1.
New Brunswick
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New Brunswick is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces and is the only constitutionally bilingual province. In the Canada 2016 Census, Statistics Canada estimated the population to have been 747,101, down very slightly from 751,171 in 2011. The majority of the population is English-speaking of Anglo and Celtic heritage and it was created as a result of the partitioning of the British colony of Nova Scotia in 1784 and was originally named New Ireland with the capital to be in Saint John. The name was replaced with New Brunswick by King George II. The provincial flag features a ship superimposed on a background with a yellow lion passant guardant on red pennon above it. The province is named for the city of Braunschweig, known in English and Low German as Brunswick, located in modern-day Lower Saxony in northern Germany. The then-colony was named in 1784 to honour the reigning British monarch, George III, the original First Nations inhabitants of New Brunswick were members of three distinct tribes. The largest tribe was the Mikmaq, and they occupied the eastern and they were responsible for the Augustine Mound, a burial ground built about 800 BCE near Metepnákiaq. The western portion of the province was the home of the Wolastoqiyik people. The smaller Passamaquoddy tribe occupied lands in the southwest of the province. The next French contact was in 1604, when a party led by Pierre du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain set up camp for the winter on St. Croix Island, the colony relocated the following year across the Bay of Fundy to Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The whole maritime region was at that time claimed by France and was designated as the colony of Acadia, one of the provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 was the surrender of Acadia to Queen Anne. The bulk of the Acadian population thus found themselves residing in the new British colony of Nova Scotia, the remainder of Acadia was only lightly populated and poorly defended. The Maliseet from their headquarters at Meductic on the Saint John River, participated in guerilla raids and battles against New England during Father Rales War. About 1750, to protect his interests in New France, Louis XV caused three forts to be built along the Isthmus of Chignecto and this caused what is known to historians as Father Le Loutres War. During the French and Indian War, the British completed their displacement of the Acadians over all of present-day New Brunswick, Fort Beauséjour, Fort Menagoueche and Fort Gaspareaux were captured by a British force commanded by Lt. Col. Robert Monckton in 1755. Inside Fort Beauséjour, the British forces found not only French regular troops, Governor Charles Lawrence of Nova Scotia used the discovery of Acadian civilians helping in the defence of the fort to order the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia. The Acadians of the recently captured Beaubassin and Petitcodiac regions were included in the expulsion order, other actions in the war included British expeditions up the Saint John River in the St. John River Campaign
2.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
3.
The Maritimes
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The Maritimes, also called the Maritime provinces or the Canadian Maritimes, is a region of Eastern Canada consisting of three provinces, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. The Maritimes had a population of 1,813,606 in 2016, the Maritimes, along with a fourth province – Canadas easternmost province, Newfoundland and Labrador – make up Atlantic Canada. Located along the Atlantic coast, various aquatic sub-basins are located in the Maritimes, such as the Gulf of Maine, the region is located northeast of New England, southeast of Quebecs Gaspé Peninsula, and southwest of the island of Newfoundland. All three provinces are entirely south of the southernmost extremity of Western Canada, and are the provinces of Canada without large. The Mikmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy people are indigenous to the Maritimes, while Acadian, the word maritime is an adjective that simply means of the sea, thus any land associated with the sea can be considered a maritime state or province. Nonetheless, the term Maritimes has historically been applied to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. The Middle Period, starting 6,000 years ago, and this is also when what is called the Laurentian tradition started among Archaic Indians, existing First Nations peoples of the time. Evidence of Archaic Indian burial mounds and other ceremonial sites existing in the Saint John River valley has been uncovered, the primarily agrarian Maliseet Nation settled throughout the Saint John River and Allagash River valleys of present-day New Brunswick and Maine. The Passamaquoddy Nation inhabited the coastal regions of the present-day Bay of Fundy. The Maritimes were the area in Canada to be settled by Europeans. Both Giovanni Caboto and Giovanni da Verrazzano are reported to have sailed in or near Maritime waters during their voyages of discovery for England, several Portuguese explorers/cartographers have also documented various parts of the Maritimes, namely Diogo Homem. However, it was French explorer Jacques Cartier who made the first detailed reconnaissance of the region for a European power, and in so doing, claimed the region for the King of France. Champlain went on to fame as the founder of New Frances province of Canada which comprises much of the present-day lower St. Lawrence River valley in the province of Quebec. Most Acadian fishing activities were overshadowed by the comparatively enormous seasonal European fishing fleets based out of Newfoundland which took advantage of proximity to the Grand Banks. In 1613, Virginian raiders captured Port-Royal, and in 1621 Acadia was ceded to Scotlands Sir William Alexander who renamed it Nova Scotia. By 1632, Acadia was returned from Scotland to France under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, colonial administration by France throughout the history of Acadia was contemptuous at best. Frances priorities were in settling and strengthening its claim on New France and the exploration and settlement of interior North America, over 74 years there were six colonial wars, which involved continuous warfare between New England and Acadia. Throughout these wars, New England was allied with the Iroquois Confederacy, in the first war, King Williams War, natives from the Maritime region participated in numerous attacks with the French on the Acadia/ New England border in southern Maine
4.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
5.
Canadian Confederation
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Canadian Confederation was the process by which the British colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were united into one Dominion of Canada on July 1,1867. Upon confederation, the old province of Canada was divided into Ontario and Quebec, along with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, over the years since Confederation, Canada has seen numerous territorial changes and expansions, resulting in the current configuration of ten provinces and three territories. Canada is a federation and not an association of sovereign states. It is nevertheless considered to be among the worlds more decentralized federations. To contemporaries of Confederation the con- prefix indicated a strengthening of the centrist principle compared to the American federation, the term is now often used to describe Canada in an abstract way, such as in the Fathers of Confederation. Provinces and territories became part of Canada after 1867 are also said to have joined, or entered into. The term is used to divide Canadian history into pre-Confederation and post-Confederation periods. All the former colonies and territories that became involved in the Canadian Confederation on July 1,1867, were part of New France. Nova Scotia was granted in 1621 to Sir William Alexander under charter by James VI, the British acquired present-day mainland Nova Scotia by the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 and the Acadian population was expelled by the British in 1755. They called Acadia Nova Scotia, which included present-day New Brunswick, the rest of New France was acquired by the British by the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Seven Years War. From 1763 to 1791, most of New France became the Province of Quebec, however, in 1769 the present-day Prince Edward Island, which had been part of Acadia, was renamed St Johns Island and organized as a separate colony. It was renamed Prince Edward Island in 1798 in honour of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the first English attempt at settlement had been in Newfoundland, which would not join the Confederation until 1949. The Society of Merchant Venturers of Bristol began to settle Newfoundland and Labrador at Cupers Cove as far back as 1610, in the wake of the American Revolution, an estimated 50,000 United Empire Loyalists fled to British North America. The British created the colony of New Brunswick in 1784 for the Loyalists who settled in the western part of Nova Scotia. The War of 1812 and Treaty of 1818 established the 49th parallel as the border with the United States from the Great Lakes to the Rocky Mountains in Western Canada. As a result of Durhams report, the British Parliament passed the Act of Union 1840, the new province was divided into two parts, Canada West and Canada East. Governor General Lord Elgin granted ministerial responsibility in 1848, first to Nova Scotia, in the following years, the British would extend responsible government to Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland. The area which constitutes modern-day British Columbia is the remnants of the Hudsons Bay Companys Columbia District and New Caledonia District following the Oregon Treaty
6.
Mi'kmaq
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The Mikmaq or Migmaq are a First Nations people indigenous to Canadas Maritime Provinces and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec. They call their national territory Mikmaki, others today live in Newfoundland and the northeastern region of Maine. The nation has a population of about 40,000, of whom nearly 11,000 speak Mikmaq, once written in Mikmaq hieroglyphic writing, it is now written using most letters of the Latin alphabet. After implementation of the Indian Act, the Grand Council took on a more spiritual function, the Grand Council was made up of chiefs of the seven district councils of Mikmaki. On September 26,2011 the Government of Canada announced the recognition of Canadas newest Mikmaq First Nations Band, the new band, which is landless, has accepted 25,000 applications to become part of the band. The number of applications received by the deadline on November 30,2012 exceeded 100,000, as of January 2013. The deadline was extended to January 31,2014, and then to February 10,2014 and its members are recognized as Status Indians, joining other organized Mikmaq bands recognized in southeast Canada. Until the 1980s, Micmac remained the most common spelling in English, although still used, for example in Ethnologue, this spelling has fallen out of favour in recent years. Most scholarly publications now use the spelling Mikmaq, and it has been adopted by media as the spelling Micmac is now considered to be colonially tainted, the Mikmaq prefer to use one of the three current Mikmaq orthographies when writing the language. Lnu is the term the Mikmaq use for themselves, their autonym, various explanations exist for the origin of the term Mikmaq. The Mikmaw Resource Guide states that Mikmaq means the family, The definite article the suggests that Mikmaq is the undeclined form indicated by the letter m. When declined in the singular it reduces to the forms, nikmaq - my family, kikmaq - your family. Other hypotheses include the following, The name Micmac was first recorded in a memoir by de La Chesnaye in 1676. Professor Ganong in a footnote to the word megamingo, as used by Marc Lescarbot, the Micmacs, then, must have thought of themselves as the Red Earth People, or the People of the Red Earth. Others seeking a meaning for the word Micmac have suggested that it is from nigumaach, my brother, my friend, members of the Mikmaq historically referred to themselves as Lnu, but used the term níkmaq as a greeting. The French initially referred to the Mikmaq as Souriquois and later as Gaspesiens or Mickmakis, the British originally referred to them as Tarrantines. According to ethnologist T. J. Brasser, with a climate unfavorable for agriculture and their weakly developed leadership did not extend beyond hunting parties. The Mikmaq lived in a cycle of seasonal movement between living in dispersed interior winter camps and larger coastal communities during the summer
7.
