1.
History of Zanzibar
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People have lived in Zanzibar for 20,000 years. History proper starts when the became a base for traders voyaging between the African Great Lakes, the Arabian peninsula, and the Indian subcontinent. They established garrisons on the islands and built the first mosques in the African Great Lakes, during the Age of Exploration, the Portuguese Empire was the first European power to gain control of Zanzibar, and kept it for nearly 200 years. In 1698, Zanzibar fell under the control of the Sultanate of Oman, which developed an economy of trade and cash crops, with a ruling Arab elite, plantations were developed to grow spices, hence, the moniker of the Spice Islands. Another major trade good was ivory, the tusks of elephants that were killed on the Tanganyika mainland - a practice that is still in place to this day. The third pillar of the economy was slaves, which gave Zanzibar an important place in the Arab slave trade, the Omani Sultan of Zanzibar controlled a substantial portion of the African Great Lakes coast, known as Zanj, as well as extensive inland trading routes. Sometimes gradually, sometimes by fits and starts, control of Zanzibar came into the hands of the British Empire, part of the political impetus for this was the movement for the abolition of the slave trade. In 1890, Zanzibar became a British protectorate, the death of one sultan and the succession of another of whom the British did not approve later led to the Anglo-Zanzibar War, also known as the shortest war in history. The islands gained independence from Britain in December 1963 as a constitutional monarchy, a month later, the bloody Zanzibar Revolution, in which several thousand Arabs and Indians were killed and thousands more expelled and expropriated, led to the Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba. That April, the merged with the mainland Tanganyika, or more accurately, was subsumed into Tanzania. Zanzibar was most recently in the news with a January 2001 massacre. Zanzibar has been inhabited, perhaps not continuously, since the Paleolithic, a 2005 excavation at Kuumbi Cave in southeastern Zanzibar found heavy duty stone tools that showed occupation of the site at least 22,000 years ago. Archaeological discoveries of a cave used radiocarbon techniques to prove more recent occupation. Traces of the communities include objects such as glass beads from around the Indian Ocean and it is a suggestion of early trans-oceanic trade networks, although some writers have expressed pessimism about this possibility. No cave sites on Zanzibar have revealed pottery fragments used by early and this is somewhat earlier than the existing evidence for towns in other parts of the Swahili Coast, given as the 9th century AD. The first permanent residents of Zanzibar seem to have been the ancestors of the Hadimu and Tumbatu and they had belonged to various Bantu ethnic groups from the mainland, and on Zanzibar they lived in small villages and failed to coalesce to form larger political units. Because they lacked central organization, they were subjugated by outsiders. Ancient pottery demonstrates existing trade routes with Zanzibar as far back as the ancient Sumer, an ancient pendant discovered near Eshnunna dated ca
2.
Scramble for Africa
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The Scramble for Africa was the invasion, occupation, division, colonization and annexation of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the Partition of Africa and the Conquest of Africa, in 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under European control, by 1914 it had increased to 90 percent of the continent, with only Ethiopia, the Dervish state and Liberia still being independent. The Berlin Conference of 1884, which regulated European colonization and trade in Africa, is referred to as the starting point of the scramble for Africa. The latter years of the 19th century saw the transition from informal imperialism, by influence and economic dominance, to direct rule. But Europeans showed comparatively little interest in the interior for some two centuries thereafter, European exploration of the African interior began in earnest at the end of the 18th century. By 1835, Europeans had mapped most of northwestern Africa, in the middle decades of the 19th century, famous European explorers included David Livingstone and H. M. Stanley, each of whom mapped vast areas of Southern Africa and Central Africa. Arduous expeditions in the 1850s and 1860s by Richard Burton, John Speke and James Grant located the central lakes. By the end of the 19th century Europeans had charted the Nile from its source, traced the courses of the Niger, Congo and Zambezi Rivers, and realized the vast resources of Africa. Even as late as the 1870s, European states still controlled only ten percent of the African continent, the most important holdings were Angola and Mozambique, held by Portugal, the Cape Colony, held by the United Kingdom, and Algeria, held by France. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent of European control, technological advances facilitated European expansion overseas. Industrialisation brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially in the forms of navigation, railways. Medical advances also played an important role, especially medicines for tropical diseases, the development of quinine, an effective treatment for malaria, made vast expanses of the tropics more accessible for Europeans. Sub-Saharan Africa, one of the last regions of the largely untouched by informal imperialism, was also attractive to Europes ruling elites for economic. In addition, surplus capital was more profitably invested overseas, where cheap materials, limited competition. Additionally, Britain wanted the southern and eastern coasts of Africa for stopover ports on the route to Asia and its empire in India. However, in Africa – excluding the area became the Union of South Africa in 1910 – the amount of capital investment by Europeans was relatively small. Consequently, the involved in tropical African commerce were relatively small. Rhodes had carved out Rhodesia for himself, Léopold II of Belgium later, John A. Hobson argued in Imperialism that this shrinking of continental markets was a key factor of the global New Imperialism period
3.
German East Africa
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German East Africa was a German colony in the African Great Lakes region, which included what are now Burundi, Rwanda, and the mainland part of present Tanzania. Its area was 994,996 km2, nearly three times the area of present-day Germany, the colony was organized when the German military was called upon to put down a revolt against the activities of a colonial company during the late 1880s. It ended with Imperial Germanys defeat in World War I, ultimately it was divided between Britain and Belgium and reorganized as a mandate of the League of Nations. Like other powers, the Germans expanded their empire in the Africa Great Lakes region on the basis of fighting slavery, unlike other imperial powers, however, they never actually formally abolished it, preferring instead to curtail the production of new recruits and regulate the extant slaving business. The colony began with Carl Peters, an adventurer who founded the Society for German Colonization, on 3 March 1885, the German government announced it had granted an imperial charter to Peters company and intended to establish a protectorate in the Africa Great Lakes region. Peters then recruited specialists, who began exploring south to the Rufiji River and north to Witu, the British and Germans agreed to divide the mainland between themselves, and the Sultan had no option but to agree. The Abushiri Revolt of 1888 was put down the following year, in 1890, London and Berlin concluded the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty, returning Heligoland to Germany and deciding on the borders of German East Africa. Between 1891 and 1894, the Hehe tribe, led by Chief Mkwawa and they were defeated because rival tribes supported the Germans. After years of warfare, Mkwawa himself was cornered and committed suicide in 1898. The Maji Maji Rebellion occurred in 1905 and was put down by the governor, but scandal soon followed, with stories of corruption and brutality, and in 1907 Chancellor Bülow appointed Bernhard Dernburg to reform the colonial administration. It became a model of efficiency and commanded extraordinary loyalty among the natives during the First World War. German colonial administrators relied heavily on native chiefs to keep order, Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, was a successful general in German East Africa during World War I. Commerce and growth started in earnest under German direction, early on it was realized that economic development would depend on reliable transportation. Over 100,000 acres were under sisal cultivation – the biggest cash crop, two million coffee trees were planted and rubber trees grew on 200,000 acres, along with large cotton plantations. To bring these agricultural products to market, beginning in 1888, the longest line, the Central Railroad covered 775 miles from Dar es Salaam to Morogoro, Tabora and Kigoma. The final link to the shore of Lake Tanganyika had been completed in July 1914 and was cause for a huge and festive celebration in the capital with an agricultural fair. Harbor facilities were built or improved with electrical cranes, with rail access, wharves were remodeled at Tanga, Bagamoyo and Lindi. In 1912 Dar es Salaam and Tanga received 356 freighters and passenger steamers and over 1,000 coastal ships and local trading vessels
4.
Maji Maji Rebellion
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The Maji Maji Rebellion, sometimes called the Maji Maji War, was an armed rebellion against German colonial rule in German East Africa. The war was triggered by a German policy designed to force the population to grow cotton for export. After the Scramble for Africa among the major European powers in the 1880s and these were German East Africa, German Southwest Africa, Cameroon, and Togoland. The Germans had a weak hold on German East Africa. However, they did maintain a system of forts throughout the interior of the territory and were able to some control over it. Since their hold on the colony was weak, they resorted to using violently repressive tactics to control the population, Germany began levying head taxes in 1898, and relied heavily on forced labor to build roads and accomplish various other tasks. In 1902, Carl Peters ordered villages to grow cotton as a cash crop, each village was charged with producing a quota of cotton. The headmen of the village were left in charge of overseeing the production, the German policies were not only unpopular, as they had serious effects on the lives of the natives. The social fabric of society was being changed rapidly, the social roles of men and women were being changed to face the needs of the communities. Since men were forced away from their homes to work, women were forced to some of the traditional male roles. Also, the fact that men were away strained the resources of the village, there was thus a lot of animosity against the government at this period. In 1905, a drought threatened the region, all that as well as opposition to the governments agricultural and labor policies led to open rebellion against the Germans in July. The insurgents turned to magic to drive out the German colonizers, a spirit medium named Kinjikitile Ngwale claimed to be possessed by a snake spirit called Hongo. Ngwale began calling himself Bokero and developed a belief that the people of German East Africa had been called upon to eliminate the Germans, German anthropologists recorded that he gave his followers war medicine that would turn German bullets into water. This war medicine was in water mixed with castor oil. Empowered with this new liquid, Bokeros followers began what would become known as the Maji Maji Rebellion. The end of the war was followed by a period of famine, known as the Great Hunger, the followers of Bokeros movement were poorly armed with spears and arrows, sometimes poisoned. However, they were numerous and believed that they could not be harmed because the Germans bullets would turn to water and they marched from their villages wearing millet stalks around their foreheads
5.
East African Campaign (World War I)
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The campaign all but ended in November 1917, when the Germans entered Portuguese East Africa and continued the campaign living off Portuguese supplies. The strategy of the German colonial forces, led by Lieutenant Colonel Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck, was to divert forces from the Western Front to Africa. His strategy achieved only mixed results after 1916, when he was out of German East Africa and Allied forces became composed almost entirely of South African, Indian. The Germans fought for the whole of World War I, receiving word of the armistice on 14 November 1918 at 7,30 a. m, both sides waited for confirmation and the Germans formally surrendered on 25 November. German East Africa became two League of Nations Class B Mandates, Tanganyika Territory of the United Kingdom and Ruanda-Urundi of Belgium, German East Africa was colonized by the Germans in 1885. The territory itself spanned 384,180 square miles and covered the areas of modern-day Rwanda, Burundi, the colonys indigenous population numbered seven and a half million and was governed by just 5,300 Europeans. Although the colonial regime was relatively secure, the colony had recently been shaken by the Maji Maji Rebellion of 1904–05 whose effects were still being felt by 1914. The outbreak of World War I in Europe led to the popularity of German colonial expansion. Mittelafrika effectively involved the annexation of territory, mostly occupied by the Belgian Congo, the territory would dominate central Africa and would make Germany as by far the most powerful colonial power on the African continent. Nevertheless, the German colonial military in Africa was weak, poorly equipped, although better trained and more experienced than their opponents, many of the German soldiers were reliant on weapons like the Model 1871 rifle which used obsolete black powder. Even the largest concentration of German troops in the continent in East Africa, was unable to fight an aggressive war. By threatening the important British Uganda Railway, von Lettow hoped to force British troops to invade East Africa, in 1912, the German government had formed a defence strategy for East Africa in which the military would withdraw from the coast into the hinterland and fight a guerrilla campaign. For the Belgians, the German presence in East Africa was a threat to the security of Congo, the Colonial Minister, Jules Renkin, favoured a policy of trading territory gained in East Africa with the Portuguese, to expand the western Congo coast in a post-war settlement. A successful campaign in Africa was also seen as a way for the De Broqueville government to avenge the German invasion of Belgium, in East Africa, the Congo Act was first broken by the British. On 15 August, German Askari forces stationed in the Neu Moshi region engaged in their first offensive of the campaign, taveta on the British side of Kilimanjaro fell to 300 Askari of two field companies with the British firing a token volley and retiring in good order. In September, the Germans began to stage raids deeper into British East Africa, German naval power on Lake Victoria was limited to Hedwig von Wissmann and Kingani a tugboat armed with one pom-pom gun, causing minor damage but a great deal of news. The British then armed the Uganda Railway lake steamers SS William Mackinnon, SS Kavirondo, Winifred, the tug was trapped and then scuttled by the Germans. In an effort to solve the raiding nuisance and to capture the northern, white settler region of the German colony
6.
