1.
Middle East
–
The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
Middle East
–
The
Temple Mount in
Jerusalem
Middle East
–
Map of the Middle East (green).
Middle East
–
The
Kaaba, located in
Mecca,
Saudi Arabia
Middle East
–
Islam is the largest religion in the Middle East. Here, Muslim men are
prostrating during prayer in a mosque.
2.
Ceasefire
–
A ceasefire, also called cease fire, is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a treaty. A ceasefire is usually more limited than a broader armistice, which is an agreement to end fighting. Successful ceasefires may be followed by armistices, and finally by peace treaties, during World War I, on December 24,1914, there was an unofficial ceasefire on the Western Front as France, the United Kingdom, and Germany observed Christmas. No treaty was signed, and the war resumed after a few days, on November 29,1952, the newly U. S. president-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War. Upon agreeing to the agreement, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone, which has since been patrolled by the KPA and the joint ROKA, US. The Korean Demilitarized Zone runs northeast of the 38th parallel, to the south, the old Korean capital city of Kaesong, site of the armistice negotiations, originally lay in the pre-war ROK, but now is in the DPRK. The United Nations Command, the North Korean Korean Peoples Army, the Armistice also called upon the governments of South Korea, North Korea, China, and the United States to participate in continued peace talks. For his part, ROK President Syngman Rhee attacked the peace proceedings, the war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty. On January 15,1973, President Richard Nixon of the USA ordered a ceasefire of the bombings in North Vietnam. The decision came after Dr. Henry Kissinger, the National Security Affairs advisor to the president, returned to Washington from Paris, combat missions continued in South Vietnam. By January 27,1973, all warring parties in the Vietnam War signed a ceasefire as a prelude to the Paris Peace Accord. After Iraq was driven by U. S. -led coalition forces out of Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm, Iraq, throughout the 1990s, the U. N. Security Council passed 16 Resolutions calling for Iraq to disarm the WMDs program unconditionally and immediately. The war remained in effect until 2003 when U. S. and United Kingdom forces invaded Iraq, a United Nations-mediated ceasefire was agreed between India and Pakistan on 1 January 1949, ending the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. The Security Council set up a dedicated United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan, the Security Council set up a United Nations Military Observer Group for India and Pakistan to monitor the ceasefire line. During World War I, Turkey, which was an ally of Germany, had its troops stationed both in the Balkan States in the west and at the Russian-Iranian border in the north and east. The Turkish government, who were angry at the Christians, had kept under pressure by the Russian Army. Simkos hope was that by annihilating the Assyrians he would get an autonomous rule for his people, who lived in both Turkey and Iran
Ceasefire
–
A truce – not a compromise, but a chance for high-toned gentlemen to retire gracefully from their very civil declarations of war. By
Thomas Nast in
Harper's Weekly, February 17, 1877, p. 132.
Ceasefire
–
British and German officers after arranging the German handover of the
Bergen-Belsen concentration camp and the surrounding area, negotiated during a temporary truce, April 1945
3.
United Nations
–
The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
United Nations
–
1943 sketch by Franklin Roosevelt of the United Nations' original three branches: The
Four Policemen, an executive branch, and an international assembly of forty UN member states.
United Nations
–
Flag
United Nations
–
The
Chilean delegation signing the
UN Charter in San Francisco, 1945
United Nations
–
Dag Hammarskjöld was a particularly active Secretary-General from 1953 until his death in 1961.
4.
List of United Nations peacekeeping missions
–
Peacekeeping, as defined by the United Nations, is a way to help countries torn by conflict create conditions for sustainable peace. Such assistance comes in forms, including confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law. All operations must include the resolution of conflicts through the use of force to be considered valid under the charter of the United Nations, the Charter of the United Nations gives the Security Council the power and responsibility to take collective action to maintain international peace and security. For this reason, the community usually looks to the Security Council to authorize peacekeeping operations. Most of these operations are established and implemented by the United Nations itself with troops serving under UN operational command, ^ Shown are the flags of the five countries in which ONUCA operated. They are in order, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras. ^ Shown are the flags of the newly independent East Timor and its former occupier, ^ This mission operated within former Yugoslav successor states of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The flags are shown in this order, ^ Prevlaka Peninsula was claimed by both Croatia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the flags are shown in this order. Upon resolution, all parties accepted Croatias claim to the territory, ^ The United Nations and all foreign governments but Turkey recognise the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus, whose flag is shown first, over the whole island of Cyprus. The second flag is that of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, a de facto state, by virtue of controlling the northern third of the island, ^ The first flag is the flag of Serbia, used by Republic of Serbia which claims sovereignty over Kosovo. The second is the flag of the Republic of Kosovo which is in de facto control over the territory, as of 27 February 2017, it is recognised by 113 UN member countries. List of non-UN peacekeeping missions Peacekeeping Timeline of UN peacekeeping missions Human Rights in United Nations missions See individual mission websites with their listing
List of United Nations peacekeeping missions
–
UN
refugee camp in eastern
Democratic Republic of Congo.
List of United Nations peacekeeping missions
–
IDP camp in Sudan resulting from the Darfur conflict.
5.
Nobel Peace Prize
–
Per Alfred Nobels will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year, the prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, the Norwegian Nobel Institute, and the Parliament. Due to its nature, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history. Alfred Nobels will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category, as he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear, some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobels way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime, ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company and it is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobels death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, the Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize, the statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was again in 2010 with 237 nominations, in 2011. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have released in a database. Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for review is created. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a decision, but this is not always possible. The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year, the Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount, as of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK
Nobel Peace Prize
–
Alfred Nobel
Nobel Peace Prize
–
Nobel Peace Prize
Nobel Peace Prize
–
The
Norwegian Nobel Institute in
Oslo, Norway
Nobel Peace Prize
–
The
14th Dalai Lama and
Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace Prize laureates
6.
