1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Hockenheim
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Hockenheim is a town in northwest Baden-Württemberg, Germany, about 20 km south of Mannheim and 10 km west of Walldorf. It is located in the Upper Rhine valley on the touristical theme routes Baden Asparagus Route, the town is widely known for its Hockenheimring, a motor racing course, which hosted over 30 Formula One German Grand Prix races since 1970. It is twinned with the French town of Commercy, the German town of Hohenstein-Ernstthal in Saxony, Hockenheim is located in the Upper Rhine valley on an old trade route from Frankfurt to Basel. The brook Kraichbach divides the town in an eastern and a western area. Hockenheims total municipal area covers 3,484 ha, with ca.28.8 percent used for settlement and transportation, the remaining area consists of ca.22 percent forests and ca.2.4 percent rivers and seas. The municipal area is divided into two natural regions, the Rheinaue to the west and the slightly higher Niederterrasse to the east. The so-called Hockenheimer Rheinbogen is an area of the Rhine. 30 parts of it with a total of 656 ha are under nature conservation, an additional area three times larger is designated as landscape conservation area, with less strict usage limitations. The central urban area forms one unit and is divided into five districts for statistical purposes. Stamped bricks of the Roman Legio XIV Gemina Martia Victrix were found 1984 in a kiln during an excavation in Hockenheim. The stationing of this legion near Mainz from 71AD until 92AD indicates a settlement in this area. Hockenheim was first mentioned 769 as Ochinheim in a document of the Lorsch Codex. The name Hockenheim itself appeared first in 1238 in official documents, in the 17th century Hockenheim was severely devastated twice by French troops,1644 in the Thirty Years War and 1674 in the Franco-Dutch War. During this period the cultivation of hops in the area was partly replaced with tobacco. 1803 the Electoral Palatinate was dissolved and the village was integrated in Baden, with the growing tobacco crop the village flourished and was awarded town rights on 22 July 1895 by Frederick I, Grand Duke of Baden. With the beginning of the 20th century asparagus cultivation replaced most of the hops industry. At 29 May 1932 the Hockenheimring was opened with a motorcycle race, after World War II the decline of the cigar industry had begun, but Hockenheim was already known for its Hockenheimring and could expand in other industrial branches. January 1973 Hockenheim was assigned to the newly formed Rhein-Neckar-Kreis district, in 1991, Hockenheim was the host of the 11th Baden-Württemberg State Horticultural Show
3.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
4.
GMT
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Greenwich Mean Time is the mean solar time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London. GMT was formerly used as the civil time standard, now superseded in that function by Coordinated Universal Time. Today GMT is considered equivalent to UTC for UK civil purposes and for navigation is considered equivalent to UT1, consequently, the term GMT should not be used for precise purposes. Due to Earths uneven speed in its orbit and its axial tilt, noon GMT is rarely the exact moment the sun crosses the Greenwich meridian. This event may occur up to 16 minutes before or after noon GMT, noon GMT is the annual average moment of this event, which accounts for the word mean in Greenwich Mean Time. Originally, astronomers considered a GMT day to start at noon while for almost everyone else it started at midnight, to avoid confusion, the name Universal Time was introduced to denote GMT as counted from midnight. Astronomers preferred the old convention to simplify their observational data, so each night was logged under a single calendar date. Today Universal Time usually refers to UTC or UT1, in some countries Greenwich Mean Time is the legal time in the winter and the population uses the term. For an explanation of why this is, see GMT in legislation below, synchronisation of the chronometer on GMT did not affect shipboard time, which was still solar time. Most time zones were based upon GMT, as an offset of a number of hours ahead of GMT or behind GMT and it was gradually adopted for other purposes, but a legal case in 1858 held local mean time to be the official time. On 14 May 1880, a signed by Clerk to Justices appeared in The Times, stating that Greenwich time is now kept almost throughout England. For example, our polling booths were opened, say, at 813 and closed at 413 PM. This was changed later in 1880, GMT was adopted on the Isle of Man in 1883, Jersey in 1898 and Guernsey in 1913. Ireland adopted GMT in 1916, supplanting Dublin Mean Time, hourly time signals from Greenwich Observatory were first broadcast on 5 February 1924, rendering the time ball at the observatory redundant in the process. The daily rotation of the Earth is irregular and constantly slows, on 1 January 1972, GMT was superseded as the international civil time standard by Coordinated Universal Time, maintained by an ensemble of atomic clocks around the world. Indeed, even the Greenwich meridian itself is not quite what it used to be—defined by the centre of the instrument at the Observatory at Greenwich. Nevertheless, the line in the old observatorys courtyard today differs no more than a few metres from that line which is now the prime meridian of the world. Historically GMT has been used two different conventions for numbering hours. The long-standing astronomical convention dating from the work of Ptolemy, was to refer to noon as zero hours and this contrasted with the civil convention of referring to midnight as zero hours dating from the Romans
5.
Formula One
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Formula One is the highest class of single-seat auto racing that is sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile. The FIA Formula One World Championship has been the form of racing since the inaugural season in 1950. The formula, designated in the name, refers to a set of rules, the F1 season consists of a series of races, known as Grands Prix, held worldwide on purpose-built F1 circuits and public roads. The results of each race are evaluated using a system to determine two annual World Championships, one for drivers, one for constructors. The racing drivers are required to be holders of valid Super Licences, the races are required to be held on tracks graded 1, the highest grade a track can receive by the FIA. Most events are held in locations on purpose-built tracks, but there are several events in city centres throughout the world. Formula One cars are the fastest road racing cars in the world. Formula One cars race at speeds of up to approximately 375 km/h with engines currently limited in performance to a maximum of 15,000 RPM, the cars are capable of lateral acceleration in excess of five g in corners. The performance of the cars is very dependent on electronics – although traction control and other driving aids have been banned since 2008 – and on aerodynamics, suspension, the formula has radically evolved and changed through the history of the sport. F1 had a global television audience of 425 million people during the course of the 2014 season. Grand Prix racing began in 1906 and became the most popular internationally in the second half of the twentieth century. The Formula One Group is the holder of the commercial rights. Its high profile and popularity have created a major merchandising environment, since 2000 the sports spiraling expenditures and the distribution of prize money favoring established top teams have forced complaints from smaller teams and led several teams to bankruptcy. On 23 January 2017 it was confirmed that Liberty Media had completed its $8 billion acquisition of Delta Topco, the Formula One series originated with the European Grand Prix Motor Racing of the 1920s and 1930s. The formula is a set of rules that all cars must meet. Formula One was a new formula agreed upon after World War II during 1946, the first world championship race was held at Silverstone, United Kingdom in 1950. A championship for constructors followed in 1958, national championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s. Non-championship Formula One events were held for years, but due to the increasing cost of competition
6.