East Africa Protectorate
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East Africa Protectorate was an area in the African Great Lakes occupying roughly the same terrain as present-day Kenya from the Indian Ocean inland to Uganda and the Great Rift Valley. European missionaries began settling in the area from Mombasa to Mount Kilimanjaro in the 1840s and he formed a British East Africa Association which led to the Imperial British East Africa Company being chartered in 1888 and given the original grant to administer the dependency. It administered about 240 kilometres of coastline stretching from the River Jubba via Mombasa to German East Africa which were leased from the Sultan. The British sphere of influence, agreed at the Berlin Conference of 1885, extended up the coast and inland across the future Kenya, Mombasa was the administrative centre at this time. However, the company began to fail, and on 1 July 1895 the British government proclaimed a protectorate, in 1902 administration was again transferred to the Colonial Office and the Uganda territory was incorporated as part of the protectorate also. In 1897 Lord Delamere, the pioneer of settlement, arrived in the Kenya highlands. Lord Delamere was impressed by the possibilities of the area. In 1902, the boundaries of the Protectorate were extended to include what was previously the Eastern Province of Uganda, also, in 1902, the East Africa Syndicate received a grant of 1,300 square kilometres to promote white settlement in the Highlands. The capital was shifted from Mombasa to Nairobi in 1905, a regular Government and Legislature were constituted by Order in Council in 1906. This constituted the administrator a governor and provided for legislative and executive councils, lieutenant Colonel J. Hayes Sadler was the first governor and commander in chief. There were occasional troubles with local tribes but the country was opened up by the Government, after the First World War, more farmers arrived from England and South Africa, and by 1919 the European population was estimated at 9,000 settlers. On 23 July 1920, the areas of the Protectorate were annexed as British dominions by Order in Council. That part of the former Protectorate was thereby constituted as the Colony of Kenya, the remaining 16-kilometre-wide coastal strip, remained a Protectorate under an agreement with the Sultan of Zanzibar. That coastal strip, remaining under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar, was constituted as the Protectorate of Kenya in 1920, after 1896, immigrants from India came to the area as money lenders, traders, and artisans. Racial segregation was normalised, with the Europeans assigning the Highlands to themselves, other restrictions included commercial and residential segregation in the towns, and restrictions on Indian immigration. Nevertheless, the Indians rapidly grew to outnumber the Europeans by more than two to one by 1919, bittlebank and Mr. Brown, to assess the mineral wealth of the region. In the process of carrying out this policy of colonisation a dispute arose between Sir Charles Eliot, then Commissioner of British East Africa and Lord Lansdowne, the British Foreign Secretary. Eliot thereupon resigned his post, and in a telegram to the Prime Minister, dated Mombasa,21 June 1904, gave as his reason
7.
Zanzibar Revolution
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The Zanzibar Revolution occurred in 1964 and led to the overthrow of the Sultan of Zanzibar and his mainly Arab government by local African revolutionaries. Zanzibar was a diverse state consisting of a number of islands off the east coast of Tanganyika which had been granted independence by Britain in 1963. Having overrun the countrys police force and appropriated their weaponry, the insurgents proceeded to Zanzibar Town where they overthrew the Sultan and his government. Reprisals against Arab and South Asian civilians on the island followed, the moderate ASP leader Abeid Karume became the countrys new president and head of state, and positions of power were granted to Umma party members. The new governments apparent communist ties concerned Western governments, as Zanzibar lay within the British sphere of influence, the British government drew up a number of intervention plans. However, the feared communist government never materialised, and because British, meanwhile, the communist bloc powers of China, East Germany and the Soviet Union established friendly relations with the new government by recognising the country and sending advisors. The revolution ended 200 years of Arab dominance in Zanzibar, and is commemorated on the each year with anniversary celebrations. The Zanzibar Archipelago, now part of the Southeast African republic of Tanzania, is a group of islands lying in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Tanganyika and it comprises the main southern island of Unguja, the smaller northern island of Pemba, and numerous surrounding islets. With a long history of Arab rule dating back to 1698, in 1890 during Ali ibn Saids reign, Zanzibar became a British protectorate, and although never formally under direct rule was considered part of the British Empire. By 1964, the country was a monarchy ruled by Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah. After Zanzibar had been conquered by the Sultanate of Oman in 1698, all of the land in the countryside had been given to Omani aristocratic families, in January 1961, as part of the process of decolonisation, the islands British authorities drew up constituencies and held democratic elections. Both the ASP and the ZNP won 11 of the available 22 seats in Zanzibars Parliament, the ZNP entered into a coalition with the Zanzibar and Pemba Peoples Party and this time took 13 seats, while the ASP, despite receiving the most votes, won just 10. Electoral fraud was suspected by the ASP and civil disorder broke out, to maintain control, the coalition government banned the more radical opposition parties, filled the civil service with its own appointees, and politicised the police. In 1963, with the number of seats increased to 31. The Umma Party, formed that year by disaffected radical Arab socialist supporters of the ZNP, was banned and this removed a large portion of the only security force on the island, and created an angry group of paramilitary-trained men with knowledge of police buildings, equipment and procedures. In Parliament, the Minister of Finance Juma Aley responded to questions from Karume by insultingly saying he need to answer questions from a mere boatman. The government did not help broaden its appeal to the majority by drastically cutting spending in schools in areas with high concentrations of blacks. Complete independence from British rule was granted on 10 December 1963, much of the cabinet which was seeking closer ties with Egypt did not want British troops in Zanzibar anyway
8.
Tanganyika
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The new state changed its name to the United Republic of Tanzania within a year. It was situated between the Indian Ocean and the African Great Lakes of Lake Victoria, Lake Nyasa and Lake Tanganyika, the other parts of German East Africa were taken into Belgian trusteeship, eventually becoming present-day Rwanda and Burundi. The Tanganyika Independence Act 1961 transformed the United Nations trust territory into the independent sovereign Commonwealth realm of Tanganyika, the British monarch Elizabeth II remained head of state and Tanganyika shared the Sovereign with the other Commonwealth realms. The monarchs constitutional roles were delegated to the Governor-General of Tanganyika. The royal succession was governed by the English Act of Settlement of 1701, Tanganyika then became a republic within the Commonwealth. After the Union of Zanzibar and Tanganyika, an interim Constitution amended from the 1962 Constitution became the governing document, although meant to be temporary, the Constitutions remained effective until 1977. Postage stamps and postal history of Tanganyika Tanganyika laughter epidemic
9.
Ujamaa
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Ujamaa was the concept that formed the basis of Julius Nyereres social and economic development policies in Tanzania after it gained independence from Britain in 1961. The Swahili word ujamaa means extended family, brotherhood or socialism, Nyerere used Ujamaa as the basis for a national development project. The villagization of production, which essentially collectivized all forms of local productive capacity, the fostering of Tanzanian self-reliance through two dimensions, the transformation of economic and cultural attitudes. Economically, everyone would work for both the group and for him/herself, culturally, Tanzanians must learn to free themselves from dependence on European powers. For Nyerere, this included Tanzanians learning to do things for themselves, the implementation of free and compulsory education for all Tanzanians in order to sensitize them to the principles of Ujamaa. However, Ujamaa decreased production, casting doubt on the projects ability to offer economic growth. Nyerere used a law, the Preventive Detention Act, to crush opposition. In 1967, nationalizations transformed the government into the largest employer in the country, purchasing power declined, and, according to World Bank researchers, high taxes and bureaucracy created an environment where businessmen resorted to evasion, bribery and corruption. In 1973, a policy of forced villagisation was pursued under Operation Vijiji in order to promote collective farming, eventually a number of factors contributed to the downfall of the development model based on the Ujamaa concept. By 1985 it was clear that Ujamaa had failed to lift Tanzania out of its economic state. The hip-hop scene in Tanzania was greatly influenced by the key ideas, at the turn of the century, the principles of Ujamaa were resurrected through an unlikely source, rappers and hip hop artists in the streets of Tanzania. In response to years of government leaders and political figures after Nyerere, themes of unity and family. This was in response to the working class oppression and in some sense a form of resistance, the principles of cooperative economics —local people cooperating with each other to provide for the essentials of living— can be seen in the lyrics of many Tanzanian hip-hop artists. They promote self-business and self-made identities in an effort to raise the spirits of the youth, harambee Ubuntu Distributism A collection of essays on Ujamaa villages, by Kayombo, E. O. Paul Collier, Labour and Poverty in Rural Tanzania, Ujamaa and Rural Development in the United Republic of Tanzania. New York, Oxford University Press,1986, ISBN0198285310 Nyerere, dar es Salaam, Oxford University Press,1968. The Ujamaa village programme in Tanzania, new forms of rural development, the Hague, Institute of Social Studies,1971. Beyond ujamaa in Tanzania, underdevelopment and an uncaptured peasantry, kijanga, Peter A. S. Ujamaa and the role of the church in Tanzania
10.
African Great Lakes
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The African Great Lakes are a series of lakes constituting the part of the Rift Valley lakes in and around the East African Rift. They include Lake Victoria, the second-largest fresh water lake in the world by area, and Lake Tanganyika, collectively, they contain 31,000 km3 of water, which is more than either Lake Baikal or the North American Great Lakes. This total constitutes about 25% of the planets unfrozen surface fresh water, the large rift lakes of Africa are the ancient home of great biodiversity, 10% of the worlds fish species live there. Countries in the African Great Lakes region include Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, a conference will be held on the lakes region in 2017 in Uganda. The African Great Lakes are divided among three different drainage/catchments river basins, another number also have Endorheic basin systems, such as Lake Turkana. Lake Kyoga is part of the Great Lakes system, however, it is not itself considered a Great Lake, based on size alone. Lake Tanganyika and Lake Kivu both empty into the Congo River system, while Lake Malawi is drained by the Shire River into the Zambezi, the African Great Lake region consists of countries that surround the African Great Lakes. It comprises Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, the Bantu Swahili language is the most commonly spoken language in the African Great Lakes region. It also serves as a national or official language of four nations in the region, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Due to the population density of an estimated 107 million people, and the agricultural surplus in the region. The most powerful of these monarchies were Buganda, Bunyoro, Rwanda, unusual for sub-Saharan Africa, the traditional borders were largely maintained by the colonial powers. Being the long sought source of the Nile, the region had long been of interest to Europeans. The first Europeans to arrive in the region in any numbers were missionaries who had limited success in converting the locals, the increased contact with the rest of the world led to a series of devastating epidemics affecting both humans and livestock. While seen as a region with great potential after independence, the region has in recent decades been marred by war and conflict. According to the UNHCR, Tanzania hosted the most Congolese refugees of the region, the worst affected areas have been left in great poverty. The highlands are relatively cool, with temperatures of 17–19˚C. Major drainage basins include those of the Congo-Zaire, Nile, and Zambezi rivers, which drain into the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, forests are dominant in the lowlands of the Congo-Zaire Basin, while grasslands and savannas are most common in the southern and eastern highlands. Temperatures in the average about 95 °F
11.
