1.
Prehistoric Wales
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However, studies of population genetics now suggest that this may not be true, and that immigration was on a smaller scale. The earliest known human remains discovered in modern-day Wales date from 230,000 years ago. Excavations of the site in between 1978 and 1995 revealed a further 17 teeth belonging to five individuals, a total of seven hand axes and some animal bones, some of which show signs of butchery. This site is the most north-westerly in Eurasia at which the remains of hominids have been found. Late Neanderthal hand axes were found at Coygan Cave, Carmarthenshire and have been dated to between 60,000 and 35,000 years old. The Paviland limestone caves of the Gower Peninsula in south Wales are by far the richest source of Aurignacian material in Britain, including burins, the first remains of modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens to be found in Wales was the famous Red Lady of Paviland. This was a human skeleton dyed in red ochre discovered in 1823 in one of the Paviland caves, despite the name, the skeleton is actually that of a young man who lived about 33,000 years ago at the end of the Upper Paleolithic Period. He is considered to be the oldest known burial in Western Europe. The skeleton was found along with fragments of small cylindrical ivory rods, fragments of ivory bracelets, settlement in Wales was apparently intermittent as periods of cooling and warming led to the ice sheets advancing and retreating. Wales appears to have been abandoned from about 21,000 years ago until after 13,000 years ago, following the last Ice age, Wales became roughly the shape it is today by about 7000 BC and was inhabited by Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. Wales has many sites where Mesolithic material has found. The earliest dated Mesolithic site in Wales is Nab Head, Pembrokeshire, many of the sites from this period are coastal, although 9,000 years ago they would have been some distance inland from the sea. There is a concentration in Pembrokeshire, but there are also a good number of upland sites, most apparently seasonal hunting locations. Some decorated pebbles found at Rhuddlan represent the earliest art found in Wales, the earliest farming communities are now believed to date from about 4000 BC, marking the beginning of the Neolithic period. Pollen evidence indicates the clearing of forests on an increasing scale during this period, the Neolithic saw the construction of many chambered tombs, the most notable including Bryn Celli Ddu and Barclodiad y Gawres on Anglesey. Megalithic tombs are most common in the western lowlands, there is evidence of close cultural links with Ireland, particularly in the Early Neolithic period. A number of houses from the Neolithic period have also found in Wales. Many artefacts have also found, particularly polished stone axeheads
2.
Wales in the Roman era
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The history of Wales in the Roman era began in 48 AD with a military invasion by the imperial governor of Roman Britain. The conquest would be completed by 78, and Roman rule would endure until the region was abandoned in AD383, once the conquest was complete, the region and the people living there would be a virtually anonymous part of Roman Britain until the Roman departure. The only town in Wales founded by the Romans, Caerwent, is located in South Wales and it is the Roman campaigns of conquest that are most widely known, due to the spirited but unsuccessful defence of their homelands by two native tribes, the Silures and the Ordovices. Aside from the many Roman-related finds along the southern coast, Roman archaeological remains in Wales consist almost entirely of military roads and they controlled most of the islands centers of wealth, as well as much of its trade and resources. In Wales the known tribes included the Ordovices and Deceangli in the north, apart from this we have little knowledge of the Welsh tribes of this era. In AD47 or 48 the new governor, Publius Ostorius Scapula, moved against the Deceangli along the northeastern coast of Wales, devastating their lands. He campaigned successfully but indecisively against the Silures and then the Ordovices, Scapula died in 52, the same year that the resurgent Silures inflicted a defeat on one of the Roman legions. Scapula was succeeded by a number of governors who made steady, gaius Suetonius Paulinus was in the process of conquering Anglesey in AD60 when the revolt led by Boudica in the east forced a delay in the final conquest of Wales. There followed a decade of peace while Roman imperial attention was focused elsewhere. The main fort in their territory was at Moridunum, built around AD75, the Demetae are the only pre-Roman Welsh tribe that would emerge from Roman rule with their tribal name intact. The mineral wealth of Britain was well-known prior to the Roman invasion and was one of the benefits of conquest. All mineral extractions were state-sponsored and under control, as mineral rights belonged to the emperor. His agents soon found substantial deposits of gold, copper, and lead in Wales, along with some zinc and silver. Gold was mined at Dolaucothi prior to the invasion, but Roman engineering would be applied to increase the amount extracted. This would continue until the process was no practical or profitable. While these efforts have not produced results, the benefits to Rome were substantial. The gold production at Dolaucothi alone may have been of economic significance, the production of goods for trade and export in Roman Britain was concentrated in the south and east, with virtually none situated in Wales. Glass-making sites were located in or near urban centres, in Wales none of the needed materials were available in suitable combination, and the forested, mountainous countryside was not amenable to this kind of industrialisation
3.
Wales in the Middle Ages
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When the Roman garrison of Britain was withdrawn in 410, the various British states were left self-governing. There was considerable Irish colonisation in Dyfed, where there are stones with ogham inscriptions. One of the reasons for the Roman withdrawal was the put upon the empires military resources by the incursion of barbarian tribes from the east. These tribes, including the Angles and Saxons, who became the English, were unable to make inroads into Wales except possibly along the Severn Valley as far as Llanidloes. However they gradually conquered eastern and southern Britain, at the Battle of Chester in 616, the forces of Powys and other British kingdoms were defeated by the Northumbrians under Æthelfrith, with king Selyf ap Cynan among the dead. From the 8th century on, Wales was by far the largest of the three remnant Brittonic areas in Britain, the two being the Hen Ogledd and Cornwall. Wales was divided into a number of kingdoms, the largest of these being Gwynedd in northwest Wales. Powys as the easternmost of the kingdoms of Wales came under the most pressure from the English in Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire. This kingdom originally extended east into areas now in England, and its ancient capital and these areas were lost to the kingdom of Mercia. The construction of the known as Offas Dyke may have marked an agreed border. For a single man to rule the country during this period was rare. This is often ascribed to the system practised in Wales. All sons received a share of their fathers property, resulting in the division of territories. However, the Welsh laws prescribe this system of division for land in general, not for kingdoms, any son, legitimate or illegitimate, could be chosen as edling and there were frequently disappointed candidates prepared to challenge the chosen heir. The first to rule a part of Wales was Rhodri the Great, originally king of Gwynedd during the 9th century. On his death his realms were divided between his sons, rhodris grandson, Hywel Dda, formed the kingdom of Deheubarth by joining smaller kingdoms in the southwest and had extended his rule to most of Wales by 942. He is traditionally associated with the codification of Welsh law at a council which he called at Whitland, Hywel followed a policy of peace with the English. On his death in 949 his sons were able to control of Deheubarth
4.
Wales in the Early Middle Ages
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Wales in the early Middle Ages covers the time between the Roman departure from Wales c.383 and the rise of Merfyn Frych to the throne of Gwynedd c. In that time there was a consolidation of power into increasingly hierarchical kingdoms. Successful unification into something recognisable as a Welsh state would come in the era under the descendants of Merfyn Vrych. Wales was rural throughout the era, characterised by small settlements called trefi, the local landscape was controlled by a local aristocracy and ruled by a warrior aristocrat. Control was exerted over a piece of land and, by extension, many of the people were tenant peasants or slaves, answerable to the aristocrat who controlled the land on which they lived. There was no sense of a coherent tribe of people and everyone, from ruler down to slave, was defined in terms of his or her kindred family and individual status. Christianity had been introduced in the Roman era, and the Celtic Britons living in, the seventh and eighth centuries were characterised by ongoing warfare by the northern and eastern Welsh kingdoms against the intruding Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Northumbria and Mercia. The total area of Wales is 20,779 km2, or 9% of the area of Great Britain, much of the landscape is mountainous with treeless moors and heath, and having large areas with peat deposits. There is approximately 1,200 km of coastline and some 50 offshore islands, the southeastern coast was originally a wetland, but reclamation has been ongoing since the Roman era. There are deposits of gold, copper, lead, silver and zinc, in the Roman era some granite was quarried, as was slate in the north and sandstone in the east and south. Native fauna included large and small mammals, such as the bear, wolf, wildcat, rodents, several species of weasel. There were many species of birds, fish and shellfish, the early medieval human population has always been considered relatively low in comparison to England, but efforts to reliably quantify it have yet to provide widely acceptable results. Much of the land is in the south, southeast, southwest, on Anglesey. However, specifying the ancient usage of land is problematic in that there is surviving evidence on which to base the estimates. Anglesey is the exception, historically producing more grain than any part of Wales. Animal husbandry included the raising of cattle, pigs, sheep, oxen were kept for ploughing, asses for beasts of burden and horses for human transport. The importance of sheep was less than in later centuries, as their extensive grazing in the uplands did not begin until the thirteenth century, the animals were tended by swineherds and herdsmen, but they were not confined, even in the lowlands. Instead open land was used for feeding, and seasonal transhumance was practiced, in addition, bees were kept for the production of honey
5.
Wales in the High Middle Ages
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Wales in the High Middle Ages covers the 11th to 13th centuries in Welsh history. The aforementioned kingdoms of the south-east seem to have remained isolated until the eleventh century. Throughout this period, the English Saxons exerted some influence over Wales, in the sixth century, the Saxons appear to have attacked Wales, however, relations between the English and the British of Wales were not entirely hostile after these attacks. For some 200 years starting in the century, from the establishment of Mercia, there were sporadic raids. Throughout the tenth century, Davies says, ravagings went on, in Gwynedd, the south-east, in Dyfed, history of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages Davies, R. R. The Age of Conquest, Wales 1063–1415
6.
Wales in the Late Middle Ages
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Wales in the Late Middle Ages covers the period from the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd in late 1282 to the incorporation of Wales into the Kingdom of England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542. After the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, his brother Dafydd ap Gruffydd carried on resistance for a few months and he was captured and executed by hanging, drawing and quartering at Shrewsbury in 1283. King Edward I of England now had control of Wales. The Statute of Rhuddlan was issued from Rhuddlan Castle in north Wales in 1284, the Statute divided parts of Wales into the counties of Anglesey, Merioneth and Caernarvon, created out of the remnants of Llewelyns Gwynedd. It introduced the English common law system, and abolished Welsh law for criminal cases and it allowed the King to appoint royal officials such as sheriffs, coroners, and bailiffs to collect taxes and administer justice. In addition, the offices of justice and chamberlain were created to assist the sheriff, the Marcher Lords retained most of their independence, as they had prior to the conquest. Most of the Marcher Lords were by now Cambro Norman i. e. Norman Welsh through intermarriage. King Edward I built a ring of stone castles to consolidate his the domination of Wales. Wales became, effectively, part of England, even though its people spoke a different language and had a different culture, English kings paid lip service to their responsibilities by appointing a Council of Wales, sometimes presided over by the heir to the throne. This Council normally sat in Ludlow, now in England but at that time part of the disputed border area of the Welsh Marches. Welsh literature, particularly poetry, continued to flourish however, with the lesser nobility now taking over from the princes as the patrons of the poets and bards. Dafydd ap Gwilym who flourished in the middle of the century is considered by many to be the greatest of the Welsh poets. There were a number of rebellions including ones led by Madog ap Llywelyn in 1294-5 and by Llywelyn Bren, Lord of Senghenydd, in 1316-18. In the 1370s the last representative in the line of the ruling house of Gwynedd, Owain Lawgoch. The English government responded to the threat by sending an agent to assassinate Owain in Poitou in 1378, the Black Death arrived in Wales in late 1348. What records survive indicate that about 30% of the population died, in 1400, a Welsh nobleman, Owain Glyndŵr, revolted against King Henry IV of England. Owain inflicted a number of defeats on the English forces and for a few years controlled most of Wales, some of his achievements included holding the first ever Welsh Parliament at Machynlleth and plans for two universities. Eventually the kings forces were able to control of Wales and the rebellion died out. His rebellion caused an upsurge in Welsh identity and he was widely supported by Welsh people throughout the country
7.