Peacekeeping
–
Peacekeeping refers to activities intended to create conditions that favor lasting peace. Research generally finds that peacekeeping reduces civilian and battlefield deaths and reduces the risk of renewed warfare, such assistance may come in many forms, including confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development. Accordingly, the UN peacekeepers can include soldiers, police officers, the United Nations is not the only organization to implement peacekeeping missions. Non-UN peacekeeping forces include the NATO mission in Kosovo and the Multinational Force, the Nonviolent Peaceforce is one NGO widely considered to have expertise in general peacemaking by non-governmental volunteers or activists. There are a range of types of operations encompassed in peacekeeping. In Page Fortna’s book Does Peacekeeping Work, for instance, she distinguishes four different types of peacekeeping operations, importantly, these types of missions and how they are conducted are heavily influenced by the mandate in which they are authorized. Three of Fortna’s four types are consent-based missions, i. e. Chapter VI missions, Chapter VI missions are consent based, therefore they require the consent of the belligerent factions involved in order to operate. Should they lose that consent, Peacekeepers would be compelled to withdraw, Chapter VII missions, by contrast, do not require consent, though they may have it. If consent is lost at any point, Chapter VII missions would not be required to withdraw, observation Missions which consist of small contingents of military or civilian observers tasked with monitoring cease-fires, troop withdrawals, or other conditions outlined in a ceasefire agreement. They are typically unarmed and are tasked with observing and reporting on what is taking place. Thus, they do not possess the capability or mandate to intervene should either side renege on the agreement, examples of observation missions include UNAVEM II in Angola in 1991 and MINURSO in the Western Sahara. Thus, they serve as a zone between the two sides and can monitor and report on the compliance of either side with regard to parameters established in a given ceasefire agreement. Examples include UNAVEM III in Angola in 1994, and MINUGUA in Guatemala in 1996, multidimensional missions are carried out by military and police personnel in which they attempt to implement robust and comprehensive settlements. Examples include UNTAG in Namibia, ONUSAL in El Salvador, Peace enforcement Missions are Chapter VII missions and unlike the previous Chapter VI missions, they do not require the consent of the belligerent parties. These are multidimensional operations comprising both civilian and military personnel, the military force is substantial in size and fairly well-equipped by UN Peacekeeping standards. They are mandated to use force for purposes beyond just self-defense, examples include ECOMOG and UNAMSIL in West Africa and Sierra Leone in 1999, as well as the NATO operations in Bosnia—IFOR and SFOR. During the Cold War, peacekeeping was primarily interpositional in nature—thus being referred to as traditional peacekeeping, Missions were consent-based, and more often than not observers were unarmed—such was the case with UNTSO in the Middle East and UNCIP in India and Pakistan. Others were armed—such as UNEF-I, established during the Suez Crisis and they were largely successful in this role
Peacekeeping
–
United Nations soldiers, part of United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea, monitoring the Eritrea-Ethiopia boundary.
Peacekeeping
–
Australian U.N. peacekeepers in
East Timor in May 2002.
Peacekeeping
–
Norwegian Peacekeeper during the
Siege of Sarajevo, 1992 - 1993, photo by
Mikhail Evstafiev.
Peacekeeping
–
Canadian
CH135 Twin Hueys assigned to the
Multinational Force and Observers non-UN peacekeeping force, at
El Gorah,
Sinai,
Egypt, 1989.
7.
United Nations Charter
–
The Charter of the United Nations of 1945 is the foundational treaty of the United Nations, an intergovernmental organization. It was signed at the San Francisco War Memorial and Performing Arts Center in San Francisco, United States, on 26 June 1945, as a charter, it is a constituent treaty, and all members are bound by its articles. Furthermore, Article 103 of the Charter states that obligations to the United Nations prevail over all other treaty obligations, most countries in the world have now ratified the Charter. The Charter consists of a preamble and a series of articles grouped into chapters, the preamble consists of two principal parts. The first part contains a call for the maintenance of peace and international security. Chapter I sets forth the purposes of the United Nations, including the important provisions of the maintenance of international peace, Chapter II defines the criteria for membership in the United Nations. Chapters III–XV, the bulk of the document, describe the organs and institutions of the UN, Chapters XVI and Chapter XVII describe arrangements for integrating the UN with established international law. Chapters XVIII and Chapter XIX provide for amendment and ratification of the Charter, all Members, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed by them in accordance with the present Charter. All Members shall settle their disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security. Such subsidiary organs as may be found necessary may be established in accordance with the present Charter, the Security Council shall consist of fifteen Members of the United Nations. The non-permanent members of the Security Council shall be elected for a term of two years, a retiring member shall not be eligible for immediate re-election. Each member of the Security Council shall have one representative, FUNCTIONS and POWERS Article 241. In discharging these duties the Security Council shall act in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations, the specific powers granted to the Security Council for the discharge of these duties are laid down in Chapters VI, VII, VIII, and XII. The Security Council shall submit annual and, when necessary, special reports to the General Assembly for its consideration, Article 25 The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accordance with the present Charter. Each member of the Security Council shall have one vote, decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members. The Security Council shall be so organized as to be able to function continuously, each member of the Security Council shall for this purpose be represented at all times at the seat of the Organization. The Security Council may hold meetings at places other than the seat of the Organization as in its judgment will best facilitate its work. Article 29 The Security Council may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions, Article 30 The Security Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its President
United Nations Charter
–
Atlantic Charter
United Nations Charter
–
World War II poster from the United States on the UNITED NATIONS – PREAMBLE TO THE CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS
8.
Cold War
–
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
Cold War
–
Photograph of the
Berlin Wall taken from the West side. The Wall was built in 1961 to prevent East Germans from fleeing and to stop an economically disastrous drain of workers. It was a symbol of the Cold War and its fall in 1989 marked the approaching end of the war.
Cold War
–
Allied troops in
Vladivostok, August 1918, during the
Allied intervention in the
Russian Civil War.
Cold War
–
The "
Big Three " at the Yalta Conference:
Winston Churchill,
Franklin D. Roosevelt and
Joseph Stalin, 1945.
9.
List of Prime Ministers of Canada
–
The Prime Minister of Canada is an official who serves as the primary minister of the Crown, chair of the Cabinet, and thus head of government of Canada. Officially, the minister is appointed by the Governor General of Canada, but by constitutional convention. Normally, this is the leader of the party caucus with the greatest number of seats in the house, but, if that leader lacks support of the majority, the governor general can appoint another leader who has that support or may dissolve parliament and call a new election. By constitutional convention, a prime minister holds a seat in parliament and, since the early 20th century, the prime ministership is part of Canadas constitutional convention tradition. The office was modelled after that which existed in Britain at the time, sir John A. Macdonald was commissioned by the Viscount Monck on May 24,1867 to form the first government of the Canadian Confederation. On July 1,1867, the first ministry assumed office. The date for which a prime minister begins his or her term has been determined by the date that he or she is sworn into his or her portfolio, however, since 1957, the incoming prime minister has sworn an oath as prime minister. Before 1920, prime ministers resignations were accepted immediately by the governor general, since 1920, the outgoing prime minister has only formally resigned when the new government is ready to be formed. Some sources, including the Parliament of Canada, apply this convention as far back as 1917, as of April 2017, there are seven living former Prime Ministers of Canada, the oldest being John Turner. The most recent former Prime Minister to die was Pierre Trudeau, John A. Macdonald and John Thompson are the only serving Prime Ministers to have died in office. Canadas Prime Ministers, Governors General and Fathers of Confederation
List of Prime Ministers of Canada
–
Canada's Prime Ministers during its first century.
List of Prime Ministers of Canada
–
1 (1 of 2)
List of Prime Ministers of Canada
List of Prime Ministers of Canada
10.