German Grand Prix
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The German Grand Prix is a biennial automobile race that has been held most years since 1926, with 75 races having been held. The race continued to be known as the German Grand Prix, because West Germany was prevented from taking part in international events in the immediate post-war period, the German Grand Prix only became part of the Formula One World Championship in 1951. It was designated the European Grand Prix four times between 1954 and 1974, when title was an honorary designation given each year to one grand prix race in Europe. It has been organized by AvD since 1926, the well-known ADAC hosts many other races, including a second German F1 race at the Nürburgring from 1995 until 2006 under the title of the European Grand Prix. In 1907, Germany staged the first of the Kaiserpreis races at the 73-mile Taunus public road circuit, entries were limited to touring cars with engines of less than eight litres. The race itself was a tragedy, a driver and his co-driver were killed 19 miles into the lap, göbel died of his injuries in hospital later on. Italys Felice Nazzaro won the race in a Fiat, like the Prinz-Heinrich-Fahrt, which was held from 1908 to 1911, it was a precursor to the German Grand Prix. The first national event in German Grand Prix motor racing was held at the AVUS race circuit in southwestern Berlin in 1926 as a car race. The AVUS circuit was made up of two 6-mile straights combined with two left-hand hairpins at each end, the first race at AVUS, in heavy rain, was won by Germanys native son, Rudolf Caracciola in a Mercedes-Benz. The event was marred by Adolf Rosenbergers crash into one of the marshals huts, the AVUS circuit was considered extremely dangerous even back then- so the event was moved. The German Grand Prix became an event in 1929. The Grand Prix moved to the new,28.3 km Nürburgring, located in the Eifel Mountain region in western Germany about 70 miles from Frankfurt and it was inaugurated on 18 June 1927 with the annual race, the ADAC Eifelrennen. There were two races on the Gesamtstrecke combined course, which were both sportscar races, where German pre-war great Rudolf Caracciola would win his second of six German Grands Prix. The 1930 and 1933 races were cancelled due to economic reasons, in 1931, the event began to use only the 14.2 mile Nordschleife, and this would continue onwards throughout the century. Caracciola would win the 1931 and 1932 events in a Mercedes, starting in 1934, there were often several races each year with the so-called Silver Arrows Grand Prix cars in Germany, e. g. the Eifelrennen, the AVUS race and several hillclimbs. Yet it was only the Grand Prix at the Nürburgring that was the national Grande Epreuve, the 1935 event was considered to be one of the greatest motorsports victories of all time. Italian legend Tazio Nuvolari, driving a hopelessly outdated and underpowered Alfa Romeo against state-of-the-art Mercedes, after a dreadful start, he was able to pass a number of cars, particularly while some of the German cars pitted. The small 42-year-old Italian ended up finishing in front of eight running Silver Arrows, second placed Hans Stuck was two minutes behind Nuvolari
7.
Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters
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The Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters is a touring car series using a silhouette racing car based in Germany, but also with rounds elsewhere in Europe. From 2000 onwards, this new DTM continued the former Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft, since 1997 many ideas have been discussed in order to find a compromise for rules of a new DTM. As too many races were planned outside Germany, no Championship status was granted by the DMSB, Alfa Romeo, who at the time were mounting successful campaigns in the European Touring Car Championship, did not return to the series. BMW was also involved in the ETCC and was not satisfied with a championship only for Germany, Audi did not enter as they insisted on using their signature quattro 4WD. Unlike the previous incarnation which primarily used sedan models like the Mercedes-Benz W201, Opel used the upcoming Coupé version of the Astra as in the concept car, and Mercedes the CLK model which already was used as a pattern for the Mercedes-Benz CLK-GTR. Attempts of Zakspeed to enter with a car looking like a Volvo C70 were not approved, the 1999 STW-Supertouring-champion Christian Abt could not defend his STW title as this series was also discontinued, with Opel moving into DTM. Abt used the Audi TT as a basis, as Audi had no suitable 2-door coupé, in May 2000, the new DTM started with the traditional Hockenheimring short track version. Some cars still had no or few sponsorship decals, while Opel could match the speed of most Mercedes in the 2000 season, the hastily developed Abt-Audis were mainly outclassed. As the TT shape had rather poor aerodynamic properties, Abt was allowed to use a form later. Further benefits like a rear wing helped the Abt-Audi TT-R win the DTM championship in 2002 with Laurent Aïello. In 2000, Manuel Reuter came second in the championship, after that year, no Opel driver was among the top three, with few podium finishes and no victory for the disappointing lightnings. The Opels did not win in most of their entries in the VLN endurance races as they were testing, but the speed was impressive. They won however the 2003 Nürburgring 24 Hours against factory efforts by Audi, after their successes with the Audi R8 and the official support of the Abt-TTRs at the Nürburgring, Audi finally joined the DTM as a factory entry in 2004. The three constructors involved decided to switch to saloon bodies, the road models used as patterns since 2004 are the Audi A4, Opel Vectra GTS and the Mercedes-Benz C-Class. All dimensions, like wheelbase, are identical in order to equal opportunities without the actual design of the road cars having any influence. Initially the gap looked set to be filled by MG Rover, however their plans to enter the series were cancelled after the company collapsed in April 2005. Audi and Mercedes fielded 10 cars each in 2006, but the important television deal with the television station ARD required three marques in 2007. Rumours surfaced that Alfa Romeo would return to the DTM in 2007 and these rumors were helped by Alfa Romeo Sport boss Claudio Berro being seen in the Barcelona paddock
8.
Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
9.
McLaren
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McLaren Racing Limited, competing as McLaren Honda, is a British Formula One team based at the McLaren Technology Centre, Woking, Surrey, England. McLaren is best known as a Formula One constructor but has competed in and won the Indianapolis 500. The team is the second oldest active team after Ferrari and they are one of the most successful teams in Formula One history, having won 182 races,12 drivers championships and eight constructors championships. The team is an owned subsidiary of McLaren Technology Group. Further American triumph followed, with Indianapolis 500 wins in McLaren cars for Mark Donohue in 1972, the combination of Prost and Senna was particularly dominant—together they won all but one race in 1988—but later their rivalry soured and Prost left for Ferrari. Fellow English team Williams offered the most consistent challenge during this period, however, by the mid-1990s, Honda had withdrawn from Formula One, Senna had moved to Williams, and the team went three seasons without a win. Ron Dennis retired as McLaren team principal in 2009, handing the role to longtime McLaren employee Martin Whitmarsh. At the end of 2013, after the teams worst season since 2004, McLaren announced in 2013 that they would be using Honda engines from 2015 onwards, replacing Mercedes-Benz. The team raced as McLaren-Honda for the first time since 1992 at the 2015 Australian Grand Prix, Bruce McLaren Motor Racing was founded in 1963 by New Zealander Bruce McLaren. Bruce was a driver for the British Formula One team Cooper with whom he had won three Grands Prix and come second in the 1960 world championship. In 1964 and 1965, McLaren were based in New Malden, then Feltham, during this period, Bruce drove for his team in sports car races in the United Kingdom and North America and also entered the 1965 Tasman Series with Phil Hill, but did not win it. He continued to drive in Grands Prix for Cooper, but judging that teams form to be waning, Bruce made the teams Grand Prix debut at the 1966 Monaco race. His race ended after nine laps due to an oil leak. Neither car brought great success, the best result being a fourth at Monaco, for 1968, after driving McLarens sole entry for the previous two years, Bruce was joined by 1967 champion and fellow New Zealander Denny Hulme, who was already racing for McLaren in Can-Am. That years new M7A car, Herds final design for the team, was powered by Cosworths new and soon to be ubiquitous DFV engine, Hulme also won the Italian and Canadian Grands Prix later in the year, helping the team to second in the constructors championship. The year 1970 started with a place each for Hulme. After his death, Teddy Mayer took over control of the team, Hulme continued with Dan Gurney. Gurney won the first two Can-Am events at Mosport and St. Jovite and placed ninth in the third, but left the team mid-season, and Gethin took over from there
10.
