarai and brought back as a prisoner to Bhadgaon, at this point, he took the unprecedented step of travelling to Britain, France and Egypt leaving from Calcutta in April 1850 and returning to Kathmandu in February 1851. Although he unsuccessfully tried to deal directly with the British government while he was there, recognizing the power of industrialised Europe, he became convinced that close co-operation with the British was the best way to guarantee Nepals independence. From then on, European architecture, fashion, and furnishings became more prevalent in Kathmandu, in contrast to the older system, which had allowed execution or bodily mutilation for a wide range of offences, the Muluki Ain severely limited—without abolishing—corporal punishment. For example, the old system gave wide scope for blood vengeance by aggrieved parties, such as cuckolded husbands, substitutions included confiscation of property or prison terms
Jung Bahadur Rana
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Shrī Tīn Jung Bahadur Rana
Jung Bahadur Rana
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Prime Minister Mathbarsingh Thapa, the maternal uncle of Jung Bahadur in 1843.
Jung Bahadur Rana
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Maharajah Jung Bahadur and Maharani Hiranyagarva 1864.
Jung Bahadur Rana
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Maharaj Jung at London in 1850
46.
British East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
British East India Company
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Imperial entities of India
British East India Company
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Company flag after 1801
British East India Company
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James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601
British East India Company
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Red Dragon fought the Portuguese at the
Battle of Swally in 1612, and made several voyages to the
East Indies.
47.
Anglo-Nepalese War
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The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, which ceded around a third of Nepals territory to the British. The British were the forces, while the Nepalese maintained a defensive position. The British attacked in two waves of invasion. It was the most expensive war waged during the governorship of Lord Moira, the Shah era of Nepal began with the Gorkha king Prithvi Narayan Shah invading Kathmandu valley, which consisted of the capital of the Malla confederacy. Until that time only the Kathmandu valley was referred to as Nepal, the confederacy requested the East India Company for help and an ill-equipped and ill-prepared expedition numbering 2,500 was led by Captain Kinloch in 1767. The expedition was a disaster, the Gorkhali army easily overpowered those who had not succumbed to malaria or desertion and this ineffectual British force provided the Gorkhali with firearms and filled the Gorkhas with overconfidence, causing them to underestimate their opponents in future wars. Also, the invasion of the wealthy Kathmandu Valley provided the Gorkha army with support for furthering their martial ambitions throughout the region. The campaign in the region was largely a failure. After a number of defeats to the Limbuwan army, the Gorkha army finally made a treaty with Limbuwan. In the west, all rulers as far as the Kali River had submitted or been replaced by 1790, farther west still, the Kumaon Kingdom with its capital Almora also lost the war with the Gorkhali in 1791 under Bahadur Shah, the second son of Prithvi Narayan Shah. To the north however, aggressive raids into Tibet triggered Chinese intervention, in 1792 the Qianlong Emperor sent an army, expelling the Nepalese from Tibet to within 5 kilometres of their capital at Kathmandu. Acting regent Bahadur Shah appealed to the then British Governor-General of India for help, anxious to avoid confrontation with the Chinese, the Governor-General did not send troops but sent Captain Kirkpatrick as mediator. However, before he arrived the war with China had finished, the Nepalese were forced into signing a humiliating treaty revoking their trading privileges in Tibet and requiring them to pay tribute to Peking every five years. The Tibet affair had postponed a planned attack on the Garhwal Kingdom. He was killed in the struggle in January 1804 and all his land annexed, further west, general Amar Singh Thapa overran lands as far as Kangra – the strongest fort in the hill region – and laid siege to it. However, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the ruler of the Sikh state in Punjab, intervened, the British were also expanding their sphere of influence at an alarming rate. This British expansion had already been resisted in India, culminating in three Anglo-Maratha wars as well as in the Punjab where Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Empire had their own aspirations, the economic cause constituted the major cause of conflict with Nepal. The British had made constant efforts to persuade the Nepalese government to allow them their trade to the fabled Tibet through Nepal
Anglo-Nepalese War
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Balbhadra Kunwar, Nepali commander of the Anglo-Nepalese War
Anglo-Nepalese War
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Map of India in 1805
Anglo-Nepalese War
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Bhimsen Thapa, prime minister of Nepal from 1806 to 1837.
Anglo-Nepalese War
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Francis Edward Rawdon, Marquess of Hasting, Governor-General of India from 1813 to 1823.
48.