Maliseet
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The Wolastoqiyik, or Maliseet, are an Algonquian-speaking First Nation of the Wabanaki Confederacy. The Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians, based in Maine, are the federally recognized tribe of Maliseet people in the United States, today Maliseet people have also migrated to other parts of the world. Maliseets were river people across the Saint John river The people called themselves Wolastoqiyik after the Wolastoq River at the heart of their territory, Wolastoqiyik means People of the Beautiful River, in Maliseet. The Maliseet have long associated with the Saint John River in present-day New Brunswick. At one time their territory extended as far as the St Lawrence River and their lands and resources are bounded on the east by the Mikmaq, and on the west by the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot, who also spoke related Algonquian languages. The term Maliseet is the exonym by which the Mikmaq people referred to this group when speaking to early Europeans, Maliseet or Malessejik was a Mikmaq word meaning broken talkers, lazy speakers or he speaks badly, by which the Mikmaq contrasted the other tribes language to their own. The Wolastoqiyik and Mikmaq languages are related but distinctly different. The Europeans met the Mikmaq before the Wolastoqiyik, and adopted their term of Malessejik for the people, the later English colonists anglicized this term as Maliseet, in another transliteration of sound. At the time of European encounter, the Wolastoqiyik were living in walled villages, in addition to growing crops, the women gathered and processed fruits, berries, nuts and natural produce. The men contributed by fishing and hunting, written accounts in the early 17th century, such as those of Samuel de Champlain and Marc LesCarbot, refer to a large Malécite village at the mouth of the Saint John River. Later in the century, sources indicate their headquarters had shifted upriver to Meductic, the French explorers were the first to establish a fur trade with the Wolastoqiyik, which became important in their territory. Some European goods were desired because they were useful to Wolastoqiyik subsistence, the French Jesuits also established missions where some Wolastoqiyik converted to Catholicism. With years of colonialism, many learned the French language, the French called them Malécite, a transliteration of the Mikmaq name for the people. Local histories depict many encounters with the Iroquois, five nations based south and east of the Great Lakes. Contact with European fisher-traders in the early 17th century and with specialized fur traders developed into a relationship which lasted for nearly 100 years. As both the French and English increased the number of their settlers in North America, their competition grew for control of the fur trade, in addition, wars were carried out that reflected war in Europe. The lucrative eastern fur trade faltered with the general unrest, as French, increasing sporadic fighting and raiding also took place on the lower Saint John River. In this period, Malécite women took over a share of the economic burden and began to farm
8.
Passamaquoddy
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The Passamaquoddy are an American Indian/First Nations people who live in northeastern North America, primarily in Maine and New Brunswick. They live along the waters of Passamaquoddy Bay and the rivers flow to it. The name Passamaquoddy is an Anglicization of the Passamaquoddy word peskotomuhkati, Peskotomuhkat literally means pollock-spearer or those of the place where pollock are plentiful, reflecting the importance of this fish in their culture. Their method of fishing was spear-fishing rather than angling or using nets, Passamaquoddy Bay is shared by both New Brunswick and Maine, its name was derived by English settlers from the Passamaquoddy people. The Passamaquoddy had an oral history before the arrival of Europeans. They had seasonal patterns of settlement, in the winter, they dispersed and hunted inland. In the summer, they gathered more closely together on the coast and islands, and primarily harvested seafood, including mammals, mollusks, crustaceans. The Passamaquoddy were pushed off their original lands repeatedly by European settlers from the 17th century and it has a land area of 96.994 km² and a 2000 census resident population of 676 persons. Passamaquoddy have also lived on off-reservation trust lands in five Maine counties, the total land area of these areas is 373.888 km². As of the 2000 census, there were no residents on these trust lands, the Passamaquoddy also live in Charlotte County, New Brunswick, Canada. They maintain active land claims in Canada but do not have legal status there as a First Nation, some Passamaquoddy continue to seek the return of territory now comprised in St. Andrews, New Brunswick, which they claim as Qonasqamkuk, a Passamaquoddy ancestral capital and burial ground. The Passamaquoddy population is around 3,576 people, about 500 people, most if not all over the age of 50, speak the Malecite-Passamaquoddy language, shared with the neighboring and related Maliseet people. It belongs to the Algonquian branch of the Algic language family, the University of Maine published a comprehensive Passamaquoddy Dictionary in 2008. Most of the people speak English as their first language, while the Passamaquoddy population in Canada is much smaller than that in Maine, it has a formal structure and a chief, Hugh Akagi. Most of its people speak French and English and it is not recognized by the Canadian government as constituting a First Nation. Chief Akagi was authorized to represent the Passamaquoddy at events marking the 400th anniversary of French settlement of St Croix Island and this indicates that the government had acknowledged the tribe to some extent, and progress is being made in formal recognition. The Passamaquoddy, along with the neighboring Penobscot Nation, are given political status in the U. S. state of Maine. Both groups are allowed to send a representative to the Maine House of Representatives
9.
First Nations
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The First Nations are the predominant Aboriginal peoples of Canada south of the Arctic. Those in the Arctic area are distinct and known as Inuit, the Métis, another distinct ethnicity, developed after European contact and relations primarily between First Nations people and Europeans. There are currently 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. Under the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a group, along with women, visible minorities. First Nations are not defined as a minority under the Act or by the criteria of Statistics Canada. Within Canada, First Nations has come into general use—replacing the deprecated term Indians—for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, individuals using the term outside Canada include supporters of the Cascadian independence movement, as well as U. S. tribes within the Pacific Northwest. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized reserves, is the term First Nations person, North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events, such as the Cascadia earthquake of 1700, written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery, beginning in the late 15th century. European accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture, in addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics, have helped scholars piece together understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. Combined with later development, this relatively non-combative history has allowed First Nations peoples to have an influence on the national culture. Collectively, First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples constitute Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, First Nations came into common usage in the 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language. Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s, others say that the term came into common usage in the 1970s to avoid using the word Indian, which some Canadians considered offensive. No legal definition of the term exists, some Aboriginal peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community. While the word Indian is still a term, its use is erratic. Some First Nations people consider the term offensive, while others prefer it to Aboriginal person/persons/people, the term is a misnomer given to indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed on the Indian subcontinent. The use of the term Native Americans, which the United States government and it refers more specifically to the Aboriginal peoples residing within the boundaries of the United States. The parallel term Native Canadian is not commonly used, but Natives and autochthones are, under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, also known as the Indian Magna Carta, the Crown referred to indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized, unlike alternative terms, bands and nations may have slightly different meanings
10.
Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)
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It forms part of the Canada–United States border in two different places along its length. The river drains an area of approximately 55,000 square kilometres and it has been nicknamed the Rhine of North America for its scenery. The river is regulated by hydro power dams located at Mactaquac, Beechwood, the Baker Branch of the Saint John River rises in the Saint John Ponds of Somerset County in northwestern Maine. The branches combine to form the river flowing northeastward through western Aroostook County. The Lacroix road built in 1923 from Lac-Frontière crosses the river at Ninemile Bridge, near Seven Islands the river was crossed by an 18th century trail from the St. Lawrence River. There is an Abenaki burial site containing a number of graves where the Big Black River joins the Saint John in township 18, range 13. Local legend maintains the confluence is haunted by the spirits of Abenaki killed by an epidemic of European disease, near Allagash, the Saint John is joined by the Allagash River. Below St. Francis, the Saint John begins to part of the international boundary between Maine and New Brunswick. At Perth-Andover, the river is joined by the Aroostook and the Tobique rivers, at Hartland, it is crossed by the longest covered bridge in the world. Further south at Woodstock, the leaves the Upper Valley and turns east. It is joined by Nackawic Stream at Nackawic and passes small communities such as Bear Island, the Maliseet capital of Meductic was located along the Saint John River in the 17th and into the mid-18th century. This site was flooded in 1965 after completion of the Mactaquac Dam with the waterline level 133 feet above sea level, the river continues eastward until it reaches New Brunswicks capital city Fredericton and then the military town of Oromocto. Turning south from Oromocto, the river is joined by the short Jemseg River which empties New Brunswicks largest lake and this part of the river valley becomes broad and shallow. The river is dotted by many low islands used for pastureland during dry periods in the summer, south of the Jemseg, the Saint John River is surrounded by the low hills of the St. Croix Highlands. It is joined by several bays, including Belleisle Bay, the Nerepis River. The Saint John River finally discharges into the Bay of Fundy at the city of Saint John. Near the rivers mouth is the site of the Reversing Falls and these tides are the highest in the world and cause the river to reverse its flow twice a day in a narrow gorge in the citys centre. The Saint John River has a depth of 50 metres above the Mactaquac Dam
11.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
12.
Maine
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Maine is the northernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Maine is the 39th most extensive and the 41st most populous of the U. S. states and territories and it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the north. Maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States, and it is known for its jagged, rocky coastline, low, rolling mountains, heavily forested interior, and picturesque waterways, and also its seafood cuisine, especially clams and lobster. There is a continental climate throughout the state, even in areas such as its most populous city of Portland. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples were the inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine. At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine, the first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony, established by the Plymouth Company in 1607, as Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maines territory during the American Revolution, Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820, when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become an independent state. On March 15,1820, it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state under the Missouri Compromise, there is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name Maine, but the most likely origin is the name given by early explorers after a province in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English Kings Commissioners ordered that the Province of Maine be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivans 1795 History of the District of Maine. He made the allegation that the Province of Maine was a compliment to the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria. MAINE appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 in reference to the county of Dorset, the view generally held among British place name scholars is that Mayne in Dorset is Brythonic, corresponding to modern Welsh maen, plural main or meini. Some early spellings are, MAINE1086, MEINE1200, MEINES1204, mason had served with the Royal Navy in the Orkney Islands where the chief island is called Mainland, a possible name derivation for these English sailors. Initially, several tracts along the coast of New England were referred to as Main or Maine, Maine is the only state whose name has exactly one syllable. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, who had a loose confederacy. European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade
13.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
15.