2004 German Grand Prix
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The 2004 German Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 25 July 2004 at the Hockenheimring. Jenson Button overcame a 10-place penalty to finish 2nd and this proved to be Cristiano da Mattas final Grand Prix, for Hungary he was replaced by compatriot Ricardo Zonta. Last race, Cristiano da Matta Kimi Räikkönens rear wing was broken during the race, marc Gené was replaced at Williams by Antônio Pizzonia, returning to Formula One after being sacked by Jaguar following the 2003 British Grand Prix. The first start was aborted after Olivier Panis indicated a problem with his car and this led to a second formation lap, and the shortening of the race by 1 lap. First Points, Antônio Pizzonia Bold text indicates who still has a chance of becoming World Champion. Note, Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings
11.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
12.
Juan Pablo Montoya
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Juan Pablo Montoya Roldán is a Colombian racing driver. He currently competes in the Verizon IndyCar Series driving for Team Penske, Montoya is one of two drivers to have won the CART title in his rookie year, the first being Formula One World Champion Nigel Mansell in 1993. He is the active driver who has won two legs of the Triple Crown of Motorsport in its original definition. In October 2009, Montoya was ranked 30th on Times Onlines list of the Top 50 Formula One drivers of all time. Montoya was born in Bogotá, Colombia, where he was taught the techniques of karting from an age by his father Pablo. Montoya moved to the Colombian Formula Renault Series in 1992, while racing there he won four of eight races and had five poles, the same year he also participated in the U. S. Skip Barber driving school, and was hailed by driving instructors as being one of the best pupils to come through their school. 1993 saw Montoya switch to the Swift GTI Championship, a series he dominated by winning seven of eight races, in 1994, Montoya raced in three separate series, The Sudam 125 Karting, Barber Saab Pro Series, and Formula N in Mexico. He graduated from the Colegio San Tarsicio in Bogotá in the same year, Montoya developed into a strong qualifier, in some cases taking 80% of a seasons pole positions. For the next three years Montoya raced in various divisions, continually progressing upward and he raced in the 1995 British Formula Vauxhall Championship, winning three races and finishing third in the championship. Montoya got the opportunity to advance in his racing career when he was hired by the RSM Marko. In the ten races during the season, Montoya had three wins and three pole positions and he finished his rookie season second in the championship points standings, just 1.5 points shy of taking the overall season title. During this time, Williams noticed his potential and invited him to test with the team at Jerez, Montoya was the fastest of them all and he and Max Wilson were signed by WilliamsF1 to be test drivers for the following season. Alongside his Formula One testing duties for Williams, he competed again in F3000, during the 1998 F3000 season, Montoya opened the season up with a record four straight pole positions. He also achieved another record that year by being the first driver to lap the entire grid, Montoya won the 1998 F3000 season with four wins, seven pole positions, and nine podium finishes in twelve races. Renault, Williamss engine supplier for most of the 1990s, left Formula One at the end of the 1997 season, with no major engine suppliers available, Williams were forced to sign a contract to run customer engines for the 1998 and 1999 seasons. In 1998 the team failed to win a race for the first time in a decade, while Zanardi had a miserable year in Formula One, Montoya, with Honda power and a great Reynard chassis at his disposal, took the American motorsport scene by storm. He took the 1999 title in his year, something accomplished six years earlier by former Formula One Champion Nigel Mansell
13.
Williams Grand Prix Engineering
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Williams Grand Prix Engineering Limited, currently racing in Formula One as Williams Martini Racing, is a British Formula One motor racing team and constructor. It was founded and is run by team owner Sir Frank Williams, the team was formed in 1977 after Frank Williams two earlier unsuccessful F1 operations, Frank Williams Racing Cars and Wolf-Williams Racing. All of Williams F1 chassis are called FW then a number, Williams first race was the 1977 Spanish Grand Prix, where the new team ran a March chassis for Patrick Nève. Williams started manufacturing its own cars the year, and Switzerlands Clay Regazzoni won Williams first race at the 1979 British Grand Prix. Williams won nine Constructors Championships between 1980 and 1997 and this stood as a record until Ferrari surpassed it in 2000. Each of these drivers, with the exception of Senna and Button, have captured one title with the team. Of those who have won the championship with Williams, only Jones, Rosberg, Williams have worked with many engine manufacturers, most successfully with Renault, Williams won five of their nine constructors titles with the French company. Williams F1 also has business interests beyond Formula One racing, in April 2014, Williams Hybrid Power were sold to GKN. Williams Advanced Engineering had a centre in Qatar until it was closed in 2014. Frank Williams started the current Williams team in 1977 after his previous outfit, Frank Williams Racing Cars, despite the promise of a new owner in the form of Canadian millionaire Walter Wolf, the team rebranded as Wolf-Williams Racing in 1976, the cars were not competitive. Eventually Williams left the rechristened Walter Wolf Racing and moved to Didcot to rebuild his team as Williams Grand Prix Engineering, Frank recruited young engineer Patrick Head to work for the team, creating the Williams-Head partnership. In February 2011, Williams F1 announced their intention to float via a public offering on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. Swiss-based Bank am Bellevue AG will act as sole global co-ordinator of up to 27. 39% of existing shares, Sir Frank Williams will remain majority shareholder and team principal after the IPO. The shares are valued at between 24 and 29 euros, which values the Williams F1 team at 265 million euros. In February 2017 the shares are divided in this way, Frank Williams 52, 25%, Brad Hollinger 14, 75%, Patrick Head 9%, 20% on the market place. Williams entered a custom March 761 for the 1977 season, lone driver Patrick Nève appeared at 11 races that year, starting with the Spanish Grand Prix. The new team failed to score a point, achieving a best finish of 7th at the Italian Grand Prix, for the 1978 season, Patrick Head designed his first Williams car, the FW06. Williams signed Australian Alan Jones, who had won the Austrian Grand Prix the previous season for a devastated Shadow team following the death of their lead driver, Tom Pryce
14.