Tanzania
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Tanzania /ˌtænzəˈniːə/, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in Eastern Africa within the African Great Lakes region. Parts of the country are in Southern Africa, Mount Kilimanjaro, Africas highest mountain, is in northeastern Tanzania. Tanzanias population of 51.82 million is diverse, composed of ethnic, linguistic. Dar es Salaam, the capital, retains most government offices and is the countrys largest city, principal port. Tanzania is a one party dominant state with the Chama Cha Mapinduzi party in power, from its formation until 1992, it was the only legally permitted party in the country. Elections for president and all National Assembly seats were last held in October 2015, the CCM holds approximately 75% of the seats in the assembly. Prehistoric population migrations include Southern Cushitic speakers, who are ancestral to the Iraqw, Gorowa, and Burunge and who moved south from Ethiopia into Tanzania. Based on linguistic evidence, there may also have two movements into Tanzania of Eastern Cushitic people at about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago. These movements took place at about the time as the settlement of the iron-making Mashariki Bantu from West Africa in the Lake Victoria. They brought with them the west African planting tradition and the staple of yams. They subsequently migrated out of these regions across the rest of Tanzania, European colonialism began in mainland Tanzania during the late 19th century when Germany formed German East Africa, which gave way to British rule following World War I. The mainland was governed as Tanganyika, with the Zanzibar Archipelago remaining a separate colonial jurisdiction, following their respective independence in 1961 and 1963, the two entities merged in April 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. Tanzania is mountainous and densely forested in the northeast, where Mount Kilimanjaro is located, three of Africas Great Lakes are partly within Tanzania. To the north and west lie Lake Victoria, Africas largest lake, and Lake Tanganyika, the eastern shore is hot and humid, with the Zanzibar Archipelago just offshore. The Menai Bay Conservation Area is Zanzibars largest marine protected area, over 100 different languages are spoken in Tanzania, making it the most linguistically diverse country in East Africa. Among the languages spoken in Tanzania are all four of Africas language families, Bantu, Cushitic, Nilotic, Swahili and English are Tanzanias official languages. In connection with his Ujamaa social policies, President Nyerere encouraged the use of Swahili, approximately 10% of Tanzanians speak Swahili as a first language, and up to 90% speak it as a second language. Most Tanzanians thus speak both Swahili and a language, many educated Tanzanians are trilingual, also speaking English
12.
Zanzibar
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Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania in East Africa. It is composed of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, 25–50 kilometres off the coast of the mainland, the capital is Zanzibar City, located on the island of Unguja. Its historic centre is Stone Town, which is a World Heritage Site, the name Zanzibar is apparently derived from the Persian zang-bâr signifying black coast. Zanzibars main industries are spices, raffia, and tourism, in particular, the islands produce cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and black pepper. For this reason, the islands, together with Tanzanias Mafia Island, are called the Spice Islands. Zanzibar is the home of the endemic Zanzibar red colobus monkey, the Zanzibar servaline genet, the word Zanzibar came from Arabic Zanjibār, which is in turn from Persian Zang-bār, a compound of Zang + bār. The presence of microlithic tools suggest that it has been home to humans for at least 20,000 years, a Greco-Roman text between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, mentioned the island of Menuthias, which is probably Unguja. Little is known about the history of Zanzibar between the time of the Periplus and the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, from that point forward, wars in Asia and increasing trade motivated Persians, Arabs, and Indians to visit or migrate to Zanzibar. Persian traders used Zanzibar as a base for voyages between the Middle East, India, and Africa and they established garrisons on the islands and built the first Zoroastrian fire temples and mosques in the Southern Hemisphere. The impact of these traders and immigrants on the Swahili culture is uncertain, during the Middle Ages, Zanzibar and other settlements on the Swahili Coast were advanced. The littoral contained a number of autonomous trade cities and these towns grew in wealth as the Bantu Swahili people served as intermediaries and facilitators to local, Arab, Persian, Indonesian, Malaysian, Indian, and Chinese merchants. This interaction contributed in part to the evolution of the Swahili culture, although a Bantu language, Swahili as a consequence today includes some elements that were borrowed from other civilizations, particularly Arabic loanwords. With the wealth that they had acquired through trade, some of the Arab traders also became rulers of the coastal cities, vasco da Gamas visit in 1498 marked the beginning of European influence. In 1503 or 1504, Zanzibar became part of the Portuguese Empire when Captain Ruy Lourenço Ravasco Marques landed and demanded and received tribute from the sultan in exchange for peace, Zanzibar remained a possession of Portugal for almost two centuries. It initially became part of the Portuguese province of Arabia and Ethiopia and was administered by a governor general, around 1571, Zanzibar became part of the western division of the Portuguese empire and was administered from Mozambique. It appears, however, that the Portuguese did not closely administer Zanzibar, the first English ship to visit Unguja, the Edward Bonaventure in 1591, found that there was no Portuguese fort or garrison. The extent of their occupation was a depot where produce was purchased and collected for shipment to Mozambique. In other respects, the affairs of the island were managed by the local king and this hands-off approach ended when Portugal established a fort on Pemba around 1635 in response to the Sultan of Mombasas slaughter of Portuguese residents several years earlier
13.
League of Nations
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The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, at its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, however, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them, after a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, the onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years, the United Nations replaced it after the end of the Second World War on 20 April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by the League. As historians William H. Harbaugh and Ronald E. Powaski point out, the organisation was international in scope, with a third of the members of parliaments serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were held to help refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure consisted of a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League, at the start of the 20th century, two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that, at the start of the First World War in 1914 and this was the first major war in Europe between industrialised countries, and the first time in Western Europe that the results of industrialisation had been dedicated to war. By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had an impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world, the First World War was described as the war to end all wars, the causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term League of Nations in 1914, together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union. The group became more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party. In Dickinsons 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his League of Peace as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation
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League of Nations mandate
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These were of the nature of both a treaty and a constitution, which contained minority rights clauses that provided for the rights of petition and adjudication by the International Court. The mandate system was established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, most of the remaining mandates of the League of Nations thus eventually became United Nations Trust Territories. The mandate system was established by Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, all of the territories subject to League of Nations mandates were previously controlled by states defeated in World War I, principally Imperial Germany and the Ottoman Empire. The mandates were fundamentally different from the protectorates in that the Mandatory power undertook obligations to the inhabitants of the territory, the process of establishing the mandates consisted of two phases, The formal removal of sovereignty of the state previously controlling the territory. The transfer of powers to individual states among the Allied Powers. Ottoman territorial claims were first addressed in the Treaty of Sèvres, the Turkish territories were allotted among the Allied Powers at the San Remo conference in 1920. Peace treaties have played an important role in the formation of the law of nations. Many rules that govern the relations between states have introduced and codified in the terms of peace treaties. The first twenty-six articles of the Treaty of Versailles contained the Covenant of the League of Nations and it contained the international machinery for the enforcement of the terms of the treaty. Article 22 established a system of Mandates to administer former colonies and territories, Article 22 was written two months before the signing of the peace treaty, before it was known what communities, peoples, or territories were related to sub-paragraphs 4,5, and 6. The treaty was signed, and the conference had been adjourned. The mandates were arrangements guaranteed by, or arising out of the treaty which stipulated that mandates were to be exercised on behalf of the League. The decisions taken at the conferences of the Council of Four were not made on the basis of consultation or League unanimity as stipulated by the Covenant, as a result, the actions of the conferees were viewed by some as having no legitimacy. He pointed out that the League of Nations could do nothing to alter their arrangements, since the League could only act by unanimous consent of its members – including the UK and France. United States Secretary of State Robert Lansing was a member of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace at Paris in 1919. He explained that the system of mandates was a created by the Great Powers to conceal their division of the spoils of war under the color of international law. If the former German and Ottoman territories had been ceded to the victorious powers directly, under the plan of the US Constitution the Congress was delegated the power to declare or define the Law of Nations in cases where its terms might be vague or indefinite. The US Senate refused to ratify the Covenant of the League of Nations, the legal issues surrounding the rule by force and the lack of self-determination under the system of mandates were cited by the Senators who withheld their consent
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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United Nations trust territories
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United Nations trust territories were the successors of the remaining League of Nations mandates, and came into being when the League of Nations ceased to exist in 1946. All of the trust territories were administered through the United Nations Trusteeship Council, the one territory not turned over was South-West Africa, which South Africa insisted remained under the League of Nations Mandate. It eventually gained independence in 1990 as Namibia, the main objection was that the trust territory guidelines required that the lands be prepared for independence and majority rule. The concept is distinct from a temporarily and directly governed by the United Nations. All these territories previously were League of Nations mandates, the Trust Territory of the Cameroons under French administration, Achieved independence as the Republic of Cameroon in 1960. The Trust Territory of the Cameroons under British administration, Somewhat smaller than the French Cameroons, following a plebiscite, Northern Cameroons became part of Nigeria in May 1961 and Southern Cameroons joined the Republic of Cameroon in October 1961. In 1975, the two entities were legally unified and granted independence as Papua New Guinea, the western half of the island, formerly Dutch and now part of Indonesia, was never part of either territory. The Trust Territory of Ruanda-Urundi, Separately gained independence in 1962 as Rwanda, the Trust Territory of Tanganyika, Granted independence in 1961. Federated with the former British protectorate Zanzibar in 1964 to form Tanzania, the Trust Territory of Togoland under French administration, Became independent as Togo in 1960. The Trust Territory of Western Samoa, Granted independence in 1962 and these territories were also former League of Nations mandates. The Trust Territory of Nauru, Granted independence in 1968, with the exception of the Northern Mariana Islands, which is an American commonwealth, these are all associated states of the United States. The Trust Territory of Somaliland under Italian administration, Italy was appointed U. N. trustee of the former Italian Somaliland in 1950, in 1960, the Trust Territory merged with the former British Somaliland protectorate to form the Somali Republic. Korea, In wartime talks, Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed that Korea be placed under an American – Soviet trust administration. The plan was eclipsed after Roosevelts death on 12 April 1945, although it was expressed in the December Moscow Conference, Mandatory Palestine, United States government under Harry Truman proposed a UN trusteeship status for the Mandatory Palestine in 1948
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Julius Nyerere