Bay of Fundy
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Some sources believe the name Fundy is a corruption of the French word Fendu, meaning split, while others believe it comes from the Portuguese funda, meaning deep. The Bay of Fundy is known for having the highest tidal range in the world. Rivaled by Ungava Bay in northern Quebec, King Sound in Western Australia, Gulf of Khambhat in India, and the Severn Estuary in the UK, it has one of the highest vertical tidal ranges in the world. Burntcoat Head in the Minas Basin, Nova Scotia, has the greatest mean spring range with 14.5 metres and a range of 16.3 metres. ”Portions of the Bay of Fundy, Shepody Bay and Minas Basin, form one of six Canadian sites in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network. In July 2009, the Bay of Fundy was named as a finalist for the New 7 Wonders of Nature contest that ended in November 2011 and it was not chosen as a wonder. The Bay of Fundy is known for its tidal range. The highest water level recorded in the Bay of Fundy system occurred at the head of the Minas Basin on the night of October 4–5,1869 during a tropical cyclone named the “Saxby Gale”. The water level of 21.6 meters resulted from the combination of winds, abnormally low atmospheric pressure. Leaf Basin has only been measured in recent years, whereas the Fundy system has measured for many decades. Traditional Mikmaq folklore states that the tides in the Bay of Fundy are caused by a giant whale splashing in the water, during the 12. 4-hour tidal period,115 billion tonnes of water flow in and out of the bay. The tides in the Bay of Fundy are semidiurnal, which means that they have two highs and two each day. The height that the water rises and falls to each day during these tides are approximately equal, there are approximately six hours and thirteen minutes between each high and low tide. Alternative forms of energy are being explored in depth in a number of unique areas, tidal energy harnesses the movement of ocean water to generate electricity through a number of mechanisms. Currently a process of gathering tidal energy called In-stream turbine technology is being tested in the Minas Passage and this project is being spearheaded by the Fundy Ocean Research Center for Energy or FORCE. In-stream tidal turbine technology is a simple design. An elevated turbine is submerged under water in a location that enables its movement with tidal cycles, as the blades of the turbine move they create energy that powers an electric generator at the base. From here the power travels to an attached to the seafloor. While this technology has shown to be successful in its stages of testing
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Gulf of Maine
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The Gulf of Maine is a large gulf of the Atlantic Ocean on the east coast of North America. It is delineated by Cape Cod at the tip of Massachusetts in the southwest. Both Massachusetts Bay and the Bay of Fundy are included within the Gulf of Maine system, as such, the Gulf of Maine is also home to the highest tidal variations on the planet. The coastline of the Gulf of Maine is predominantly rocky and scenic, the effects of glaciation are responsible for stripping sedimentary soil away from the coastline, therefore the gulf lacks the sandy beaches found to the south along the Eastern Seaboard. The underwater features of the seabed sculptured during the sea levels of the ice ages make the gulf a semi-enclosed sea bounded to the south. Georges Bank in particular, on its end, protects the Gulf of Maine waters from the Gulf Stream. Gulf of Maine waters are more influenced by the Labrador Current, making the gulf waters significantly colder. The Northeast Channel is the channel between the Gulf and the rest of the Northwest Atlantic. A secondary, shallower connection to the rest of the Atlantic is the Great South Channel, due to rapid warming of the Gulf of Maine, the water has become too hot for cod. This has pushed stocks towards collapse despite deep reductions in the number of fish caught, according to a study conducted by the Gulf of Maine Research Institute. The watershed of the gulf encompasses an area of 69,115 sq mi, including all of Maine, 70% of New Hampshire, 56% of New Brunswick, 41% of Massachusetts, the watershed also includes a small southern portion of the Canadian province of Quebec. The gulfs relative proximity to Europe made it a destination for European colonization. French settlers founded a settlement on St. Croix Island in 1604, in the 1960s and 1970s there was a dispute between Canada and the United States over fishing and other resource rights in the Gulf of Maine, specifically the Georges Bank region. This dispute was taken to the International Court of Justice, which delineated a maritime boundary through the Gulf in 1984, Canada and the U. S. continue to disagree on the sovereignty of Machias Seal Island and the waters surrounding it in the northeastern part of the gulf
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Porpoise
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Porpoises are a group of fully aquatic marine mammals that are sometimes referred to as mereswine, all of which are classified under the family Phocoenidae, parvorder Odontoceti. There are six extant species of porpoise and they are small toothed whales that are very closely related to oceanic dolphins. The most obvious difference between the two groups is that porpoises have shorter beaks and flattened, spade-shaped teeth distinct from the conical teeth of dolphins. Porpoises range in size from the 1.4 metres and 54 kilograms vaquita, several species exhibit sexual dimorphism in that the females are larger than males. They have streamlined bodies and two limbs that are modified into flippers, Dalls porpoise is one of the fastest cetaceans discovered, with the ability to travel at 41 knots. Porpoises have the ability to produce biosonar and it is their primary sensory system, some species are well adapted for diving to great depths. They have a layer of fat, or blubber, under the skin to keep warm in cold water. Porpoises are not very widespread, with many specialising near the polar regions, porpoises feed largely on fish and squid, much like the rest of the odontocetes. Males typically mate with multiple females every year, but females only mate every two to three years, calves are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear all the responsibility for raising them. Some porpoises produce a variety of clicks and whistles, which are thought to be primarily for social purposes, a few species, like the harbour porpoise, are highly sociable, but pods generally do not exceed ten individuals for most species. Porpoises were, and still are, hunted by some countries by means of drive hunting, some species are attributed with high levels of intelligence. At the 2012 meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, support was reiterated for a bill of rights. Besides drive hunting, they face threats from bycatch, competition. Porpoises are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to perform tricks, porpoises, along with whales and dolphins, are descendants of land-living ungulates that first entered the oceans around 50 million years ago. During the Miocene, mammals were fairly modern, meaning they seldom changed physiologically from the time, the cetaceans diversified, and fossil evidence suggests porpoises and dolphins diverged from their last common ancestor around 15 Mya. The oldest fossils are known from the seas around the North Pacific, with animals spreading to the European coasts and Southern Hemisphere only much later. ORDER ARTIODACTYLA Infraorder Cetacea Parvorder Odontoceti toothed whales Superfamily Delphinoidea Family Phocoenidae – porpoises Genus †HaborophocoenaH, toyoshimai Genus Neophocaena N. phocaeniodes – finless porpoise Genus †NumataphocoenaN. Porpoises have a head, no external ear flaps, a non-flexible neck, a torpedo shaped body, limbs modified into flippers
18.
Fishing
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Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild, techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping. Fishing may include catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, the term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, such as whales where the term whaling is more appropriate. According to United Nations FAO statistics, the number of commercial fishermen. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries, in 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with an additional 7.4 kilograms harvested from fish farms. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational pastime, Fishing is an ancient practice that dates back to at least the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period about 40,000 years ago. Isotopic analysis of the remains of Tianyuan man, a 40. Archaeology features such as middens, discarded fish bones, and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival. During this period, most people lived a lifestyle and were, of necessity. However, where there are examples of permanent settlements such as those at Lepenski Vir. The British dogger was a type of sailing trawler from the 17th century. The Brixham trawler that evolved there was of a build and had a tall gaff rig. They were also sufficiently robust to be able to tow large trawls in deep water, the great trawling fleet that built up at Brixham, earned the village the title of Mother of Deep-Sea Fisheries. The small village of Grimsby grew to become the largest fishing port in the world by the mid 19th century, an Act of Parliament was first obtained in 1796, which authorised the construction of new quays and dredging of the Haven to make it deeper. It was only in the 1846, with the expansion in the fishing industry. The foundation stone for the Royal Dock was laid by Albert the Prince consort in 1849, the dock covered 25 acres and was formally opened by Queen Victoria in 1854 as the first modern fishing port. The elegant Brixham trawler spread across the world, influencing fishing fleets everywhere, by the end of the 19th century, there were over 3,000 fishing trawlers in commission in Britain, with almost 1,000 at Grimsby. These trawlers were sold to fishermen around Europe, including from the Netherlands, twelve trawlers went on to form the nucleus of the German fishing fleet
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Washington County, Maine
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Washington County is a county located in the U. S. state of Maine. As of the 2010 census, its population was 32,856, the county was established on June 25,1789. It borders the Canadian province of New Brunswick, many small seaside communities have small-scale fishing-based economies. Tourism is also important along the shoreline, but it is not as important as elsewhere in the state. The blueberry crop plays a role in the countys economy. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 3,258 square miles. The population density was 13 people per square mile, there were 21,919 housing units at an average density of 8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 93. 48% White,0. 26% Black or African American,4. 43% Native American,0. 30% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,0. 44% from other races, and 1. 07% from two or more races. 0. 81% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,28. 30% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the family size was 2.84. In the county, the population was out with 22. 90% under the age of 18,8. 00% from 18 to 24,26. 30% from 25 to 44,25. 60% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 95.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.90 males, the median income for a household in the county was $25,869, and the median income for a family was $31,657. Males had an income of $28,347 versus $20,074 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,119, about 14. 20% of families and 19. 00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22. 40% of those under age 18 and 19. 20% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 32,856 people,14,302 households, the population density was 12.8 inhabitants per square mile. There were 23,001 housing units at a density of 9.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 92. 1% white,4. 9% American Indian,0. 5% Asian,0. 4% black or African American,0. 4% from other races, and 1. 7% from two or more races
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Charlotte County, New Brunswick
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Charlotte County is located in the southwestern portion of New Brunswick, Canada. The courthouse and gaol for the county were located in St. Andrews, in most of the county, fishing and aquaculture dominate the local economy, although the town of St. Andrews is a tourist mecca and St. Stephen is dominated by the Ganong chocolate factory. The approach channel has a depth of 21.3 metres, a ship loader is used for quarried material. The Bayside Marine Terminal is a two berth facility, the main source of traffic is in the areas of gypsum, a byproduct of the exhaust scrubber at the nearby Emera natural gas combustion power plant, and potatoes. Its collections date back to the 18th century, the reference room includes family histories, and other genealogical resources, a small research library and microfilm readers. The Charlotte County Archives, an organization, was established in 1975 by the Charlotte County Historical Society. The Archives has occupied the Old Gaol since 1982, and the building is provided and maintained by the Province of New Brunswick, the Province provides some financial support, but the majority of the Archives operating funds is derived from donations and fund raising activities. The Old Charlotte County Gaol was built in 1832 and sits next to the Charlotte County Courthouse and it is built of 2 1⁄2-foot-thick square granite blocks. Each claustrophobic cell is accessed by an iron door, the only daylight coming from even narrower windows. The building housed prisoners from 1832 to 1979
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St. Andrews, New Brunswick
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Saint Andrews is a town in Charlotte County, New Brunswick, Canada. It is sometimes referred to in marketing by its unofficial nickname St. Andrews By-the-Sea. Saint Andrews is located at the tip of a triangular-shaped peninsula extending into Passamaquoddy Bay at the western edge of Charlotte County. It is the town of the county. The towns street grid, laid out by Charles Morris about 1783, is oriented toward the waterfront, which faces St. Andrews Harbour and the Western Channel, which is formed by Navy Island. Saint Andrews Harbour is situated at the mouth of the St. Croix River, the town is directly opposite the community of Robbinston, Maine,2 kilometres to the west across the river mouth. In addition to Navy Island, Ministers Island is another island in Passamaquoddy Bay that is adjacent to the town on its eastern boundary. Despite its proximity to the Canada–United States border, the nearest border crossings are 30 km away at St. Stephen or via a service at Deer Island. This climatic region is typified by large temperature differences, with warm to hot summers. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Saint Andrews has a continental climate. Saint Andrews was founded in 1783 by United Empire Loyalists and named in honour of St Andrews, the town is well preserved, with many original buildings still in place. There are many layers of history visible starting from the late 18th century, including the towns well-known formal grid street layout, many of the commercial buildings on Water Street date from the 19th century. Between 1820 and 1860, the port of Saint Andrews was used extensively during the Irish Migration, the Irish were first quarantined at Hospital Island, situated a few kilometers in Passamaquoddy Bay. By the 1851 Census, more than 50% of the population had been born in Ireland. The old-fashioned Argyll burned down in 1892 and was never rebuilt and it remains an iconic symbol of the town. Ministers Island is named after a loyalist Anglican priest, Rev. Samuel Andrews, but it is most famous as the summer home of Sir William Van Horne, builder of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The island is about a five-minute drive from downtown Saint Andrews, hikers, photographers, birdwatchers and others are free to explore the many trails on the Island. The aquarium has various exhibits, including a pool with sea urchins, seastars
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New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
23.