2001 German Grand Prix
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The 2001 German Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 29 July 2001 at the Hockenheimring, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It was the round of the 2001 Formula One season. The 45-lap race was won by Williams driver Ralf Schumacher after starting from the second position, Rubens Barrichello finished second for Ferrari with BAR driver Jacques Villeneuve third. Juan Pablo Montoya started from pole position alongside Ralf Schumacher, Michael Schumacher, the eventual Drivers Champion started fourth, behind Mika Häkkinen of McLaren. Both Williams drivers retained their positions at the end of the first lap, over the course of the race, Montoya extended a considerable lead over Ralf Schumacher. Montoya lost the lead on lap 24 when an issue with a refulling rig caused him to be stationary for more than 20 seconds, Ralf Schumacher thus inherited the lead and held it to win his third victory of the season. As a consequence of the race, Michael Schumacher retained his points advantage in the Drivers Championship over nearest rival David Coulthard as both drivers retired from the event, Ralf Schumacher moved ahead of Barrichello to take over third position. In the Constructors Championship, Ferrari retained their lead, while Williams reduced the deficit to McLaren by ten points and this was the last Grand Prix to be held on the former Hockenheimring circuit, the race was held on a shorter reconfigured track from 2002. The Grand Prix was contested by teams with two drivers each. The teams were Ferrari, McLaren, Williams, Benetton, BAR, Jordan, Arrows, Sauber, Jaguar, Minardi and Prost. Going into the race, Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher led the Drivers Championship with 84 points, ahead of David Coulthard on 47 points, Ralf Schumacher was fourth on 31 points, and Mika Häkkinen was fifth on 19 points. In the Constructors Championship, Ferrari were leading with 118 points, Williams were third on 46 points, while Sauber with 19 points, and Jordan on 15 points contended for fourth place. Ferrari, McLaren and Williams had so far secured all eleven victories of the season, Ricardo Zonta set the fastest times on the first day, ahead of McLaren test driver Alexander Wurz. Michael Schumacher lost control of the rear-end of his car at the Seconda Variante chicane, causing him to slide along the barriers, testing was suspended for one hour for the barriers to be repaired. Ferrari later found the crash occurred by a broken diffuser from riding on the kerbs which created a loss of downforce under braking, Michael Schumacher took a medical check and was declared fit to race. Ralf Schumacher was fastest on the day where it was held in wet weather conditions during the afternoon. Sauber and BAR went to Circuit Ricardo Tormo for three days where aerodyamic and set-up testing was undertaken, Coulthard was scheduled to join Wurz during the session but withdrew because of food poisoning. Irvine was quickest on the third and final days of testing, Arrows elected not to perform any testing and concentrated on work on aerodynamics at their headquarters at Leafield
15.
Race track
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A race track is a facility built for racing of vehicles, athletes, or animals. A race track also may feature grandstands or concourses, racetracks are also used in the study of animal locomotion. Some motorsport tracks are called speedways, a racetrack is a permanent facility or building. Racecourse is a term for a horse racing track, found in countries such as the United Kingdom, India, Australia, Hong Kong. Race tracks built for bicycles are known as velodromes, circuit is a common alternate term for racetrack, given the circuit configuration of most race tracks, allowing races to occur over several laps. A race course, as opposed to a racecourse, is a term for non-permanent tracks for sports, particularly running, water sports, road racing. Many sports usually held on racetracks also can occur on temporary tracks, there is some evidence of racetracks being developed in several ancient civilizations. The most developed ancient racetracks were the hippodromes of the Ancient Greeks, both of these structures were designed for horse and chariot racing. The stadium of the Circus Maximus in Ancient Rome could hold 200,000 spectators, racing facilities existed during the Middle Ages, and there are records of a public racecourse being opened at Newmarket in London in 1174. In 1780 the Earl of Derby created a course on his estate at Epsom. Racecourses in the British Isles are based on grass, known as turf tracks, in the United States, the race tracks are dirt. With the advent of the automobile in the late twentieth century. The earliest tracks were modified horse racing courses, racing automobiles in such facilities began in September 1896, at Narragansett Park in Cranston, Rhode Island. The Indianapolis Motor Speedway was opened in August 1909, beginning in the early 1900s, motorcycle races were run on high, banked, wooden race tracks called board tracks. During the 1920s, many of the races on the AAA Championship circuit were run on board tracks. Modern racetracks are designed with safety being paramount, following incidents of spectator. These often involve run off areas, barriers, and high fencing, several racetracks are incorporated into larger venues or complexes, incorporating golf courses, museums, hotels, and conference centres. Some racetracks are small enough to be contained indoors, for such as motocross, cycling
16.
Rhine
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The largest city on the river Rhine is Cologne, Germany, with a population of more than 1,050,000 people. It is the second-longest river in Central and Western Europe, at about 1,230 km, with an average discharge of about 2,900 m3/s. The Rhine and the Danube formed most of the inland frontier of the Roman Empire and, since those days. The many castles and fortifications along the Rhine testify to its importance as a waterway in the Holy Roman Empire, in the modern era, it has become a symbol of German nationalism. The variant of the name of the Rhine in modern languages are all derived from the Gaulish name Rēnos, spanish is with French in adopting the Germanic vocalism Rin-, while Italian, Occitan and Portuguese retain the Latin Ren-. The Gaulish name Rēnos belongs to a class of river names built from the PIE root *rei- to move, flow, run, the grammatical gender of the Celtic name is masculine, and the name remains masculine in German, Dutch and French. The Old English river name was variously inflected as masculine or feminine, the length of the Rhine is conventionally measured in Rhine-kilometers, a scale introduced in 1939 which runs from the Old Rhine Bridge at Constance to Hoek van Holland. The river length is shortened from the rivers natural course due to a number of canalisation projects completed in the 19th and 20th century. The total length of the Rhine, to the inclusion of Lake Constance and its course is conventionally divided as follows, The Rhine carries its name without distinctive accessories only from the confluence of the Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein near Tamins-Reichenau. Above this point is the catchment of the headwaters of the Rhine. It belongs almost exclusively to the Swiss Canton of Graubünden, ranging from Gotthard Massif in the west via one valley lying in Ticino, traditionally, Lake Toma near the Oberalp Pass in the Gotthard region is seen as the source of the Vorderrhein and the Rhine as a whole. The Hinterrhein rises in the Rheinwald valley below Mount Rheinwaldhorn, the Vorderrhein, or Anterior Rhine, springs from Lai da Tuma, near the Oberalp Pass and passes the impressive Ruinaulta formed by the largest visible rock slide in the alps, the Flims Rockslide. A multiday trekking route is signposted along the young Rhine called Senda Sursilvana, the Hinterrhein/Rein Posteriur, or Posterior Rhine, starts from the Paradies Glacier, near the Rheinwaldhorn. One of its tributaries, the Reno di Lei, drains the Valle di Lei on politically Italian territory, after three main valleys separated by the two gorges, Roflaschlucht and Viamala, it reaches Reichenau. The Vorderrhein arises from numerous source streams in the upper Surselva, one source is Lai da Tuma with the Rein da Tuma, which is usually indicated as source of the Rhine, flowing through it. Into it flow tributaries from the south, some longer, some equal in length, such as the Reno di Medel, the Rein da Maighels, and the Rein da Curnera. The Cadlimo Valley in the Canton of Ticino is drained by the Reno di Medel, all streams in the source area are partially, sometimes completely, captured and sent to storage reservoirs for the local hydro-electric power plants. In its lower course the Vorderrhein flows through a gorge named Ruinaulta through the Flims Rockslide, the whole stretch of the Vorderrhein to the Rhine confluence near Reichenau-Tamins is accompanied by a long-distance hiking trail called Senda Sursilvana
17.