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Julius Kambarage Nyerere was a Tanzanian statesman who served as the leader of Tanzania, and previously Tanganyika, from 1960 until his retirement in 1985. Born in Tanganyika to Nyerere Burito, Chief of the Zanaki, Nyerere was known by the Swahili honorific Mwalimu or teacher and he was also referred to as Baba wa Taifa. In 1954, he helped form the Tanganyika African National Union, in 1967, influenced by the ideas of African socialism, Nyerere issued the Arusha Declaration, which outlined his vision of ujamaa. Ujamaa was a concept that came to dominate Nyereres policies, however, his policies led to economic decline, systematic corruption, and unavailability of goods. In the early 1970s, Nyerere ordered his security forces to transfer much of the population to collective farms and, because of opposition from villagers. This campaign pushed the nation to the brink of starvation and made it dependent on food aid. In 1985, after more than two decades in power, he relinquished power to his successor, Ali Hassan Mwinyi. Nyerere left Tanzania as one of the poorest and most foreign aid-dependent countries in the world, although much progress in such as health. As such, Julius Nyerere is still a figure in Tanzania. He remained the chairman of the Chama Cha Mapinduzi for another five years until 1990 and he died of leukemia in London in 1999. Kambarage Nyerere was born on 13 April 1922 in the town of Butiama in Tanganyikas Mara Region and he was one of 26 children of Nyerere Burito, Chief of the Zanaki. He began attending Government Primary School in Musoma at the age of 12 where he completed the programme in three years and went on to Tabora Government School in 1937. He later described Tabora School as being as close to Eton as you can get in Africa, in 1943 he was baptised as a Catholic. He took the name of Julius, which eventually became his given name. He received a scholarship to attend Makerere University in Kampala, Uganda, here he founded the Tanganyika Welfare Association, which eventually merged with the Tanganyika African Association, which had been formed in 1929. Nyerere received his diploma in 1947. He returned to Tanganyika and worked for 3 years at St. Marys Secondary School in Tabora, in 1949, he received a government scholarship to attend the University of Edinburgh, where he earned an undergraduate Master of Arts degree in Economics and History in 1952. In Edinburgh he encountered Fabian thinking and began to develop his vision of connecting socialism with African communal living
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Abeid Karume
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Abeid Amani Karume was the first President of Zanzibar. He obtained this title as a result of a violent revolution which led to the deposing of the last Sultan of Zanzibar Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah in January 1964. Three months later, the United Republic of Tanzania was founded and he was the father of Zanzibars former president – Amani Abeid Karume. Allegedly born at the village of Mwera in 1905, Karume had little formal education, Karume developed an apparatus of control through the expansion of the Afro-Shirazi Party and its relations with the Tanganyika African National Union party. On 10 December 1963, the United Kingdom granted full independence to Zanzibar after the Zanzibar National Party and Zanzibar, the Sultan was a constitutional monarch. Initial elections gave government control to the ZNP, Karume was willing to work within the electoral framework of the new government, and actually informed a British police officer of the revolutionary plot set to take place in January. Karume was not in Zanzibar on 12 January 1964 – the night of the revolution – and was instead on the African mainland, the instigator of the rebellion was a previously unknown Ugandan, John Okello. The revolution was violent, short, and the revolutionaries prevailed, thousands of Zanzibaris, mostly Zanzibari Arabs & Indians, were murdered, with relatively few casualties on the revolutionary side. Having taken control of the island, John Okello invited Abeid Karume back to the island to assume the title of President of the Peoples Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba. Other Zanzibaris in foreign territory were also invited back, most notably the Marxist politician Abdulrahman Mohammad Babu, John Okello reserved for himself the title of Field Marshal, a position with undefined power. What followed was an internal struggle for power. Karume used his skills to align the leaders of neighboring African countries against Okello. As soon as Okello took a trip out of the country, Karume declared him an enemy of the state, given the presence of Tanganyikan police and the absence of their leader, Okellos gangs of followers did not offer any resistance. Karumes second important political move came when he agreed to form a union with Tanganyikan president Julius Nyerere in April 1964, the union ensured that the new country, to be called Tanzania, would not align itself with the Soviet Union and communist bloc, as A. M. Given the new legitimacy of Karumes government, Karume marginalized Babu to the point of irrelevance, the Marxist leader was eventually forced to flee Tanzania after being charged with masterminding the assassination of Karume in 1972. Karume was assassinated in April 1972 in Zanzibar Town, four gunmen shot him dead as he played bao at the headquarters of the Afro-Shirazi party. Some people celebrated his death, as different parts of the country did not like the president who was never a person from Zanzibar by origin. It is believed he came from Malawi, reprisals followed against people suspected to have been opposed to Karumes regime
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Ali Hassan Mwinyi
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Ali Hassan Mwinyi is a retired second President of the United Republic of Tanzania from 1985 -1995. Previous posts include Interior Minister and Vice President and he also was chairman of the ruling party, the Chama Cha Mapinduzi from 1990 to 1996. During Mwinyis terms Tanzania took the first steps to reverse the socialist policies of Julius Nyerere and he relaxed import restrictions and encouraged private enterprise. It was during his term that multi-party politics were introduced under pressure from foreign donors. Often referred to as Mzee Rukhsa, he pushed for liberalization of morals, beliefs, values and he put these beliefs into practice by opposing religious fundamentalists who burned down pork butcheries, these were fanatics who claimed that eating pork contradicted their beliefs. He insisted that Tanzania was a country and that individual freedom of beliefs was important. Many argue that during Mwinyis tenure the country was in transition from the failed socialist orientation of Julius Nyerere that brought its economy to its knees. It was during Mwinyis administration that Tanzania made some of the crucial decisions towards the liberalization of its economy that paved the way for economic growth. Mwinyi married Siti Mwinyi in 1960, with whom he has six sons, in retirement, Mwinyi has stayed out of the limelight and continues to live in Dar es Salaam
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Hominidae
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Several revisions in classifying the great apes have caused the use of the term hominid to vary over time. Its original meaning referred only to humans and their closest non-extant relatives and that restrictive meaning has now been largely assumed by the term hominin, which comprises all members of the human clade after the split from the chimpanzees. The current, 21st-century meaning of hominid includes all the great apes including humans, the most recent common ancestor of all Hominidae lived roughly 14 million years ago, when the ancestors of the orangutans speciated from the ancestral line of the other three genera. Those ancestors of the family Hominidae had already speciated from the family Hylobatidae, in the early Miocene, about 22 million years ago, there were many species of arboreally adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa, the variety suggests a long history of prior diversification. Fossils at 20 million years ago include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the most recent of these far-flung Miocene apes is Oreopithecus, from the fossil-rich coal beds in northern Italy and dated to 9 million years ago. Species close to the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus found in Greece. Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas, and then the split off from the line leading to the humans. Human DNA is approximately 98. 4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms, the earliest fossils argued by some to belong to the human lineage are Sahelanthropus tchadensis and Orrorin tugenensis, followed by Ardipithecus, with species Ar. kadabba and Ar. ramidus. The classification of the apes has been revised several times in the last few decades. The original meaning of the referred to only humans and their closest relatives—what is now the modern meaning of the term hominin. And the meaning of the taxon Hominidae changed gradually, leading to a different usage of hominid that today all the great apes including humans. A hominid is a member of the family Hominidae, the apes, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees. A hominine is a member of the subfamily Homininae, gorillas, chimpanzees, a hominin is a member of the tribe Hominini, Chimpanzees and humans. A homininan is a member of the subtribe Hominina of the tribe Hominini, a human is a member of the genus Homo, of which Homo sapiens is the only extant species, and within that Homo sapiens sapiens is the only surviving subspecies. For each clade it is indicated approximately when newer extant clades emerged, some texts will refer to Homonini as the Hominina branch. Many scientists, including paleoanthropologists, continue to use the term hominid to mean humans, as mentioned, Hominidae was originally the name given to the family of humans and their close relatives, with the other great apes all being placed in a separate family, the Pongidae. However, that eventually made Pongidae paraphyletic because at least one great ape species proved to be more closely related to humans than to other great apes. Most taxonomists today encourage monophyletic groups—this would require, in this case, thus, many biologists now assign Pongo to the family Hominidae
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Archaeology
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
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Olduvai Gorge
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Olduvai Gorge, or Oldupai Gorge, in Tanzania is one of the most important paleoanthropological sites in the world, it has proven invaluable in furthering understanding of early human evolution. Homo sapiens is dated to have occupied the site 17,000 years ago, the site is significant in showing the increasing developmental and social complexities in the earliest humans, or hominins, largely as revealed in the production and use of stone tools. And prior to tools, the evidence of scavenging and hunting—highlighted by the presence of gnaw marks that predate cut marks—and of the ratio of meat versus plant material in the hominin diet. The collecting of tools and animal remains in an area is evidence of developing social interaction. All these factors indicate increase in cognitive capacities at the beginning of the period of transitioning to hominin—that is, to human—form. German neurologist Wilhelm Kattwinkel traveled to Olduvai Gorge in 1911, where he observed many fossil bones of an extinct three-toed horse, inspired by Kattwinkels discovery, German geologist Hans Reck led a team to Olduvai in 1913. There, he found remains, but the start of World War I halted his research. In 1929, Louis Leakey visited Reck and viewed the Olduvai fossils, he convinced that Olduvai Gorge held critical information on human origins. Louis and Mary Leakey are responsible for most of the excavations and their finds and research in East Africa and the prior work of Raymond Dart and Robert Broom in South Africa eventually convinced most paleoanthropologists that humans did indeed evolve in Africa. In addition to an abundance of remains the Leakeys found more than 2,000 stone tools and lithic flakes. In 1960, the Leakeys son Jonathan found a jaw fragment that proved to be the first fossil specimen of Homo habilis, researchers have dated Olduvai Gorge layers with radiometric dating of the embedded artifacts, using potassium-argon and argon-argon methodology. Hay studied the Olduvai Gorge and surrounding region between 1961 and 2002 and his findings revealed that the site once contained a large lake, with shores covered by deposits of volcanic ash. Around 500,000 years ago, seismic activity diverted a nearby stream which proceeded to cut down through the sediments, the name Olduvai is a misspelling of Oldupai Gorge, which was adopted as the official name in 2005. Oldupai is the Maasai word for the wild sisal plant Sansevieria ehrenbergii, Homo habilis occupied Olduvai from 1.9 mya. The australopithecine Paranthropus boisei was found to occupy the site from approximately 1.8 until 1.2 mya, remains of Homo erectus have been dated at the site from 1.2 mya until 700,000 years ago. Homo sapiens came to occupy the gorge some 17,000 years ago, in the 1930s, as Mary and Louis Leakey opted to search for stone tools in East Africa, many, if not most, scholars were skeptical that Africa was the place where humans evolved. The Leakeys soon turned the evidence that confirmed their intuition and they found stone tools in the lowest geological beds. These tools presented both shaped edges and sharp points, and lithic flakes—struck off the stone in the intentional shaping of those points
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Acheulean
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Acheulean, from the French acheuléen, is an archaeological industry of stone tool manufacture characterized by distinctive oval and pear-shaped hand-axes associated with early humans. Acheulean tools were produced during the Lower Palaeolithic era across Africa and much of West Asia, South Asia, and Europe, and are typically found with Homo erectus remains. It is thought that Acheulean technologies first developed in Africa out of the more primitive Oldowan technology as long ago as 1.76 million years ago, Acheulean tools were the dominant technology for the vast majority of human history. The type site for the Acheulean is Saint-Acheul, a suburb of Amiens, the capital of the Somme department in Picardy, john Frere is generally credited as being the first to suggest a very ancient date for Acheulean hand-axes. In 1797, he sent two examples to the Royal Academy in London from Hoxne in Suffolk and his ideas were, however, ignored by his contemporaries, who subscribed to a pre-Darwinian view of human evolution. Following visits to both Abbeville and Saint Acheul by the geologist Joseph Prestwich, the age of the tools was finally accepted, in 1872, Louis Laurent Gabriel de Mortillet described the characteristic hand-axe tools as belonging to LEpoque de St Acheul. The industry was renamed as the Acheulean in 1925, from the Konso Formation of Ethiopia, Acheulean hand-axes are dated to about 1.5 million years ago using radiometric dating of deposits containing volcanic ashes. Acheulean tools in South Asia have also found to be dated as far as 1.5 million years ago. However, the earliest accepted examples of the Acheulean currently known come from the West Turkana region of Kenya and were first described by a French-led archaeology team. These particular Acheulean tools were dated through the method of magnetostratigraphy to about 1.76 million years ago, making them the oldest not only in Africa. The earliest user of Acheulean tools was Homo ergaster, who first appeared about 1.8 million years ago, not all researchers use this formal name, and instead prefer to call these users early Homo erectus. In individual regions, this dating can be refined, in Europe for example. However more recent research demonstrated that hand-axes from Spain were made more than 900,000 years ago, the enormous geographic spread of Acheulean techniques also makes the name unwieldy as it represents numerous regional variations on a similar theme. The term Acheulean does not represent a culture in the modern sense. The very earliest Acheulean assemblages often contain numerous Oldowan-style flakes and core forms and these industries are known as the Developed Oldowan and are almost certainly transitional between the Oldowan and Acheulean. The Mode 1 industries created rough flake tools by hitting a stone with a hammerstone. The resulting flake that broke off would have a sharp edge for cutting. These early toolmakers may also have worked the stone they took the flake from to create chopper cores although there is debate over whether these items were tools or just discarded cores