History of Wales
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The history of Wales begins with the arrival of human beings in the region thousands of years ago. Neanderthals lived in what is now Wales, or Cymru in Welsh, at least 230,000 years ago, while Homo sapiens arrived by about 31,000 BC. However, continuous habitation by humans dates from the period after the end of the last ice age around 9000 BC, and Wales has many remains from the Mesolithic, Neolithic. During the Iron Age the region, like all of Britain south of the Firth of Forth, was dominated by the Celtic Britons, the Romans departed from Britain in the 5th century, opening the door for the Anglo-Saxon invasion. Thereafter Brittonic language and culture began to splinter, and several groups formed. The Welsh people were the largest of groups, and are generally discussed independently of the other surviving Brittonic-speaking peoples after the 11th century. A number of kingdoms formed in present-day Wales in the post-Roman period, internecine struggles and external pressure from the English and later, the Norman conquerors of England, led to the Welsh kingdoms coming gradually under the sway of the English crown. The Welsh launched several revolts against English rule, the last significant one being led by Owain Glyndŵr in the early 15th century. In the 16th century Henry VIII, himself of Welsh extraction as a grandson of Owen Tudor. Under Englands authority, Wales became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, yet, the Welsh retained their language and culture in spite of heavy English dominance. The publication of the significant first complete Welsh translation of the Bible by William Morgan in 1588 greatly advanced the position of Welsh as a literary language. Wales played a full and willing role in World War One, the industries of Empire in Wales declined in the 20th century with the end of the British Empire following the Second World War, while nationalist sentiment and interest in self-determination rose. The Labour Party replaced the Liberal Party as the dominant political force in the 1940s, the nationalist party Plaid Cymru gained short lived momentum in the 1960s. In a 1997 referendum Welsh voters approved the devolution of responsibility to a National Assembly for Wales. The Red Lady of Paviland, a human skeleton dyed in red ochre, was discovered in 1823 in one of the Paviland limestone caves of the Gower Peninsula in Swansea, South Wales. Despite the name, the skeleton is that of a man who lived about 33,000 years ago at the end of the Upper Paleolithic Period. He is considered to be the oldest known burial in Western Europe. The skeleton was found along with jewellery made from ivory and seashells, following the last ice age, Wales became roughly the shape it is today by about 8000 BC and was inhabited by Mesolithic hunter-gatherers
8.
Welsh settlement in the Americas
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Welsh settlement in the Americas was the result of several individual initiatives to found distinctively Welsh settlements in the New World. It can be seen as part of the more general British colonization of the Americas, a story popularized in the 16th century claimed that the first European to see America was the Welsh prince Madoc in 1170. A son of Owain Gwynedd, prince of Gwynedd, he had fled his country during a succession crisis with a troop of colonists. He eventually landed near the Mississippi River and founded a colony, in the late 16th century the legend was used by writers such as John Dee to support English claims to North America. The legend was revived in the 18th century with tales of Welsh speaking Native Americans, there was extensive Welsh emigration to the United States and Canada, but only a few attempts to set up separate Welsh colonies. Sir William Vaughan sent Welsh colonists to Renews, Newfoundland in 1617 to establish a permanent colony, Malad Valley was settled in the 1860s by Welsh pioneers who brought their Welsh traditions with them. One important tradition was an annual “eisteddfod”, patterned after the music, Malad Valley’s eisteddfod was an annual cultural arts event held in Malad and Samaria on alternating years. Judges came from Salt Lake City to choose the best vocal and instrumental numbers, the eisteddfod was an all-day event with people coming from all over Oneida County. The custom continued until 1916 and World War I, to learn more about this years festival, click on the following link, Malad Welsh Festival. Many Quakers from Wales emigrated to Pennsylvania in the 17th century with a promise from William Penn that they would be allowed to set up a Welsh colony there. The Welsh Tract was to have been a separate county whose local government would use the Welsh language, the promise however was not kept and by the 1690s the land had already been partitioned into different counties, and the Tract never gained self-government. In the late 18th century, a Welsh colony named Cambria was established by Morgan John Rhys in what is now Cambria County, later, between 1856 and 1867, there was an attempt by Samuel Roberts to establish a Welsh colony at Brynffynnon, Tennessee. Meanwhile, Michael D. Jones developed plans to establish colonies in Wisconsin, Oregon, and in British Columbia, following the American Civil War,104 Welsh immigrant families moved from Pennsylvania to East Tennessee. These Welsh families settled in an area now known as Mechanicsville and these families were recruited by the brothers Joseph and David Richards to work in a rolling mill then co-owned by John H. Jones. The Richards brothers co-founded the Knoxville Iron Works beside the L&N Railroad, of the original buildings of the Iron Works where Welsh immigrants worked at, only the structure housing the restaurant The Foundry remains. In 1982 Worlds Fair the building was known as the Strohause, having first met at donated space at the Second Presbyterian Church, the immigrant Welsh built their own Congregational Church with the Reverend Thomas Thomas serving as the first pastor in 1870. However, by 1899 the church property was sold, by 1930 many Welsh dispersed into other sections of the city and neighboring counties such as Sevier County. Today, more than 250 families in greater Knoxville can trace their ancestry directly to these original immigrants, the Welsh tradition in Knoxville is remembered with Welsh descendants celebrating St. Davids Day
9.
Modern history of Wales
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The social effects of industrialisation resulted in armed uprisings against the mainly English owners. Socialism developed in South Wales in the part of the century. The first Labour Party MP, Keir Hardie, was elected as member for the Welsh constituency of Merthyr Tydfil. The first decade of the 20th century was the period of the boom in South Wales. The Labour Party replaced the Liberals as the dominant party in Wales after the First World War, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 but initially its growth was slow and it gained few votes at parliamentary elections. Industries, particularly the coal industry, declined after the Second World War, by the early 1990s there was only one deep pit still working in Wales. There was a decline in the steel industry, and the Welsh economy, like that of other developed societies. The results of the 2001 Census showed an increase in the number of Welsh speakers to 21% of the population aged 3 and older and this compares with a pattern of steady decline indicated by census results during the 20th century. In the early 19th century parts of Wales became heavily industrialised, from the 1840s coal mining spread to the Cynon and Rhondda valleys. This led to a increase in the population of these areas. The social effects of industrialisation led to social conflict between the Welsh workers and predominantly English factory and mine owners. During the 1830s there were two armed uprisings, in Merthyr Tydfil in 1831, and the Chartist uprising in Newport in 1839, the Rebecca riots, which took place between 1839 and 1844 in South Wales and Mid Wales were rural in origin. They were a protest not only against the tolls which had to be paid on the local Turnpike roads. Partly as a result of disturbances, a government enquiry was carried out into the state of education in Wales. The enquiry was carried out by three English commissioners who spoke no Welsh and relied on information from witnesses, many of them Anglican clergymen and this resulted in a furious reaction in Wales, where the affair was named the Treachery of the Blue Books. Socialism gained ground rapidly in the areas of South Wales in the latter part of the century. The first Labour MP, Keir Hardie, was elected as member for the Welsh constituency of Merthyr Tydfil. Rumblings in the 1880s indicated that agrarian unrest was a possibility in Wales
10.
Brycheiniog
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Brycheiniog was a small independent petty kingdom in South Wales in the Early Middle Ages. It often acted as a state between England to the east and the powerful south Welsh kingdom of Deheubarth to the west. It was conquered and pacified by the Normans between 1088 and 1095, though it remained Welsh in character and it was transformed into the Lordship of Brecknock and later formed the southern and larger part of the historic county of Brecknockshire. To its south was the Kingdom of Morgannwg, the main legacy of the kingdom of Brycheiniog is etymological. It has lent its name to Brecknockshire and Brecon, traditionally, it was founded by a Hiberno-Welsh prince named Brychan out of the old Welsh kingdom of Garth Madrun in the mid 5th century, though this event is shrouded in legend. Brychan was a son of Anlach, an Irish settler who had taken control of the area by marrying Marchel. Tradition says that Brychan fathered a large number of children, many becoming saints in Wales. Brychans eldest son, Rhain Dremrudd, founded a dynasty which ruled the kingdom uninterrupted until the mid 7th century, in the 7th century, the inheritance of a woman, Ceindrych, brought the kingdom into the hands of Cloten of Dyfed and Brycheiniog. The union with Dyfed lasted for about a century, though parts of Brycheiniog may have been granted out as lordships for younger sons, the invasion of Seisyll of the Kingdom of Ceredigion in the mid 8th century separated the kingdoms. During the year 848 the men of Brycheiniog slew King Iudhail of Gwent, according to Asser, another reason for Elisedd seeking the protection of King Alfred was that his realm was being brought under pressure from an expansionist Gwynedd. Brycheiniog appears to have been under the influence of both Hywel Dda of Deheubarth and Athelstan of England in the tenth century. In the early summer of 916 Æthelflaed, the daughter of King Alfred and widow of Earl Æthelred of Mercia, invaded Brycheiniog, there she captured the queen of the land and 34 others. Who was king of Brycheiniog at this time is uncertain, and it was therefore probably either his wife or mother who was captured. Tewdwr is found witnessing a charter at the English royal court in 934, after Tewdwr no more kings of Brycheiniog are recorded. Brycheiniog was divided between the three sons of Gruffudd of Brycheiniog in the mid-eleventh century, the land of Brycheiniog was conquered between 1070 and 1093. In 1070 William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford invaded the kingdom, by 1088 Bernard de Neufmarché mentioned all the tithes of his lordship which he had in Brycheiniog in the woods and plains as well as Glasbury. This suggests that he thought himself lord of Brycheiniog. In April 1093 he defeated and killed the king of Deheubarth, the Welsh Annales clearly state that Rhys was killed by the French who were inhabiting Brycheiniog
11.
Kingdom of Ceredigion
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The Kingdom of Ceredigion was one of several Welsh kingdoms that emerged in 5th-century post-Roman Britain. Its area corresponded roughly to that of the county of Ceredigion. The kingdoms hilly geography made it difficult for invaders to conquer. Cardigan Bay bordered to the west, Ceredigion transparently means the people of Ceredig. Tradition found in the work of Nennius, a 10th-century Welsh chronicler, traces Ceredigions foundation to Ceredig, according to Nennius, Cunedda migrated with his sons and followers from the Hen Ogledd in the 5th century. In pre-Roman, and possibly Roman times, a part of southern Ceredigion was in the territory of the Demetae, in post-Roman times, however, there is no evidence that the Kingdom of Dyfed included any part of Ceredigion. Modern Ceredigion corresponds almost exactly to the ancient kingdom of Ceredigion and this name is derived from an adjective Cereticianus, itself a derivative of the proper name Cereticus, known as the son of Cunedda. The Chronicon of Adam of Usk states that the cwmwd of Caio was situated in Comitatu di Cardikan, in the Charter of Talley Abbey, Brechfa is also spoken of as Lanteilau Brechfa apud Keredigaun. These statements may be mistakes, or they may be echoes of the fact that the kings of Ceredigion conquered Y Cantref Mawr in. The same authority on Welsh topography also deals with the statement given in the Life of St, the substitution of the Gwaun for the Teifi, is due to the inclusion, in 1291, of the deaneries of Cemaes and Emlyn with Ceredigion, in the Archdeaconry of Cardigan. Archaeologia Cambrensis, By Cambrian Archaeological Association, Published by W. Pickering,1906 Lloyd, J. E
12.