Lester B. Pearson
–
He was the 14th Prime Minister of Canada from 22 April 1963 to 20 April 1968, as the head of two back-to-back Liberal minority governments following elections in 1963 and 1965. During Pearsons time as Prime Minister, his Liberal minority governments introduced universal health care, student loans, the Canada Pension Plan, the Order of Canada, and his Liberal government also unified Canadas armed forces. Pearson convened the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, and he kept Canada out of the Vietnam War, Pearson was born in Newtonbrook in the township of York, Ontario, the son of Annie Sarah and Edwin Arthur Pearson, a Methodist minister. He was the brother of Vaughan Whitier Pearson and Marmaduke Pearson, the family lived in the Methodist manse at the corner of Spruce St. and Catherine St. The home still exists but is in private hands, the Methodist church in downtown Aurora became the United Church of Canada. The church was demolished following a fire in 2014. Rev. Pearson was a member of the Aurora Rugby team where young Mike apparently got his inspiration, Pearson graduated from Hamilton Collegiate Institute in Hamilton, Ontario, in 1913 at the age of 16. Later that same year, he entered Victoria College at the University of Toronto and he was later elected to the Pi Gamma Mu social sciences honour societys chapter at the University of Toronto for his outstanding scholastic performance in history and psychology. After Victoria College, Pearson won a scholarship to study at St Johns College, Oxford, at the University of Toronto, he became a noted athlete, excelling in rugby union, and also playing basketball. He later also played for the Oxford University Ice Hockey Club while on a scholarship at the University of Oxford, Pearson also excelled in baseball and lacrosse as a youth. His baseball talents as an infielder were strong enough for a summer of semi-pro play with the Guelph Maple Leafs of the Ontario Intercounty Baseball League, Pearson toured North American with a combined Oxford and Cambridge Universities lacrosse team in 1923. After he joined the University of Toronto History Department as an instructor, he helped to coach the U of Ts football and he played golf and tennis to high standards as an adult. When World War I broke out in 1914, Pearson volunteered for service as an orderly with the University of Toronto Hospital Unit. In 1915, he entered service with the Canadian Army Medical Corps as a stretcher bearer with the rank of private. During this period of service he spent two years in Egypt and in Greece and he also spent time in the Serbian Army as a corporal and a medical orderly. Pearson learned to fly at an air training school in Hendon and he survived an aeroplane crash during his first flight. In 1918, Pearson was hit by a bus in London during a blackout and he was sent home to recuperate. It was as a pilot that he received the nickname of Mike, thereafter, Pearson would use the name Lester on official documents and in public life, but was always addressed as Mike by friends and family
Lester B. Pearson
–
Pearson in 1944
Lester B. Pearson
–
Pearson serving with the Canadian Army Medical Corps in World War I
Lester B. Pearson
–
Pearson with
John Ross McLean,
Vincent Massey and
Georges Vanier,
Canada House,
London.
Lester B. Pearson
–
Ice hockey in Europe; Oxford University vs.
Switzerland, 1922. Future Canadian Prime Minister Lester Pearson is at right front. His nickname from the Swiss was "Herr Zig-Zag".
11.
List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates
–
As of 2016, the Peace Prize has been awarded to 104 individuals and 23 organizations. Sixteen women have won the Nobel Peace Prize, more than any other Nobel Prize, only two recipients have won multiple Prizes, the International Committee of the Red Cross has won three times and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has won twice. There have been 19 years since its creation in which the Peace Prize was not awarded, Lê Đức Thọ is the only person to ever refuse to accept a Nobel Peace Prize. List of Nobel laureates List of peace activists A Elihu Root, Austen Chamberlain, Charles G. Dawes, B Carl von Ossietzkys Prize was awarded in absentia because he was refused a passport by the government of Germany. C Dag Hammarskjölds Prize was awarded posthumously, D Lê Đức Thọ declined to accept the Prize. E Andrei Sakharovs Prize was awarded in absentia because he was refused a passport by the government of the Soviet Union, F Aung San Suu Kyis Prize was awarded in absentia because she was being held prisoner by the government of Burma. Following her release from house arrest and election to the Pyithu Hluttaw, G Liu Xiaobos Prize was awarded in absentia because he is imprisoned in China. General Specific Official website of the Norwegian Nobel Committee
List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates
–
The Norwegian Nobel Institute (headquarters pictured) assists the Norwegian Nobel Committee in selecting recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize and in organising the annual award in Oslo.
List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates
List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates
–
Frédéric Passy
List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates
12.
League of Nations
–
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, at its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, however, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them, after a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, the onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years, the United Nations replaced it after the end of the Second World War on 20 April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by the League. As historians William H. Harbaugh and Ronald E. Powaski point out, the organisation was international in scope, with a third of the members of parliaments serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were held to help refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure consisted of a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League, at the start of the 20th century, two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that, at the start of the First World War in 1914 and this was the first major war in Europe between industrialised countries, and the first time in Western Europe that the results of industrialisation had been dedicated to war. By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had an impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world, the First World War was described as the war to end all wars, the causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term League of Nations in 1914, together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union. The group became more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party. In Dickinsons 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his League of Peace as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation
League of Nations
–
The
1864 Geneva Convention, one of the earliest formulations of
international law.
League of Nations
–
1939–41 semi-official flag
League of Nations
–
Lord Bryce, one of the earliest advocates for a League of Nations.
League of Nations
–
The official opening of the League of Nations, 15 November 1920
13.
Free Territory of Trieste
–
The new State exists since 15 September 1947. Until 1954, its regime of Government was exercised in the form of temporary military administration. The administration became of civil nature in 1954, and it was handed over to the Italian and it bordered the new Italian Republic to the north, and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the south and to the east. The rivers of the territory included the Rižana/Risano, the Dragonja/Dragogna, the Timavo/Timava, the Val Rosandra/Glinščica, the Territorys highest point was at Monte Cocusso/Kokoš. Since 1992, it corresponds with the province of Trieste an autonomous body of the Free Territory of Trieste itself, since 1382, Trieste had been part of the Habsburg Monarchy, whilst Istria had been divided for centuries between the Habsburg Monarchy and the Republic of Venice. The population of the territory has been diverse and mixed, with different, the countryside of the territory was mostly Slovene or Croatian in the southernmost portion of the area. There was also a number of Istro-Romanians, Greeks, Albanians. An example of this mix is the Triestine dialect. Its base is derived from Venetian, influenced by a Friulian substrate, mainly due to the existence of the now defunct Tergestine dialect, some of the Triestine words are of German and Slovene origin and also came from other languages, such as Greek. The variations of spoken Slovenian and Croatian in the territory were also largely dialectal, sharing words with the Triestine, in the southernmost part of the territory the Croatian-based dialects were of the Chakavian type, while the Venetian-based Istrian is also commonly used. In 1921, after World War I, Italy annexed Trieste, Istria and part of modern-day western Slovenia, in 1924, Italy annexed the Free State of Fiume, now the city of Rijeka in Croatia. During the 1920s and 1930s, the Slavic population was subjected to forced Italianization and discrimination under the Italian fascist regime. They were also exposed to violence by fascist party mobs, including the burning of the Slovene National Hall in Trieste on July 13,1920. Italy fought with the Axis powers in World War II, the Yugoslav 4th Army and the Slovenian 9th Corps entered Trieste on May 1,1945, after a battle in the town of Opicina. An uneasy truce developed between Allied and Yugoslav troops occupying the area until British Gen, sir William Morgan proposed a partition of the territory and the removal of Yugoslav troops from the area occupied by the Allies. Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito agreed in principle on May 23, an agreement was signed in Duino on June 10, creating the Morgan Line. The Yugoslav troops withdrew by June 12,1945, in January 1947, the United Nations Security Council approved Resolution 16 under Article 24 of its charter calling for the creation of a free state in Trieste and the region surrounding it. A permanent statute codifying its provisions was to become recognized under international law upon the appointment of an international governor approved by the Quatripartite Powers, on September 15,1947, the peace treaty between the United Nations and Italy was ratified, establishing the Free Territory of Trieste
Free Territory of Trieste
–
Free Territory of Trieste
identity card.