Abenaki
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The Abenaki are a Native American tribe and First Nation. They are one of the Algonquian-speaking peoples of northeastern North America, the Abenaki live in Quebec and the Maritimes of Canada and in the New England region of the United States, a region called Wabanahkik in the Eastern Algonquian languages. The Abenaki are one of the five members of the Wabanaki Confederacy, Abenaki is a linguistic and geographic grouping, historically there was not a strong central authority. As listed below, there were numerous bands and tribes who shared many cultural traits. They came together as a community after their original tribes were decimated by colonization, disease. The word Abenaki, and its syncope, Abnaki, are derived from Wabanaki, or Wôbanakiak, meaning People of the Dawn Land in the Abenaki language. While the two terms are often confused, the Abenaki are one of several tribes in the Wabanaki Confederacy, Wôbanakiak is derived from wôban and aki — the aboriginal name of the area broadly corresponding to New England and the Maritimes. It is sometimes used to refer to all the Algonquian-speaking peoples of the area—Western Abenaki, Eastern Abenaki, Wolastoqiyik-Passamaquoddy, the Abenaki people also call themselves Alnôbak, meaning Real People and by the autonym Alnanbal, meaning men. Historically, ethnologists have classified the Abenaki by geographic groups, Western Abenaki, within these groups are the Abenaki bands, The homeland of the Abenaki, which they call Ndakinna, extended across most of northern New England, southern Quebec, and the southern Canadian Maritimes. The Eastern Abenaki population was concentrated in portions of New Brunswick, the other major tribe, the Western Abenaki, lived in the Connecticut River valley in Vermont, New Hampshire and Massachusetts. The Missiquoi lived along the shore of Lake Champlain. The Pennacook lived along the Merrimack River in southern New Hampshire, the maritime Abenaki lived around the St. Croix and Wolastoq valleys near the boundary line between Maine and New Brunswick. The English settlement of New England and frequent wars forced many Abenaki to retreat to Quebec, the name Abenaki was derived from the terms w8bAn and Aki, which mean people in the rising sun or people of the East. In those days, the Abenaki practiced a subsistence economy based on hunting, fishing, trapping, berry picking and on growing corn, beans, squash, potatoes and tobacco. They also produced baskets, made of ash and sweet grass, for picking wild berries, basket weaving remains a traditional activity for members of both communities. During the Anglo-French wars, the Abenaki were allies of France, an anecdote from this period tells the story of a Maliseet war chief named Nescambuit or Assacumbuit, who killed more than 140 enemies of King Louis XIV of France and received the rank of knight. Not all Abenaki natives fought on the side of the French, however, much of the trapping was done by the people, and traded to the English colonists for durable goods. These contributions by Native American Abenaki peoples went largely unreported and these two Abenaki reserves continue to grow and develop
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Wabanaki Confederacy
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The Wabanaki Confederacy are a First Nations and Native American confederation of five principal nations, the Mikmaq, Maliseet, Passamaquoddy, Abenaki, and Penobscot. Members of the Wabanaki Confederacy, the Wabanaki peoples, are in and named for the area which they call Wabanahkik, generally known to European settlers as Acadia. It is made up of most of present-day Maine in the United States, the Western Abenaki live on lands in New Hampshire, Vermont, and Massachusetts of the United States. In recent official statements, the Confederacy has emphasized common cause with and they gained powers under the United Nations 2010 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and related treaties which major powers have signed. The confederacy has historically united five North American Algonquian language-speaking First Nations peoples and it played a key role in supporting the colonial rebels of the American Revolution via the Treaty of Watertown, signed in 1776 by the Mikmaq and Passamaquoddy, two of its constituent tribes. Under this treaty, Wabanaki soldiers from Canada are still permitted to join the US military and they have done so in 21st-century conflicts in which the US has engaged, including the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War. Wabanaki were also allies of the Huron in the past, today the only remaining Huron First Nation resides mostly in the suburbs of Quebec City, a legacy of this protective alliance. The Wabanaki ancestral homeland stretches from Newfoundland, Canada to the Merrimack River valley in New Hampshire and Massachusetts and this became a hotly contested borderland between the English of colonial New England and French Acadia following the European settlement in the early 17th century. Wabanaki people freely intermarried with French Catholics in Acadia starting in 1610 after the conversion of Chief Henri Membertou, after 1783 and the end of the American Revolutionary War, Black Loyalists, freedmen from the British colonies, were resettled by the British in this historical territory. They had promised freedom if they left their rebel masters. Three thousand freedmen were evacuated to Nova Scotia by British ships from the colonies after the war, many intermarriages occurred between these peoples, especially in southwest Nova Scotia from Yarmouth to Halifax. Suppression of Acadian, Black, Mikmaq, and Irish people under British rule tended to force these peoples together as allies of necessity, some white and black parents abandoned their mixed-race children on reserves to be raised in Wabanaki culture, even as late as the 1970s. The British declared the Wabanaki Confederacy forcibly disbanded in 1862, however the five Wabanaki nations still exist, continued to meet, and the Confederacy was formally re-established in 1993. The Wabanaki Confederacy gathering was revived in 1993, the sacred Council Fire was lit again, and embers from the fire have been kept burning continually since then. Following the 2010 UN DRIP declaration, the tribes began to assert their rights as defined in it and they invited non-Indian people to participate in the Confederacy meetings, especially environmental activists. The Wabanaki leadership emphasized the role of the Confederacy in protecting natural capital. The Wabanaki are in a far better position to defend the land. No land was ceded, and thats acknowledged by both the province and the federal government. So on the basis of the treaties, what were suggesting is that you, – gkisedtanamoogk, the Gatherings fire keeper
25.
Beothuk
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The Beothuk were an indigenous people based on the island of Newfoundland. Beginning around AD1500, the Beothuk culture formed and this appeared to be the most recent cultural manifestation of peoples who first migrated from Labrador to present-day Newfoundland around AD1. The ancestors of this group had three earlier cultural phases, each lasting approximately 500 years, in 2007 DNA testing was conducted on material from the teeth of Demasduit and her husband Nonosabasut, two Beothuk individuals who had died in the 1820s. The results assigned them to Haplogroup X and Haplogroup C, respectively and it also demonstrated they were solely of First Nation indigenous maternal ancestry, unlike some earlier studies that suggested European admixture. The Beothuk lived throughout the island of Newfoundland, particularly in the Notre Dame, estimates vary as to the number of Beothuk at the time of contact with Europeans. Scholars of the 19th and early 20th century estimated about 2,000 individuals at the time of European contact in the 15th century, Recent scholarship suggests there may have been no more than 500 to 700 people. They lived in independent, self-sufficient, extended family groups of 30 to 55 people, like many other hunter-gathering peoples, they appear to have had band leaders but probably not more formal chiefs. They lived in dwellings known as mamateeks, which were fortified for the winter season. These were constructed by arranging poles in a circle, tying them at the top, the floors were dug with hollows used for sleeping. A fireplace was made at the center, during spring, the Beothuk used red ochre to paint not only their bodies, but also their houses, canoes, weapons, household appliances and musical instruments. This practice led Europeans to refer to them as Red Indians, the use of ochre had great cultural significance. The decorating was done during an annual spring celebration. It designated tribal identity, for example, decorating newborn children was a way to welcome them into the tribe, forbidding a person to wear ochre was a form of punishment. Their main sources of food were caribou, salmon, and seals, augmented by harvesting other animal, the Beothuk followed the seasonal migratory habits of their principal quarry. In the fall, they set up fences, sometimes 30–40 miles long. The Beothuk are also known to have made an out of tree sap. They preserved surplus food for use during winter, trapped various fur-bearing animals, the fur side was worn next to the skin, to trap air against a persons body. Beothuk canoes were made of caribou or seal skin, and the bow of the canoe was stiffened with spruce bark
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Norsemen
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Norsemen are the group of people who spoke what is now called the Old Norse language between the 8th and 11th centuries. The language belongs to the North Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages, Norseman means man from the North and applied primarily to Old Norse-speaking tribes living in southern and central Scandinavia. In history, Norse or Norseman could be any person from Scandinavia, even though Norway, Denmark, in some other historical references, the term may also refer to the East Norse, meaning mainly Danes and Swedes, for instance, Cnuts Empire and Swedes adventures East. In the early Medieval period, as today, Vikings was a term for attacking Norsemen, especially in connection with raids and monastic plundering by Norsemen in the British Isles. The Norse were also known as Ascomanni, ashmen, by the Germans, Lochlanach by the Gaels, the Gaelic terms Finn-Gall, Dubh-Gall and Gall Goidel were used for the people of Norse descent in Ireland and Scotland, who assimilated into the Gaelic culture. Dubliners called them Ostmen, or East-people, and the name Oxmanstown comes from one of their settlements, they were known as Lochlannaigh. However, British conceptions of the Vikings origins were not quite correct and those who plundered Britain lived in what is today Denmark, Scania, the western coast of Sweden and Norway and along the Swedish Baltic coast up to around the 60th latitude and Lake Mälaren. They also settled on the island of Gotland, the border between the Norsemen and more southerly Germanic tribes, the Danevirke, today is located about 50 kilometres south of the Danish-German border. The southernmost living Vikings lived no further north than Newcastle upon Tyne, archaeologists and historians of today believe that these Scandinavian settlements in the Slavic lands formed the names of the countries of Russia and Belarus. The Slavs and the Byzantines also called them Varangians, and the Scandinavian bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors were known as the Varangian Guard. In the Old Norse language, the term norrœnir menn, was used correspondingly to the modern English name Norsemen, referring to Swedes, Danes, Norwegians, Faroe Islanders, Icelanders, etc. The modern people of Norway, Sweden and Denmark never identify themselves as skandinaver, as they are Norwegians, Swedes, the Vikings were simply people partaking in the raid. On occasions Finland is also mentioned as a Scandinavian country, Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands are also geographically separate from the Scandinavian peninsula. The term Nordic countries is used to encompass the Scandinavian countries, Iceland, Greenland
27.