Deheubarth
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Deheubarth was a regional name for the realms of south Wales, particularly as opposed to Gwynedd. In the oldest British writers, Deheubarth was used for all of modern Wales to distinguish it from Y Gogledd or Hen Ogledd, the northern lands whence Cunedda and the Cymry originated. Deheubarth was united around 920 by Hywel Dda out of the territories of Seisyllwg and Dyfed, later on, the Kingdom of Brycheiniog was also added. Caerleon was previously the court of the area, but Hywels dynasty fortified and built up a new base at Dinefwr, near Llandeilo. After the high-water mark set by Hywel, Dinefwr was repeatedly overrun. First, by the Welsh of the north and east, by Llywelyn ap Seisyll of Gwynedd in 1018, by Rhydderch ab Iestyn of Morgannwg in 1023, in 1075, Rhys ab Owain and the noblemen of Ystrad Tywi succeeded in treacherously killing their English-backed overlord Bleddyn ap Cynfyn. In 1093, Rhys was killed in unknown circumstances while resisting their expansion into Brycheiniog, following the death of Henry I in 1136, Gruffydd formed an alliance with Gwynedd for the purpose of a revolt against Norman incursions. He took part in Owain Gwynedd and Cadwaladr ap Gruffydds victory over the English at Crug Mawr, the newly liberated region of Ceredigion, though, was not returned to his family but annexed by Owain. On his death in 1197, though, Rhys redivided his kingdom among his several sons, by the time Llywelyn the Great won the wars in Gwynedd, in the late 12th century, lords in Deheubarth merely appear among his clients. Following the conquest of Wales by Edward I, the South was divided into the counties of Cardiganshire, Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire by the Statute of Rhuddlan. In the arena of the church, Sulien was the leader of the community at Llanbadarn Fawr in Ceredigion. 1030, he became Bishop of St Davids in 1073 and again in 1079/80, both of his sons followed him into the service of the church. At this time the prohibition against the marriage of clerics was not yet established and his sons produced a number of manuscripts and original Latin and vernacular poems. They were very active in the ecclesiastical and political life of Deheubarth, one son, Rhygyfarch of Llanbadarn Fawr, wrote the Life of Saint David and another, Ieuan, was a skillful scribe and illuminator. He copied some the works of Augustine of Hippo and may have written the Life of St. Padarn, goronwy Foel House of Dinefwr List of Welsh kings The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales. Cardiff, University of Wales Press,2008 ISBN 978-0-7083-1953-6 Deheubarth at Castle Wales
13.
Kingdom of Dyfed
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The Kingdom of Dyfed is one of several Welsh petty kingdoms that emerged in 5th-century sub-Roman Britain in southwest Wales based on the former territory of the Demetae. In the year 360, a series of coordinated raids by the Irish, Anglo-Saxons. Dyfed eventually comprised at least seven cantrefi, Cemais, Deugleddyf, Emlyn, Cantref Gwarthaf, Pebidiog, Penfro and Rhos, during times of strength, the kingdom expanded to additionally cover the Ystrad Tywi, including Cydweli and Gwyr, and even bordered Brycheiniog. Dyfed lost the Ystrad Tywi region to Ceredigion, another petty kingdom, during the Age of the Saints, Dyfed may have had as many as seven bishops, called in Latin sacerdotes one for each cantref, their sees were called parochia. However, by the High Middle Ages the Diocese of St Davids emerged as one of only three episcopal dioceses in Wales, with St. Davids covering all of West Wales and part of Mid Wales. The precise nature of the relationship between King Alfred and the rulers in Wales remains unclear, whether a transitory alliance or a formal mediatisation of the Welsh rulers to the king of England. Historical attempts have been made to cast the relationship as one as a confederation of Christian unity on the isle of Britain, under the leadership of Alfred, however, there evolved a significant degree of coercion in the relationship, according to Davies. The recognition by Welsh rulers that the king of England had claims upon them would be a fact in the subsequent political history of Wales. In about 904, Dyfeds ruler, Llywarch ap Hyfaidd, died, Elen was married to Hywel Dda, ruler of neighbouring Seisyllwg and grandson of Rhodri the Great through his second son, Cadell ap Rhodri. Through his marriage to Elen, Hywel incorporated Dyfed into a realm to be known as Deheubarth, meaning the south part. However, both Powys and Gwynedd returned to their native dynasties on Hywels death in 950, hwyels grandson Maredudd ab Owain recreated the kingdom of his grandfather, but his rule was beset with increasing Viking raids during the latter part of the 10th century. Davids and killed Morganau, the bishop, Dyfed remained an integral province within Deheubarth until the Norman invasions of Wales between 1068-1100. In the Dyfed region, the cantrefi of Penfro, Rhos, Cemais, the Normans influenced the election of the Bishops of St. Davids, in Pebidiog, from 1115 onwards. The 1284 Statute of Rhuddlan established the English counties of Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire out of the formally known as Dyfed. It was not until 1974 that the name of the ancient kingdom was resurrected as an area of Wales. It was lost again with the reorganisation of county administration in 1996 and it does, however, survive in the names of some regional organisations, such as Dyfed–Powys Police. The Irish settlements in Wales, Myles Dillon, Celtica 12,1977, p. 1-11
14.
Ergyng
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Ergyng was a Welsh kingdom of the sub-Roman and early medieval period, between the 5th and 7th centuries. It was later referred to by the English as Archenfield, the kingdom lay mostly in what is now western Herefordshire, its heartland between the River Monnow and River Wye. Some maps show Ergyng extending across what is now the Forest of Dean to the River Severn, after the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain in 410 AD, new smaller political entities took the place of the centralised structure. Peibio was the grandfather of Saint Dubricius or Dyfrig, the first Bishop of Ergyng and he founded large teaching monasteries at Llanfrother near Hoarwithy and at Moccas, and a bishopric seems to have been based at St Constantines Church at Goodrich. Dubricius cousin, Gwrgan Fawr was one of its most important monarchs, in the middle of the 7th century, Onbraust of Ergyng married Meurig of Gwent, and their son Athrwys became king of both kingdoms. Ergyng eventually became a cantref, the Welsh equivalent of a hundred. By the 8th century, the power of Mercia led to conflict with the native British. The sites of old British churches fell to Mercia, and the British became foreigners – or, in the English language, the rump of Ergyng then became known to the English as Arcenefelde or Archenfield. Although its Welsh-speaking inhabitants retained special rights, the area was incorporated into the English county of Hereford in the Laws in Wales Acts of 1535 and 1542. Welsh was still spoken here in the first half of the nineteenth century. Welsh was spoken by individuals until comparatively recently, Wales in the Early Middle Ages. A. L. F. Rivet & Colin Smith
15.
Kingdom of Gwent
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Gwent was a medieval Welsh kingdom, lying between the Rivers Wye and Usk. It existed from the end of Roman rule in Britain in about the 5th century until the Norman conquest of England in the 11th century. Although it recovered its independence after his death in 1063, Gwent was the first of the Welsh kingdoms to be following the Norman conquest. The area has been occupied since the Paleolithic, with Mesolithic finds at Goldcliff and evidence of growing activity throughout the Bronze and Iron Age. Gwent came into being after the Romans had left Britain, and was a successor state drawing on the culture of the pre-Roman Silures tribe and it took its name from the civitas capital of Venta Silurum, perhaps meaning Market of the Silures. The town itself became Caerwent, Fort Venta, unlike in other Welsh territories, inhabitants of Caerwent and Caerleon retained the use of defensible Roman town walls throughout the period. The medieval kingdom was taken to be the area between the Usk, the Wye, and Severn estuary. To the north, the area adjoined Ewyas and Ergyng, according to one Old Welsh genealogy, the founder of the kingdom was Caradoc Freichfras. The earliest centre of the kingdom may have been at Caerwent, Welsh saints like Dubricius, Tatheus and Cadoc Christianized the area from the 5th century onwards. According to tradition, in about the 6th century Caradoc moved his court from Caerwent to Portskewett, perhaps meaning nearby Sudbrook. Other suggestions are that Gwent was founded by Erb, possibly a descendant of Caradoc, a later monarch was the Christian King Tewdrig who was mortally wounded repelling a pagan Saxon invasion. His son Meurig may have been responsible for uniting Gwent with Glywysing to the west in the 7th century and it has been suggested that Meurigs son, Athrwys, may be the origin for King Arthur, although others consider this unlikely. At times in the 8th century, Gwent and Glywysing appear to have formed a single kingdom, Gwent may also have extended east of the River Wye into areas known as Cantref Coch, which later became the Forest of Dean. Its eastern boundary later became established as the Wye, perhaps first determined by Offa of Mercia in the late 8th century, the area west of the River Usk was Gwynllŵg, which formed part of Glywysing. In 931, Morgan ab Owain of Gwent, later known as Morgan Hen, was one of the Welsh rulers who submitted to Athelstans overlordship, however, Gwent remained a distinct Welsh kingdom. In about 942, Gwent and Glywysing were again united under the name of Morgannŵg by Morgan Hen. In 1034 Gwent was invaded by Canute, gwents existence as a separate kingdom again temporarily ended when Gruffydd ap Llywelyn won control of the area and Morgannŵg in 1055, so extending his rule over the whole of Wales. However, after Gruffydds death in 1063, Caradog ap Gruffudd re-established an independent kingdom in Gwent, with the Norman invasion of Britain extending westwards after 1067, Caradogs area of control moved into Deheubarth to the west, until his death in 1081
16.
Kingdom of Gwynedd
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The Principality or Kingdom of Gwynedd was one of several successor states to the Roman Empire that emerged in sub-Roman Britain in the 5th century during the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain. Based in northwest Wales, the rulers of Gwynedd repeatedly rose to preeminence and were acclaimed as King of the Britons before losing their power in civil wars or invasions and that realm lasted until the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1283. The sons of their leader, Cunedda, were said to have possessed the land between the rivers Dee and Teifi, the modern preserved county of Gwynedd and principal area of Gwynedd are both somewhat smaller. The 5th-century Cantiorix Inscription now in Penmachno church seems to be the earliest record of the name and it is in memory of a man named Cantiorix and the Latin inscription is Cantiorix hic iacit/Venedotis cives fuit/consobrinos Magli magistrati, Cantiorix lies here. He was a citizen of Gwynedd and a cousin of Maglos the magistrate, the use of terms such as citizen and magistrate maybe cited as evidence that Romano-British culture and institutions continued in Gwynedd long after the legions had withdrawn. As early as the 2nd century, there may have been an Irish presence in the region as Ptolemy marks the Llŷn Peninsula as the Promontory of the Gangani which is also a name he recorded in Ireland, the region became known as Venedotia in Latin. The name was attributed to a specific Irish colony on Anglesey. According to traditional pedigrees, Cuneddas grandfather was Padarn Beisrudd, Paternus of the red cloak, nennius recounts how Cunedda brought order to North Wales and after his death Gwynedd was divided among his sons, Dynod was awarded Dunoding, another son Ceredig received Ceredigion, and so forth. According to Professor John Davies, here is a determinedly Brythonic, nevertheless, there was generally quick abandonment of Roman political, social, and ecclesiastical practices and institutions within Gwynedd and elsewhere in Wales. These early petty kings or princelings adopted the title rhi in Welsh, later replaced by brenin, genealogical lists compiled around 960 bear out that a number of these early rulers claimed degrees of association with the old Roman order, but do not appear in the official royal lineages. It may be assumed that the stronger kings annexed the territories of their weaker neighbors, other evidence supports Nenniuss claim that a leader came to north Wales and brought the region a measure of stability, although an Irish Gaelic element remained until the mid-5th century. During that peace he established a mighty kingdom, after Cadwallon, Gwynedd appears to have held a pre-eminent position amongst the petty Cambrian states in the post-Roman period. The great-grandson of Cunedda, Maelgwn Hir Maelgwn the Tall, was one of the most famous leaders in Welsh history, there are several legends about his life concerning miracles performed either by him or in his presence. Maelgwn was curiously described as the dragon of the island by Gildas which was possibly a title, Maelgwn eventually died in 547 from the plague leaving a succession crisis in his wake. His son in law, Elidyr Mwynfawr of the Kingdom of Strathclyde, claimed the throne and invaded Gwynedd to displace Maelgwns son, Elidyr was killed in the attempt but his death was then avenged by his relatives who ravaged the coast of Arfon. Rhun counter-attacked and exacted the same penalty on the lands of his foes in what is now central Scotland, Rhun returned to Gwynedd and the rest of his reign was far less eventful. He was succeeded by his son, Beli ap Rhun in c, on the accession of Belis son Iago ap Beli in c. 599, the situation in Britain had deteriorated significantly, most of the area today called northern England and been overrun by the invading Angles of Deira and Bernicia who were in the process of forming the Kingdom of Northumbria
17.