Free Territory of Trieste
–
Flag
Free Territory of Trieste
–
A poster for the
Marshall Plan displaying national flags of Western European countries, including one for Trieste with a blue background (the United Nations' official color).
Free Territory of Trieste
–
Boundary between the Free Territory of Trieste (
Duino-Aurisina / Devin-Nabrežina) and Italy (
Monfalcone).
14.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
15.
Yugoslavia
–
Yugoslavia was a country in Southeast Europe during most of the 20th century. The Serbian royal House of Karađorđević became the Yugoslav royal dynasty, Yugoslavia gained international recognition on 13 July 1922 at the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris. The country was named after the South Slavic peoples and constituted their first union, following centuries in which the territories had been part of the Ottoman Empire, renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 3 October 1929, it was invaded by the Axis powers on 6 April 1941. In 1943, a Democratic Federal Yugoslavia was proclaimed by the Partisan resistance, in 1944, the king recognised it as the legitimate government, but in November 1945 the monarchy was abolished. Yugoslavia was renamed the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia in 1946 and it acquired the territories of Istria, Rijeka, and Zadar from Italy. Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito ruled the country as president until his death in 1980, in 1963, the country was renamed again as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The constituent six socialist republics that made up the country were the SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SR Croatia, SR Macedonia, SR Montenegro, SR Serbia, and SR Slovenia. Serbia contained two Socialist Autonomous Provinces, Vojvodina and Kosovo, which after 1974 were largely equal to the members of the federation. After an economic and political crisis in the 1980s and the rise of nationalism, Yugoslavia broke up along its republics borders, at first into five countries, eventually, Serbia and Montenegro accepted the opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Committee about shared succession. Serbia and Montenegro themselves broke up in 2006 and became independent states, the concept of Yugoslavia, as a single state for all South Slavic peoples, emerged in the late 17th century and gained prominence through the Illyrian Movement of the 19th century. The name was created by the combination of the Slavic words jug, Yugoslavia was the result of the Corfu Declaration, as a project of the Serbian Parliament in exile and the Serbian royal Karađorđević dynasty, who became the Yugoslav royal dynasty. The country was formed in 1918 immediately after World War I as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes by union of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and it was commonly referred to at the time as the Versailles state. Later, the government renamed the country leading to the first official use of Yugoslavia in 1929, on 6 January 1929 King Alexander I suspended the constitution, banned national political parties, assumed executive power and renamed the country Yugoslavia. He hoped to curb separatist tendencies and mitigate nationalist passions and he imposed a new constitution and relinquished his dictatorship in 1931. None of these three regimes favored the policy pursued by Alexander I, Alexander attempted to create a centralised Yugoslavia. He decided to abolish Yugoslavias historic regions, and new internal boundaries were drawn for provinces or banovinas, the banovinas were named after rivers. Many politicians were jailed or kept under police surveillance, the effect of Alexanders dictatorship was to further alienate the non-Serbs from the idea of unity. During his reign the flags of Yugoslav nations were banned, Alexander was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son Peter II and a regency council headed by his cousin, Prince Paul
Yugoslavia
–
Partisan Stjepan Filipović shouting "Death to fascism, freedom to the people!" shortly before his execution
Yugoslavia
–
Marshal
Josip Broz Tito
16.
Trieste United States Troops
–
British Element Trieste Force was the UK organization in the free territory. The 351st Infantry Regiment of the 88th Division was assigned as the unit that would deploy to the free territory. Major General Bryant E. Moore, commander of the 88th Division, was assigned to command TRUST, the area which would become the Free Territory of Trieste had already been divided into two zones as a result of agreements shortly after the end of hostilities in Europe. The United Kingdom and the United States were administering Zone A, Yugoslavia was administering Zone B, an area which included most of the Istrian peninsula. The borders between the two zones had been established by the Morgan Line, after ratification, the Italian peace treaty provision for establishment of the Free Territory of Trieste was implemented 15 September 1947. The new boundary between Italy and Yugoslavia followed the already established Morgan line with minor modifications, similarly, the Morgan line, with minor modifications, divided the Free Territory of Trieste. The United States and the United Kingdom continued to administer their Zone A through a military government, as planned, the 351st Infantry Regiment and supporting units assumed TRUST responsibilities in Zone A of the Free Territory of Trieste. The 88th Infantry Division, having completed its mission in Italy, was inactivated 24 October 1947. United States and United Kingdom troops manned a series of 16 border outposts, TRUST soldiers manned Outposts 1 through 6. BETFOR troops manned Outposts 7 through 16, the local police force, Venezia Giulia Police Force, assisted the British and American troops in manning the outposts. The VG police carried out the law enforcement responsibilities in Zone A. TRUST headquarters was established at Miramare castle, an Army Troop Information and Education bulletin described the headquarters, “Headquarters is probably the ritziest in the US Army. It is located in Miramare Castle, that ‘gleaming pearl in an emerald setting’ on the outskirts of Trieste built by Maximilian, the castle is filled with oil paintings, hand-carved woodwork of intricate design, embossed wood carvings and other signs of the lavishness of the old Austrian court. Even hard-bitten ‘old soldiers’ who enter Miramare are found staring open-mouthed at the splendor of the castle, two of its infantry battalions were stationed in the Opicina area on the plateau above Trieste. One infantry battalion was stationed in Trieste, non-regimental units were stationed at a number of locations in the free territory including the city of Trieste, the Opicina area and Duino. In an article in March 1948, the Saturday Evening Post described TRUST as it was six months after assuming its mission in the Free Territory of Trieste, there is no air cover but the American airbases in Germany and Austria are only an hour’s run away. There’s no heavy artillery, but some fighting ships of the British and American navies are always in the Trieste harbor and their long-range guns can command the roads into the city. ”During its seven-year existence, some units in TRUST were inactivated, some were redesignated and others were added to the command. One of the colonels who commanded the 351st Infantry Regiment, Colonel Earle Wheeler, had a military career
Trieste United States Troops
–
TRUST shoulder patch--Coat of arms of Trieste superimposed on the blue 88th Infantry division patch under a scroll with the letters TRUST
17.