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Louis Leakey
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Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey, also known as L. S. B. Having established a program of inquiry in eastern Africa, he also motivated many future generations to continue this scholarly work. Several members of Leakeys family became prominent scholars themselves, another of Leakeys legacies stems from his role in fostering field research of primates in their natural habitats, which he saw as key to understanding human evolution. He personally chose three female researchers, Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, and Birutė Galdikas, calling them The Trimates, each went on to become an important scholar in the field of primatology. Leakey also encouraged and supported many other Ph. D. candidates, Leakey also played a major role in creating organizations for future research in Africa and for protecting wildlife there. Louiss parents, Harry and Mary Bazett Leakey, were Church of England missionaries in British East Africa, Harry was the son of James Shirley Leakey, one of the eleven children of the portrait painter James Leakey. Harry Leakey was assigned to an established post of the Church Mission Society among the Kikuyu at Kabete, the station was at that time a hut and two tents. Louiss earliest home had a floor, a leaky thatched roof, rodents and insects. The facilities slowly improved over time, the mission, a center of activity, set up a clinic in one of the tents, and later a girls school. Harry was working on a translation of the Bible into the Gikuyu language and he had a distinguished career in the CMS, becoming canon of the station. Louis had a brother, Douglas, and two older sisters, Gladys and Julia. The Leakey household came to contain Miss Oakes, Miss Higgenbotham, Louis grew up, played, and learned to hunt with Africans. He also learned to walk with the gait of the Kikuyu and speak their language fluently. He was initiated into the Kikuyu ethnic group, an event of which he never spoke, Louis requested and was given permission to build and move into a hut, Kikuyu style, at the end of the garden. It was home to his collection of natural objects, such as birds eggs. All the children developed a keen interest in and appreciation of the natural surroundings in which they found themselves. They raised baby animals, later turning them over to zoos, Louis read a gift book, Days Before History, by H. R. Hall, a juvenile fictional work illustrating the prehistory of Britain. He began to collect tools and was encouraged in this activity by a role model, Arthur Loveridge, first curator of the Natural History Museum in Nairobi
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Hans Reck
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Hans Gottfried Reck was a German volcanologist and paleontologist. In 1913 he was the first to discover the ancient skeleton of a human in the Olduvai Gorge and he collaborated with Louis Leakey in a return expedition to the site in 1931. Reck was born into a family in Würzburg, Bavaria on 24 January 1886. He attended the universities of Wurzburg and Berlin, where he studied natural history, in the summer of 1907 the geologist Walther von Knebel, a friend and fellow student of Recks, disappeared during a field trip in Iceland. Hans Reck was charged with determining what had happened, and set out in June 1908 with two guides and his fiance, Ina von Grumbkow. The party traveled 1,500 kilometres on horseback in eleven weeks, Reck and the Icelander Sigurður Sumarliðason were the first people ever to reach the summit of the Herðubreið volcano,1,060 metres above the surrounding plain. Reck climbed down to the edge of what would later be called Lake Knebel, a sulphurous lake where von Knebels death had been reported. However, they concluded that von Knebel had died in an accidental drowning when his boat overturned, Reck used what he learned about volcanoes on this expedition in his doctoral dissertation. He graduated from the University of Munich in November 1910 and took up a post in the Berlin Museum of Natural History, Hans Reck studied at University College London, then became a private lecturer at the Museum of Natural History. He married Ina von Grumbkow in February 1912 and she was considerably older than him, having been born in September 1872, and was a strong and capable woman. The Recks were assigned to follow up the 1911 expedition that had made a collection of fossils at Tendaguru in German East Africa. They reached Tendaguru in June 1912, rebuilt the camp and quickly settled into a routine of quarrying to collect dinosaur bones, great quantities of rubble were excavated to uncover the bones, which lay about 4 metres below the surface. These included the well-preserved skeletons of two stegosaurs, an armor-plated dinosaur, also in 1913, Reck made an ascent of the 2,960 metres Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano in the Gregory Rift, about 15 kilometres south of Lake Natron He was the third geologist to do so. Oldoinyo Lengai is the only active volcano in the world. In 1914 Reck published a report that summarized all that was known about this volcano so far, from his. It described the position of the volcano, history of explorations, geomorphological studies and gave a detailed account of the crater region. He gave the site the name Oldoway, later to be changed by the British to Olduvai, in October 1913 Reck managed to find the site again, despite vague directions. He spent the few months making a geological survey and collecting over 1,700 fossils
26.
Oldowan
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The Oldowan, sometimes spelled Olduwan, is the earliest widespread stone tool archaeological industry in prehistory. Oldowan tools were used during the Lower Paleolithic period,2.6 million years ago up until 1.7 million years ago, by ancient hominids across much of Africa, South Asia and this technological industry was followed by the more sophisticated Acheulean industry. The term Oldowan is taken from the site of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, classification of Oldowan tools is still somewhat contentious. Mary Leakey was the first to create a system to classify Oldowan assemblages, the system included choppers, scrapers, and pounders. However, more recent classifications of Oldowan assemblages have been made that focus primarily on manufacture due to the nature of assuming use from stone artefacts. An example is Isaac et al. s tri-modal categories of Flaked Pieces, Detached Pieces, Pounded Pieces, Oldowan tools are sometimes called pebble tools, so named because the blanks chosen for their production already resemble, in pebble form, the final product. It is not known for sure which hominin species actually created and used Oldowan tools and its emergence is often associated with the species Australopithecus garhi and its flourishing with early species of Homo such as H. habilis and H. ergaster. Early Homo erectus appears to inherit Oldowan technology and refines it into the Acheulean industry beginning 1.7 million years ago, the oldest known Oldowan tools have been found in Gona, Ethiopia, and are dated to about 2.6 mya. The use of tools by apes including chimpanzees and orangutans can be used to argue in favour of tool-use as a feature of the hominin family. Tools made from bone, wood, or other materials were therefore in all probability used before the Oldowan. Oldowan stone tools are simply the oldest recognisable tools which have preserved in the archaeological record. There is a flourishing of Oldowan tools in eastern Africa, spreading to southern Africa, at 1.7 mya. the first Acheulean tools appear even as Oldowan assemblages continue to be produced. Both technologies are found in the same areas, dating to the same time periods. This realisation required a rethinking of old cultural sequences in which the more advanced Acheulean was supposed to have succeeded the Oldowan. Sometime before 1.8 mya Homo erectus had spread outside of Africa, reaching as far east as Java by 1.8 mya, in these newly colonised areas, no Acheulean assemblages have been found. In China, only Mode 1 Oldowan assemblages were produced, while in Indonesia stone tools from this age are unknown, by 1.8 mya early Homo was present in Europe, as shown by the discovery of fossil remains and Oldowan tools in Dmanisi, Georgia. Remains of their activities have also excavated in Spain at sites in the Guadix-Baza basin. Most early European sites yield Mode 1 or Oldowan assemblages, the earliest Acheulean sites in Europe only appear around 0.5 mya
27.
Mary Leakey
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Mary Leakey was a British paleoanthropologist who discovered the first fossilised Proconsul skull, an extinct ape which is now believed to be ancestral to humans. She also discovered the robust Zinjanthropus skull at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, Mary Leakey developed a system for classifying the stone tools found at Olduvai. She discovered the Laetoli footprints, and at the Laetoli site she discovered hominin fossils that were more than 3.75 million years old, during her career, Leakey discovered fifteen new species of animal. She also brought about the naming of a new genus, in 1972, after the death of her husband, Leakey became director of excavations at Olduvai. She maintained the Leakey family tradition of palaeoanthropology by training her son, Richard, Mary Leakey was born Mary Douglas Nicol on 6 February 1913, in London, England to Erskine Edward Nicol and Cecilia Marion Nicol. The Nicol family moved to locations in the United States, Italy. Mary began to developed an enthusiasm for Egyptology during these travels, on her mothers side, Mary was a 3rd great-granddaughter of antiquarian John Frere. The Frere family had been active abolitionists in the British colonial empire during the 19th century, three of these communities were still in existence when Leakey published her 1984 autobiography, Freretown, Kenya, Freretown, South Africa, and Freretown, India. The Nicols spent much of their time in southern France where young Mary became fluent in French. In 1925, when Mary was 12, the Nicols stayed at the commune, Les Eyzies, at a time when Elie Peyrony, Peyrony was not excavating scientifically during that early stage of archaeology and did not understand the significance of much of what he found. Mary received permission to go through the remnants of his dig and she started a collection of points, scrapers, and blades from the dump and developed her first system of classification. The family then moved to Cabrerets, a village of Lot, there she met Abbé Lemozi, the village priest, who befriended her and became her mentor for a time. The two toured Pech Merle cave to view the paintings of bison and horses. In the spring of 1926, when Mary was thirteen years old, her father died of cancer and Mary, Mary was placed in a local Catholic convent to be educated, and she later boasted of never passing an examination there. Although she spoke fluent French, Mary did not excel at French language studies and she was expelled for refusing to recite poetry, and was later expelled from a second convent school for causing an explosion in a chemistry laboratory. After the second expulsion, her mother hired two tutors, who were no more successful than the nuns, after the unsuccessful tutors, her mother hired a nanny. Marys particular interests centered on illustration and archaeology, but formal university admission was impossible with her academic record and her mother contacted a professor at Oxford University about possible admission, and was encouraged not to apply, as it would be a waste of her time. Mary had no contact with the university until it awarded her an honorary doctoral degree in 1951
28.
OH 5
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OH5 is a fossilized cranium and the holotype of the species Paranthropus boisei. It was discovered in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, by archaeologist-paleontologist Mary Leakey in 1959, however, this contention was later withdrawn because of its robust australopithecine features and the discovery of Homo habilis soon thereafter. Mary and Louis Leakey had conducted excavations in Tanzania since the 1930s and they returned in 1951, finding mostly ancient tools and fossils of extinct mammals for the next few years. On the morning of July 17,1959, Louis felt ill, sometime around 11,00 a. m. she noticed a piece of bone that seemed to be part of a skull which had a hominid look. After dusting some topsoil away and finding two large teeth set in the curve of a jaw, she drove back to camp exclaiming Ive got him and they created a pile of stones around the exposed portion of the fossil to protect it from the weather. Active excavation began the day, they had chosen to wait for photographer Des Bartlett to arrive so that a photographic record of the entire process of removal could be made. A partial cranium was fully unearthed August 6, though it had to be reconstructed from its fragments which were scattered in the scree. Once he had examined the cranium, Louis determined it to be subadult, or adolescent, based on its dentition and he also believed that it was of a species ancestral to modern humans but a member of the subfamily Australopithecinae. In describing the fossilized hominid in his journal, Louis initially considered the classification Titanohomo mirabilis, in either case,5 is the holotype of its species. The Newest Link in Human Evolution, The Discovery by L. S. B, Leakey of Zinjanthropus Boisei, his account of the dig, was published in the January 1960 issue of Current Anthropology. It was annotated by anthropologist Francis Clark Howell, who had allowed to examine the Leakeys Olduvai findings before public announcements of their discovery. Louis also wrote Finding the Worlds Earliest Man for the September 1960 issue of National Geographic, such an application of geochronology was unprecedented, OH5 became the first hominin to be dated by that method. The same process was used for OH7, the holotype of Homo habilis, phillip Tobias, a colleague of the Leakeys, has also received attribution for this nickname. Primitive tools fashioned out of rocks and bone were excavated at and around Olduvais Bed I, despite that, OH5 made the Leakeys famous and brought more attention to the developing field of paleoanthropology. The cranium was taken to Kenya after its discovery and was there until January 1965 when it was placed on display in the Hall of Man at the National Museum of Tanzania in Dar es Salaam. It remains there as of 2009, still recognized by the name Zinjanthropus, images of OH5 Archaeology Info
29.