Kingdom of Powys
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The Kingdom of Powys was a Welsh successor state, petty kingdom and principality that emerged during the Middle Ages following the end of Roman rule in Britain. It very roughly covered the top two thirds of the county of Powys and part of the east midlands. The fertile river valleys of the Severn and Tern are found here, the name Powys is thought to derive from Latin pagus the countryside and pagenses dwellers in the countryside, also the origins of French pays and English peasant. During the Roman Empire, this region was organised into a Roman province, with the capital at Viroconium Cornoviorum, an entry in the Annales Cambriae concerning the death of King Cadell ap Brochfael says that the land later called Powys was originally known as Ternyllwg. Throughout the Early Middle Ages, Powys was ruled by the Gwerthrynion dynasty, a family claiming descent jointly from the marriage of Vortigern and Princess Sevira, the daughter of Magnus Maximus. Archaeological evidence has shown that, unusually for the period, Viroconium Cornoviorum survived as an urban centre well into the 6th century. The Historia Brittonum, written around AD828, records the town as Caer Guricon, in the following centuries, the Powys eastern border was encroached upon by English settlers from the emerging Anglian territory of Mercia. This was a process, and English control in the West Midlands was uncertain until the late 8th century. In 549 the Plague of Justinian - an outbreak of a strain of bubonic plague - arrived in Britain, however, the English were less affected by this plague as they had far fewer trading contacts with the continent at this time. In 616, the armies of Æthelfrith of Northumbria clashed with Powys, seeing an opportunity to further drive a wedge between the North Welsh and those of Rheged, Æthelfrith invaded Powys northern lands. Æthelfrith forced a battle near Chester and defeated Selyf and his allies, if King Cynddylan of Pengwern hailed from the royal Powys dynasty, then forces from Powys may also have been present at the Battle of Maes Cogwy in 642. However, this account is now thought to represent ninth-century imaginings of what must have been going on in the seventh. Powys enjoyed a resurgence with successful campaigns against the English in 655, 705-707 and 722, the court was moved to Mathrafal Castle in the valley of the river Vyrnwy by 717, possibly by king Elisedd ap Gwylog. Elisedds successes led King Æthelbald of Mercia to build Wats Dyke and this endeavour may have been with Elisedds own agreement, however, for this boundary, extending north from the Severn valley to the Dee estuary, gave Oswestry to Powys. King Offa of Mercia seems to have continued this consultive initiative when he created an earth work. Davies wrote of Cyril Foxs study of Offas Dyke, In the planning of it, there was a degree of consultation with the kings of Powys and Gwent. And for Gwent Offa had the dyke built on the eastern crest of the gorge, clearly with the intention of recognizing that the river Wye and its traffic belonged to the kingdom of Gwent. This new border moved Oswestry back to the English side of the new frontier, and Offa attacked Powys in 760 at Hereford, and again on 778,784 and 796
18.
Powys Wenwynwyn
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Powys Wenwynwyn or Powys Cyfeiliog was a Welsh kingdom which existed during the high middle ages. Powys Wenwynwyn and Gwynedd became bitter rivals in the years that followed, 1160–1195 Owain Cyfeiliog married a daughter of Owain Gwynedd and abdicated in 1195. 1195–1216 Gwenwynwyn ab Owain Gwenwynwyn seized the cantref of Arwystli in 1197, following the marriage of Llywelyn the Great and Joan of England in 1208, warfare broke out once more between Gwenwynwyn and Llywelyn. In 1212 Gwenwynwyns ancient royal seat at Mathrafal was destroyed and he was evicted from his territories and he changed allegiance again and was restored to his realm in 1215, making a new capital at Welshpool. In 1216 he was defeated in battle with the forces of Llywelyn and fled to England and he was succeeded by his son. 1216–1286 Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn spent his youth in England, at some time before this he married Hawise, daughter of John Le Strange of Knockin. Owain ap Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn allegedly surrendered the principality of Powys to Edward I at the Parliament held in Shrewsbury in 1283. The date should be accepted with reserve because Owen did not succeed his father in possession until 1286, it is possible that Owen was acting on behalf of his father, who was by then an old man. From about that time the princely family began using the Normanised surname de la Pole instead of Welsh patronymics. The name derives from Pool, his principal town, however the principality continued as a marcher lordship. The ruling family of Powys survived in the children and remoter descendants of Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn, henceforth known as the de la Pole family, in 1293 Owen de la Pole died and was succeeded by his son Griffith de la Pole, who died without heirs in 1309. The lordship was inherited by his sister Hawise Gadarn, rather than to the male heirs. She died in 1349 and on the death of her husband John Charleton, 1st Baron Cherleton in 1353, however the lordship continued to exist as a great landed estate. Edward Grey, 3rd Baron Grey of Powis, Edward Grey of London, his illegitimate son, sold the lordship to his kinsman Sir Edward Herbert in 1587. Sir Edward Herbert, a relative of both descendant branches of the Cherleton Barony. Sir William Herbert was created Baron Powis in 1629, the estate then descended to successive holders of the titles Baron Powis, Marquess of Powis, and Earl of Powis. Owen de la Pole had several brothers, whom he enfeoffed as his tenants with lordships within his own lordship. However none of them left issue except William de la Pole, descendants of the ancient princes of Powys were lords there for several generations, until the lordship passed to an heiress and then was divided between four coheiresses
19.
Powys Fadog
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Powys Fadog was the northern portion of the former princely realm of Powys, which split in two following the death of Madog ap Maredudd in 1160. The realm was divided under Welsh law, with Madogs nephew Owain Cyfeiliog inheriting the south and his son Gruffydd Maelor I, Gruffydd received the cantref of Maelor and the commote of Iâl as his portion and later added Nanheudwy, Cynllaith, Glyndyfrdwy and Mochnant Is Rhaeadr. This northern realm became known as Powys Fadog after the accession of his son Madog ap Gruffudd in 1191 who reigned until 1236, and after whom it may be named. During his reign, Madog initially adopted a position between Gwynedd and England but by 1215 had settled on an alliance with Llywelyn ab Iorwerth of Gwynedd. This policy of alliance with Gwynedd continued under his successor Gruffudd II over his thirty-three year reign and this alliance was formalised when Powys Fadog became vassal of Llywelyn the Great in his role as Prince of Wales under the terms of the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267. In early 1277 an army led by the Earl of Warwick with support from the brother of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Dafydd ap Gruffydd. Madog II was compelled to submit and under the terms of his surrender the realm would be divided between himself and his younger brother Llywelyn. The royal centre at Castell Dinas Brân, widely considered the strongest native castle in all Wales, was to be had by neither and dismantled. It appears that Madog II remained at Dinas Brân for some time after this accord because the Earl of Lincoln commanded an English force to take the castle on 10 May 1277. Before they could complete their encirclement of the centre they learnt that the small garrison inside had abandoned the cause. Madog II was forced to flee to the protection of Gwynedd and he was killed in battle while campaigning alongside Llywelyn ap Gruffudd later that same year. The castle of Dinas Brân would be reduced, the ruins of which may still be seen today. His surviving brothers Llywelyn Fychan and Gruffudd Fychan I accepted the overlordship of England, special provision was also made for the two sons of Madog II. Under the terms of the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 all of the former princely titles and territories in Wales were abolished. Gruffydd Fychan was pardoned but reduced in status to that of a local noble or uchelwyr. His direct descendant, Owain Glyndŵr, would become the leader of a later Welsh rebellion in 1400, the territory of Powys Fadog was broken up into a series of lordships based on the former cantrefi. He became more known as Owain Glyndŵr. After his death at least one of his sons survived him and this cadet branch of the House of Mathrafal survived the purges which eradicated most of the Welsh royalty in the 13th and 15th centuries
20.
Seisyllwg
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Seisyllwg was a petty kingdom of medieval Wales. It is unclear when it emerged as a unit. Thus it covered the county of Ceredigion, part of Carmarthenshire. It is evidently named after Seisyll, king of Ceridigion in the 7th or early 8th century, in the 10th century Seisyllwg became the center of power for Hywel Dda, who came to rule most of Wales. In 920 Hywel merged Seisyllwg with the Kingdom of Dyfed to form the new kingdom of Deheubarth and it is unclear when Seisyllwg emerged as a distinct unit. It is assumed to have named for Seisyll ap Clydog, King of Ceredigion in the 7th or early 8th century. In 872, Gwgon, the last in the line of kings of Ceredigion, drowned. Gwgons sister, Angharad, was married to Rhodri the Great of Gwynedd, while this gave Rhodri no standing to press a claim to kingship himself, he was able to install his and Angharads younger son, Cadell, as the new King of Seisyllwg. Cadell ruled as a vassal to his father, and later, to his elder brother Anarawd, after Cadells death in 911, Seisyllwg was divided among his two sons, Howel, and Clydog. He certainly had control over it by the time Clydog died in 920, hwyel quickly merged Seisyllwg and Dyfed into the new kingdom of Deheubarth, which covered most of southwest Wales. From this power base, he went on to unite almost all of Wales. Vestiges of the Gael in Gwynedd, koch, John T. Celtic Culture, A Historical Encyclopedia. A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest
21.
Culture of Wales
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Wales has a distinctive culture including its own language, customs, holidays and music. Wales is primarily represented by the symbol of the red Welsh Dragon, building on the construction in Wales during the Roman era of occupation, these early kingdoms were also influenced by Ireland, but precise details are unclear prior to the 8th century AD. Several Kingdoms arose at that time, including Gwynedd, Powys, gruffydd was killed by his own men on 5 August 1063 while Harold Godwinson sought to engage him in battle. This was just over three years before the Norman invasion of England, which led to a change of fortune for Wales. By 1070, the Normans had already seen successes in their invasion of Wales with Gwent fallen, the invasion was seemingly complete by 1093. However, the Welsh rebelled against their new overlords the following year, while Gwynedd grew in strength, Powys was broken up after the death of Llywelyn ap Madog in the 1160s and was never reunited. Llywelyn the Great rose in Gwynedd and had reunited the majority of Wales by his death in 1240, after his death, King Henry III of England intervened to prevent Dafydd ap Llywelyn from inheriting his fathers lands outside Gwynedd, leading to war. The claims of his successor, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, conflicted with those of King Edward I of England, maredudds son, Owain ap Maredudd ap Tudur, anglicised his name to become Owen Tudor, and was the grandfather of Henry Tudor. Henry took the throne of England following the Wars of the Roses when his forces defeated those of Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. The House of Tudor continued to reign through several successive monarchs until 1603, official symbols of Wales include the Welsh Dragon, daffodil and leek. Both the dragon and leek date back to the 7th century and he also introduced the Red Dragon standard, although this symbol was most likely introduced to the British Isles by Roman troops. It may also have been a reference to the 6th century Welsh word draig, the standard was appropriated by the Normans during the 11th century, and used for the Royal Standard of Scotland. Richard I of England took a red dragon standard with him on the Third Crusade, the colours of the leek were used for the uniforms of soldiers under Edward I of England. Both symbols were popular with Tudor kings, with Henry VII of England adding the white and it was largely forgotten by the House of Stuart, who favoured a unicorn instead. By the 17th and 18th centuries, it common practice in Great Britain for the gentry to wear leeks on St. Davids Day. In 1807, a a red dragon passant standing on a mound was made the Kings badge for Wales, following an increase in nationalism in 1953, it was proposed to add the motto Y ddraig goch ddyry cychwyn to the flag. This was poorly received, and six years later Queen Elizabeth II intervened to put the current flag in place, the daffodil is a more recent development, becoming popular during the 19th century. It may have linked to the leek, as the Welsh for daffodil translates as St Peters Leek
22.
History of the Welsh language
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The history of the Welsh language spans over 1400 years, encompassing the stages of the language known as Primitive Welsh, Old Welsh, Middle Welsh, and Modern Welsh. Welsh evolved from British, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Britons, alternatively classified as Insular Celtic or P-Celtic, it probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was probably spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolving into Welsh and it is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around 550, Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the Cynfeirdd or Early Poets – is generally considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material. The next main period, somewhat better attested, is Old Welsh, the Book of Aneirin and the Poetry, or Book, of Taliesin belong to this era, though both also include some poems originally written in Primitive Welsh. Middle Welsh is the attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries. This is the language of all surviving early manuscripts of the Mabinogion. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts, Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells a story of King Henry II of England, Modern Welsh can be divided into two periods. The first, Early Modern Welsh ran from the early 15th century to roughly the end of the 16th century, late Modern Welsh began with the publication of William Morgans translation of the Bible in 1588. Of course, many changes have occurred since then, the language enjoyed a further boost in the 19th century, with the publication of some of the first complete and concise Welsh dictionaries. Early work by Welsh lexicographic pioneers such as Daniel Silvan Evans ensured that the language was documented as accurately as possible, Modern dictionaries such as the Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, are direct descendants of these dictionaries. In spite of this boost, the use of Welsh was actively discouraged at school under the Welsh Not policy, a stick or plaque was given to any child heard speaking Welsh during school, to be handed on to whoever next spoke the language. The influx of English workers during the Industrial Revolution in Wales from about 1800 led to a dilution of the Welsh-speaking population of Wales. English migrants seldom learnt Welsh and their Welsh colleagues tended to speak English in mixed Welsh–English contexts. The legal status of Welsh was inferior to that of English, an important exception, however, was in the non-conformist churches, which were strongly associated with the Welsh language
23.