UNTSO
–
The United Nations Truce Supervision Organization is an organization founded on 29 May 1948 for peacekeeping in the Middle East. The command structure of the UNTSO was maintained to cover the later peace keeper organisations of the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force, all the members of the party were experienced international civil servants with a background of service with the United Nations Secretariat at Headquarters. While on duty in Palestine, they were to continue to wear United Nations guard uniforms, the plan was not accepted by the Palestinian Arabs and Arab States and only partially accepted by the Jewish Agency of Palestine. On 14 May 1948, the United Kingdom relinquished its mandate over Palestine, on the following day, the Arab States invaded Palestine Mandate territory. On 14 May 1948, the Assembly adopts resolution 186, which affirms its support for the efforts of the Security Council to secure a truce in Palestine, Count Folke Bernadotte of Sweden was appointed. On 22 May 1948, the Security Council adopts resolution 49, the resolution also calls upon the parties to facilitate the task of the U. N. Mediator. Wasson, US Consul and member of the UN Truce Commission was assassinated in Jerusalem, to enforce the first of two truces, lasting four weeks, the UN then established an observer formation, with members drawn from Belgium, France, and the United States. He was wounded while investigating an alleged violation of the provisions by Jewish forces. The Mediator was instructed on 29 May 1948 to create a truce in Palestine. The Mediator concept was teamed with the Truce Commission for supervisory over-watch of the Truce Plan, as a result, the Mediator and the Truce Commission would be provided with a number of military observers which set a precedent for todays assignment of UNMOs in the Middle East. The month-long truce went into effect on 11 June,1948, on the same day, the first group of 36 observers arrived via Cairo, Egypt and continued to arrive for the next three days. The first truce did not last long due to violence which again erupted. As a result, the observers were withdrawn on 9 July 1948, the second truce, indefinite in length, was called by the United Nations Security Council on 15 July 1948. This declaration was to be put into effect on 18 July 1948, during the autumn of 1948, UNTSO was re-established with an increase in size to supervise the Second Truce. The first group of observers to serve in Palestine under the UN Mediator, Count Folke Bernadotte and it included 41 Americans and about 25 Belgians and were deployed on 21 July 1948. The initial group was expanded to 93 in total because of the tremendous area that had to be covered. Initially, the command was headed by a Chief-of-Staff in accordance with the direction of the Mediator. On 17 September 1948, UN Mediator Count Folke Bernadotte, in the Katamon quarter of Jerusalem by Jewish assailants
UNTSO
–
UNTSO headquarters, Jerusalem, Israel, South view, 1986
UNTSO
–
1949 United Nations mediator issued US diplomatic passport. Holder was a navy captain, military observer attached to the security council truce commission for Palestine.
UNTSO
–
UNTSO deployment as of February 2011.
18.
Indo-Pakistani War of 1947
–
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948, sometimes known as the First Kashmir War, was fought between India and Pakistan over the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu from 1947 to 1948. It was the first of four Indo-Pakistan Wars fought between the two independent nations. Pakistan precipitated the war a few weeks after independence by launching tribal lashkar from Waziristan, in an effort to secure Kashmir, the inconclusive result of the war still affects the geopolitics of both countries. The Maharaja faced an uprising by his Muslim subjects in Poonch, on 22 October 1947, Pakistans Pashtun tribal militias crossed the border of the state. These local tribal militias and irregular Pakistani forces moved to take Srinagar, Hari Singh made a plea to India for assistance, and help was offered, but it was subject to his signing an Instrument of Accession to India. The war was fought by the J&K State Forces and by tribal militias from the Frontier Tribal Areas adjoining the North-West Frontier Province. Following the accession of the state, Indian troops were air-lifted to Srinagar, the British commanders officers initially refused the entry of Pakistani troops into the conflict, citing the accession of the state to India. However, later in 1948, they relented and the Pakistani armies entered the war after this, the fronts solidified gradually along what came to be known as the Line of Control. A formal cease-fire was declared at 23,59 on the night of 31 December 1948, the result of the war was inconclusive. However, most neutral assessments agree that India was the victor of the war as it was able to successfully defend about two-thirds of the Kashmir including Kashmir valley, Jammu and these were collectively referred to as the Punjab Hill States. These small states, ruled by Rajput kings, were variously independent, following the decline of the Mughals, turbulence in Kangra and invasions of Gorkhas, the hill states fell successively under the control of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh. The First Anglo-Sikh War was fought between the Sikh Empire, which asserted sovereignty over Kashmir, and the East India Company. In the Treaty of Lahore of 1846, the Sikhs were made to surrender the region between the Beas River and the Sutlej River and required to pay an indemnity of 1.2 million rupees. The years 1946–1947 saw the rise of All-India Muslim League and Muslim nationalism, the demand took a violent turn on the Direct Action Day and inter-communal violence between Hindus and Muslims became endemic. The two provinces Punjab and Bengal with large Muslim-majority areas were to be divided between the two dominions, an estimated 11 million people eventually migrated between the two parts of Punjab, and possibly 1 million perished in the inter-communal violence. Jammu and Kashmir, being adjascent to the Punjab province, was affected by the happenings in Punjab. The original target date for the transfer of power to the new dominions was June 1948, however, fearing the rise of inter-communal violence, the British Viceroy Lord Mountbatten advanced the date to 15 August 1947. This gave only 6 weeks to all the arrangements for partition
Indo-Pakistani War of 1947
–
Indian soldiers during the 1947–1948 war.
Indo-Pakistani War of 1947
–
Indian defence of the Kashmir Valley 27 October 1947 – 17 November 1947
19.
UNMOGIP
–
Following the cease-fire of hostilities, it also established the United Nations Military Observer Group for India and Pakistan to monitor the cease-fire line. India sought resolution of the issue at the UN Security Council on 1 January 1948, following the set-up of the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 on 21 April 1948. However, it was not until 1 January 1949 that the ceasefire could be put into effect, signed by General Gracey on behalf of Pakistan and General Roy Bucher on behalf of India. However, both India and Pakistan failed to arrive at an agreement due to differences over interpretation of the procedure for. One sticking point was whether the Azad Kashmiri army was to be disbanded during the stage or at the plebiscite stage. The UNCIP made three visits to the subcontinent between 1948 and 1949, trying to find a solution agreeable to both India and Pakistan and it reported to the Security Council in August 1948 that the presence of troops of Pakistan inside Kashmir represented a material change in the situation. A two-part process was proposed for the withdrawal of forces, in the first part, Pakistan was to withdraw its forces as well as other Pakistani nationals from the state. In the second part, when the Commission shall have notified the Government of India that Pakistani withdrawal has been completed, after both the withdrawals were completed, a plebiscite would be held. The resolution was accepted by India but effectively rejected by Pakistan, the Indian government considered itself to be under legal possession of Jammu and Kashmir by virtue of the accession of the state. The Pakistan government held that the state of Jammu and Kashmir had executed a Standstill Agreement with Pakistan which precluded it from entering into agreements with other countries. It also held that the Maharaja had no authority left to execute accession because his people had revolted and it believed that the Azad Kashmir movement as well as the tribal incursions were indigenous and spontaneous, and Pakistans assistance to them was not open to criticism. In short, India required an asymmetric treatment of the two countries in the arrangements regarding Pakistan as an aggressor, whereas Pakistan insisted on parity. The UN mediators tended towards parity, which was not to Indias satisfaction, in the end, no withdrawal was ever carried out, India insisting that Pakistan had to withdraw first, and Pakistan contending that there was no guarantee that India would withdraw afterwards. No agreement could be reached between the two countries on the process of demilitarisation, declassified British papers indicate that Britain and US have let their cold war calculations inlfuence their policy in the UN disregarding the merits of the case. The Security Council of United Nations on the complaint of Government of India concerning the dispute over the State of Jammu, the Indian Army should withdraw and maintain a skeletal force to ensure proper functioning of the civil affairs of the state after satisfactory withdrawal of Pakistani tribesmen and forces. It recommended to the governments of India and Pakistan to restore peace and order in Jammu and Kashmir and provide freedom to all subjects of the state. UN Official statement, The boundaries and names shown and the used on the map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. The Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control of Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by the Republic of India, both the parties have not yet agreed upon the final status of the region and nothing significant has been implemented since the peace process began in 2004
UNMOGIP
–
Map of
UN ' version of the
South Asia region
20.