Treaty of Sugauli
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The signatory for Nepal was Raj Guru Gajraj Mishra aided by Chandra Sekher Upadhayaya, the signatory for the Company was Lieutenant Colonel Paris Bradshaw. Nepal also lost the right to deploy any American or European employee in its service, some of the Terai lands were gifted to Nepal in 1816 and more were gifted in 1860 as thanks for helping the British to suppress the Indian rebellion of 1857. The British representative in Kathmandu was the first Westerner allowed to live in the post-Malla Era Nepal, the first representative was Edward Gardner, who was installed at a compound north of Kathmandu. That site is now called Lazimpat and is home to the Indian, the Sugauli Treaty was superseded in December 1923 by a treaty of perpetual peace and friendship, which upgraded the British resident to an envoy. A separate treaty was signed with India in 1950 which established relations between the two countries, the territories under Nepalese control included Darjeeling to the South-east, whole of Sikkim to the east, Nainital to the south-west and the Kumaon Kingdom and Garhwal Kingdom to the west. After the Anglo-Nepalese War, a treaty was signed between the government of Nepal and the East Company that led to the Partition of Nepal. It was agreed upon on 2 December 1815 by Raj Guru Gajaraj Mishra aided by Chandra Sekher Upadhyaya on behalf of the government of Nepal, the signed copies of the treaty were exchanged on 4 March 1816 at Makawanpur by Chandra Sekhar Upadhayay and General David Ochterlony. The terms of the treaty were as follows, - There shall be perpetual peace, the king of Nepal will cede to the East India company in perpetuity all the under mentioned territories, i) The whole of low lands between the rivers Kali and Rapti. Ii) The whole of low lands between Rapti and Gandaki, except Butwal, iii) The whole of low lands between Gandaki and Koshi in which the authority of the East India company has been established. Iv) The whole of low lands between the rivers Mechi and Burma, v) The whole of territories within the hills eastward of the Mechi river. The aforesaid territory shall be evacuated by the Gorkha troops within forty days from this date, the king of Nepal engages never to molest or disturb the king of Sikkim in the possession of his territories. If any difference shall arise between Nepal and Sikkim, it shall be referred to the arbitration of the East India company. The king of Nepal hereby engages never to take or retain in his service any British subject, nor the subject of any European or American State, without the consent of the British Government. In order to secure and improve the relations of amity and peace hereby established between Nepal and Britain, it is agreed that accredited Ministers from each shall reside at the court of the other, DONE at Sugauli, on the 2nd day of December 1815. It mentioned that in the event of my accepting the terms contained in that document, I have accordingly agreed to the terms laid down by you, and herewith enclose an instrument of agreement, which may be satisfactory to you. Dated the 7th of Push 1873 Sambat In fact, this treaty of Suguali was in favor of the East India Company and Nepal had to suffer a heavy loss of her territory. So, a subsequent agreement was made in December 1816 according to which Nepal got all the low lands from Mechi, in the east, to Mahakali, therefore, the indemnity of two lakhs of rupees ceased to continue. A land survey was proposed to fix the boundary between the two States
Treaty of Sugauli
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Sugauli treaty
49.
Lamjung District
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Lamjung District, a part of Province No. 4, is one of the districts of Nepal, a landlocked country of South Asia. The district, with Besisahar as its headquarters, covers an area of 1,692 square kilometres. Lamjung lies in the mid-hills of Nepal with spanning from tropical to trans-himalyan geo-ecological belts and it has mixed habitation of different cast and ethnicity - host probably the highest density of Gurung ethnic population in the country. The epicentre of an earthquake on 25 April 2015 was near Lamjung District, most of the major damage and casualties took place in nearby Kathmandu, Nepals capital. The death toll for the earthquake was placed at over 8,800, however, only four deaths were reported in Lamjung District. While Lamjung is the district with the 20th most deaths in Nepal, the villages of Bichaur, Ilampokhari, Dudhpokhari, Gauda, Kolki and Pyarjung are the most affected in Lamjung district. Twenty-five people were injured in Lamjung District, local police estimate 2,094 houses were completely destroyed while another 2,129 houses were partially damaged in Lamjung District
Lamjung District
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Lamjung लमजुङ
Lamjung District
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Annapurna II
Lamjung District
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River Marshyangdi
Lamjung District
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Hiletaksar Village
50.
Kaski District
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Kaski District (Nepali, कास्की जिल्ला Listen, a part of Province No. 4, is one of the districts of Nepal. The name is disambiguated from Kaskikot, the ancient Kaski Kingdom, the district, with Pokhara as its district headquarters, covers an area of 2,017 square km and had a population of 492,098 according to 2011 Census. This district lies at the point of the country. The altitude of Kaski district ranges from 450 meters the lowest land to 8091 meters the highest point in the Himalaya range, Kaski District politically has 32 VDCs,2 municipalities,13 ilakas and 4 electoral sectors. The district covers parts of the Annapurna mountain range, and the scene of the mountains can be observed from most parts of the district. It is one of the best tourist destinations of Nepal, the district is full of rivers such as SetiGandaki, Modi and Madi along with other rivulets. The district headquarters Pokhara lies about 750 m above the sea level and is one of the best tourist destinations in the world, the district is famous for the Himalayan range with about 11 Himalayas with height greater than 7000 m. The Annapurna Range in the side is always full of snow. It is believed that settlement in Kaski was there from Pre-historic period. The area was believed to be ruled by Gurungs. S, all the governance and development of Kaski District are handled mainly by District Development Committee Kaski. The district is full of people with multi-language, multi-religion and multiple cultures, different people have different foods, dresses and norms based on their caste and religion. Many places offer Home Stay for internal as well as international tourists along with performance of local dance according to caste, according to the census of 2068 Kaski district has people of about 84 castes,44 languages and 11 religions. The dressing style of people here matches with national dress, the main foods of people here are Dal-Bhat Tarkari, Roti, and Dhindo. The district is the place of different castes such as Gurung, Brahmin, Chhetri, Newar, Thakali, kumal. According to the District Sport Committee, Kaski District have one stadium, named Pokhara Rangashala, of about 417 Ropani of area and capacity of 21,000 spectators. Phewa Lake is one of the most tourism destination of Nepal and the Second big lake of Nepal with the area of 4.43 square km, the lake is beautiful with the image of Machhapuchhre on it. Boating is fun in Phewa Lake due to the green forest
Kaski District
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Political map of Kaski District (with updated VDCs)
Kaski District
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Location of Kaski
Kaski District
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Village of Khare