Music of Wales
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Wales has a strong and distinctive link with music. Singing is a significant part of Welsh national identity, and the country is referred to as the land of song. Wales has a history of music related to the Celtic music of countries such as Ireland and Scotland. It has distinctive instrumentation and song types, and is heard at a twmpath. Modern Welsh folk musicians have sometimes reconstructed traditions which had been suppressed or forgotten, Music in Wales is often connected with male voice choirs, such as the Morriston Orpheus Choir and Treorchy Male Voice Choir, and enjoys a worldwide reputation in this field. A tradition of brass bands dating from the Victorian era continues, particularly in the South Wales Valleys, the 20th century saw many solo singers from Wales become not only national but international stars. Ivor Novello, who was a singer-songwriter during the First World War, also, opera-singers such as Geraint Evans and later Delme Bryn-Jones found fame post World War II. The 1960s saw the rise of two distinctive Welsh acts, Tom Jones and Shirley Bassey, both of whom defined Welsh vocal styles for several generations, in more modern times there has been a thriving musical scene. Bands and artists which have gained popularity include acts such as Man, Budgie and these were followed by a wave of acts in the 1990s and early 21st century which produced a credible Welsh sound embraced by the public and the media press of Great Britain. Wales has a history of using music as a form of communication. As early as 1187, medieval chronicler Geraldus Cambrensis stated that the Welsh sang in as many parts as there were people, children would sing pancake songs on Shrove Tuesday and summer carols were connected to the festival of Calan Mai. For many years, Welsh folk music had been suppressed, due to the effects of the Act of Union, which promoted the English language, the church frowned on traditional music and dance, though folk tunes were sometimes used in hymns. The development of singing in Wales is closely tied with the Welsh Methodist revival of the late 18th century. The hymns were popularised by writers such as William Williams, while others were set to secular tunes or adopted Welsh ballad tunes. The appointment of Henry Mills as an overseer to the Welsh Methodist congregations in the 1780s saw a drive to improve singing throughout Wales. This saw the formation of musical societies and in the first half of the 19th century Musical primers. The publication of Llyfr Tonau Cynulleidfaol by John Roberts in 1859 provided congregations with a body of tunes that were less complex with unadorned harmonies. This collection began the practice of combining together to sing tunes from the book laid the foundation for the Cymanfa Ganu
24.
Welsh literature in English
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Anglo-Welsh literature and Welsh writing in English are terms used to describe works written in the English language by Welsh writers. It has been recognised as a distinctive entity only since the 20th century, however, the genre did not develop in these writers much beyond its origin in rural sketches. Satire was avoided, and, since the market was London publishers. There is no final, clear definition of what constitutes a Welsh writer in English, obviously it includes Welsh writers whose first language is English, rather than Welsh, such as Swansea born Dylan Thomas and novelist Emyr Humphreys, born in Prestatyn in 1919. But it also includes those born outside Wales with Welsh parentage, in addition to using Welsh history and settings, Powys also uses the mythology of The Mabinogion. He also studied the Welsh language, the Liverpool-born novelist James Hanley lived in Wales from 1931 until 1963 and was buried there. Hanley published, Grey Children, A Study in Humbug and Misery, as one writer notes, a widely debatable area of Anglo-Welsh acceptability exists. Ironically, Saunders Lewis was himself born in Wallasey in England to a Welsh-speaking family, the problems are perhaps epitomised by Roald Dahl, a writer of short stories and childrens literature. Dahl was born in Wales, to Norwegian parents, and spent much of his life in England, thus he might be seen partly as a Welsh analogue to Northern Irelands C. S. Lewis. Peter George is another example of a writer of Welsh origins who rarely wrote about Wales, conversely, Eric Linklater was born in Penarth, but is generally considered a Scottish writer. A further challenge for the definition of Welsh literature in English has come with the globalisation of culture, however, modern Welsh literature in English reflects a multicultural experience. If a Welsh writer chooses to write in English, this does not mean that they are unable to speak Welsh as well, in some cases, such as Jan Morris or Gillian Clarke, English-language writers have chosen to learn Welsh. In others, a native Welsh speaker such as Siân James or Jo Walton may choose to write some, Writing for an English-language market does not necessarily mean that they have abandoned a Welsh language audience. Furthermore, she suggests in Vaughans case the possible influence of the tradition of Welsh-language poetry, Writers from medieval Wales such as Geoffrey of Monmouth and Adam of Usk also used Latin and Norman French, in addition to English and Welsh. A rival claim for the first Welsh writer to use English creatively is made for the poet, clanvowes best-known work was The Book of Cupid, God of Love or The Cuckoo and the Nightingale. Which is influenced by Chaucers Parliament of Fowls, the Cuckoo and the Nightingale had previously been attributed to Chaucer but the Encyclopedia of Medieval Literature notes the absence of direct evidence linking Clanvowe with the work. The poem is written as a dream vision and is an example of medieval debate poetry. A concerto inspired by the poem was composed by Georg Friedrich Handel and it apparently also influenced works by both John Milton and William Wordsworth
25.
Welsh people
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The Welsh people or the Welsh are a nation and ethnic group native to, or otherwise associated with, Wales and the Welsh language. Prior to the 20th century, large numbers of Welsh people spoke only Welsh, the term Welsh people applies to people from Wales and people of Welsh ancestry perceiving themselves or being perceived as sharing a cultural heritage and shared ancestral origins. Over 300,000 Welsh people live in London, the same etymological origin is shared by the names of various other Celtic or Latin peoples such as the Walloons and the Vlachs, as well as of the Swiss canton of Valais. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. They thus carry a sense of land of fellow-countrymen, our country, the word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century. It is attested in a poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. During their time in Britain, the ancient Romans encountered tribes in present-day Wales that they called the Ordovices, the Demetae, the Silures and the Deceangli. The people of what is now Wales were not distinguished from the rest of the peoples of southern Britain, all were called Britons and spoke the common British language, a Brythonic Celtic tongue. Celtic language and culture seems to have arrived in Britain during the Iron Age, the claim has also been made that Indo-European languages may have been introduced to the British Isles as early as the early Neolithic, with Goidelic and Brythonic languages developing indigenously. The genetic evidence in this case would show that the change to Celtic languages in Britain may have occurred as a cultural rather than through migration as was previously supposed. The assumed genetic imprint of Neolithic incomers is seen as a cline, with stronger Neolithic representation in the east of Europe, when the Roman legions departed Britain around 400, a Romano-British culture remained in the areas the Romans had settled, and the pre-Roman cultures in others. According to Stephen Oppenheimer 96% of lineages in Llangefni in north Wales derive from Iberia, Genetic marker R1b averages from 83–89% amongst the Welsh. The people in what is now Wales continued to speak Brythonic languages with additions from Latin, the surviving poem Y Gododdin is in early Welsh and refers to the Brythonic kingdom of Gododdin with a capital at Din Eidyn and extending from the area of Stirling to the Tyne. John Davies places the change from Brythonic to Welsh between 400 and 700, offas Dyke was erected in the mid-8th century, forming a barrier between Wales and Mercia. The genetic tests suggested that between 50% and 100% of the population of what was to become England was wiped out. In 2001, research for a BBC programme on the Vikings suggested a strong link between the Celts and Basques, dating back tens of thousands of years. The UCL research suggested a migration on a huge scale during the Anglo-Saxon period and it appears England is made up of an ethnic cleansing event from people coming across from the continent after the Romans left, said Dr Mark Thomas, of the Centre for Genetic Anthropology at UCL
26.
Languages of Wales
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The two official languages of Wales are Welsh and English. The majority of the population of Wales is able to speak English, English is widely used throughout the country and is the native language of most people in the South and the North East of the country, in the West and North, Welsh is the dominant native language. Nevertheless, there are a number of communities throughout the country to which these generalisations do not apply, for example, despite being located in the overwhelmingly English-speaking city of Swansea, 45% of Mawrs residents speak Welsh as their native language. According to the 2011 census, Welsh is spoken by 19% of the population, Welsh English or Anglo-Welsh is the distinct form of English used in Wales. Aside from lexical borrowings from Welsh like bach, eisteddfod, nain and taid, examples of this include the use by some speakers of the tag question isnt it. Regardless of the form of the statement and the placement of the subject. Fed up, I am or Running on Friday, he is In South Wales the word where may often be expanded to where to, as in the question, the word butty is used to mean friend or mate. It was spoken by the Kale group of the Romani people who arrived in Britain during the 15th century, the first record of Gypsies in Wales comes from the 16th century. Welsh-Romani is one of the many Northern Romani dialects and this dialect of Romany includes some loanwords from Welsh, but little now remains of it. Wales deaf community tends to use British Sign Language, there are a few signs used in Wales which are unique to that country, but these tend to be regionalised rather than national. Other sign languages in use in Wales include Makaton, and Signed English, Latin is also used to a limited degree in certain official mottos, legal terminology, and various ceremonial contexts. Latin abbreviations can also be seen on British coins, the use of Latin has declined greatly in recent years. At one time, Latin and Greek were commonly taught in British schools ), in rare cases, Norman French and Latin have contributed to Welsh toponymy e. g. Beaumaris, Grace Dieu, Strata Florida and Valle Crucis. The Welsh language prefix Caer- is a corruption of the Latin castra, both of the placename elements in Caerleon come ultimately from Latin. Latin has had a significant influence on Welsh in words such as ffenestr and pont, meaning window and bridge respectively. Notable Welsh writers in Latin include Geoffrey of Monmouth, who wrote Historia Regum Britanniae, and Adam of Usk, author of Chronicon Adæ de Usk, people migrating to Wales in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country. South Asians in the United Kingdom speak dozens of different languages, the largest subgroup of British Asians are those of Punjabi origin, from both India and Pakistan. There is a long established Somali community in Cardiff, and Irish speakers have been coming and going from Wales for many centuries, there are Irish communities in most industrial areas, plus Holyhead, Swansea and Cardiff
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Welsh language
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Welsh is a member of the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages. It is spoken natively in Wales, by some in England, historically it has also been known in English as the British tongue, Cambrian, Cambric and Cymric. The United Kingdom Census 2011 counted 3.1 million residents of Wales, 27% of whom had been born outside Wales, and 73% of whom reported having no Welsh language skills. Of residents of Wales aged three and over, 19% reported being able to speak Welsh, and 77% of these were able to speak, read and this can be compared with the 2001 Census, in which 20. 8% of the population reported being able to speak Welsh. 787,854 of residents in Wales aged three and over had one or more skills in Welsh, in surveys carried out between 2004 and 2006, 57% of Welsh speakers described themselves as fluent in the written language. An estimated 110,000 to 150,000 people speak Welsh in England, Welsh emerged in the 6th century from Common Brittonic, the common ancestor of Welsh, Breton, Cornish and the extinct language known as Cumbric. The Middle Welsh period is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, the name Welsh originated as an exonym given to its speakers by the Anglo-Saxons, meaning foreign speech. The native term for the language is Cymraeg, and for the name of the country of Wales it is Cymru, Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons. Classified as Insular Celtic, the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolving into Welsh and it is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around 550, Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the Cynfeirdd or Early Poets – is generally considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material. An 8th century inscription in Tywyn shows the language already dropping inflections in the declension of nouns, the next main period, somewhat better attested, is Old Welsh, poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language. Both the works of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin were in this era, Middle Welsh is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of all surviving early manuscripts of the Mabinogion. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts, Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells, in his Descriptio Cambriae, during one of the Kings many raids in the 12th century, Henry asked an old man of Pencader, Carmarthenshire whether the Welsh people could resist his army
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Y Fro Gymraeg
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However, unlike its equivalent in Ireland, Y Fro Gymraeg does not have official government recognition. In an article dated 12 November 1964, he wrote, Enillwn y Fro Gymraeg, ac fe enillir Cymru, ac oni enillir Y Fro Gymraeg, but today the territory of the language as a majority language has shrunk. A substantial portion of four Welsh counties lies within Y Fro Gymraeg and it is often argued that Welsh medium education is the major contributor to the revival of the language. Education in Y Fro Gymraeg is generally through the medium of Welsh, in Y Fro Gymraeg road signs appear with the Welsh name first, even in non-predominantly Welsh speaking areas. Official publications in general are bilingual, usually with Welsh appearing first