Korean War
–
The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
Korean War
–
Clockwise from top: A column of the U.S.
1st Marine Division 's
infantry and
armor moves through Chinese lines during their
breakout from the Chosin Reservoir; UN landing at
Incheon harbor, starting point of the
Battle of Incheon; Korean refugees in front of an American
M26 Pershing tank; U.S. Marines, led by First Lieutenant
Baldomero Lopez, landing at Incheon;
F-86 Sabre fighter aircraft
Korean War
–
Three Koreans shot for pulling up rails as a protest against seizure of land without payment by the Japanese
Korean War
–
Soviet troops in Korea, October 1945
Korean War
–
U.S. troops in Korea, September 1945
21.
China and the United Nations
–
China was one of the charter members of the United Nations and is one of five permanent members of its Security Council. It has used its veto the least of any of the permanent members, One of the victorious Allies of the Second World War, the Republic of China joined the UN at its founding in 1945. The subsequent resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949, nearly all of mainland China was soon under its control and the ROC fled to the island of Taiwan. On October 25,1971, Albanias motion to recognize the Peoples Republic of China as the sole legal China was passed as General Assembly Resolution 2758. It was supported by most of the communist states and non-aligned countries, nixon then personally visited China the next year, beginning the normalization of Sino-American relations. Since that time, the Republic of China has softened its own One-China Policy and these moves have been opposed and mostly blocked by the Peoples Republic of China, forcing the Republic of China to join international organizations under other names. These include Chinese Taipei at the International Olympic Committee, the ROC co-founded the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration in 1943 and is one of four members of its policy-making Central Committee. UNRRA provided supplies and services to areas under occupation by the Axis Powers, the largest project undertaken by UNRRA was the China program which had a total estimated cost of $658.4 million. UNRRA China Office was opened in Shanghai at the end of 1944, final work and responsibilities were finished by March,1948. UNRRA cooperated with Chinese National Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, led by Jiang Tingfu, UNRRA functions were later transferred to several UN agencies, including the International Refugee Organization and the World Health Organization. Peng Chun Chang of ROC was the Vice-Chairman of United Nations Commission on Human Rights that drafted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the UN General Assembly as Resolution 217 A on December 10,1948, the ROC was one of the 48 states that voted for it. The International Criminal Court is a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, the Court has jurisdiction if a situation is referred to the Court by the United Nations Security Council. As of May 2013,122 states have ratified or acceded to the Rome Statute that established the Court, the PRC, as well its neighbouring rival India, has been critical of the Court. China ranked 7th among member states for contributing 3. 93% of United Nations Peacekeeping operations budget for 2013–2015, United States ranked first by contributing 27. 14%. The 1954 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR assistance was also given to needy refugees among the Chinese refugees in Macao, and the Tibetan refugees in India and Nepal. India hosted some 110,000 Tibetan refugees as of the end of 2001, UNHCR estimates that there are 15,000 Tibetans who arrived in Nepal prior to 1990 and were recognized by the Government as refugees. The Republic of China was a member of the United Nations
China and the United Nations
–
China was honored for its long struggle on
the War of Resistance against Axis Power since
Japanese aggression in Northeast China as the first signatory to affix the
United Nations Charter on 24 August 1945.
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek was the representative of
Republic of China.
China and the United Nations
–
Taiwanese propaganda about the ROC's exclusion from the UN
22.
Republic of China
–
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
Republic of China
–
A young
Tsou man
Republic of China
–
Flag
Republic of China
–
Overview of
Fort Zeelandia, painted around 1635
Republic of China
–
Japanese colonial soldiers march Taiwanese captured after the
Tapani Incident from the
Tainan jail to court, 1915.
23.
Suez Crisis
–
The Suez Crisis, also named the Tripartite Aggression and the Kadesh Operation or Sinai War, was an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal, after the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations led to a withdrawal by the three invaders. The episode humiliated Great Britain and France and strengthened Nasser, on October 29, Israel invaded the Egyptian Sinai. Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum to cease fire, which was ignored, on November 5, Britain and France landed paratroopers along the Suez Canal. The Egyptian forces were defeated, but they did block the canal to all shipping and it later became clear that the Israeli invasion and the subsequent Anglo-French attack had been planned beforehand by the three countries. The three allies had attained a number of their objectives, but the Canal was now useless and heavy political pressure from the United States. U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had strongly warned Britain not to invade, historians conclude the crisis signified the end of Great Britains role as one of the worlds major powers. The Suez Canal was closed from October 1956 until March 1957, Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, such as attaining freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, after ten years of work financed by the French, the canal instantly became strategically important, as it provided the shortest ocean link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. The canal eased commerce for trading nations and particularly helped European colonial powers to gain, in 1875, as a result of debt and financial crisis, the Egyptian ruler was forced to sell his shares in the canal operating company to the British government of Benjamin Disraeli. They were willing buyers and obtained a 44 percent share in the operations for less than £4 million. With the 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the United Kingdom took de facto control of the country as well as the canal proper, the 1888 Convention of Constantinople declared the canal a neutral zone under British protection. In ratifying it, the Ottoman Empire agreed to international shipping to pass freely through the canal, in time of war. The Convention came into force in 1904, the year as the Entente cordiale between Britain and France. Following the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet based at Port Arthur, the British denied the Russian fleet use of the canal and forced it to steam around Africa, giving the Japanese forces time to consolidate their position in East Asia. The importance of the canal as an intersection was again apparent during the First World War. The attempt by German and Ottoman forces to storm the canal in February 1915 led the British to commit 100,000 troops to the defense of Egypt for the rest of the war. The canal continued to be strategically important after the Second World War as a conduit for the shipment of oil, petroleum business historian Daniel Yergin wrote of the period, In 1948, the canal abruptly lost its traditional rationale
Suez Crisis
–
Damaged Egyptian equipment
Suez Crisis
–
The location of the
Suez Canal, which connects the
Mediterranean and the
Indian Ocean via the
Red Sea.
Suez Crisis
–
Port Said, at the entrance to the Suez Canal from the Mediterranean.
Suez Crisis
–
Australian Prime Minister
Robert Menzies led an international committee in negotiations with Nasser in September 1956, which sought to achieve international management of the Canal. The mission was a failure.
24.