Vikings
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The term is also commonly extended in modern English and other vernaculars to the inhabitants of Viking home communities during what has become known as the Viking Age. Facilitated by advanced seafaring skills, and characterised by the longship, Viking activities at times also extended into the Mediterranean littoral, North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia. A romanticized picture of Vikings as noble savages began to emerge in the 18th century, current popular representations of the Vikings are typically based on cultural clichés and stereotypes, complicating modern appreciation of the Viking legacy. One etymology derives víking from the feminine vík, meaning creek, inlet, various theories have been offered that the word viking may be derived from the name of the historical Norwegian district of Viken, meaning a person from Viken. According to this theory, the word simply described persons from this area, however, there are a few major problems with this theory. People from the Viken area were not called Viking in Old Norse manuscripts, in addition, that explanation could only explain the masculine and ignore the feminine, which is a serious problem because the masculine is easily derived from the feminine but hardly vice versa. The form also occurs as a name on some Swedish rune stones. There is little indication of any negative connotation in the term before the end of the Viking Age and this is found in the Proto-Nordic verb *wikan, ‘to turn’, similar to Old Icelandic víkja ‘to move, to turn’, with well-attested nautical usages. In that case, the idea behind it seems to be that the rower moves aside for the rested rower on the thwart when he relieves him. A víkingr would then originally have been a participant on a sea journey characterized by the shifting of rowers, in that case, the word Viking was not originally connected to Scandinavian seafarers but assumed this meaning when the Scandinavians begun to dominate the seas. In Old English, the word wicing appears first in the Anglo-Saxon poem, Widsith, in Old English, and in the history of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen written by Adam of Bremen in about 1070, the term generally referred to Scandinavian pirates or raiders. As in the Old Norse usages, the term is not employed as a name for any people or culture in general, the word does not occur in any preserved Middle English texts. The Vikings were known as Ascomanni ashmen by the Germans for the ash wood of their boats, Lochlannach by the Gaels, the modern day name for Sweden in several neighbouring countries is possibly derived from rōþs-, Ruotsi in Finnish and Rootsi in Estonian. The Slavs and the Byzantines also called them Varangians, Scandinavian bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors were known as the Varangian Guard. The Franks normally called them Northmen or Danes, while for the English they were known as Danes or heathen. It is used in distinction from Anglo-Saxon, similar terms exist for other areas, such as Hiberno-Norse for Ireland and Scotland. The period from the earliest recorded raids in the 790s until the Norman conquest of England in 1066 is commonly known as the Viking Age of Scandinavian history, Vikings used the Norwegian Sea and Baltic Sea for sea routes to the south. The Normans were descended from Vikings who were given feudal overlordship of areas in northern France—the Duchy of Normandy—in the 10th century, in that respect, descendants of the Vikings continued to have an influence in northern Europe
28.
Atlantic Canada
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The population of the four Atlantic provinces in 2016 was about 2,300,000 on half a million km2. The provinces combined had an approximate GDP of $110.308 billion in 2011, the first Premier of Newfoundland, Joey Smallwood, coined the term Atlantic Canada when Newfoundland joined the Dominion of Canada in 1949. Today Atlantic Canada is a distinct region of Canada, with the original founding cultures of Celtic, English and French remaining strong. Although Quebec has physical Atlantic coasts on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Ungava Bay,2016 census figures for Metropolitan Areas and Population Centres in Atlantic Canada. The list includes communities above 15,000, by Metropolitan Area population, or 10,000 by Population Centre population
29.
Vinland
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Vinland, Vineland or Winland is the area of coastal North America explored by Norse Vikings, where Leif Erikson first landed in ca. 1000, approximately five centuries prior to the voyages of Christopher Columbus, Vinland was the name given to North America as far as it was explored by the Vikings, presumably including both Newfoundland and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence as far as northeastern New Brunswick. In 1960, archaeological evidence of a Norse settlement in North America was found at LAnse aux Meadows on the tip of the island of Newfoundland. Before the discovery of evidence, Vinland was known only from Old Norse sagas. The 1960 discovery conclusively proved the pre-Columbian Norse colonization of the Americas, LAnse aux Meadows may correspond to the camp Straumfjörð mentioned in the Saga of Erik the Red. Vinland or Winland was the given to part of North America by the Icelandic Norseman Leif Eiríksson. The exact meaning of this Norse toponym has not been established, to write it he visited the King of Denmark, Sweyn II Estridsson who had knowledge of the northern lands. The name contains Old Norse vin which means meadow, there is a long-standing Scandinavian tradition of fermenting berries into wine. The question whether the name refers to actual grapevines or just to berries was addressed in a 2010 excavation report on L’Anse aux Meadows, another proposal for the names etymology, was brought up by Sven Söderberg in 1898. This suggestion involves interpreting the Old Norse name not as vín-land but as vin-land, Old Norse vin has a meaning of meadow, pasture. It was rejected by Einar Haugen, who argued that the vin element had changed its meaning from pasture to farm long before the Old Norse period, names in vin were given in the Proto-Norse period, and they are absent from places colonized in the Viking Age. Haugens basis for rejection has since been challenged, there is a runestone which may have contained a record of the Old Norse name slightly predating Adam of Bremens Winland. The Hønen Runestone was discovered in Norderhov, Norway shortly before 1817 and its assessment depends on a sketch made by antiquarian L. D. Klüwer, now also lost but in turn copied by Wilhelm Frimann Koren Christie. The Younger Futhark inscription was dated to c. The stone had been erected in memory of a Norwegian, sophus Bugge read part of the inscription as ᚢᛁᚿ᛫ᛆᛁᚭ᛫ᛁᛌᛆ uin aią isa Vínlandi á ísa from Vinland over ice. This is highly uncertain, the sequence is read by Magnus Olsen as ᚢᛁᚿ᛫ᚴᛆᚭ᛫ᛁᛌᛆ uin kaą isa vindkalda á ísa over the wind-cold ice. The main sources of information about the Norse voyages to Vinland are two Icelandic sagas, the Saga of Eric the Red and the Saga of the Greenlanders and these stories were preserved by oral tradition until they were written down some 250 years after the events they describe. The existence of two versions of the shows some of the challenges of using traditional sources for history, because they share a large number of story elements. A possible example is the reference to two different men named Bjarni who are blown off course, a brief summary of the plots of the two sagas, given at the end of this article, shows other examples
30.
L'Anse aux Meadows
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LAnse aux Meadows is an archaeological site on the northernmost tip of the island of Newfoundland in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. Discovered in 1960, it is the most famous site of a Norse or Viking settlement in North America, dating to around the year 1000, LAnse aux Meadows is widely accepted as evidence of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. It is notable for its connection with the attempted colony of Vinland established by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more broadly. It was named a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1978, the site now known as LAnse aux Meadows was first recorded as Anse à la Médée on a French nautical chart made in 1862. The toponym probably referred to a named after the Greek mythological figure of Medea. The cove facing the village of LAnse aux Meadows is still named Médée Bay. How the village came to be named LAnse aux Meadows is not clear. Parks Canada, which manages the site, states that the current name was anglicized from Anse à la Médée after English speakers settled in the area, another possibility is that LAnse aux Meadows is a corruption of the French designation LAnse aux Méduses, which means Jellyfish Cove. The shift from Méduses to Meadows may have occurred because the landscape in the area tends to be open, based on the idea that the Old Norse name Vinland, mentioned in the Icelandic Sagas, meant wine-land, historians had long speculated that the region contained wild grapes. The Ingstads doubted this theory, saying that the name Vinland probably means land of meadows. and this speculation was based on the belief that the Norse would not have been comfortable settling in areas along the American Atlantic coast. This dichotomy between the two views could have possibly been due to the two historic ways in which the first vowel sound of Vinland could be pronounced. In 1960, George Decker, a citizen of the fishing hamlet of LAnse aux Meadows. These bumps covered with grass looked like the remains of houses, Helge Ingstad and Anne Stine Ingstad carried out seven archaeological excavations there from 1961 to 1968. They investigated eight complete house sites and the remains of a ninth, though a possible Norse settlement has been found in southern Newfoundland at Point Rosee, LAnse aux Meadows is currently the only confirmed Norse site in North America. It represents the extent of European exploration and settlement of the New World before the voyages of Christopher Columbus almost 500 years later. Historians have speculated there were other settlement sites, or at least Norse-Native American trade contacts. In 2012, possible Norse outposts were identified in Nanook at Tanfield Valley on Baffin Island, as well as Nunguvik, Willows Island and the Avayalik Islands. The archaeological excavation at LAnse aux Meadows was conducted in the 1960s by a team led by archaeologist Anne Stine Ingstad under the direction of Parks Canada in the 1970s
31.
Newfoundland (island)
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Newfoundland is a large Canadian island off the east coast of the North American mainland, and the most populous part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It has 29 percent of the land area. The island is separated from the Labrador Peninsula by the Strait of Belle Isle and it blocks the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, creating the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the worlds largest estuary. Newfoundlands nearest neighbour is the French overseas community of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, with an area of 108,860 square kilometres, Newfoundland is the worlds 16th-largest island, Canadas fourth-largest island, and the largest Canadian island outside the North. The provincial capital, St. Johns, is located on the southeastern coast of the island, Cape Spear, just south of the capital, is the easternmost point of North America, excluding Greenland. It is common to consider all directly neighbouring islands such as New World, Twillingate, Fogo, by that classification, Newfoundland and its associated small islands have a total area of 111,390 square kilometres. Additionally 6. 1% claimed at least one parent of French ancestry, the islands total population as of the 2006 census was 479,105. Long settled by peoples of the Dorset culture, the island was visited by the Icelandic Viking Leif Eriksson in the 11th century. The next European visitors to Newfoundland were Portuguese, Basque, Spanish, French, the island was visited by the Genoese navigator John Cabot, working under contract to King Henry VII of England on his expedition from Bristol in 1497. In 1501, Portuguese explorers Gaspar Corte-Real and his brother Miguel Corte-Real charted part of the coast of Newfoundland in a attempt to find the Northwest Passage. Newfoundland is considered Britains oldest colony, at the time of English settlement, the Beothuk inhabited the island. While there is evidence of ancient indigenous peoples on the island. LAnse aux Meadows was a Norse settlement near the northernmost tip of Newfoundland, the site is considered the only undisputed evidence of Pre-Columbian contact between the Old and New Worlds, if the Norse-Inuit contact on Greenland is not counted. There is a second suspected Norse site in Point Rosee, the island is a likely location of Vinland, mentioned in the Viking Chronicles, although this has been disputed. The indigenous people on the island at the time of European settlement were the Beothuk, later immigrants developed a variety of dialects associated with settlement on the island, Newfoundland English, Newfoundland French. In the 19th century, it also had a dialect of Irish known as Newfoundland Irish, Scottish Gaelic was spoken on the island during the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the Codroy Valley area, chiefly by settlers from Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. The Gaelic names reflected the association with fishing, in Scottish Gaelic, it was called Eilean a Trosg, or literally, similarly, the Irish Gaelic name Talamh an Éisc means Land of the Fish. The first inhabitants of Newfoundland were the Paleo-Eskimo, who have no link to other groups in Newfoundland history
32.