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Welsh toponymy
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The placenames of Wales derive in most cases from the Welsh language, but have also been influenced by linguistic contact with the Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings, Anglo-Normans and modern English. The study of placenames in Wales reveals significant features of the countrys history, Welsh culture and political autonomy has been reasserted increasingly since the mid 19th century. Many place names in Britain, particularly of natural features such as rivers and hills, obvious examples of place names of Welsh origin are the numerous Rivers Avon, from the Welsh afon and place names such as Penrith. Place names from the Western Brittonic-speaking Hen Ogledd occur in Cumbria and these include the name of Edinburgh, from Cumbric Din Eidin Eidins Fort. Welsh remains a language, spoken by over 20% of the countrys population. Like all languages, it has changed over time and continues to do so, for instance by accepting loan words from languages such as Latin. The Welsh language itself has many characteristics unfamiliar to most English speakers that can make it difficult to understand its place names, for example, it uses a number of initial consonant changes in different grammatical circumstances. In relation to place names, this means that, for example, other changes can apply to internal vowels. There are also differences between Welsh and English spelling standards, which have affected how place names are spelled in the two languages, early inhabitants of Wales gave names first to noteworthy natural features, such as rivers, hills, mountains, harbours and shores. The Roman towns which were established were generally fortified and were given the name of castra. Many of these continued as towns after the Romans left, including Caernarfon, Carmarthen, Caerleon, elsewhere, many villages and later towns took their names from natural features. For example, Abergele refers to the mouth of the Gele, Harlech means fair rock, Rhuddlan red bank, and Porthcawl harbour with sea-kale. Aberystwyth means mouth of the Ystwyth, a river a mile or so away from the town centre, many others took their name from religious settlements and clasau established from the fifth century onwards. These generally use the prefix llan, roughly equivalent to parish, most of them are dedicated to their founders, who hailed from local dynasties and were venerated as patron saints. Examples include Llandudno, Llanelli, and Llantwit, following the Norman invasion of Wales, some were rededicated to more generic saints, Llanilar, Llanfoist. A few—usually by mistake—include other elements or none at all, Llan, Powys, Llanharry, other religious placenames include merthyr and eglwys. Over the centuries, Welsh place names have been affected by social. The Industrial Revolution saw the development of new towns and villages
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Welsh surnames
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Fixed family names were adopted in Wales from the 15th century onwards. Until this point, the Welsh had a naming system. In 1292,48 percent of Welsh names were patronymics, other names were derived from nicknames, occupational names, and a few non-hereditary personal names. Patronymic names changed from generation to generation, with a baptismal name being linked by ap. For example, Evan son of Thomas would be known as Evan Thomas, Evans son, John, would be John Evan, Johns son Rees would be Rees John, and Davids son, James, would be James David. Patronymics were essentially a history of the family, and names such as Llewelyn ap Dafydd ab Ieuan ap Griffith ap Meredith were not uncommon. The Encyclopedia of Wales surmises that the system arose from Welsh law, in the reign of Henry VIII surnames became hereditary amongst the Welsh gentry, and the custom spread slowly amongst commoners. Areas where English influence was strong abandoned patronymics earlier, as did town families, new surnames retained the ap in a few cases, mainly in reduced form at the start of the surname, as in Upjohn, Powell, and Bowen. Alternatively, the ap was simply dropped entirely, the most common surnames in modern Wales result from adding an s to the end of the name, as in Jones, Roberts and Edwards. Patronymic surnames with the short -s form are recorded in parts of England dating back to the Middle Ages. Indeed, currently it is not uncommon that five or more of the starting fifteen for the Welsh international rugby team would be named Jones, a hyphen was sometimes later introduced, for example Nash-Williams. The stock of Welsh surnames is very small, which is attributable to the reduction in the variety of baptismal names after the Protestant Reformation. A total of 16.3 million people in the countries studied had a name of Welsh origin, data from University College London, Paediatric-Epidemiology Significance Surnames Paper. Alternatively, given surnames are used, as in the case of the singer and political figure Dafydd Iwan, opera singer Bryn Terfel, classical singer Shân Cothi
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Welsh English
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Welsh English refers to the dialects of English spoken in Wales by Welsh people. The dialects are influenced by Welsh grammar and often include words derived from Welsh. In addition to the words and grammar, a variety of accents are found across Wales, including those of north Wales, the Cardiff dialect. In the east and south east, it has influenced by West Country dialects due to immigration, while in North Wales. The vowel of cat /æ/ is pronounced as a more central near-open front unrounded vowel, in Cardiff, bag is pronounced with a long vowel. In Powys, a pronunciation resembling its New Zealand and South African analogue is sometimes heard, the uncertainty over which vowel to use often leads to hypercorrections involving the schwa, e. g. programme is often pronounced /ˈproː. e. A lowered close-mid front rounded vowel Most other long monophthongs are similar to that of Received Pronunciation, but words with the RP /əʊ/ are sometimes pronounced as, examples of this include the use by some speakers of the tag question isnt it. Regardless of the form of the statement and the placement of the subject. Fed up, I am or Running on Friday, he is, in South Wales the word where may often be expanded to where to, as in the question, Where to is your Mam. The word tidy has been described as One of the most over-worked Wenglish words and can have a range of meanings including - fine or splendid, long, decent, a tidy swill is a wash involving at least face and hands. Spellings are almost identical to other dialects of British English, minor differences occur with words descended from Welsh that are not anglicised unlike in many other dialects of English. In Wales, the valley is always cwm, not the Anglicised version coombe, as with other dialects of British English, -ise endings are preferred, realise instead of realize. David Crystal, who grew up in Holyhead, claims that the dominance of English in Wales is little different from its spread elsewhere in the world. While other British English accents have affected the accents of English in Wales, in particular, Scouse and Brummie accents have both had extensive Anglo-Welsh input through migration, although in the former case, the influence of Anglo-Irish is better known. Anglo-Welsh literature and Welsh writing in English are terms used to describe works written in the English language by Welsh writers and it has been recognised as a distinctive entity only since the 20th century. A rival claim for the first Welsh writer to use English creatively is made for the poet, John Clanvowe. In the UK TV series Thomas & Friends, the Narrow Gauge Engines Skarloey, Rheneas, Sir Handel, Peter Sam and Duke speak with Welsh Dialect, the Welsh comedy-drama series Stella is set in a fictional South Wales valley where Welsh English can be heard throughout. – Listen to examples of regional accents and dialects from across the UK on the British Librarys Sounds Familiar website Talk Tidy, John Edwards, Author of books and CDs on the subject Wenglish
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Traditional Welsh costume
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The traditional Welsh costume is a costume once worn by rural women in Wales. It was identified as being different from that worn by the women of England by many of the English visitors who toured Wales during the late 18th. It is very likely that what they wore was a survival of a costume worn by working rural women. This included a version of the bedgown, originally worn by the gentry in the 17th and 18th centuries, the unique Welsh hat, which first made its appearance in the 1830s, was used as an icon of Wales from the 1840s. From the 1880s, when the costume had gone out of general use. From then on it was worn by women at such as Royal visits, by choirs, at church and chapel, for photographs. It was first worn by girls as a celebration on Saint Davids Day just before the First World War, the costume is now recognised as the national dress of Wales. Very little evidence for traditional Welsh costume survives before about 1770 when the first tourists came to Wales and recorded in words and they noted that the women in rural parts of Wales wore a distinctive costume which varied from place to place. Women in towns and those who lived near the Welsh-English border or near busy ports were already wearing English fashions, during the 1830s, certain members of the gentry, especially Augusta Hall of Llanover near Abergavenny, recorded and tried to preserve some Welsh traditions, including costume. The prints of costumes of parts of Wales which she may have commissioned did not have a wide distribution, some of them were published in an article in 1951. Although the traditional costume went out of use by the middle of the 19th century it was still worn by some women at market. There were calls for Welsh costume to be revived and used at major national events, in 1834, Augusta Hall wrote a prize-winning essay for the Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire eisteddfod held in Cardiff but this contains very little about costume, and nothing about National costumes. The national costume made from Welsh wool was therefore seen as a declaration of a Welsh identity. During an 1881 visit by the Prince of Wales to Swansea, from the 1880s both old and modern versions of the costume were worn by performers at concerts and eisteddfodau, by stall holders at fund raising events and for Royal visits. The numbers of women who wore Welsh costume in this way was always small, some of those who wore it may have been the younger members of the new middle-class families who could afford the money to buy the costumes and the time to attend such events. Although there was only a little encouragement to wear costumes at these events, there is little evidence to support the suggestion that the Welsh costume was worn just to please visitors, but it possible that this happened. The modern costume worn by girls on St David’s Day, which used to be made by mothers from old costumes, is now commercially available, the costume now generally worn by dance teams is based on the tailored gowns originally found in south west Wales. The most distinctive feature of the Welsh costume, other than the hat, is the gown and it is spelt in various ways in Welsh, most commonly now as betgwn
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Welsh law
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Welsh law is the primary and secondary legislation generated by the National Assembly for Wales, according to devolved authority granted in the Government of Wales Act 2006. Each piece of Welsh legislation is known as an Act of the Assembly, the first Assembly legislation to be officially proposed was called the NHS Redress Measure 2008. These powers have been effective since May 2007, both the Government of Wales Act 1998 and the Government of Wales Act 2006 set out areas of devolved responsibility for the National Assembly for Wales. The 2006 granted the Assembly legislative competence to make laws in clearly defined matters, once the Queen has approved the Order, the new area of legislative competence is added to Schedule 5, Part 1 of the Government of Wales Act 2006. There is a Counsel General for Wales who oversees the approval and creation of these laws, a referendum under these provisions was held in March 2011 and resulted in a vote in favour of granting the assembly the competence to pass the Acts of the Assembly. Therefore, the Assembly now has the competence to pass Acts of the Assembly in all 20 devolved subjects. This is done to preserve the autonomy of the Welsh Assembly and these areas are subjects where the National Assembly for Wales can make legislation in the form of an Act of the Assembly. The Welsh Assembly was able to make only Assembly Measures, but the Assembly was given the option to call for a referendum, with added approval from the UK Parliament, to make Acts of the Assembly. This would not change much of the Assembly Measures system, and if the referendum should win and it was considered that Assembly Measures are a build on to the Acts of the Assembly if the Assembly would these powers in future. The referendum was held on 3 March 2011, the majority of the participants voted Yes to the question Do you want the Assembly now to be able to make laws on all matters in the 20 subject areas it has powers for. The power to make Acts of the Assembly are called Subjects, English law still apply to Wales under the present devolution settlement. Contemporary Welsh law will govern the local aspects of Welsh life whilst English law will govern the more generic aspects, because these laws are derived from UK Acts of Parliament, some people consider this new system of laws to be another branch of English law. Unlike Scotland, for example, which has its own criminal and civil justice system, the One Wales Labour/Plaid Cymru deal also has an area for devolution of a Criminal and Youth Justice System to this new legal system. It is important to note, that English law still applies in Wales, but it also be important to say that some laws in England. Its possible to say there could be some acts that would be illegal in Wales. For example, using a shock collar on a cat or dog in Wales is illegal. There are Acts of the United Kingdom Parliament that are classed as Wales-only laws, each Act contains provisions for the Welsh Assembly to make subordinate legislation on. Sometimes such Acts can also confer power to the National Assembly for Wales, an example of such a Wales-only law is the Transport Act 2006
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Commote