United Nations Emergency Force
–
The first United Nations Emergency Force was established by United Nations General Assembly to secure an end to the Suez Crisis with resolution 1001 on November 7,1956. The General Assembly had approved a plan submitted by the Secretary-General which envisaged the deployment of UNEF on both sides of the armistice line, the Second United Nations Emergency Force deployed from October 1973 to July 1979. UNEF was the first UN military force of its kind, its mission was to, to cover an area extending roughly from the Suez Canal to the Armistice Demarcation Lines established in the Armistice Agreement between Egypt and Israel. UNEF was formed under the authority of the General Assembly and was subject to the sovereignty clause, Article 2, Paragraph 7. An agreement between the Egyptian government and the Secretary-General, The Good Faith Accords, or Good Faith Aide-Memoire, placed the UNEF force in Egypt with the consent of the Egyptian government. Since the operative UN resolutions were not passed under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, support was also provided by United States, Italy, and Switzerland. The first forces arrived in Cairo on November 15, and UNEF was at its full force of 6,000 by February 1957. The force was deployed in designated areas around the canal, in the Sinai. The UN Secretary-General sought to station UNEF forces on the Israeli side of the 1949 armistice lines, in March 1957, the force facilitated the departure of Israeli forces from Gaza and Sharm-el-Sheik. Deployment along the borders for purposes of observation and this phase ended in May 1967. Due to financial constraints and changing needs, the force shrank through the years to 3,378 by the time its mission ended in May 1967, on May 16,1967, the Egyptian government ordered all United Nations forces out of Sinai effective immediately. Then Secretary-General U Thant tried to redeploy UNEF to areas within the Israeli side of the 1949 armistice lines to maintain buffer, in a decision that proved to be controversial, Thant acted to effect the Egyptian order without consulting either the Security Council or the General Assembly. Most of the forces were evacuated by the end of May, the last United Nations soldier left the region on June 17. UNEF II was also to cooperate with the International Committee of the Red Cross in its endeavours in the area. The mandate of UNEF II which was approved for six months. In each case, the Council took note of the Secretary-Generals report, in October 1978, the mandate of UNEF II was extended a last time for nine months, until 24 July 1979. The area of operation of the UNEF II was at Suez Canal sector and later the Sinai peninsula, with the located at Cairo. Contributors of military personnel were, Australia, Austria, Canada, Finland, Ghana, Indonesia, Ireland, India, Nepal, Panama, Peru, Poland, Senegal and Sweden
United Nations Emergency Force
–
UNEF Yugoslav soldiers in Sinai in 1957
United Nations Emergency Force
–
An image of
Canadian and
Panamanian UNEF
UN peacekeepers in the Sinai, during 1974.
United Nations Emergency Force
25.
Lester Bowles Pearson
–
He was the 14th Prime Minister of Canada from 22 April 1963 to 20 April 1968, as the head of two back-to-back Liberal minority governments following elections in 1963 and 1965. During Pearsons time as Prime Minister, his Liberal minority governments introduced universal health care, student loans, the Canada Pension Plan, the Order of Canada, and his Liberal government also unified Canadas armed forces. Pearson convened the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, and he kept Canada out of the Vietnam War, Pearson was born in Newtonbrook in the township of York, Ontario, the son of Annie Sarah and Edwin Arthur Pearson, a Methodist minister. He was the brother of Vaughan Whitier Pearson and Marmaduke Pearson, the family lived in the Methodist manse at the corner of Spruce St. and Catherine St. The home still exists but is in private hands, the Methodist church in downtown Aurora became the United Church of Canada. The church was demolished following a fire in 2014. Rev. Pearson was a member of the Aurora Rugby team where young Mike apparently got his inspiration, Pearson graduated from Hamilton Collegiate Institute in Hamilton, Ontario, in 1913 at the age of 16. Later that same year, he entered Victoria College at the University of Toronto and he was later elected to the Pi Gamma Mu social sciences honour societys chapter at the University of Toronto for his outstanding scholastic performance in history and psychology. After Victoria College, Pearson won a scholarship to study at St Johns College, Oxford, at the University of Toronto, he became a noted athlete, excelling in rugby union, and also playing basketball. He later also played for the Oxford University Ice Hockey Club while on a scholarship at the University of Oxford, Pearson also excelled in baseball and lacrosse as a youth. His baseball talents as an infielder were strong enough for a summer of semi-pro play with the Guelph Maple Leafs of the Ontario Intercounty Baseball League, Pearson toured North American with a combined Oxford and Cambridge Universities lacrosse team in 1923. After he joined the University of Toronto History Department as an instructor, he helped to coach the U of Ts football and he played golf and tennis to high standards as an adult. When World War I broke out in 1914, Pearson volunteered for service as an orderly with the University of Toronto Hospital Unit. In 1915, he entered service with the Canadian Army Medical Corps as a stretcher bearer with the rank of private. During this period of service he spent two years in Egypt and in Greece and he also spent time in the Serbian Army as a corporal and a medical orderly. Pearson learned to fly at an air training school in Hendon and he survived an aeroplane crash during his first flight. In 1918, Pearson was hit by a bus in London during a blackout and he was sent home to recuperate. It was as a pilot that he received the nickname of Mike, thereafter, Pearson would use the name Lester on official documents and in public life, but was always addressed as Mike by friends and family
Lester Bowles Pearson
–
Pearson in 1944
Lester Bowles Pearson
–
Pearson serving with the Canadian Army Medical Corps in World War I
Lester Bowles Pearson
–
Pearson with
John Ross McLean,
Vincent Massey and
Georges Vanier,
Canada House,
London.
Lester Bowles Pearson
–
Ice hockey in Europe; Oxford University vs.
Switzerland, 1922. Future Canadian Prime Minister Lester Pearson is at right front. His nickname from the Swiss was "Herr Zig-Zag".
26.
UN Security Council
–
The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946. Like the UN as a whole, the Security Council was created following World War II to address the failings of an international organization. The Security Council consists of fifteen members, the great powers that were the victors of World War II—the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, Republic of China, and the United States—serve as the bodys five permanent members. These permanent members can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states or candidates for Secretary-General, the Security Council also has 10 non-permanent members, elected on a regional basis to serve two-year terms. The bodys presidency rotates monthly among its members, Security Council resolutions are typically enforced by UN peacekeepers, military forces voluntarily provided by member states and funded independently of the main UN budget. As of 2016,103,510 peacekeeping soldiers and 16,471 civilians are deployed on 16 peacekeeping operations and 1 special political mission. Following the catastrophic loss of life in World War I, the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between the nations, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. The most contentious issue at Dumbarton and in successive talks proved to be the rights of permanent members. At the conference, H. V. Evatt of the Australian delegation pushed to further restrict the power of Security Council permanent members. Due to the fear that rejecting the strong veto would cause the conferences failure, the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five then-permanent members of the Security Council and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. On 17 January 1946, the Security Council met for the first time at Church House, Westminster, in London, United Kingdom. The Security Council was largely paralysed in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and USSR and their allies, and the Council generally was only able to intervene in unrelated conflicts. Cold War divisions also paralysed the Security Councils Military Staff Committee, the committee continued to exist on paper but largely abandoned its work in the mid-1950s. By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its budget for peacekeeping. After the Cold War, the UN saw an expansion in its peacekeeping duties. Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, undersecretary-General Brian Urquhart later described the hopes raised by these successes as a false renaissance for the organization, given the more troubled missions that followed. In 1994, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide in the face of Security Council indecision, in the late 1990s, UN-authorised international interventions took a wider variety of forms
UN Security Council
–
UN Security Council Chamber in
New York City
UN Security Council
–
United Nations Security Council
UN Security Council
–
British Prime Minister
Winston Churchill, US President
Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Soviet General Secretary
Joseph Stalin at the
Yalta Conference, February 1945
UN Security Council
–
US Secretary of State Colin Powell holds a model vial of
anthrax while giving a presentation to the Security Council in February 2003.