Paranthropus boisei
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Paranthropus boisei or Australopithecus boisei was an early hominin, described as the largest of the Paranthropus genus. It lived in Eastern Africa during the Pleistocene epoch from about 2.4 until about 1.4 million years ago, Paranthropus boisei proved to be a treasure, especially when the anthropologists son Richard Leakey suggested it was the first hominin species to use stone tools. Bernard Wood of the University of Liverpool, England, posits that tools discovered in Ethiopia, a well-preserved jaw, known as the Peninj Mandible, was found by Richards colleague Kamoya Kimeu in 1964 in Peninj, Tanzania. Another skull, specimen KNM ER406, was unearthed in 1969 by Richard at Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana, the brain volume is quite small, about 500 to 550 cm³, not much larger than Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus or modern-day chimpanzees. In P. boisei the foramen magnum is much shorter than in P. robustus, in, addition, the cranial variation of P. boisei is remarkably high. The adult males were larger on average than females, as was the case in virtually all australopithecine species, males weighed some 49 kg and stood about 1.37 m tall, while females weighed about 34 kg and were 1.24 m tall. It had a highly specialized for heavy chewing and several traits seen in modern-day gorillas. The molar teeth were large, with an area over twice that of modern humans. The species is referred to as “Nutcracker Man” because it had the biggest, flattest cheek teeth. Boisei had large chewing muscles attached to a sagittal crest. To accommodate their enormous cheek teeth, P. boisei had a wide face, some argue that the craniodental morphology of this taxon is indicative of a diet of hard or tough foods such as ground tubers, nuts and seeds. This work suggests that hard foods were an infrequent part of P. boiseis diet, carbon isotope ratios suggest P. boisei had a diet dominated by C4 vegetation, unlike P. robustus in South Africa. In 1993, A. Amzaye found fossils of P. boisei at Konso, the partial skull is designated as KGA10-525 and is dated to 1.4 million years ago. It is the biggest skull specimen ever found of P. boisei, OH5 Zinjanthropus, Zinj or Nutcracker Man, was the first P. boisei specimen found by Mary Leakey at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, it belonged to an adult male. The name Nutcracker Man may be a misnomer as it may apply to Paranthropus robustus. KNM ER406 is a partial cranium discovered by Richard Leakey and H. Mutua in 1969, found at Koobi Fora, Kenya, which displays large zygomatic arches. KNM WT17000 is a cranium, with similar characteristics to KNM WT17000, Black skull, belonging to Paranthropus aethiopicus. Peninj Mandible is a jaw, found by Kamoya Kimeu in the Lake Natron region
30.
Homo habilis
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Homo habilis is a species of the tribe Hominini, during the Gelasian and early Calabrian stages of the Pleistocene period, which lived between roughly 2.1 and 1.5 million years ago. LD 350-1 is a fossil jawbone fragment discovered in 2013 which has dated to 2.8 million years ago. There has been debate regarding its placement in the genus Homo rather than the genus Australopithecus. The small size and rather primitive attributes have led experts to propose excluding H. habilis from the genus Homo. These were later classified as milk teeth, and therefore considered difficult to link to taxa unlike permanent teeth, however, in 1959, Mary Leakey recovered the cranium of a young adult which had a small brain, large face, tiny canines and massive chewing teeth. H. habilis was short and had long arms compared to modern humans, however. H. habilis had a capacity slightly less than half of the size of modern humans. Despite the ape-like morphology of the bodies, H. habilis remains are accompanied by primitive stone tools. Homo habilis has often thought to be the ancestor of the more gracile and sophisticated Homo ergaster. New findings in 2007 seemed to confirm the view that H. habilis and H. erectus coexisted, an alternative explanation would be that any ancestral relationship from H. habilis to H. erectus would have to have been cladogenetic rather than anagenetic. Its brain size has been shown to range from 550 cm3 to 687 cm3, a virtual reconstruction published in 2015 estimated the endocranial volume at between 729 and 824 ml, larger than any previously published value. H. habilis brain capacity of around 640 cm³ was on average 50% larger than australopithecines and these hominins were smaller than modern humans, on average standing no more than 1.3 m tall. A fragment of fossilized jawbone, dated to around 2.8 million years ago, was discovered in the Ledi-Geraru research area in Afar Regional State in 2013. The fossil is considered the earliest evidence of the Homo genus known to date, the individual in question lived just after a major climate shift in the region, when forests and waterways were rapidly replaced by arid savannah. One set of remains, discovered by Donald Johanson and Tim White in Olduvai Gorge in 1986, included the important upper and lower limbs, specifically the humerus. Their finding stimulated some debate at the time, locomotor affinities of OH62 have been assessed primarily on the basis of its forelimb to hind limb proportions, which are known to be associated with locomotor behavior among living primates. Initial analyses concentrated on comparisons to the Australopithecus afarensis A. L. 288-1, in most dimensions—measured or estimated—the OH62 upper limb remains equaled or exceeded those of A. L. 288-1, while its lower limb remains appeared to be smaller. In this sense, it was more ‘‘primitive than A. L. 288-1, KNM ER1813 is a relatively complete cranium which dates to 1.9 million years old, discovered at Koobi Fora, Kenya by Kamoya Kimeu in 1973
31.
Laetoli
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Laetoli is a site in Tanzania, dated to the Plio-Pleistocene and famous for its hominin footprints, preserved in volcanic ash. The site of the Laetoli footprints is located 45 km south of Olduvai gorge, the location and tracks were discovered by archaeologist Mary Leakey in 1976, and were excavated by 1978. Dated to 3.7 million years ago, they were the oldest known evidence of hominin bipedalism at that time, subsequently, older Ardipithecus ramidus fossils were found with features that suggest bipedalism. With the footprints there were other discoveries excavated at Laetoli including hominin, analysis of the footprints and skeletal structure showed clear evidence that bipedalism preceded enlarged brains in hominins. At a species level, the identity of the hominins who made the trace is obviously difficult to precisely construe, Laetoli was first recognized by western science in 1935 through a man named Sanimu, who convinced archeologist Louis Leakey to investigate the area. Several mammalian fossils were collected with a lower canine tooth originally identified as that of a non-human primate. In 1938 and 1939, German archaeologist Ludwig Kohl-Larsen studied the site extensively, several hominin remains, including premolars, molars, and incisors, were identified. A later excavation in 1959 revealed no new hominins, and Laetoli went relatively unexplored until 1974—when the discovery of a hominin premolar by George Dove revived interest in the site, Mary Leakey returned and almost immediately discovered the well-preserved remains of hominins. Although much debated, researchers have concluded that Australopithecus afarensis is the species of the three hominins who made the footprints at Laetoli. This conclusion is based on the reconstruction of the skeleton of a female A. afarensis hominin by anthropologists Tim D. For gait Tuttle looked at the length, stride length, stride width, and foot angle. A. afarensis is an obligate bipedal hominin with the beginnings of sexual dimorphism attributed to its species, two dating techniques were used to arrive at the approximate age of the beds that make up the ground layers at Laetoli, potassium-argon dating and analysis of stratigraphy. The upper unit of the Laetolil Beds dated back 3.6 to 3.8 million years ago, the beds are dominantly tuffs and have a maximum thickness of 130 meters. No mammalian fauna were found in the unit of the Laetolil Beds. However, like the Lower Laetolil Beds, no date can be assigned to the Ndolanya Beds, the Ogol lavas date back 2.4 million years. No fauna or artifacts are known from the Naibadad Beds, pleistocene fauna and Acheulean artifacts have been found in the Olpiro Beds. Based on a trachytic tuff which occurs within the beds, the Ngaloba Beds may therefore be dated between 120,000 and 150,000 years BP, however, recent study of the Sadiman volcano has shown that it is not a source for the Laetoli Footprints Tuff. Soft rain cemented the ash-layer to tuff without destroying the prints, in time, they were covered by other ash deposits
32.
Australopithecus afarensis
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Australopithecus afarensis is an extinct hominin that lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. A. afarensis was slenderly built, like the younger Australopithecus africanus, a. afarensis is thought to be more closely related to the genus Homo, whether as a direct ancestor or a close relative of an unknown ancestor, than any other known primate from the same time. Some researchers include A. afarensis in the genus Praeanthropus, the most famous fossil is the partial skeleton named Lucy found by Donald Johanson and colleagues, who, in celebration of their find, repeatedly played the Beatles song Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds. Australopithecus afarensis fossils have only been discovered within Eastern Africa, despite Laetoli being the type locality for A. Other localities bearing A. afarensis remains include Omo, Maka, Fejej, and Belohdelie in Ethiopia, compared to the modern and extinct great apes, A. afarensis has reduced canines and molars, although they are still relatively larger than in modern humans. A. afarensis also has a small brain size and a prognathic face. Considerable debate surrounds the locomotor behaviour of A. afarensis, some studies suggest that A. afarensis was almost exclusively bipedal, while others propose that the creatures were partly arboreal. The anatomy of the hands, feet, and shoulder joints in many ways favour the latter interpretation, in particular, the morphology of the scapula appears to be ape-like and very different from modern humans. The curvature of the finger and toe bones approaches that of modern-day apes, alternatively, the loss of an abductable great toe and therefore the ability to grasp with the foot suggests A. afarensis was no longer adapted to climbing. A number of traits in the A. afarensis skeleton strongly reflect bipedalism, in overall anatomy, the pelvis is far more human-like than ape-like. The iliac blades are short and wide, the sacrum is wide and positioned directly behind the hip joint, importantly, the femur also angles in toward the knee from the hip. This trait would have allowed the foot to have closer to the midline of the body. The feet also feature adducted big toes, making it difficult if not impossible to grasp branches with the hindlimbs. The loss of a grasping hindlimb also increases the risk of an infant being dropped or falling, without the second set of grasping limbs, the infant cannot maintain as strong a grip, and likely had to be held with help from the mother. The problem of holding the infant would be multiplied if the mother also had to climb trees, bones of the foot also indicate bipedality. The upright gait would have much more efficient than the bent knee and hip walking. Yet, this can be questioned, as finds of Australopithecus foot bones indicate the Laetoli footprints may not have made by Australopithecus. Many scientists also doubt the suggestion of bipedalism, and argue that even if Australopithecus really did walk on two legs, it did not walk in the way as humans
33.
Hunter-gatherer
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A hunter-gatherer is a human living in a society in which most or all food is obtained by foraging, in contrast to agricultural societies, which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was humanitys first and most successful adaptation, occupying at least 90 percent of human history, following the invention of agriculture, hunter-gatherers who did not change have been displaced or conquered by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world. Only a few contemporary societies are classified as hunter-gatherers, and many supplement their activity with horticulture and/or keeping animals. In the 1970s, Lewis Binford suggested that humans were obtaining food via scavenging. Early humans in the Lower Paleolithic lived in forests and woodlands, which allowed them to collect seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits besides scavenging. Rather than killing large animals for meat, according to this view and this hypothesis does not necessarily contradict the scavenging hypothesis, both subsistence strategies could have been in use – sequentially, alternating or even simultaneously. It remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the Mesolithic period some 10,000 years ago and this specialization of work also involved creating specialized tools such as, fishing nets, hooks, and bone harpoons. The transition into the subsequent Neolithic period is defined by the unprecedented development of nascent agricultural practices. Agriculture originated and spread in different areas including the Middle East, Asia, Mesoamerica. Forest gardening was also being used as a production system in various parts of the world over this period. Forest gardens originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions, in the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species were identified, protected and improved, whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior introduced species were selected and incorporated into the gardens, many groups continued their hunter-gatherer ways of life, although their numbers have continually declined, partly as a result of pressure from growing agricultural and pastoral communities. Many of them reside in the world, either in arid regions or tropical forests. Areas that were available to hunter-gatherers were—and continue to be—encroached upon by the settlements of agriculturalists. In the resulting competition for use, hunter-gatherer societies either adopted these practices or moved to other areas. In addition, Jared Diamond has blamed a decline in the availability of wild foods, as the number and size of agricultural societies increased, they expanded into lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers. As a result of the now near-universal human reliance upon agriculture, archaeologists can use evidence such as stone tool use to track hunter-gatherer activities, including mobility. Most hunter-gatherers are nomadic or semi-nomadic and live in temporary settlements, mobile communities typically construct shelters using impermanent building materials, or they may use natural rock shelters, where they are available
34.