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A commote, was a secular division of land in Medieval Wales. The word derives from the prefix cym- and the noun bod, the English word commote is derived from the Middle Welsh cymwt. The basic unit of land was the tref – a small village or settlement, in theory,100 trefi made up a cantref, and half or a third of a cantref was a cymwd, although in practice the actual numbers varied greatly. The plural of cantref is cantrefi, together with the cantrefi, commotes were the geographical divisions through which defence and justice were organised. In charge of a commote would be a chieftain related to the ruling Prince of the Kingdom. His court would have been situated in a special tref, referred to as a maerdref, here, the bonded villagers who farmed the chieftains estate lived, together with the court officials and servants. Commotes were further divided into maenorau or maenolydd, the Domesday Book has entries for those commotes that in 1086 were under Norman control, but still subject to Welsh law and custom. However, it refers to using the Anglo-Norman word commot instead of hundred. The commotes mentioned in the Domesday book, in general, represented recent Anglo-Norman advances into Welsh territory, although the commotes were assessed for military service and taxation, their obligations were rated in carucate, not in hides as on the English side of the border. The customs of the commotes are described in the Domesday accounts of the earldoms of Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Shropshire and Cheshire. The principal commotes described in Domesday were Archenfield, Ewias, and the commotes of Gwent in the south, Cynllaith, Edeirnion, and Iâl, and Englefield, Rhos and Rhufoniog. In legal usage, the English word commote replaced cwmwd following the Edwardian conquest of Wales in the 13th century, the Welsh, most of whom knew not a word of English, naturally continued to use cwmwd and still do so today. Owain Glyndŵr called representatives from the commotes for his two parliaments during the rising of 1400–1409. A considerable number of the names of adjacent medieval Welsh commotes contain is and uwch, the terminology is for administrative purposes and not a geographical characterisation. A number of units, such as manors, parishes and townships, also use the administrative distinction of is and uwch. This is unrelated to the use of isaf and uchaf in farm names. The Red Book of Hergest provides a detailed list of commotes in the late 14th, the list has some overlaps and is ambiguous in parts, especially in the Gwynedd section. It should also be borne in mind that the number and organisation of the commotes was different in the earlier Middle Ages, some of the units, the original orthography of the manuscript is given here together with the standard modern Welsh equivalents
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Cantref
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A cantref was a medieval Welsh land division, particularly important in the administration of Welsh law. Land in medieval Wales was divided into cantrefi, which were divided into smaller cymydau. The word cantref is derived from cant and tref, the cantref is thought to be the original unit, with the commotes being a later division. Cantrefi could vary considerably in size, most were divided into two or three commotes, but the largest, the Cantref Mawr in Ystrad Tywi was divided into seven commotes. To give an idea of the size of a cantref, the island of Anglesey was divided into three cantrefi, Cemais, Aberffraw and Rhosyr, the antiquity of the cantrefi is demonstrated by the fact that they often mark the boundary between dialects. Some were originally kingdoms in their own right, others may have been artificial units created later, cantrefi were of particular importance in the administration of the Welsh law. Each cantref had its own court, which was an assembly of the uchelwyr and this would be presided over by the king if he happened to be present, or if he was not present, by his representative. Apart from the judges there would be a clerk, an usher, the cantref court dealt with crimes, the determination of boundaries, and inheritance. Ergyng Hundred Kocourek, Albert, Wigmore, John H. eds, sources of Ancient and Primitive Law. Welsh Administrative and Territorial Units, Medieval and Modern
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Historic counties of Wales
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The historic counties of Wales are sub-divisions of Wales. They are alternatively known as ancient counties,1 The earldom of Pembroke and lordship of Glamorgan pre-date the Edwardian conquest. 2 These counties originate in 1282, following King Edward Is conquest,3 These counties originate in 1535, with the Laws in Wales Act,1535, converting the remaining Marcher Lordships into counties. 4 Despite being created at the same Act as the other counties, but neither this Act nor any other states that Monmouthshire is removed from Wales and added to England. However, between 1536 and 1874 the formulation Wales and Monmouthshire was frequently used, the Welsh people have always considered Monmouthshire to be part of Wales. The 1535 Laws in Wales Act had the effect of abolishing the marcher lordships within, in the border areas, several were incorporated in whole or in part into English counties. The lordships of Ludlow, Clun, Caus and part of Montgomery were incorporated into Shropshire, the historic counties established by 1535 were used as the geographical basis for the administrative counties, governed by county councils, which existed from 1889 to 1974. The historian William Rees said, in his Historical Atlas of Wales, the boundaries of the modern shires have largely been determined by the ancient divisions of the country. The survival of ancient local divisions within the pattern of historical change constitutes a vital element in the framework of the national life. The Counties Act 1844 abolished several enclaves, one of these, Welsh Bicknor was an exclave of Monmouthshire between Gloucestershire and Herefordshire and was transferred to Herefordshire. Another was Ffwddog, identified using the English variant Fothock on older maps, the exclave of Flintshire, called Maelor Saesneg was, however, left untouched. The territory which became Monmouthshire was part of the Welsh kingdoms of Gwent and Glywysing and later, after the Norman conquest of southern Wales, of the Welsh Marches. According to historian John Davies, this arrangement was the cause of the belief that the county had been annexed by England rather than remaining part of Wales. The position was finally resolved by the Local Government Act 1972, the Local Government Act 1888 created administrative counties based on the historic counties but not with exactly the same boundaries in 1889. Additionally, certain boroughs were deemed to be county boroughs, outside the administrative counties, the Local Government Act 1972 has led to a lot of confusion. It replaced the counties created in 1889 with eight new administrative counties in 1974. The existing Lieutenancy areas were redefined to use the newly created local government areas. Furthermore, use of the counties as postal counties was stopped at the time by the Royal Mail
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Welsh mythology
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Welsh mythology consists of both folk traditions developed in Wales, and traditions developed by the Celtic Britons elsewhere before the end of the first millennium. Like most predominately oral societies found in the prehistoric Britain, Welsh mythology and this oral record has been lost or altered as result of outside contact and invasion over the years. The only character to appear in every branch is Pryderi fab Pwyll, the king of Dyfed, who is born in the first Branch, is killed in the fourth, and is probably a reflex of the Celtic god Maponos. The only other recurring characters are Pryderis mother Rhiannon, associated with the peaceful British prince Manawydan and he manages to win her hand at the expense of Gwawl, to whom she is betrothed, and she bears him a son, but the child disappears soon after his birth. Rhiannon is accused of killing him and forced to carry guests on her back as punishment. The child has been taken by a monster, and is rescued by Teyrnon and his wife and they return him to his real parents, Rhiannon is released from her punishment, and the boy is renamed Pryderi. In the second branch, Branwen, sister of Brân the Blessed, king of Britain, is given in marriage to Matholwch, Matholwch and Branwen have a son, Gwern, but Matholwch proceeds to mistreat Branwen, beating her and making her a drudge. Branwen trains a starling to take a message to Bran, who goes to war against Matholwch and his army crosses the Irish Sea in ships, but Brân is so huge he wades across. The Irish offer to make peace, and build a big enough to entertain Bran, but inside they hang a hundred bags, telling Efnysien they contain flour. Efnysien kills the warriors by squeezing the bags, later, at the feast, Efnysien throws Gwern on the fire and fighting breaks out. Seeing that the Irish are using the cauldron to revive their dead, Efnysien hides among the corpses and destroys the cauldron, only seven men, all Britons, survive the battle, including Pryderi, Manawyddan and Bran, who is mortally wounded by a poisoned spear. Brân asks his companions to cut off his head and take it back to Britain, Branwen dies of grief on returning home. Five pregnant women survive to repopulate Ireland, Pryderi and Manawydan return to Dyfed, where Pryderi marries Cigfa and Manawydan marries Rhiannon. However, a mist descends on the land, leaving it empty, eventually they return to Dyfed and become hunters again. While hunting, a white boar leads them to a mysterious castle, Pryderi, against Manawydans advice, goes inside, but does not return. Rhiannon goes to investigate and finds him clinging to a bowl, the same fate befalls her, and the castle disappears. Manawydan and Cigfa return to England as shoemakers, but once again the locals drive them out and they sow three fields of wheat, but the first field is destroyed before it can be harvested. The next night the field is destroyed
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King Arthur
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King Arthur is a legendary British leader who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the late 5th and early 6th centuries AD. The details of Arthurs story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, the sparse historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various sources, including the Annales Cambriae, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas. Arthurs name also occurs in early sources such as Y Gododdin. Arthur is a figure in the legends making up the so-called Matter of Britain. The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of Monmouths fanciful, how much of Geoffreys Historia was adapted from such earlier sources, rather than invented by Geoffrey himself, is unknown. Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established an empire over Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Norway and Gaul. The 12th-century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot, in these French stories, the narrative focus often shifts from King Arthur himself to other characters, such as various Knights of the Round Table. Arthurian literature thrived during the Middle Ages but waned in the centuries that followed until it experienced a resurgence in the 19th century. In the 21st century, the lives on, not only in literature but also in adaptations for theatre, film, television, comics. The historical basis for the King Arthur legend has long debated by scholars. These culminate in the Battle of Badon, where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men, recent studies, however, question the reliability of the Historia Brittonum. The other text that seems to support the case for Arthurs historical existence is the 10th-century Annales Cambriae, the Annales date this battle to 516–518, and also mention the Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut were both killed, dated to 537–539. These details have often used to bolster confidence in the Historias account. Problems have been identified, however, with using this source to support the Historia Brittonums account, the latest research shows that the Annales Cambriae was based on a chronicle begun in the late 8th century in Wales. Additionally, the textual history of the Annales Cambriae precludes any certainty that the Arthurian annals were added to it even that early. They were more likely added at point in the 10th century. The Badon entry probably derived from the Historia Brittonum and this lack of convincing early evidence is the reason many recent historians exclude Arthur from their accounts of sub-Roman Britain. These modern admissions of ignorance are a recent trend, earlier generations of historians were less sceptical
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Mabinogion
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The Mabinogion are the earliest prose literature of Britain. The stories were compiled in Middle Welsh in the 12th–13th centuries from oral traditions. The two main source manuscripts were created c, 1350–1410, as well as some earlier fragments. The title covers a collection of prose stories of widely different types. The highly sophisticated complexity of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi defy categorisation, the list is so diverse a leading scholar has challenged them as a true collection at all. Early scholars from the 18th century to the 1970s predominantly viewed the tales as fragmentary pre-Christian Celtic mythology and they are now seen as a sophisticated narrative tradition, both oral and written, with ancestral construction from oral storytelling, and overlay from Anglo-French influences. The first modern publications were English translations of several tales by William Owen Pughe in journals 1795,1821,1829, however it was Lady Charlotte Guest 1838–45 who first published the full collection, and bilingually in both Welsh and English. She is often assumed to be responsible for the name Mabinogion, indeed, as early as 1632 the lexicographer John Davies quotes a sentence from Math fab Mathonwy with the notation Mabin. in his Antiquae linguae Britannicae. The later Guest translation of 1877 in one volume, has been widely influential, the most recent translation is a compact version by Sioned Davies. John Bollard has published a series of volumes between with his own translation, with photography of the sites in the stories. The tales continue to inspire new fiction, dramatic retellings, visual artwork, the name first appears in 1795 in William Owen Pughes translation in the journal Cambrian Register, The Mabinogion, or Juvenile Amusements, being Ancient Welsh Romances. The name appears to have been current among Welsh scholars of the London-Welsh Societies and it was inherited as the title by the first publisher of the complete collection, Lady Charlotte Guest. The form mabynnogyon occurs once at the end of the first of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi in one manuscript and it is now generally agreed that this one instance was a mediaeval scribal error which assumed mabinogion was the plural of mabinogi. But mabinogi is already a Welsh plural, which occurs correctly at the end of the three branches. The word mabinogi itself is something of a puzzle, although derived from the Welsh mab. Eric P. Hamp of the school traditions in mythology, found a suggestive connection with Maponos the Divine Son. Mabinogi properly applies only to the Four Branches, which is a tightly organised quartet very likely by one author, each of these four tales ends with the colophon thus ends this branch of the Mabinogi, hence the name. Lady Charlotte Guests work was helped by the research and translation work of William Owen Pughe