Bertha Benz Memorial Route
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The Bertha Benz Memorial Route is a German tourist and theme route in Baden-Württemberg and member of the European Route of Industrial Heritage. It opened in 2008 and follows the tracks of the worlds first long road trip in 1888. Bertha Benzs husband, Karl Benz, patented the first automobile designed to produce its own power in January 1886, the distance was about 104 km. Distances driven before this historic trip were short, being merely trials with mechanical assistants, on the way, she solved numerous problems. She had to find Ligroin, a solvent available only at dispensing chemists shops, thus the still existing Stadt-Apotheke in Wiesloch, some kilometres south of Heidelberg, became the worlds first filling station. A blacksmith had to mend a chain in Bruchsal. Brake linings were replaced in Bauschlott/Neulingen north of Pforzheim, and Bertha Benz had to use a long, straight hatpin to clean a fuel pipe which had become blocked, and a garter to insulate a wire. Bertha and her sons left Mannheim around dawn and reached Pforzheim somewhat after dusk and they drove back to Mannheim three days later, by a different itinerary. Along the way, several people were frightened by the automobile, on February 25,2008, the Bertha Benz Memorial Route was officially approved as a Tourist or Scenic Route by the German authorities, a dynamic monument of 194 km of German industrial culture. As Bertha was afraid of some mountains, the return trip follows an alternative route. Mannheim, Mannheim Palace, Luisenpark, Water-Tower Ladenburg, Automuseum Dr, the report was not only on the history of the automobile, but took a look at its future as well, as shown by the Bertha Benz Challenge. The first Bertha Benz Challenge took place on September 10 and 11,2011 and its motto is, Sustainable Mobility on the World’s Oldest Automobile Road. The second Bertha Benz Challenge took place from September 14 to 16,2012 and it also included two rounds on the motodrom of the Hockenheimring, that thus opened itself towards sustainable future mobility. John H. Lienhard on Bertha Benzs ride Automuseum Dr. Carl Benz, Ladenburg
18.
Christmas
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In several countries, celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with gift-giving and sharing a traditional meal with the family. Although the month and date of Jesus birth are unknown, by the fourth century the Western Christian Church had placed Christmas on December 25. Today, most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar and this is not a disagreement over the date of Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day that is December 25. Although it is not known why December 25 became a date of celebration, December 25 was the date the Romans marked as the winter solstice, the shortest, and therefore darkest day of the year. Jesus was identified with the Sun based on an Old Testament verse, the date is exactly nine months following Annunciation, when the conception of Jesus is celebrated. Finally, the Romans had a series of pagan festivals near the end of the year, so Christmas may have been scheduled at this time to appropriate, or compete with, one or more of these festivals. The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, the economic impact of Christmas has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world. Christmas is a form of Christs mass. It is derived from the Middle English Cristemasse, which is from Old English Crīstesmæsse, crīst is from Greek Khrīstos, a translation of Hebrew Māšîaḥ, Messiah, meaning anointed, and mæsse is from Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist. The form Christenmas was also used, but is now considered archaic and dialectal, it derives from Middle English Cristenmasse. In addition to Christmas, the holiday has been known by other names throughout its history. The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as midwinter, or, more rarely, Nativity, meaning birth, is from Latin nātīvitās. In Old English, Gēola referred to the corresponding to December and January. Noel entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis, the canonical gospels of Luke and Matthew both describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem in Judea, to a virgin mother. In the Gospel of Luke account, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem for the census and it says that angels proclaimed him a savior for all people, and shepherds came to adore him. In the Matthew account, magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, King Herod orders the massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later settles in Nazareth. The Nativity stories of Matthew and Luke are prominent in the gospels, the first recorded Christmas celebration was in Rome in 336. Christmas played a role in the Arian controversy of the fourth century, the feast regained prominence after 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor on Christmas Day
19.
Tank
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A tank is an armoured fighting vehicle designed for front-line combat, with heavy firepower, strong armour, and tracks providing good battlefield maneuverability. The first tanks were designed to overcome the deadlock of trench warfare, now they are a mainstay of ground forces. Modern tanks are versatile mobile land weapon platforms, mounting a large-calibre cannon in a rotating gun turret. In both offensive and defensive roles, they are units that are capable of performing tasks which are required of armoured units on the battlefield. As a result of advances, tanks underwent tremendous shifts in capability in the years since their first appearance. Tanks in World War I were developed separately and simultaneously by Great Britain and this was a prototype of a new design that would become the British Armys Mark I tank, the first tank used in combat in September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme. The name tank was adopted by the British during the stages of their development. While the British and French built thousands of tanks in World War I, Germany was unconvinced of the tanks potential, Tanks of the interwar period evolved into the much larger and more powerful designs of World War II. Tanks in the Cold War were designed with these weapons in mind, improved engines, transmissions and suspensions allowed tanks of this period to grow larger. Aspects of gun technology changed significantly as well, with advances in shell design, during the Cold War, the main battle tank concept arose and became a key component of modern armies. Modern tanks seldom operate alone, as they are organized into combined arms units which involve the support of infantry and they are also usually supported by reconnaissance or ground-attack aircraft. The tank is the 20th century realization of an ancient concept, the internal combustion engine, armour plate, and continuous track were key innovations leading to the invention of the modern tank. Many sources imply that Leonardo da Vinci and H. G. Wells in some way foresaw or invented the tank, leonardos late 15th century drawings of what some describe as a tank show a man-powered, wheeled vehicle with cannons all around it. However the human crew would not have power to move it over larger distance. In the 15th century, Jan Žižka built armoured wagons containing cannons, the caterpillar track arose from attempts to improve the mobility of wheeled vehicles by spreading their weight, reducing ground pressure, and increasing their traction. Experiments can be traced back as far as the 17th century and it is frequently claimed that Richard Lovell Edgeworth created a caterpillar track. It is true that in 1770 he patented a machine, that should carry and lay down its own road and his own account in his autobiography is of a horse-drawn wooden carriage on eight retractable legs, capable of lifting itself over high walls. The description bears no similarity to a caterpillar track, armoured trains appeared in the mid-19th century, and various armoured steam and petrol-engined vehicles were also proposed
20.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
21.
Wilhelm Herz
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Wilhelm Herz was a motorbike racer and land speed racer. He started his career in 1932 with DKW and went over to NSU in 1939 and he gained his international reputation through numerous world records on two- and four-wheeled vehicles. He set a record in 1951 on the Munich - Ingolstadt motorway and repeated it at Bonneville Salt Flats. In this instance, he was the first person to ride a motorbike over 200 mph, from 1954 until 1992, he was manager of the Hockenheimring which he led to international importance, especially because of the Grand Prix for motorbikes and Formula One. The city of Hockenheim honoured his merits concerning the Hockenheimring by presenting him with the Goldene Verdienstmedaille, the Life and Work of Wilhelm Herz 50th anniversary world record Wilhelm Herz, Salt Flats, Utah 50th anniversary world record of Wilhelm Herz
22.