Khoisan languages
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The Khoisan languages are the languages of Africa that have click consonants but do not belong to other language families. For much of the 20th century they were thought to have a relationship with each other. Ethnically, their speakers are the Khoikhoi and the San, two languages of east Africa, those of the Sandawe and Hadza, are also called Khoisan, although their speakers are ethnically neither Khoikhoi nor San. Before the Bantu expansion, Khoisan languages, or languages like them, were spread throughout southern and eastern Africa. They are currently restricted to the Kalahari Desert, primarily in Namibia and Botswana, most of the languages are endangered, and several are moribund or extinct. Language use is quite strong among the 20,000 speakers of Naro, Khoisan languages are best known for their use of click consonants as phonemes. These are typically written with such as ǃ and ǂ. Clicks are quite versatile as consonants, as they involve two articulations of the tongue which can operate partially independently, consequently, the languages with the greatest numbers of consonants in the world are Khoisan. The Juǀʼhoan language has 48 click consonants, among nearly as many non-click consonants, strident and pharyngealized vowels, the ǃXóõ and ǂHõã languages are even more complex. Grammatically, the southern Khoisan languages are generally fairly analytic, having several inflectional morphemes, Khoisan was proposed as one of the four families of African languages in Greenbergs classification. Westphal is known for his rejection of the Khoisan language family. Bonny Sands concluded that the family is not demonstrable with current evidence, dimmendaal summarized the general view with, it has to be concluded that Greenbergs intuitions on the genetic unity of Khoisan could not be confirmed by subsequent research. Today, the few scholars working on these languages treat the three as independent language families that cannot or can no longer be shown to be genetically related. Starostin accepts a relationship between Sandawe and Khoi is plausible, as is one between Tuu and Kxa, but sees no indication of a relationship between two groups or with Hadza. The putative branches of Khoisan are often considered independent families, in the absence of a demonstration that they are related according to the comparative method. See Khoe languages for speculations on the history of the region. With about 800 speakers in Tanzania, Hadza is no longer seen as a Khoisan language, genetically, the Hadza people are unrelated to the Khoisan peoples of Southern Africa, and their closest relatives may be among the Pygmies of Central Africa. Sandawe is not related to Hadza, despite their proximity, the Khoe family is both the most numerous and diverse family of Khoisan languages, with seven living languages and over a quarter million speakers
35.
Cushitic languages
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The Cushitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken primarily in the Horn of Africa, as well as the Nile Valley, the most widely spoken Cushitic language is Oromo with about 35 million speakers, followed by Somali with about 18 million speakers, and Sidamo with about three million speakers. Other Cushitic languages with more than one million speakers are Afar, Somali, one of the official languages of Somalia, is the only Cushitic language accorded official status in any country. Along with Afar, it is one of the recognized national languages of Djibouti. The phylum was first designated as Cushitic around 1858, the languages spoken in the ancient Kerma Culture and in the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic in the Great Lakes region are thought to have belonged to the Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic. Beja, or North Cushitic, is listed as a separate branch of Afroasiatic. However, it is often included within the Cushitic branch. There are also a few poorly-classified languages, including Yaaku, Dahalo, Aasax, Kwadza, Boon, there is a wide range of opinions as to how the languages are interrelated. The positions of the Dullay languages and of Yaaku are uncertain and they have traditionally been assigned to an East Cushitic branch along with Highland and Lowland East Cushitic. However, Hayward thinks that East Cushitic may not be a valid node, fleming proposes that Ongota is a separate branch of Afroasiatic. Bonny Sands thinks the most convincing proposal is by Savà and Tosco, hetzron and Ehret have suggested that the South Cushitic languages are a part of Lowland East Cushitic, the only one of the six groups with much internal diversity. Cushitic was traditionally seen as including the Omotic languages, then called West Cushitic. However, this view has largely abandoned, with Omotic generally agreed to be an independent branch of Afroasiatic. A number of populations are thought to have spoken Afro-Asiatic languages of the Cushitic branch. According to Peter Behrens and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst, linguistic evidence indicates that the peoples of the Kerma Culture in present-day southern Egypt, additionally, historiolinguistics indicate that the makers of the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic in the Great Lakes area likely spoke South Cushitic languages. Christopher Ehret proposes that among these idioms were the now extinct Tale and Bisha languages, ethnologue on the Cushitic branch Bender, Marvin Lionel. Omotic, a new Afroasiatic language family, Southern Illinois University Museum series, number 3. In, Proceedings of the 5th annual conference on African linguistics, African Studies Center & Department of Linguistics, UCLA
36.
Bantu languages
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The Bantu languages, technically the Narrow Bantu languages, constitute a traditional branch of the Niger–Congo languages. There are about 250 Bantu languages by the criterion of mutual intelligibility, Bantu languages are spoken largely east and south of present-day Cameroon, that is, in the regions commonly known as Central Africa, Southeast Africa, and Southern Africa. Parts of the Bantu area include languages from other language families, the Bantu language with the largest total number of speakers is Swahili, however, the majority of its speakers know it as a second language. According to Ethnologue, there are over 180 million L2 speakers, other major languages include Zulu with 27 million speakers and Shona with about 11 million speakers. Ethnologue separates the largely mutually intelligible Kinyarwanda and Kirundi, which, the Bantu languages descend from a common Proto-Bantu language, which is believed to have been spoken in what is now Cameroon in West Africa. This Bantu expansion came to dominate Sub-Saharan Africa east of Cameroon, the technical term Bantu, meaning human beings or simply people, was first used by Wilhelm Bleek, as this is reflected in many of the languages of this group. Bleek, and later Carl Meinhof, pursued extensive studies comparing the structures of Bantu languages. In recent times, the distinctiveness of Narrow Bantu as opposed to the other Southern Bantoid groups has been called into doubt, a coherent classification of Narrow Bantu will likely need to exclude many of the Zone A and perhaps Zone B languages. There is no true genealogical classification of the Bantu languages, the most widely used classification, the alphanumeric coding system developed by Guthrie, is mainly geographic. The two groups have described as having mirror-image tone systems, where Northwest Bantu has a high tone in a cognate, Central Bantu languages generally have a low tone. Northwest Bantu is clearly not a coherent family, but even for Central Bantu the evidence is lexical, another attempt at a detailed genetic classification to replace the Guthrie system is the 1999 Tervuren proposal of Bastin, Coupez, and Mann. This has been criticized for sowing confusion in one of the few ways to distinguish Bantu languages. Nurse & Philippson evaluate many proposals for low-level groups of Bantu languages, glottolog has incorporated many of these into their classification. The languages that share Dahls Law may also form a valid group, the infobox at right lists these together with various low-level groups that are fairly uncontroversial, though they continue to be revised. The development of a rigorous genealogical classification of many branches of Niger–Congo, Guthrie reconstructed both the phonemic inventory and the vocabulary of Proto-Bantu. The most prominent grammatical characteristic of Bantu languages is the use of affixes. Each noun belongs to a class, and each language may have several numbered classes, the class is indicated by a prefix that is part of the noun, as well as agreement markers on verb and qualificative roots connected with the noun. Plural is indicated by a change of class, with a change of prefix
37.
Cushitic
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The Cushitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken primarily in the Horn of Africa, as well as the Nile Valley, the most widely spoken Cushitic language is Oromo with about 35 million speakers, followed by Somali with about 18 million speakers, and Sidamo with about three million speakers. Other Cushitic languages with more than one million speakers are Afar, Somali, one of the official languages of Somalia, is the only Cushitic language accorded official status in any country. Along with Afar, it is one of the recognized national languages of Djibouti. The phylum was first designated as Cushitic around 1858, the languages spoken in the ancient Kerma Culture and in the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic in the Great Lakes region are thought to have belonged to the Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic. Beja, or North Cushitic, is listed as a separate branch of Afroasiatic. However, it is often included within the Cushitic branch. There are also a few poorly-classified languages, including Yaaku, Dahalo, Aasax, Kwadza, Boon, there is a wide range of opinions as to how the languages are interrelated. The positions of the Dullay languages and of Yaaku are uncertain and they have traditionally been assigned to an East Cushitic branch along with Highland and Lowland East Cushitic. However, Hayward thinks that East Cushitic may not be a valid node, fleming proposes that Ongota is a separate branch of Afroasiatic. Bonny Sands thinks the most convincing proposal is by Savà and Tosco, hetzron and Ehret have suggested that the South Cushitic languages are a part of Lowland East Cushitic, the only one of the six groups with much internal diversity. Cushitic was traditionally seen as including the Omotic languages, then called West Cushitic. However, this view has largely abandoned, with Omotic generally agreed to be an independent branch of Afroasiatic. A number of populations are thought to have spoken Afro-Asiatic languages of the Cushitic branch. According to Peter Behrens and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst, linguistic evidence indicates that the peoples of the Kerma Culture in present-day southern Egypt, additionally, historiolinguistics indicate that the makers of the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic in the Great Lakes area likely spoke South Cushitic languages. Christopher Ehret proposes that among these idioms were the now extinct Tale and Bisha languages, ethnologue on the Cushitic branch Bender, Marvin Lionel. Omotic, a new Afroasiatic language family, Southern Illinois University Museum series, number 3. In, Proceedings of the 5th annual conference on African linguistics, African Studies Center & Department of Linguistics, UCLA
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Nilotic peoples
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In a more general sense, the Nilotic peoples include all descendants of the original Nilo-Saharan speakers. Among these are the Luo, Sara, Maasai, Kalenjin, Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Ateker, the Nilotes make up the majority of the population in South Sudan, an area that is believed to be their original point of dispersal. After the Bantu people, they constitute the second-largest group of peoples inhabiting the African Great Lakes region around the Eastern Great Rift and they make up a notable part of the population of southwestern Ethiopia as well. The Nilote peoples primarily adhere to Christianity and traditional faiths, including the Dinka religion, the terms Nilotic and Nilote were previously used as racial sub-classifications, based on anthropological observations of the distinct body morphology of many Nilotic speakers. Twentieth-century social scientists have largely discarded such efforts to classify peoples according to physical characteristics and they formed ethnicities and cultures based on shared language. Since the late 20th century, however, social and physical scientists are making use of data from population genetics, Nilotic and Nilote are now mainly used to classify Nilotic people based on ethnic identification and linguistic families. Etymologically, the terms Nilotic and Nilote derive from the Nile Valley, specifically, the Upper Nile and its tributaries, a Proto-Nilotic unity, separate from an earlier undifferentiated Eastern Sudanic unity, is assumed to have emerged by the 3rd millennium BC. The development of the Proto-Nilotes as a group may have connected with their domestication of livestock. The Eastern Sudanic unity must have been considerably earlier still, perhaps around the 5th millennium BC, the original locus of the early Nilotic speakers was presumably east of the Nile in what is now South Sudan. The Proto-Nilote of the 3rd millennium BC were pastoralists, while their neighbors, by about the 12th century, Luo peoples occupied the area that now lies in eastern Bahr el Ghazal. A Nilotic expansion southward, accompanied by ethnic and linguistic diversification, the reason was presumably the Islamization of Sudan and the eventual collapse of the Nubian Christian kingdom of Alodia. Most of the Luo moved to all the territories neighbouring Sudan. As a result, the separated groups developed variations in language, a branch of the Luo, the Shilluk nation, comprising more than one hundred clans and sub-tribes, was founded by a chief named Nyikango sometime in the middle of the 15th century. They evolved a nation with a feudal-style system, Nyikango and his nation moved northward along the Nile, towards Kush. The rest of the Luo groups rejected Nyikangos idea and kept a south, the Nilotes migrated to their modern territories in a lengthy process spanning about the 15th to 18th centuries. Thus, the Maasai, according to their own oral history and they reached the long trunk of land stretching from what is now northern Kenya to what is now central Tanzania during the 17th and 18th centuries. Includes languages like Turkana and Maasai, bari Teso–Lotuko–Maa Southern Nilotic - Spoken by Nilotic populations in western Kenya, northern Tanzania and eastern Uganda. Kalenjin Omotik–Datooga Western Nilotic - Spoken by Nilotic populations in South Sudan, Sudan, northeastern Congo, northern Uganda, southwestern Kenya, northern Tanzania, dinka–Nuer Luo Nilotic people constitute the bulk of the population of South Sudan
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Great Rift Valley
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The Great Rift Valley is a name given to the continuous geographic trench, approximately 6,000 kilometres in length, that runs from Lebanons Beqaa Valley in Asia to Mozambique in South Eastern Africa. The name continues in some usages, although it is considered geologically imprecise as it combines features that are today regarded as separate, although related, rift. Geologists generally refer to these incipient plates as the Nubian Plate and it included what we would call today the Lebanese section of the Dead Sea Transform, the Jordan Rift Valley, Red Sea Rift and the East African Rift. Today these rifts and faults are seen as distinct, although connected and these were only formed 35 million years ago. The northernmost part of the Rift corresponds to the section of what is called today the Dead Sea Transform or Rift. This midsection of the DST forms the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon, further south it is known as the Hula Valley separating the Galilee mountains and the Golan Heights. The River Jordan begins here and flows southward through Lake Hula into the Sea of Galilee in Israel, the Rift then continues south through the Jordan Rift Valley into the Dead Sea on the Israeli-Jordanian border. From the Dead Sea southwards, the Rift is occupied by the Wadi Arabah, then the Gulf of Aqaba, off the southern tip of Sinai in the Red Sea, the Dead Sea Transform meets the Red Sea Rift which runs the length of the Red Sea. The Red Sea Rift comes ashore to meet the East African Rift, the junction of these three rifts is called the Afar Triple Junction. The East African rift has two branches, the Western Rift Valley and the Eastern Rift Valley, the Western Rift, also called the Albertine Rift, is bordered by some of the highest mountains in Africa, including the Virunga Mountains, Mitumba Mountains, and Ruwenzori Range. It contains the Rift Valley lakes, which some of the deepest lakes in the world. Lake Victoria is considered to be part of the valley system although it actually lies between the two branches. All of the African Great Lakes were formed as the result of the rift, in Kenya, the valley is deepest to the north of Nairobi
40.