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Welsh cuisine
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Welsh cuisine encompasses the cooking traditions and practices associated with the country of Wales and the Welsh people. Some variation in dishes exists across the country, with notable differences existing in the Gower Peninsula, Welsh Celts and their more recent Welsh descendants originally practiced transhumance, moving their cattle to higher elevations in the summer and back to their home base in the winter. Once they settled to homesteads, a family would have eaten meat from a pig primarily. Sheep farming is practiced extensively in Wales, with lamb and mutton being the meats most traditionally associated with the country, beef and dairy cattle are also raised widely, and there is a strong fishing culture. Fisheries and commercial fishing are common and seafood features widely in Welsh cuisine, vegetables, beyond cabbages and leeks, were historically rare and the leek became a significant component of many dishes. It has been a symbol of Wales for at least 400 years. Since the 1970s, the number of restaurants and gastropubs in Wales has increased significantly, there are few written records of traditional Welsh foods, recipes were instead held within families and passed down orally between the women of the family. The lack of records was highlighted by Mati Thomas in 1928 and those with the skills and inclination to write Welsh recipes, the upper classes, conformed to English styles and therefore would not have run their houses with traditional Welsh cuisine. Upper-class households would take on any English fashions, even adopting English names, the traditional cookery of Wales originates from the daily meals of peasant folk, unlike other cultures where meals often started in the kitchens of the gentry and would be adapted. Historically the King of the Welsh people would travel, with his court, in a circuit, the tribute was codified in the Laws of Hywel Dda, showing that people lived on beer, bread, meat and dairy products, with few vegetables beyond cabbages and leeks. Towards the start of the 11th century, Welsh society started to build settlements, Food would be cooked in a single cauldron over an open fire on the floor, it would likely be reheated and topped up with fresh ingredients over a number of days. Some dishes could be cooked on a bakestone, a stone which could be placed above a fire to heat it evenly. Gerald of Wales, chaplain to Henry II, wrote after an 1188 tour of Wales, The whole population lives almost entirely on oats and you must not expect a variety of dishes from a Welsh kitchen, and there are no highly-seasoned titbits to whet your appetite. The medieval Welsh used thyme, savory, and mint in the kitchen, towards the end of the 18th century, Welsh land owners divided up the land to allow for tenant-based farming. Each small holding would include vegetable crops, as well as a cow, pigs, the 18th and 19th centuries were a time of unrest for the Welsh people. The Welsh food riots began in 1740, when colliers blamed the lack of food on problems in the supply, as a result of riots by colliers in the mid 1790s, magistrates in Glamorgan sold the rioters corn at a reduced price. At the same time they also requested assistance from the government to stop further rioting. The majority of food riots had ended by 1801, and there were certain political undertones to the actions, by the 1870s, 60% of Wales was owned by 570 families, most of whom did no farming
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Bara brith
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Bara brith, sometimes known as speckled bread, can be either a yeast bread enriched with dried fruit or made with self-raising flour. It is traditionally flavoured with tea, dried fruits and mixed spices, a decrease in popularity of it led to supermarket Morrisons removing it from their shelves in 2006, and a year later a survey showed that 85% of teenagers in the UK had never tried it. It has been championed by celebrity chefs such as Bryn Williams. Several variations on bara brith have been made, including changing it into a chocolate, bara brith derived its name from the Welsh language, bara meaning bread and brith translating as speckled. It is claimed to have been invented by a Welsh chef who added dried fruit and spices to a bread dough and it has subsequently been used as a coloqiualism - to over spice the bara brith means to do something to excess. In 2006, British supermarket chain Morrisons withdrew bara brith from sale at 19 of its Welsh based stores, complaints were issued in the press, but the company insisted that the bread was removed because of lack of sales. A survey conducted by British supermarket chain Sainsburys in 2006 showed that 36% of teenagers in Wales surveyed had never tried bara brith, when responses across the UK were viewed, some 85% of teenagers had never tried the traditional Welsh bread. Celebrity chef Phil Vickery cooked bara brith in Brynsiencyn, Anglesey and he used a traditional recipe which had been handed down to local chef Nerys Roberts through her family. Her bakery had previously supplied British supermarket chain Safeway with bara brith, beca Lyne-Pirkis baked a bara brith for one her entries during the fourth season of the BBC television series The Great British Bake Off in 2013. Although she based it off her grandmothers recipe, she found it difficult to complete within the three hours allocated for that round, but, it won praise from judges Paul Hollywood and Mary Berry. The bread is made by mixing flour, yeast, butter, mixed dried fruit, mixed spices, some recipes favour soaking the dried fruit in tea overnight before the baking. This mixture is then proven to allow fermentation to take place, after an initial period, the air is knocked out of the mixture and it is allowed to prove once more. This period of preparation can take up to two hours, including the time for the bread mixture. It is then baked in an oven, bara brith is traditionally served at tea time, alongside tea. It is normally sliced with butter spread on one side, in Argentina, bara brith is also known as torta negra. One of the most traditional foods coming out of the Chubut valleys, Lyne-Pirkis version of the bara brith on The Great British Bake Off substituted a tea oil to replace the overnight soaking process for the fruit. In E. Smith Twiddys The Little Welsh Cookbook, a cup of tea is included in the mixture. Celebrity chef Bryn Williams uses lard in his recipe, and a combination of raisins, the flavours of a bara brith have also been made into other types of food
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Laver (seaweed)
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Laver UK /ˈlɑːvə/ US /ˈleɪvər/ is an edible, littoral alga. In Wales, laver is used for making laverbread, a traditional Welsh dish, laver as food is also commonly found around the west coast of Great Britain and east coast of Ireland along the Irish Sea, where it is also known as slake. It is smooth in texture and forms delicate, sheetlike thalli, the principal variety is purple laver. Purple laver is classified as a red alga, tends to be a brownish colour and it is unusual amongst seaweeds because the fronds are only one cell thick. Laver has a content of dietary minerals, particularly iodine. The high iodine content gives the seaweed a distinctive flavour in common with olives, porphyra is also consumed in East Asia, where it is known as zicai in China, nori in Japan, and gim in Korea. Ulva lactuca, an alga, also known as sea lettuce, is occasionally eaten as green laver. Laver cultivation as food is thought to be ancient, though the first mention was in Camdens Britannia in the early 17th century. It is plucked from the rocks and given a preliminary rinse in clear water, the collected laver is repeatedly washed to remove sand and boiled for hours until it becomes a stiff, green mush. In this state, the laver can be preserved for about a week, typically during the 18th century, the mush was packed into a crock and sold as potted laver. Laver can be eaten cold as a salad with lamb or mutton, a simple preparation is to heat the laver and to add butter and the juice of a lemon or Seville orange. Laver can be heated and served with boiled bacon and it is used to make the Welsh dish known as laverbread. Laverbread is a traditional Welsh delicacy made from laver, to make laverbread, the seaweed is boiled for several hours, then minced or pureed. The gelatinous paste that results can then be sold as it is, or rolled in oatmeal, laverbread is traditionally eaten fried with bacon and cockles as part of a Welsh breakfast. It can also be used to make a sauce to accompany lamb, crab, monkfish, etc. richard Burton has been quoted as describing laverbread as Welshmans caviar. Laver is often associated with Penclawdd and its cockles, being used traditionally in the Welsh diet and is eaten widely across Wales in the form of laverbread. In addition to Wales, laverbread is eaten across the Bristol Channel in North Devon, especially the Exmoor coast around Lynmouth, Combe Martin, in North Devon it is generally not cooked with oatmeal and is simply referred to as laver. Laver is highly nutritious because of its proportions of protein, iron
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Cawl
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In modern Welsh the word is used to refer to any soup or broth. In English the word is used to refer to a traditional Welsh soup, historically, ingredients tended to vary, but the most common recipes included salted bacon or beef with potatoes, swedes, carrots and other seasonal vegetables. Modern variations of the meal tend to use lamb and leek, Cawl is recognised as a national dish of Wales. With recipes dating back to the 14th century, cawl is widely considered to be the national dish of Wales, Cawl was traditionally eaten during the winter months in the south-west of Wales. With the introduction of potatoes into the European diet in the half of the 16th century. The meat in the dish was normally cut into medium-sized pieces, the stock was thickened with either oatmeal or flour, and was then served, without the meat or vegetables, as a first course. The vegetables and slices of the meat would then be served as a second course, Cawl served as a single course is today the most popular way to serve the meal, which is similar to its north Wales equivalent lobsgows. Lobsgows differs in that the meat and vegetables were cut into smaller pieces, Cawl cennin, or leek cawl, can be made without meat but using meat stock. In some areas cawl is often served with bread and cheese and these are served separately on a plate. The dish was cooked in an iron pot or cauldron over the fire. In Welsh, gwneud cawl o means to mess something up, the word cawl in Welsh is first recorded in the 14th century, and is thought to come from the Latin caulis, meaning the stalk of a plant, a cabbage stalk or a cabbage. An alternative suggestion is that it is from Latin calidus, meaning warm, as this is the source of Spanish caldo, davies, John, Jenkins, Nigel, Menna, Baines, Lynch, Peredur I. eds. The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales, first Catch Your Peacock, a book of Welsh food. BBC recipe for Cawl Cennin Recipe for Cawl Cymreig recipe for cawl and other Welsh food
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Leek soup
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Leek soup is a soup based on potatoes, leeks, broth, and heavy cream. Other ingredients used may be salt and pepper, and various spices, generally the potatoes are diced and cooked in broth, while the leeks are chopped and sautéed. After this all ingredients are combined and stirred, chives may be used for garnish. Leek soup is strongly associated with Wales, and is an important item of Welsh cuisine, in Romania, this soup is popular and known as Ciorbă de praz, and in France it is called Soupe aux poireaux. List of soups List of vegetable soups
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Cuisine of Gower
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The cuisine of Gower, a peninsula in south Wales, is based on ingredients grown, raised or collected on or around the peninsula. The cuisine is based on fresh ingredients with recipes based around a fish or meat dish, until the twentieth century, the peninsula was virtually cut off from other markets due to poor roads, and no rail connection. The result was that Gower became self-sufficient in food, Gower people also developed their own dialect of English and their own traditions, which have since died out. The population of the peninsula was employed in agriculture, fishing, labour on the farms and larger estates, weaving and, in the north. With the expansion of motorized transport and road improvements, Gower became a poplar tourist destination, many residents now travel from Gower to work in the nearby city of Swansea. Much of the produce is now sold at Swansea Market, local farmers markets. In the 18th century, surveys indicate that crops grown in Gower included corn, hay, flax, hemp, hops, livestock kept included sheep, cattle, pigs, geese, fowl and bees. Many Gower villages were self-sufficient in food, and residents paid a rent to the lord of the manor for fishing rights. In south and west Gower a feudal or manorial system of open fields, later, the Enclosure Acts consolidated the arable land holding but Gower’s common lands were left untouched. North and east Gower retained the traditional Welsh landholding pattern, based on a group and located around the gwely. All rights of grazing, common pasture, and arable allocations stemmed from this system, the Norman and Welsh areas of Gower were roughly divided by the common lands of Clyne, Fairwood, Pengwern and Cefn Bryn. The geology of Gower is made up of limestone, coal measures and it produces with good management, plenty of all kinds of grain, and swards naturally with the sweetest grasses. The area has a mild climate due to the effects of the Gulf Stream near the coast and this results in mostly a frost-free winter in the south-west of the peninsula. The combination of geology and climate means that Gower is well known for its root and these include potatoes, cauliflower, and swedes. In the case of cauliflower, a climate is required when the curd is developing. The area around Rhossili is an important supply area, thousands of cases of cauliflowers are transported from here to shops nationwide during the winter months. Local farmers’ markets and Swansea Market sell fresh Gower vegetables, as do such as Nicholaston Farm, owned by the Beynon family, which supplies asparagus, beans. Gower is well known for the quality of its lamb, on the sandstone areas, such as Cefn Bryn, Davies comments, The sheep feeding thereon are noted for fineness of wool and well-flavoured mutton
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