Grand Prix motorcycle racing
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The FIM Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix is the premier class of motorcycle road racing, held since 1949. Grand Prix motorcycles are purpose-built racing machines that are available for purchase by the general public nor able to be ridden legally on public roads. The championship is divided into three classes, MotoGP, Moto2 and Moto3. All three classes use four-stroke engines, in 2010 the 250cc class was replaced by the new Moto2600 cc four-stroke class. After that, MotoGP gave the four-strokes a 490cc advantage over the two-strokes, a 2 stroke engine produces power with every rotation of the crank, where as the 4 stroke engine produces power every fourth rotation. In theory, a 500cc 2stroke produces the power as a 1000cc 4 stroke. Carburation vs fuel injection, engine mapping, power/torque curves, practice showed the 4 strokes generating 10 to 15 more Hp and turning in much faster lap times then their 2 stroke counterparts. 4 stroke engines would be the choice for years to come. Moto2 and 3 are four-stroke only, a FIM Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix was first organized by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme in 1949. The commercial rights are now owned by Dorna Sports, with the FIM remaining as the sanctioning body. Teams are represented by the International Road Racing Teams Association and manufacturers by the Motorcycle Sport Manufacturers Association, rules and changes to regulations are decided between the four entities, with Dorna casting a tie-breaking vote. In cases of technical modifications, the MSMA can unilaterally enact or veto changes by unanimous vote among its members and these four entities compose the Grand Prix Commission. There have traditionally been several races at each event for various classes of motorcycles, based on engine size, and one class for sidecars. Classes for 50 cc,80 cc,125 cc,250 cc,350 cc, and 500 cc solo machines have existed at some time, up through the 1950s and most of the 1960s, four-stroke engines dominated all classes. In part this was due to rules, which allowed a multiplicity of cylinders, in the 1960s, two-stroke engines began to take root in the smaller classes. In 1969, the FIM — citing high development costs for non-works teams — brought in new rules restricting all classes to six gears, by this time, two-strokes completely eclipsed the four-strokes in all classes. The 50 cc class was replaced by an 80 cc class, then the class was dropped entirely in the 1990s, after being dominated primarily by Spanish, the 350 cc class vanished in the 1980s. Sidecars were dropped from world events in the 1990s, reducing the field to 125s, 250s
23.
German motorcycle Grand Prix
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The German motorcycle Grand Prix, first held in 1925, is since 1952 part of the Grand Prix motorcycle racing World Championship. The first two Großer Preis von Deutschland races were held at Berlins AVUS before moving to the new the purpose-built Nürburgring which was used in its full 28 km configuration. In the Federal Republic of Germany, a motorcycle industry emerged in the early 1950s. With the Sachsenring being now in the German Democratic Republic, a new venue had to be selected, the Nürburgring was damaged and due to its length not very suitable. The Solitudering near Stuttgart had a layout and due to proximity of a major city, the crowds were large. In 1953, the Schottenring near Fulda was chosen, but due to lack of safety, it was partially boycotted, attendance at the Nürburgring, which was by now used in its 22.8 km Nordschleife configuration, was disappointing. Former DKW and NSU factory rider and world record setter Wilhelm Herz promoted the Hockenheimring successfully, in that time, also the Grand Prix of the GDR, held on the Sachsenring, was part of the WC from 1961 to 1972. It is referred to as East German GP, EGER for short on the Moto GP website, during that period the German GP was also referred to as West German GP, even though its name never changed. The popularity of motorcycles sharply fell in late 1950s Germany, as now everyone aspired to get an automobile, only BMW survived, dominating side car racing. The East German brand MZ had made groundbreaking progress in two stroke technology, but due to defecting personnel and other problems, they fell behind in the late 1960s. After West German Dieter Braun won the East German race on the Sachsenring in 1971, the crowd sung the German anthem, in 1974, the event on the improved Nürburgring Nordschleife was boycotted by championship contenders as the track had not been fitted with enough straw bales. Traditionally, the Eifelrennen hosted motorcycle and automobile racing on the same weekend, safety demands became problematic, as drivers asked for armco and catch fences, while rider safety requires unobstructed surroundings, with walls of straw bales in front of obstacles. With Agostini and others holding out, German amateur riders took all wins, the Eifelrennen in spring became an automobile event, and the GP became a separate event in August. A few years later, in 1980, the last German GP was held on the Nordschleife, the additional 1986 Baden-Württemberg Grand Prix counted towards the WC only for 80cc and 125cc classes. A pink background indicates an event that was not part of the Grand Prix motorcycle racing championship, a pink background indicates an event that was not part of the Grand Prix motorcycle racing championship
24.
Autobahn
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The Autobahn is the federal controlled-access highway system in Germany. The official German term is Bundesautobahn, which translates as federal motorway, the literal meaning of the word Bundesautobahn is Federal Auto Track. German autobahns have no federally mandated speed limit for some classes of vehicles, however limits are posted in areas that are urbanized, substandard, accident-prone, or under construction. On speed-unrestricted stretches, a speed limit of 130 kilometres per hour applies. A2008 estimate reported that 52% of the network had only the advisory speed limit, 15% had temporary speed limits due to weather or traffic conditions. Measurements from the German State of Brandenburg in 2006 showed average speeds of 142 km/h on a 6-lane section of autobahn in free-flowing conditions. Germanys autobahn network has a length of about 12,993 kilometres in 2016. Longer similar systems can be found in the United States and India, only federally built controlled-access highways with certain construction standards including at least two lanes per direction are called Bundesautobahn. They have their own, white-on-blue signs and numbering system, in the 1930s, when construction began on the system, the official name was Reichsautobahn. Various other controlled-access highways exist on the federal, state, district and these highways are considered autobahnähnlich and are sometimes colloquially called Gelbe Autobahn because most of them are Bundesstraßen with yellow signs. Some controlled-access highways are classified as Bundesautobahn in spite of not meeting the construction standard. Nearly all exits are to the right, in the postwar years, a thicker asphaltic concrete cross-section with full paved hard shoulders came into general use. The top design speed was approximately 160 km/h in flat country, a flat-country autobahn that was constructed to meet standards during the Nazi period, could support the speed of up to 150 km/h on curves. The current autobahn numbering system in use in Germany was introduced in 1974, all autobahns are named by using the capital letter A, which simply stands for Autobahn followed by a blank and a number. The main autobahns going all across Germany have a single digit number, shorter autobahns that are of regional importance have a double digit number. The first digit used is similar to the system above, depending on the region, east-west routes are always even-numbered, north-south routes are always odd-numbered. The north-south autobahns are generally numbered using odd numbers from west to east, that is to say, similarly, the east-west routes are numbered using even numbers from north to south. One project was the private initiative HaFraBa which planned a car only road crossing Germany from Hamburg in the North via central Frankfurt am Main to Basel in Switzerland
25.
Bundesautobahn 6
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Bundesautobahn 6, also known as Via Carolina is a 477 km long German autobahn. It starts at the French border near Saarbrücken in the west, the first plans for the A6 were laid out in 1935, construction on several parts began in 1938. In 1940, construction near Mannheim was stopped when the bridge across the Rhine collapsed, a new bridge, the Theodor Heuss Bridge, was opened in 1953. Other parts of the A6 were completed in 1941, a part near Kaiserslautern was used as an airstrip by the Luftwaffe during World War II. After the war, it was taken over by US forces and became the Ramstein Air Base, in the 1960s, construction was continued. One new section cut through the Hockenheimring, requiring a redesign of the race track which resulted in the construction of the Motodrom stadium. Much like its counterpart, the A8, the A6 is relatively old and has received little upgrading, making it difficult for it to handle todays traffic. The section around Mannheim is currently being widened and modernised from a four-lane to a six-lane motorway requiring the construction of a new bridge over the River Neckar, about the Kocher Viaduct near Schwäbisch Hall, the Autobahn 6 crosses the Kocher valley between Heilbronn and Nuremberg. With its maximum height of 185 m above the valley bottom, the direct motorway connection between Prague and Paris was completed when the last missing section between junction Amberg-Ost and interchange Oberpfälzer Wald was inaugurated on 10 September 2008. Geographic data related to Bundesautobahn 6 at OpenStreetMap Bundesautobahn 6 – Detailed route plan
26.