Common Era
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Common Era or Current Era is a year-numbering system for the Julian and Gregorian calendars that refers to the years since the start of this era, i. e. since AD1. The preceding era is referred to as before the Common or Current Era, the Current Era notation system can be used as a secular alternative to the Dionysian era system, which distinguishes eras as AD and BC. The two notation systems are equivalent, thus 2017 CE corresponds to AD2017 and 400 BCE corresponds to 400 BC. The year-numbering system for the Gregorian calendar is the most widespread civil calendar used in the world today. For decades, it has been the standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations. The expression has been traced back to Latin usage to 1615, as vulgaris aerae, the term Common Era can be found in English as early as 1708, and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish academics. He attempted to number years from a reference date, an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus. Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi, numbering years in this manner became more widespread in Europe with its usage by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed was the year of birth of Jesus, in 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. The first use of the Latin term vulgaris aerae discovered so far was in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler, Kepler uses it again in a 1616 table of ephemerides, and again in 1617. A1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English – so far, a 1701 book edited by John LeClerc includes Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,6. A1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux says, before the beginning of the vulgar æra, a 1796 book uses the term vulgar era of the nativity. The first so-far-discovered usage of Christian Era is as the Latin phrase aerae christianae on the page of a 1584 theology book. In 1649, the Latin phrase æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac, a 1652 ephemeris is the first instance so-far-found for English usage of Christian Era. The English phrase common Era appears at least as early as 1708, a 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to the common era of the Jews. The first-so-far found usage of the phrase before the era is in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms. The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era, the Catholic Encyclopedia in at least one article reports all three terms being commonly understood by the early 20th century. Thus, the era of the Jews, the common era of the Mahometans, common era of the world
41.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
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The text has been ascribed to different dates between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE, but a mid-1st-century date is now the most commonly accepted. The Erythraean Sea, or in modern spelling, Eritrean Sea is presently a Greek name for the Red Sea, to the ancient Greeks it included the Indian Ocean, the work consists of 66 chapters, most of them about the length of a long paragraph in English. For instance, the short Chapter 9 reads in its entirety, the imports to this are as aforesaid, and from it likewise are exported the same goods, and fragrant gum called mokrotou. The inhabitants who trade here are more peaceful, in many cases, the description of places is sufficiently accurate to identify their present locations, for others, there is considerable debate. The description of the Indian coast mentions the Ganges River clearly, yet after that is somewhat garbled, the Periplus says that a direct sailing route from the Red Sea to the Indian peninsula across the open ocean was discovered by Hippalus. Many trade goods are mentioned in the Periplus, but some of the words naming trade goods are seen nowhere else in ancient literature, for example, one trade good mentioned is lakkos chromatinos. The name lakkos appears nowhere else in ancient Greek or Roman literature, some other named trade goods remain obscure. In the 10th-century manuscript, the text is attributed to Arrian, the Periplus was edited by Sigmund Gelen and first published in a modern edition by Hieronymus Froben in 1533. One historical analysis, published by Schoff in 1912, narrowed the date of the text to 60 CE. Schoff additionally provides an analysis as to the texts original authorship, and arrives at the conclusion that the author must have been a Greek in Egypt. By Schoffs calculations, this would have been during the time of Tiberius Claudius Balbilus, john Hill maintains that the Periplus can now be confidently dated to between 40 and 70 AD and, probably, between AD40 and 50. Because of the absence of any account of the journey up the Nile and across the desert from Coptos, ships from Himyar regularly traveled the East African coast. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes the empire of Himyar and Saba, regrouped under a single ruler Charibael. The Frankincense kingdom is described further east along the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, the ruler of this kingdom is named Eleazus, or Eleazar, thought to correspond to King Iliazz Yalit I,27. Inland from this lies the metropolis Sabbatha, in which the King lives. All the frankincense produced in the country is brought by camels to that place to be stored, and to Cana on rafts held up by inflated skins after the manner of the country, and in boats. And this place has a trade also with the ports, with Barygaza and Scythia and Ommana. Ras Hafun in northern Somalia is believed to be the location of the ancient trade center of Opone, Ancient Egyptian, Roman and Persian Gulf pottery has been recovered from the site by an archaeological team from the University of Michigan
42.
Ptolemy
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Claudius Ptolemy was a Greek writer, known as a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. He lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt, wrote in Koine Greek, beyond that, few reliable details of his life are known. His birthplace has been given as Ptolemais Hermiou in the Thebaid in a statement by the 14th-century astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes. This is a very late attestation, however, and there is no reason to suppose that he ever lived elsewhere than Alexandria. Ptolemy wrote several treatises, three of which were of importance to later Byzantine, Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest, although it was entitled the Mathematical Treatise. The second is the Geography, which is a discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the treatise in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is sometimes known as the Apotelesmatika but more known as the Tetrabiblos from the Greek meaning Four Books or by the Latin Quadripartitum. The name Claudius is a Roman nomen, the fact that Ptolemy bore it indicates he lived under the Roman rule of Egypt with the privileges and political rights of Roman citizenship. It would have suited custom if the first of Ptolemys family to become a citizen took the nomen from a Roman called Claudius who was responsible for granting citizenship, if, as was common, this was the emperor, citizenship would have been granted between AD41 and 68. The astronomer would also have had a praenomen, which remains unknown and it occurs once in Greek mythology, and is of Homeric form. All the kings after him, until Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BC, were also Ptolemies, abu Mashar recorded a belief that a different member of this royal line composed the book on astrology and attributed it to Ptolemy. The correct answer is not known”, Ptolemy wrote in Greek and can be shown to have utilized Babylonian astronomical data. He was a Roman citizen, but most scholars conclude that Ptolemy was ethnically Greek and he was often known in later Arabic sources as the Upper Egyptian, suggesting he may have had origins in southern Egypt. Later Arabic astronomers, geographers and physicists referred to him by his name in Arabic, Ptolemys Almagest is the only surviving comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy. Ptolemy presented his models in convenient tables, which could be used to compute the future or past position of the planets. The Almagest also contains a catalogue, which is a version of a catalogue created by Hipparchus
43.
Rhapta
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Rhapta was a marketplace on the coast of Southeast Africa, which first rose to prominence in the 1st century CE. Its location has not yet been identified, although there are a number of plausible candidate sites. The ancient Periplus of the Erythraean Sea described Rhapta as the last marketplace of Azania, diogenes further describes this river as having its source near the Mountains of the Moon, near the swamp whence the Nile was said to also have its source. Rhapta is also mentioned by the 6th-century author Cosmas Indicopleustes, huntingford dismisses the first two as being too close to Zanzibar and Pemba islands. He observes that there is no river at Msasani, and thus concludes Kisuyu or the Rufiji delta are the most likely candidates, which goods were traded at Rhapta is disputed. The Periplus only states that it was a source of ivory, J. Innes Miller argues that Rhapta formed an important link in the trade route between what is now modern Indonesia and consumers in the Mediterranean region. Miller notes that ancient authorities state that cinnamon and cassia bark were harvested in Africa, Miller points to the well-documented cultural links between Indonesia and East Africa. He then posits that the use of monsoons began far earlier than previously thought, the Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland. The Graeco-Romans and Paanchea/Azania, sailing in the Erythraean Sea in Red Sea Trade, presented Sunday 6 October 2002 at the British Museum. Organised by The Society for Arabian Studies, the Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢, A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. See especially Section 15 on Zesan = Azania and notes, in, The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire. ISBN 0-19-814264-1 Ray, Himanshu Prabha, ed.1999, archaeology of Seafaring, The Indian Ocean in the Ancient Period. The Periplus of the Erythræan Sea, New York, Longmans, Green, and Co. Reprint, New Delhi, Oriental Books Reprint Corporation
44.
Kilwa Kisiwani
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Kilwa Kisiwani is a community on an island off the southern coast of present-day Tanzania in eastern Africa. Historically, it was the center of the Kilwa Sultanate, a medieval sultanate whose authority at its height in the 13th-15th centuries AD stretched the length of the Swahili Coast. Kilwa Kisiwani has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site along with the nearby stonetown Songo Mnara, Kilwa Kisiwani is an archaeological city-state site located along the Swahili Coast on the Kilwa archipelago. It was occupied from at least the 8th century AD and became one of the most powerful settlements along the coast, the seasonal wind reversals would affect trade circulations. Many of the Swahili settlements showed complex layouts that reflected social relations between groups, however at Kilwa, there are many questions left unanswered about the town layout. The cemeteries were located on the edge of the town, which was common for the region, an important city for trade, around the 13th century there were increased fortifications and a greater flow of goods. For these to take place, there would need to be a form of political administration overseeing the city, much of the trade networks were with the Arabian peninsula. Kilwa Kisiwani reached its highest point in wealth and commerce between 13th and 15th centuries AD, evidence of growth in wealth can be seen with the appearance of stone buildings around the 13th century AD, before which all of the buildings were wattle-and-daub. The socio-economic status of the individuals residing there could be seen in the type of structure they were living in. Among Kilwas exports were spices, tortoise shell, coconut oil, ivory, at around this time, Kilwa had seized control over the trade of gold at Sofala. The wealthy also possessed more commercial goods than the individuals who were of lower class did, luxury cloths and foreign ceramics were among a few of the items they would have owned, though some items, such as luxury cloths, do not preserve in the archaeological record. For approximately 500 years, Kilwa was minting coins and this lasted from about A. D 1100-1600 and the coins have been found across the region, including Great Zimbabwe. Marine resources were abundant and utilized for food, food sources would also come from the surrounding land. But because of the impact the sea, with all of the resources and trade opportunities, had on Kilwa. The soil at Kilwa that was found over the limestone was of poor quality, however, the soil in the Kilwa region would have been suitable for growing cotton, which could be used in sail manufacture. 12th century spindle whorls have been found, indicating that cotton was used and processed in this area, at first, most of the focus was placed on the archaeology of Kilwas ports and harbors, however, more and more emphasis is being placed on Kilwas hinterlands. Ceramic artifacts are plentiful at the site and can be divided into two groups, regional and coastal, all of the ceramics with regional distribution were locally produced, but the area of distribution is limited. These unglazed ceramics were referred to as Kitchen Wares, though their uses were not necessarily just as cooking vessels and it is important to note that all of the varieties of locally produced pottery found in the region were also uncovered at the site of Kilwa itself
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