Juglans cinerea
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Juglans cinerea, commonly known as butternut or white walnut, is a species of walnut native to the eastern United States and southeast Canada. The distribution range of J. cinerea extends east to New Brunswick and it is absent from most of the Southern United States. The species also proliferates at middle elevations in the Columbia River basin, Pacific Northwest, trees with 7 ft or 2.1 m class range diameter at breast height were noted in the Imnaha River drainage as late as January 26,2015. J. cinerea is a tree growing to 20 m tall. Butternut is a species, and rarely lives longer than 75 years. It has a 40–80 cm stem diameter, with gray bark. The leaves are pinnate, 40–70 cm long, with 11–17 leaflets, each leaflet 5–10 cm long, the whole leaf is downy-pubescent, and a somewhat brighter, yellower green than many other tree leaves. Butternut flowers from April to June, depending upon location, about the time as the new leaves appear. Male flowers are inconspicuous, yellow-green slender catkins that develop from auxiliary buds, each female flower has a light pink stigma. Flowers of both sexes do not usually mature simultaneously on any individual tree. The fruit is a nut, produced in bunches of two to six together, the nut is oblong-ovoid, 3–6 cm long and 2–4 cm broad. Key characteristics, Alternate, compound leaves Odd number of leaflets – has a terminal leaflet Butternut grows best on stream banks and it is seldom found on dry, compact, or infertile soils. It grows better than black walnut, however, on dry, rocky soils, Butternut is found most frequently in coves, on stream benches and terraces, on slopes, in the talus of rock ledges, and on other sites with good drainage. It is found up to an elevation of 1,500 metres in the Virginias – much higher altitudes than black walnut, Butternut is found with many other tree species in several hardwood types in the mixed mesophytic forest. It is a species in the following four northern and central forest cover types, sugar maple–basswood, yellow poplar–white oak–northern red oak, beech–sugar maple. Commonly associated trees include basswood, black cherry, beech, black walnut, elm, hemlock, hickory, oak, red maple, sugar maple, yellow poplar, white ash, and yellow birch. In the northeast part of its range, it is found with sweet birch. Forest stands seldom contain more than an occasional butternut tree, although in local areas, in the past, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Tennessee have been the leading producers of butternut timber
33.
New France
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The territory was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration, Canada, Hudsons Bay, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Louisiana. Acadia had a history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia. In the sixteenth century, the lands were used primarily to draw from the wealth of natural resources, in the seventeenth century, successful settlements began in Acadia, and in Quebec by the efforts of Champlain. By 1765, the population of the new Province of Quebec reached approximately 70,000 settlers. In 1763 France had ceded the rest of New France, except the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, to Great Britain and Spain at the Treaty of Paris, in 1800, Spain returned its portion of Louisiana to France under the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. However, French leader Napoleon Bonaparte in turn sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, New France eventually became part of the United States and Canada, with the only vestige remaining under French rule being the tiny islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In the United States, the legacy of New France includes numerous placenames as well as pockets of French-speaking communities. In Canada, institutional bilingualism and strong Francophone identities are arguably the most enduring legacy of New France, the Conquest is viewed differently among Francophone Canadians, and between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians. Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis I, late that year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50 men. After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the year, he headed north along the coast. The first European to discover the site of present-day New York, he named it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, verrazzanos voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I. It was the first province of New France, however, initial French attempts at settling the region met with failure. French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure, another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and it was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565. Acadia and Canada were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples and these lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural riches, which attracted all of Europe
34.
Jacques Cartier
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Jacques Cartier was a French explorer of Breton origin who claimed what is now Canada for France. Jacques Cartier was born in 1491 in Saint-Malo, the port on the north-west coast of Brittany, Cartier, who was a respectable mariner, improved his social status in 1520 by marrying Mary Catherine des Granches, member of a leading family. His good name in Saint-Malo is recognized by its frequent appearance in baptismal registers as godfather or witness, the king had previously invited the Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the eastern coast of North America on behalf of France in 1524. Le Veneur cited voyages to Newfoundland and Brazil as proof of Cartiers ability to lead ships to the discovery of new lands in the New World. On April 20,1534, Cartier set sail under a commission from the king, hoping to discover a western passage to the markets of Asia. In the words of the commission, he was to certain islands and lands where it is said that a great quantity of gold. It took him twenty days to sail across the ocean, starting on May 10 of that year, he explored parts of Newfoundland, areas that now comprise the Canadian Atlantic provinces and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. During one stop at Îles aux Oiseaux, his crew slaughtered around 1000 birds, Cartiers first two encounters with aboriginal peoples in Canada on the north side of Chaleur Bay, most likely the Mikmaq, were brief, some trading occurred. His third encounter took place on the shores of Gaspé Bay with a party of St. Lawrence Iroquoians, the 10-meter cross bearing the words Long Live the King of France took possession of the territory in the name of the king. The change in mood was an indication that the Iroquoians understood Cartiers actions. Here he kidnapped the two sons of their captain, Cartier wrote that they later told him this region where they were captured was called by them Honguedo. The natives captain at last agreed that they could be taken, Cartier returned to France in September 1534, sure that he had reached an Asian land. Jacques Cartier set sail for a voyage on May 19 of the following year with three ships,110 men, and his two Iroquoian captives. Reaching the St. Lawrence, he sailed up-river for the first time, and reached the Iroquoian capital of Stadacona, Cartier left his main ships in a harbour close to Stadacona, and used his smallest ship to continue on to Hochelaga, arriving on October 2,1535. Hochelaga was far more impressive than the small and squalid village of Stadacona, the site of their arrival has been confidently identified as the beginning of the Sainte-Marie Sault – where the bridge named after him now stands. The expedition could proceed no further, as the river was blocked by rapids, after spending two days among the people of Hochelaga, Cartier returned to Stadacona on October 11. It is not known exactly when he decided to spend the winter of 1535–1536 in Stadacona, Cartier and his men prepared for the winter by strengthening their fort, stacking firewood, and salting down game and fish. From mid-November 1535 to mid-April 1536, the French fleet lay frozen solid at the mouth of the St. Charles River, under the Rock of Quebec, ice was over a fathom thick on the river, with snow four feet deep ashore
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Chaleur Bay
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Chaleur Bay - also known informally in English as Bay of Chaleur due to the influence of its French translation - is an arm of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence located between Quebec and New Brunswick. The name of the bay is attributed to explorer Jacques Cartier and it translates into English as bay of warmth or bay of torrid weather. Chaleur Bay opens to the east with its southern shore formed by the shore of New Brunswick. The northern shore is formed by the shore of the Gaspé Peninsula. The bay measures approximately 50 km in width at its widest point between Bathurst and New Carlisle, the western end of the bay transitions into the estuary of the Restigouche River at Dalhousie, New Brunswick. The mouth of the bay is delineated by a running from Haut-fond Leander near Grande-Rivière, Quebec in the north. Canadian Hydrographic Service chart number 4486 is the navigational data repository for the area. The shores of Chaleur Bay include numerous beaches, particularly on the southern shore, many rivers also form barachois or barrier beaches. This sand bar is not only because it has fresh water on one side and salt water on the next. Tourism in the region has been driven in the months by users of the bays beaches. The warm ocean currents that enter the bay from the larger Gulf of St. Lawrence result in some of the warmest saltwater on the Atlantic coast north of the state of Virginia. The estuaries of rivers emptying into the bay create a prominent smell of salt water. Patapédia River Chaleur Bay has several islands, although not entirely located within the bay, the northern shores of Miscou Island and Lameque Island form part of the southern shore of the bay. Heron Island lies near Dalhousie, New Brunswick and is located south of Carleton-sur-Mer, the bays shape and the steep cliffs along its northern shore sometimes create particularly windy conditions especially off Nepisiguit Bay. Under the right direction and speed, sea conditions on large areas of the bay can become quite treacherous. Tidal currents are weak, except at the mouths of some rivers. Its configuration tends to channel the wind for two reasons, the cliffs on its North side, and its V shape. This means that in the middle of this section, off Nepisiguit Bay, there is a zone that is particularly windy, tidal currents in this section rarely reach one knot, except at the mouths of some rivers and some channels
36.
Samuel de Champlain
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Samuel de Champlain, The Father of New France, was a French navigator, cartographer, draftsman, soldier, explorer, geographer, ethnologist, diplomat, and chronicler. He founded New France and Quebec City on July 3,1608 and he is important to Canadian history because he made the first accurate map of the coast and he helped establish the settlements. Born into a family of mariners, Champlain, while still a man, began exploring North America in 1603 under the guidance of François Gravé Du Pont. Then, in 1608, he established the French settlement that is now Quebec City, Champlain was the first European to explore and describe the Great Lakes, and published maps of his journeys and accounts of what he learned from the natives and the French living among the Natives. He formed relationships with local Montagnais and Innu and later with others farther west, with Algonquin and with Huron Wendat, in 1620, Louis XIII of France ordered Champlain to cease exploration, return to Quebec, and devote himself to the administration of the country. In every way but formal title, Samuel de Champlain served as Governor of New France and he established trading companies that sent goods, primarily fur, to France, and oversaw the growth of New France in the St. Lawrence River valley until his death in 1635. The most notable of these is Lake Champlain, which straddles the border between northern New York and Vermont, extending slightly across the border into Canada. Champlain was born to Antoine Champlain and Marguerite Le Roy, in either Hiers-Brouage, or the city of La Rochelle. He was born on or before August 13,1574 according to a recent baptism record found by Jean-Marie Germe, although Léopold Delayant wrote as early as 1867 that Rainguets estimate was wrong, the books of Rainguet and Laverdière have had a significant influence. The 1567 date was carved on numerous monuments dedicated to Champlain and is regarded as accurate. In the first half of the 20th century, some authors disagreed, in 1978 Jean Liebel published groundbreaking research about these estimates of Champlains birth year and concluded, Samuel Champlain was born about 1580 in Brouage, France. Liebel asserts that some authors, including the Catholic priests Rainguet and Laverdière, Champlain claimed to be from Brouage in the title of his 1603 book, and to be Saintongeois in the title of his second book. The exact location of his birth is also not known with certainty. Born into a family of mariners, Samuel Champlain learned to navigate, draw, make nautical charts and his education did not include Ancient Greek or Latin, so he did not read or learn from any ancient literature. During this time he claimed to go on a secret voyage for the king. By 1597 he was a capitaine dune compagnie serving in a garrison near Quimper, in 1598, his uncle-in-law, a navigator whose ship Saint-Julien was chartered to transport Spanish troops to Cádiz pursuant to the Treaty of Vervins, gave Champlain the opportunity to accompany him. After a difficult passage, he spent some time in Cadiz before his uncle, whose ship was chartered to accompany a large Spanish fleet to the West Indies. His uncle, who gave command of the ship to Jeronimo de Valaebrera and this journey lasted two years, and gave Champlain the opportunity to see or hear about Spanish holdings from the Caribbean to Mexico City
37.