Jim Clark
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James Clark, Jr OBE, known as Jim Clark, was a British Formula One racing driver from Scotland, who won two World Championships, in 1963 and 1965. Clark was a driver who competed in sports cars, touring cars and in the Indianapolis 500. He was particularly associated with the Lotus marque and he was killed in a Formula Two motor racing accident in Hockenheim, Germany in 1968. At the time of his death, he had won more Grand Prix races, in 2009, The Times placed Clark at the top of a list of the greatest-ever Formula One drivers. James Clark Jr was born into a family at Kilmany House Farm, Fife, the youngest child of five. In 1942 the family moved to Edington Mains Farm, near Duns, Berwickshire, on 16 June 1956, in his very first event, he was behind the wheel of a DKW sonderklasse at Crimond, Scotland. By 1958, Clark was driving for the local Border Reivers team, racing Jaguar D-types and Porsches in national events, then on Boxing Day 1958, Clark raced against the man who would launch him to superstardom. Driving a Lotus Elite, he finished second to Colin Chapman in a 10-lap GT race at Brands Hatch, in 1959 he drove a Lotus Elite, finishing tenth at Le Mans partnered with John Whitmore, and the ex-Bruce Halford Lister Jaguar, winning the Boness Hill Climb. Chapman was sufficiently impressed to give Clark a ride in one of his Formula Junior cars, in March 1960, the first race for the newly introduced Formula Junior took place at Goodwood. The winner was J. Clark, from J. Surtees with T. Taylor third. Clark had made an earlier FJ appearance in a race at Brands Hatch on Boxing Day,1959, driving a Gemini-B. M. C. for Graham Warner of the Chequered Flag garage. Jim Clark made his F1 Grand Prix debut, part-way through the season, Lotus had lost Surtees, as he had gone to the Isle of Man to do some serious motorcycle racing, so they had Ireland, Stacey and Clark, the last-named being an acceptable substitute. He retired on lap 49 with final drive failure, Clark was later quoted as saying in a 1964 interview, I was driving scared stiff pretty much all through the race, even though he finished 5th and scored his first points finish. The next year, Jim Clark was involved in one of the worst accidents in the history of Formula 1 racing, in the 1961 Italian Grand Prix on 10 September at Monza, Wolfgang von Trips in his Ferrari collided with Jim Clarks Lotus. Trips car became airborne and crashed into a barrier, fatally throwing von Trips out of the car. His first Drivers World Championship came driving the Lotus 25 in 1963, winning seven out of the ten races, Clarks record of seven wins in a season would not be equalled until 1984 when Frenchman Alain Prost won seven races for McLaren. The record would not be broken until Brazilian Ayrton Senna won eight races in the 1988 season, in 1963 he also competed in the Indianapolis 500 for the first time, and he finished in second position behind Parnelli Jones and won Rookie of the Year honours. The 1963 Indy 500 result remains controversial, before the race United States Auto Club officials had told the drivers that they would black flag any car that was seen to be leaking oil onto the track
27.
Formula Two
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Formula Two, abbreviated to F2, was a type of open wheel formula racing first codified in 1948. It was replaced in 1985 by Formula 3000, but revived by the FIA from 2009–2012 in the form of the FIA Formula Two Championship. The goal of the 2009 revival was to develop a low-cost series to young drivers a chance to compete in the highest tiers of motorsport. In December 2012, series promoter MSV announced that Formula Two would not take place after 2013 due to declining entrant numbers, a third attempt at establishing the series was announced in 2015. Formula 2 returned in 2017, the former GP2 series became FIA Formula 2 in the March leading up to the 2017 season, for much of the history of Formula One, Formula Two has represented the penultimate step on the motorsport ladder. Prior to the Second World War, there existed a division of racing for cars smaller. This category was usually called voiturette racing and provided a means for amateur or less experienced drivers and smaller marques to prove themselves. By the outbreak of war, the rules for voiturette racing permitted 1.5 L supercharged engines, in 1946, the 3.0 L supercharged rules were abandoned and Formulae A and B introduced. This left no category below Formula A/Formula One, so Formula Two was first formally codified in 1948 by FIA as a smaller and cheaper complement to the Grand Prix cars of the era. Among the races held in this first year of Formula Two was the 1948 Stockholm Grand Prix, the rules limited engines to two-litre naturally aspirated or 750 cc supercharged. As a result, the cars were smaller, lighter, and this encouraged new marques such as Cooper to move up to Formula Two, before competing against the big manufacturers of Alfa Romeo and Maserati. In fact, Formula One in its early years attracted so few entrants that in 1952 and 1953 all World Championship Grand Prix races, except the unique Indianapolis 500, were run in Formula Two. F2 went into decline with the arrival of the 2.5 L F1 in 1954 and this became dominated by rear-engined Coopers drawing on their Formula 3 and Bobtail sports car, with Porsches based on their RSK sports cars enjoying some success. Ferrari originally developed their Sharknose Dino 156 as a Formula Two car, the dominant engine of this formula was the Coventry Climax FPF four-cylinder, with the rare Borgward sixteen-valve unit enjoying some success. A slightly enlarged version of the F2 Cooper won the first two Formula One Grands Prix in 1958, marking the beginning of the era in Formula One. Formula Two was largely the domain of Formula One stars on their days off, engines were mostly by Cosworth and Honda, though some other units appeared, including various Fiat based units and dedicated racing engines from BMC and BRM. For 1967, the FIA increased the engine capacity to 1600cc. The FIA also introduced the European Formula Two Championship in 1967, Ickx, driving a Matra MS5, won the inaugural championship by 11 points from the Australian, Frank Gardner
28.
Chicane
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A chicane is an artificial feature creating extra turns in a road, used in motor racing and on streets to slow traffic for safety. For example, one form of chicane is a short, shallow S-shaped turn, requiring the driver to turn left and then right again to stay on the road. Chicane comes from the French verb chicaner, which means to quibble or to prevent justice, on modern racing circuits, chicanes are usually located after long straights, making them a prime location for overtaking. They can be placed tactically by circuit designers to prevent vehicles from reaching speeds deemed to be unsafe, a prime example of this is the Tamburello chicane at Imola, which was placed after Ayrton Sennas death at the original corner. At Le Mans, chicanes were placed alongside the 6‑km Mulsanne Straight in order to slow down Le Mans Prototypes, some tracks, such as the Yas Marina Circuit in Abu Dhabi, feature optional chicanes. Faster cars will take the chicane, but slower cars may avoid the chicane because they are not capable of reaching high speeds on the straights. Such chicanes are used at Watkins Glen International and Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya, another example is the Tsukuba Circuit in Japan. A chicane was added after Turn 7, creating a right turn and this chicane is used only for motorcycles. It was implemented to divert motorcycles from taking Turn 8, which is a high speed long sweeping left corner, Turn 8 was deemed to be unsafe for motorcycles, as immediately following this is a slow right hairpin corner. This means riders may still have been leaning to the left when being expected to begin braking for Turns 9 and 10, the term is used in other types of racing, including bobsleigh and dogleg, to indicate a similar shift in the course or track. Mobile chicane and moving chicane are terms used to disparage slower drivers. In some cases they may not move out of the way quickly enough to allow competitors in higher positions past and this can cost competitors valuable time and championship points. This same term, applied to traffic calming, can refer to the usage of devices to create a chicane configuration. The Yas Marina Circuits chicanes have become a subject of debate, for example, some of Formula Ones top drivers feel that the chicane after the back straight disrupts the flow of races and impedes overtaking maneuvers. McLaren Team Principal Martin Whitmarsh feels that placing high speed corners after straights is a better option than using chicanes, chicanes are a type of horizontal deflection used in traffic calming schemes to reduce the speed of traffic. Drivers are expected to speed to negotiate the lateral displacement in the vehicle path. Limited accident data for chicane schemes indicate changes in injury accidents, a pedestrian chicane is a kind of permanent fence used at a railway crossing to slow pedestrians down and to force them to observe both directions before crossing the railway tracks. While passing the chicane, one has to turn to the left and to the right, a similar arrangement is sometimes used at the entrances of parks to impede bicycle or car access
29.