27.
UNFICYP
–
Initially, UNFICYP consisted of military and civilian contingents drawn from Australia, Austria, Denmark, Finland, Canada, Sweden, Ireland, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Mr. Canada in UNFICYP - From 15 March 1964 to 15 June 1993, during this period, the Canadian contingent went through 59 rotations and some 25,000 CAF personnel completed six-month tours on the island. With Denmark, Ireland and Finland, Canada was one of the four original contributors of troops to UNFICYP, the current contribution are small numbers of staff officers on one-year rotations. As of 31 May 2012, the strength of UNFICYP is 926 individuals. The 858 military personnel are from Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Croatia, Hungary, Paraguay, Peru, Serbia, Slovakia and the United Kingdom. UNFICYPs military personnel are divided up into national contingents, with each major contingent being responsible for one of the buffer zones three remaining sectors. Sector 1 starts at Kokkina exclave and covers approximately 90 kilometres to Mammari and it has been the responsibility of the Argentinian Contingent since October 1993. Sector One Headquarters and Command Company are located in San Martin Camp, support Company finds its home at Roca Camp, near Xeros in the north. The two line companies composed of 212 troops are deployed along four permanently manned patrol bases while also conducting mobile patrols from the San Martin, sector 2 starts at Mammari, west of Nicosia and covers 30 kilometres to Kaimakli, east of Nicosia. Since 1993, has been the responsibility of the 183-strong British contingent, sector 4 starts at Kaimakli, east of Nicosia and covers 65 Kilometres to the village of Dhernia, on the east coast of Cyprus. Since 1993, it has been the responsibility of the Slovakian and Hungarian contingent with 202 Soldiers, Force Military Police Unit – one of only two remaining multi-national sub units within UNFICYP, the other being the Mobile Force Reserve. The FMPU is commanded by a major of the UK Royal Military Police, other contributing nationalities are Argentina, Hungary and Slovakia. Mobile Force Reserve – high readiness elite reserve able to react to any incident anywhere on the island, from 1997 until their departure in 2001 a select contingent of each rotation of Austrian soldiers was part of the MFR. The unit is equipped with Alvis Tactica APCs, which are armed with machine guns. The MFR is rigidly trained in order and major incident reaction techniques. In addition the MFR is also trained for air mobile operations using Bell 212 helicopters to rapidly insert into trouble areas, the UN Flight – the flight is equipped with three helicopters and, since 1994, has been staffed by 28 airmen from the Argentine Air Force. They use Hughes 500 and Bell 212 helicopters and, by 2003, had logged a total of 10,000 flight hours without accident, during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the Lebanese Prime Minister Fuad Siniora was brought in and out of Lebanon by one of their helicopters. There are 69 civilian police officers supplied by Australia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, El Salvador, India, Ireland, Italy, Montenegro, in addition, UNFICYP has 147 civilian staff members,39 of whom were internationally recruited and 108 locally recruited
UNFICYP
–
A UNFICYP patrol in the buffer zone.
UNFICYP
–
United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
UNFICYP
–
UNFICYP deployments as of December 1972.
UNFICYP
–
UNFICYP deployments as of May 2011
28.
Cyprus dispute
–
The dispute, however, was finally shifted, under the British administration, from a colonial dispute to an ethnic dispute between the Turkish and the Greek islanders. The 1974 Cypriot coup détat prompted Turkey to invade, and occupy the part of the internationally recognized Republic of Cyprus. This zone separates the areas of the Republic of Cyprus. Recent years have seen warming of relations between Greek and Turkish Cypriots, with officially renewed reunification talks beginning in early 2014, the island of Cyprus was first inhabited in 9000 BC with the arrival of farming societies who built round houses with floors of terazzo. Cities were first built during the Bronze Age and the inhabitants had their own Eteocypriot language until around the 4th century BC, the island was part of the Hittite Empire as part of the Ugarit Kingdom during the late Bronze Age until the arrival of two waves of Greek settlement. Cyprus experienced an uninterrupted Greek presence on the island dating from the arrival of Mycenaeans around 1100 BC, the Greek population of Cyprus survived through multiple conquerors, including Egyptian and Persian rule. In the 4th century BC, Cyprus was conquered by Alexander the Great and then ruled by the Ptolemaic Egypt until 58 BC, after an interval of Islam Khalifate, the island returned to Roman rule until the 12th century. After an occupation by the Knights Templar and the rule of Isaac Komnenos, the island in 1192 came under the rule of the Lusignan family, in February 1489 it was seized by the Republic of Venice. Between September 1570 and August 1571 it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, starting in the early nineteenth century, ethnic Greeks of the island sought to bring about an end to almost 300 years of Ottoman rule and unite Cyprus with Greece. Under the terms of the agreement reached between Britain and the Ottoman Empire, the island remained an Ottoman territory, the Christian Greek-speaking majority of the island welcomed the arrival of the British as a chance to voice their demands for union with Greece. When the Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers, Britain renounced the agreement and all Turkish claims over Cyprus and declared the island a British colony. In 1915, Britain offered Cyprus to Constantine I of Greece on condition that Greece join the war on the side of the British, Turkish Cypriots consistently opposed the idea of union with Greece. In 1925 Britain declared Cyprus to be a Crown Colony, in the years that followed, the determination for enosis continued. In 1931 this led to open revolution, a riot resulted in the death of six civilians, injuries to others and the burning of the British Government House in Nicosia. In the months that followed, about 2,000 people were convicted of crimes in connection with the struggle for union with Greece, Britain reacted by imposing harsh restrictions. Military reinforcements were dispatched to the island and the constitution suspended, a special epicourical police force was formed consisting of only Turkish Cypriots, press restrictions instituted and political parties banned. Two bishops and eight other prominent citizens directly implicated in the conflict were exiled, municipal elections were suspended, and until 1943 all municipal officials were appointed by the government. In addition, the flying of Greek or Turkish flags or the display of portraits of Greek or Turkish heroes was forbidden
Cyprus dispute
–
Ottoman admiral, geographer and cartographer
Piri Reis ' historical map of
Cyprus
Cyprus dispute
–
Cyprus
Cyprus dispute
–
A
Greek Cypriot demonstration in the 1930s in favour of
Enosis (union) with
Greece
Cyprus dispute
–
President of the
Republic of Cyprus, archbishop
Makarios III (left) and Vice President Dr.
Fazıl Küçük (right)
29.
NATO
–
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
NATO
–
The
North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949 and was ratified by the United States that August.
NATO
–
Flag
NATO
–
The German Bundeswehr provided the largest element of the allied land forces guarding the frontier in Central Europe.
NATO
–
Reforms made under
Mikhail Gorbachev led to the end of the
Warsaw Pact.