French colonization of the Americas
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The French colonization of the Americas began in the 16th century, and continued on into the following centuries as France established a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere. France founded colonies in much of eastern North America, on a number of Caribbean islands, most colonies were developed to export products such as fish, sugar, and furs. The French first came to the New World as explorers, seeking a route to the Pacific Ocean, major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I, King of France. In 1524, Francis sent Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean, Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests. In 1534, Francis I of France sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore the coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River and he founded New France by planting a cross on the shore of the Gaspé Peninsula. The French subsequently tried to establish colonies throughout North America that failed, due to weather, disease. A small group of French troops were left on Parris Island, South Carolina in 1562 to build Charlesfort, Fort Caroline established in present-day Jacksonville, Florida, in 1564, lasted only a year before being destroyed by the Spanish from St. Augustine. An attempt to settle convicts on Sable Island off Nova Scotia in 1598 failed after a short time, in 1599, a sixteen-person trading post was established in Tadoussac, of which only five men survived the first winter. In 1604, Saint Croix Island in Acadia was the site of a short-lived French colony, much plagued by illness, the following year the settlement was moved to Port Royal. Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec and explored the Great Lakes, in 1634, Jean Nicolet founded La Baye des Puants, which is one of the oldest permanent European settlements in America. In 1634, Sieur de Laviolette founded Trois-Rivières, in 1642, Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve, founded Ville-Marie which is now known as Montreal. Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette founded Sault Sainte Marie and Saint Ignace, at the end of the 17th century, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle established a network of forts going from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River. Fort Saint Louis was established in Texas in 1685, but was gone by 1688, antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit in 1701 and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville founded La Nouvelle Orléans in 1718. Pierre Le Moyne dIberville founded Baton Rouge in 1719, the French were eager to explore North America but New France remained largely unpopulated. Due to the lack of women, intermarriages between French and Indians were frequent, giving rise to the Métis people, relations between the French and Indians were usually peaceful. Louis XIV also tried to increase the population by sending approximately 800 young women nicknamed the Kings Daughters, however, the low density of population in New France remained a very persistent problem. At the beginning of the French and Indian War, the British population in North America outnumbered the French 20 to 1, France fought a total of six colonial wars in North America. They discover the probe and Port Royal Island, which will be called by Parris Island in South Carolina, on which he built a fort named Charlesfort
38.
Sieur de Monts
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Pierre Dugua de Mons was a French merchant, explorer and colonizer. A Calvinist, he was born in the Château de Mons, in Royan, Saintonge and he travelled to northeastern North America for the first time in 1599 with Pierre de Chauvin de Tonnetuit. Pierre Du Gua de Mons was born about 1558 in Saintonge, France to Guy and he fought for the cause of Henri IV during the religious wars in France. The king later awarded him a pension of 1,200 crowns. De Mons seems to have made several voyages to Canada including in 1600, in 1603, King Henry, granted Du Gua exclusive right to colonize lands in North America between 40°–60° North latitude. The King also gave Du Gua a monopoly in the fur trade for these territories and named him Lieutenant General for Acadia, in return, Du Gua promised to bring 60 new colonists each year. Entering Baie Française in June 1604, he and his settlers founded a colony on St. Croix Island, numerous settlers succumbed to the harsh winter climate and malnutrition disease as they exhausted the limited natural resources on the island. The colony moved to land on the south shore of Baie Française at Port-Royal in 1605. In 1606, Hendrick Lonck, the Dutch West India Company sea captain boarded two of Du Guas boats, and pillaged them for furs and munitions, the Port-Royal settlement survived and prospered somewhat until 1607 when other merchants protested the monopoly, which the King had to revoke. As a consequence, Du Gua and the settlers had to abandon the colony, Du Gua then turned his attention to the colony of Nouvelle-France in the St. Lawrence River valley, after ceding Port-Royal to Poutrincourt. He never came back to the New World but he sent Champlain to open a colony at Quebec in 1608, Henry IV appointed him as Governor of the Protestant city of Pons, Charente-Maritime from 1610 to 1617, when he retired. He died in 1628, in the castle of Ardenne in Fléac-sur-Seugne
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Passamaquoddy Bay
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Passamaquoddy Bay is an inlet of the Bay of Fundy, between the U. S. state of Maine and the Canadian province of New Brunswick, at the mouth of the St. Croix River. Most of the bay lies within Canada, with its western shore bounded by Washington County, the southernmost point is formed by West Quoddy Head on the U. S. The exact demarcation of the border in Passamaquoddy Bay was an issue between the United States and Britain/Canada. Already the Treaty of Ghent, ending the War of 1812, nevertheless, confusions and ambiguities on this issue persisted. The city of Eastport, Maine lies between Passamaquoddy Bay and Cobscook Bay, to the citys west, the narrow passage between Maine and Deer Island is known as Western Passage. The passage between Eastport, Maine, and Friar Bay, Campobello Island, is known as Friar Roads, the Head Harbour Passage is the deepwater entry to the Bay. The U. S. and Canadian governments agree that the passage is Canadian, the U. S. government believes that it is a territorial sea in which international law gives commercial vessels a right of passage. After the American Revolution, Passamaquoddy Bay was the scene of a thriving smuggling trade, Smuggling peaked in 1808 during Jeffersons Embargo, when smugglers illegally moved tens of thousands of barrels of American flour from American territory into New Brunswick. During the War of 1812, an illicit trade in British manufactured goods existed. After the War of 1812, the primary smuggled good was gypsum from Nova Scotia, Smuggling was winked at by both officials and locals in the region, who discouraged outside intervention by British or American authorities who wanted to stop or control it. Old Sow Whirlpool Joshua M. Smith, borderland Smuggling, Patriots, Loyalists and Illicit Trade in the Northeast, 1783–1820. Gainesville, University Press of Florida,2006
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Saint Croix Island, Maine
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The island was the site of an early attempt at French colonization by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons in 1604. In 1984 it was designated by the United States Congress as Saint Croix Island International Historic Site, there is no public access to the island, but there is a visitor contact station on the U. S. mainland and a display on the Canadian mainland opposite the island. The 6.5 acre island measures approximately 200 yd long by 100 yd wide, the island was called Muttoneguis by the Passamaquoddy Nation who had used or lived on the island for numerous centuries before European discovery. French noble Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons established a settlement on Saint Croix Island in June 1604 under the authority of Henry IV and this outpost was one of the first attempts by France at year-round colonization in the territory they called lAcadie. Earlier attempts by Jacques Cartier at Charlesbourg-Royal in 1541, at Sable Island in 1598 by Marquis de La Roche-Mesgouez, cartographer Samuel de Champlain was part of the Dugua expedition and settlement on the small river island in 1604. The following spring, Champlain and François Gravé Du Pont, moved the settlement to a new location on the shore of the Bay of Fundy called Port-Royal. The Port Royal location was the first permanent European settlement in New France, during the winter more than half the settlers had perished due to a land-sickness believed to be scurvy. Champlain had discovered this new location earlier in the spring during a reconnaissance of the Bay of Fundy for a more suitable settlement site. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain and some of the settlers moved from Port-Royal to a settlement on the Saint Lawrence River that later became Québec and it became known as Bone Island in the 18th century after many of the graves were exposed by erosion. 23 sets of remains were removed in 1969 and subsequently reburied in 2003, analysis of the bones showed that many of them had indications of scurvy, confirming the cause of the deaths described by Champlain. One skull showed signs of having been autopsied which Champlain wrote that he had ordered to try to discover the cause of their illness, the island was neutral territory in the War of 1812, leading it to be sometimes called Neutral Island. Named by the French, Ile Ste-Croix, the island has also been called Demonts Island, Canada issued a nationally circulating quarter in 2004 that commemorated the island and the beginnings of Acadia there. In the United States, the island was designated Saint Croix Island National Monument by the United States Congress in 1949, the monument was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15,1966. It was given its current designation by Congress as an International Historic Site on September 25,1984, in Canada, the island was first recognized in 1958 by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board as having national historic significance. It recommended creation of Dochet Island National Historic Site, but this was rejected by the government on the basis that its location fell outside national jurisdiction, the two nations routinely cooperate on commemorative activities and promotions. Special commemorations by the two nations in 2004 marked the 400th anniversary of French settlement in North America, in 2009, the site started offering a full French translation of its U. S. website, offered by teen volunteer Olivier Fontenelle. Its Parks Canada website, like all others in its network, has offered in French since first appearing online. The HSMB designates three categories of commemoration, nationally significant Sites, Events, and Persons, while the HSMB had recommended Dochet Island National Historic Site in 1958, it was unclear whether the HSMBs later recommendation, in 1968, was to name it a Site or an Event
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Scurvy
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Scurvy is a disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C. Early symptoms include weakness, feeling tired, curly hair, and sore arms, without treatment, decreased red blood cells, gum disease, and bleeding from the skin may occur. As scurvy worsens there can be wound healing, personality changes. Scurvy is caused by not enough vitamin C in the diet and it typically takes at least a month of little to no vitamin C before symptoms occur. In modern times, it occurs most commonly in people with mental disorders, unusual eating habits, alcoholism, other risk factors include intestinal malabsorption and dialysis. Humans and certain other animals require vitamin C in their diets to make the blocks for collagen. Diagnosis is typically based on signs, X-rays, and improvement after treatment. Treatment is with vitamin C supplements taken by mouth, improvement often begins in a few days with complete recovery in a few weeks. Sources of vitamin C in the diet include fruit and a number of vegetables such as tomatoes and potatoes. Cooking often decreases vitamin C in foods and it occurs more often in the developing world in association with malnutrition. Rates among refugees are reported at 5% to 45%, Scurvy was described as early as the time of ancient Egypt. It was a factor in long distance sea travel, often killing large numbers of people. A Scottish surgeon in the Royal Navy, James Lind, was the first to prove it could be treated with citrus fruit in a 1753 publication and his experiments represented the first controlled trial. It took another 40 years before the British Navy began giving out lemon juice routinely, early symptoms are malaise and lethargy. Even earlier might be a pain in a section of the gums which interferes with digestion, after 1–3 months, patients develop shortness of breath and bone pain. Myalgias may occur because of reduced carnitine production, other symptoms include skin changes with roughness, easy bruising and petechiae, gum disease, loosening of teeth, poor wound healing, and emotional changes. Dry mouth and dry eyes similar to Sjögrens syndrome may occur, in the late stages, jaundice, generalized edema, oliguria, neuropathy, fever, convulsions, and eventual death are frequently seen. Scurvy or subclinical scurvy is caused by the lack of vitamin C, in modern Western societies, scurvy is rarely present in adults, although infants and elderly people are affected
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Port-Royal National Historic Site
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Not to be confused with Port-Royal Port-Royal National Historic Site is a National Historic Site located on the north bank of the Annapolis Basin in the community of Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The site is the location of the Habitation at Port-Royal, the Habitation at Port-Royal was established by France in 1605 and was that nations first successful settlement in North America. Port-Royal served as the capital of Acadia until its destruction by British military forces in 1613, France relocated the settlement and capital 8 km upstream and to the south bank of the Annapolis River, the site of the present-day town of Annapolis Royal. This interest had been increasing since the publication of Quietly My Captain Waits, the government agreed, after much persuasion, to have the replica built on the original site. Construction took place from 1939-1941 and was based on a set of plans for the original Habitation that had been recently discovered in France. This was the first National Historic Site to have a structure built. Today, the replica of the Habitation is considered a milestone in the heritage movement. Operated by Parks Canada, it is open to the public as a unit of the park system, staffed by historical interpreters in period costumes. Costumed interpreters provide demonstrations of such historic early 17th century activities as farming, building, cooking, fur trading, Port-Royal was founded after the French nobleman Pierre Du Gua de Monts who spent a disastrous winter in Île-Saint-Croix. He was accompanied by Samuel de Champlain, Louis Hébert and Jean de Biencourt de Poutrincourt et de Saint-Just. Champlain would note in his journals, that the bay was of size, he believed it an adequate anchorage for several hundred ships of the French Royal Fleet. As such, he would name the basin Port-Royal, the Royal Port, this was, for many years, Poutrincourt asked King Henri IV to become the owner of the Seigneurie which encompassed the settlement. Nestled against the North Mountain range, they set about constructing a log stockade fortification called a habitation, with assistance from members of the Mikmaq Nation and a local chief named Membertou, coupled with the more temperate climate of the fertile Annapolis Valley, the settlement prospered. Marc Lescarbots The Theatre of Neptune in New France, the first work of theater written and it was arguably the catalyst for the Order of Good Cheer. In 1607, Dugua had his fur trade monopoly revoked by the Government of France, the Habitation was left in the care of Membertou and the local Mikmaq until 1610 when Sieur de Poutrincourt, another French nobleman, returned with a small expedition to Port-Royal. Poutrincourt converted Membertou and local Mikmaq to Catholicism, hoping to gain assistance from the government. As a result, Jesuits became financial partners with Poutrincourt, although this division within the community. In May,1613 the Jesuits moved on to the Penobscot River valley and in July, Argall returned in November that same year and burned the Habitation to the ground while settlers were away nearby
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Seigneurial system of New France
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The manorial system of New France was the semi-feudal system of land tenure used in the North American French colonial empire. Manorial land tenure was introduced to New France in 1627 by Cardinal Richelieu, to achieve this, the Company subinfeudated almost all of the land awarded to it by Cardinal Richelieu. Despite the official arrangement reached between Cardinal Richelieu and the Company of One Hundred Associates, levels of immigration to French colonies in North America remained extremely low, the resulting scarcity of labor had a profound effect on the system of land distribution. In practice, the lands were arranged in long, narrow strips, called seigneuries or fiefs, along the banks of the St. Lawrence River, its estuaries, both in nominal and legal terms, all French territorial claims in North America belonged to the French king. French monarchs did not impose feudal land tenure on New France, instead, landlords were allotted land holdings and presided over the French colonial agricultural system in North America. This physical layout of manorial property developed as a means of maximizing ease of transit, commerce, and communication by using natural waterways and the relatively few roads. A desirable plot had to be directly bordering or in close proximity to a river system. Estates in free socage were the most macro-level of land division in New France but, within them, immediately below the level of free socage was that of the villeinage. Throughout New France, there came to exist several thousand estates in villeinage, furthermore, these villein tenancies were remarkably uniform in terms of size. Barring extreme cases, it is estimated that around 95% of all estates were between 40 and 200 square arpents, or in size, though most were likely 120 arpents or less. Estates of less than 40 square arpents were considered to be of value by villein socagers. Typically, the proportions of such rectangles coincided with the ratio of 1,10 for width and length, however, extremes all the way up to 1,100 are known to have occurred. By ordinance of the Intendant in 1682, a socager could not hold more than two villeinages. The lord of the manor rented most of the land to tenants, known as censitaires or habitants, who cleared the land, built houses and other buildings, and farmed the land. A smaller portion of the land was kept as a demesne which was significant in the early days of settlement though less thereafter. Manorial land tenure in New France differed somewhat from its counterpart in France, fiefs in North America were granted to military officers and – as in France – many were owned by the Catholic clergy. This could lead to a number of women, generally widows. In order to each of the heirs access to the river or road
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Saint John, New Brunswick
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Saint John is a city on the Fundy coast in New Brunswick, Canada. In 2016, the city is the second largest in New Brunswick and has a population of 67,575 over an area of 315.82 square kilometres, Saint John is the oldest incorporated city in Canada. During the reign of Britains George III, the municipality was created by charter in 1785. The Saint John metropolitan area covers a area of 3,362.95 square kilometres across the Caledonia Highlands. Samuel de Champlain landed at Saint John Harbour on June 24,1604 and is where the Saint John River gets its name. S, in 1785, Saint John became the first incorporated city in what would later become Canada. Over the next century, waves of Irish immigration, namely during the Great Famine via Partridge Island, would change the citys demographics. The Mikmaq also ventured into the territory and named the area Měnagwĕs, samuel de Champlain landed at Saint John Harbour in 1604, but the area was in English hands by the end of the Seven Years War. After being incorporated as a city in 1785 with an influx of Loyalists from the Boston States and immigrants from Ireland, in 1851 the city cemented itself internationally when the Marco Polo, built from a Saint John yard, became the fastest in the world. However, the city would experience much struggle with its success. From 1840 to 1860 sectarian violence was rampant in Saint John resulting in some of the worst urban riots in Canadian history. The city experienced an outbreak in 1854 with the death over 1,500 people, as well as a great fire in 1877 that destroyed 40% of the city. 1785, First quarantine station in North America, Partridge Island, in the early 19th century, it greeted sick and dying Irish immigrants arriving with inhospitable conditions. 1820, The first chartered bank in Canada, the Bank of New Brunswick, Canadas oldest publicly funded high school, Saint John High School 1838, The first penny newspaper in the Empire, the tri-weekly Saint John News, was established. 1842, Canadas first public museum, originally known as the Gesner Museum, named after its Nova Scotian founder Abraham Gesner, the museum is now known as the New Brunswick Museum. 1849, Canada’s first labour union, the Laborer’s Benevolent Association that was formed when Saint John’s longshoremen banded together to lobby for regular pay and a shorter workday. One of their first resolutions was to apply to the city council for permission to erect the bell,1854, The automated steam foghorn was invented by Robert Foulis. 1870, Canadas first Y. W. C. A. was established,1870, First Knights of Pythias in British Empire. 1872, Monitor top railroad cars in the world invented by James Ferguson, the original model is in the New Brunswick Museum in Saint John
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Memramcook
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Memramcook, sometimes also spelt Memramcouke or Memramkouke, is a Canadian village in Westmorland County, New Brunswick. Located in south-eastern New Brunswick, the community is predominantly people of Acadian descent who speak the Chiac derivative of the French language, an agricultural village, it has a strong local patrimony key to the history of the region. It was home to Mikmaqs for many years and was the site of Acadians in 1700. A large part of these Acadians were deported in 1755, the Collège Saint-Joseph was the first francophone university in the east of Canada, which opened its doors in 1864 and hosted/organized the first National Acadian Convention in 1881. Memramcook was called the Berceau de lAcadie, which translates to cradle of Acadia, long been inhabited by the Mikmaq, the site saw the arrival of Acadians in 1700. The first mention of the area used the spelling Mémérancouque in 1757, the missionaries turned it into Memerancook, Memerancooque, Memeramcook, Memramkook, Mamramcook and finally Memramcook. There have been several recent controversies about the name, such as people who offer the spelling Memramcouk or Memramkouke, Mikmaq people were already established in the region for a couple hundred years before the Acadians arrived. Their main village and cemetery seemed to be in Beaumont, Beaumont was a strategic location, giving that it allowed them to control the Petitcodiac River, the most important marine transport route in the region. Knockout, Bernard, Skéouite, Toudoi, Argémiche, Thomas, samuel de Champlain and Jean de Poutrincourt explored the region in 1605. They noted a rocky point and no human presence, in 1612, Father Biard, Charles de Biencourt and their four Native American guides returned to visit Memramcook. At that time, there were about 60-80 cabins, in 1672, Acadian and European word-runners and fishers started to frequent the area and some stayed to establish themselves. The village became a part of domain of La Vallière in 1676, in 1698, Pierre Thibaudeau, Guillaume Blanchard, Pierre Gaudet and a few others left Port-Royal to explore Trois-Rivières. Pierre Guadet, the youngest of the group, decided to stay in Memramcook, the village developed much more quickly after the signing of the Utrecht Treaty, which gave Acadia to England in 1713. Many families from Port-Royal moved to Memramcook at this time as it was still French territory, hamlets that would be later known as Pierre-à-Michel and Beaumont were founded in 1740. The For de La Galissoniére was constructed in 1751 and its job was to defend the entire isthmus of Chignecto, but was later replaced by Fort Beauséjour. Residents were also starting to construct the famous dyke system to dry out the marshes for agriculture, in 1752, the village was composed of 250 people from 51 different families. People lived mostly along the river, and the first chapel was built in 1753 at Pointe-au-Bouleau, in August 1755, English soldiers were sent to Beaubassin, Petitcodiac, Chipoudy, and Memramcook to take the Acadiens prisoners. However, through guidance by the missionary, Father LeGuerne
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