Traffic barrier
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Traffic barriers are also installed at the roadside to prevent errant vehicles from traversing steep slopes or entering deep water. Traffic barriers are installed within medians of divided highways to prevent errant vehicles from entering the opposing carriageway of traffic, some of these barriers, designed to be struck from either side, are called median barriers. Crash barriers can also be used to protect areas like school yards, pedestrian zones. While barriers are designed to minimize injury to vehicle occupants. They should only be installed where a collision with the barrier is likely to be less severe than a collision with the hazard behind it, where possible, it is preferable to remove, relocate or modify a hazard, rather than shield it with a barrier. To make sure they are safe and effective, traffic barriers undergo extensive simulated, roadside hazards must be assessed for the danger they pose to traveling motorists based on size, shape, rigidity, and distance from the edge of travelway. In many regions of the world, the concept of zone is taken into account when examining the distance of an obstacle or hazard from the edge of travelway. Traffic barriers are categorized in two ways, by the function they serve, and by how much they deflect when a vehicle crashes into them. Roadside barriers are used to traffic from roadside obstacles or hazards, such as slopes steep enough to cause rollover crashes, fixed objects like bridge piers. Roadside barriers can also be used with medians, to prevent vehicles from colliding with hazards within the median, median barriers are used to prevent vehicles from crossing over a median and striking an oncoming vehicle in a head-on crash. Unlike roadside barriers, they must be designed to be struck from either side, bridge barrier is designed to restrain vehicles from crashing off the side of a bridge and falling onto the roadway, river or railroad below. It is usually higher than roadside barrier, to prevent trucks, buses, pedestrians and cyclists from vaulting or rolling over the barrier, bridge rails are usually multi-rail tubular steel barriers or reinforced concrete parapets and barriers. Work zone barriers are used to traffic from hazards in work zones. Their distinguishing feature is they can be relocated as conditions change in the road works, two common types are used, temporary concrete barrier and water-filled barrier. The latter is composed of steel-reinforced plastic boxes that are put in place where needed, linked together to form a longitudinal barrier and these have an advantage in that they can be assembled without heavy lifting equipment, but they cannot be used in freezing weather. Barriers are divided into three groups, based on the amount they deflect when struck by a vehicle and the mechanism the barrier uses to resist the impact forces. Barrier deflections listed below are results from tests with a 2,000 kg pickup truck traveling 100 km/h. Flexible barriers include cable barriers and weak post corrugated guide rail systems and these are referred to as flexible barriers because they will deflect 1.6 to 2.6 m when struck by a typical passenger car or light truck
30.
Patrick Depailler
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Patrick André Eugène Joseph Depailler was a racing driver from France. He participated in 95 World Championship Formula One Grands Prix, debuting on 2 July 1972 and he also participated in several non-Championship Formula One races. Depailler was born in Clermont-Ferrand, Puy-de-Dôme, as a child, he was inspired by Jean Behra. In Formula One, he joined a Tyrrell team that was beginning a long, slow decline, Depailler was helping to advance this team up the grid when he was killed in a crash at Hockenheim on 1 August 1980, during a private testing session. He won 2 races, secured 1 pole position, achieved 19 podiums, Depailler finished 0.9 seconds behind Peter Gethin in the 1972 Formula Two Pau Grand Prix. He battled Gethin closely in a March 922 over the 70-lap course which curved through the French city, both drivers lapped the field twice. Depailler came in 3rd with a time of 1,31,40.5 in an April 1973 Formula Two race at the Nürburgring and he was driving a Ford Alpine. In May 1974 Depailler qualified his March in 1st position in qualifying for the Formula Two Pau Grand Prix and he recorded a time of 1 minute 16.17 seconds for an average speed of 80.8 miles per hour. In June he crashed his March 742 through a guard rail during time trials for a Formula Two race in Salzburgring, Depailler was uninjured but qualifying was stopped so that workmen could replace a section of railing which was torn off in the accident. In April 1976 the Renault sports car team suspended Depailler for three races after he was involved in a crash which knocked out both his car and the Renault of teammate Jean-Pierre Jabouille. The incident occurred on the turn, slightly more than a mile after the beginning of a 180-mile race at the Nürburgring. Depailler lost control and crashed, after which Jabouille also crashed while attempting to avoid his teammate, the drivers had been instructed not to contest the lead with each other. Depailler placed 2nd in the 1976 Swedish Formula One Grand Prix and he was 19 seconds behind winner Jody Scheckter. Depailler recorded a time of 1,47,17 over 72 laps, Depailler drove in the International Race of Champions event at Riverside International Raceway in September 1978. He was behind the wheel of the Paul Newman entered Spyder-Chevy in the October 1978 California Grand Prix, Tyrrell had given Depailler drives at France and Watkins Glen in 1972. Using one of the cars, Depailler had finished in seventh place in the latter race. So in December 1973 Depailler was chosen with Scheckter to drive for Tyrrell, to replace the deceased François Cevert, Depailler captured the pole for the 1974 Swedish Grand Prix, his 9th race as a Formula One driver. He negotiated the 2. 49-mile Anderstorp course in a time of 1 minute,24.758 seconds, Depailler would finish 2nd in the race behind team-mate Jody Scheckter, this proved his only podium of the year
31.
1992 German Grand Prix
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The 1992 German Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at the Hockenheimring in Hockenheim, Germany on 26 July 1992. The 45-lap race was the round of the 1992 Formula One season and was won by Williams driver Nigel Mansell. Ayrton Senna finished the race in place for the McLaren team whilst Michael Schumacher took the final podium spot in his Benetton. In pre-qualifying, both Andrea Moda cars went out, although Perry McCarthy was excluded from the event after missing a weighbridge check, Nigel Mansell qualified on pole position, ahead of Riccardo Patrese and Ayrton Senna. Stefano Modena, Eric van de Poele, Andrea Chiesa and Damon Hill were the four drivers who did not qualify for the race. For Chiesa, it would prove to be the last time he took part in a Grand Prix event, on the last lap, Riccardo Patrese spun off whilst trying to pass Ayrton Senna for second position. He would end up being classified in eighth position, Mansell held on for the race victory, ahead of Senna in second, whose McLaren car ran out of fuel shortly after crossing the finish line and Michael Schumacher in third. Ayrton Senna dropped out of contention at this race, although it seemed inevitable that only Mansell would be Drivers Champion anyway - he clinched the title at the next race in Hungary. Note, Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings
32.
1991 German Grand Prix
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The 1991 German Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Hockenheimring on 28 July 1991. It was the round of the 1991 Formula One season. The 45-lap race was won by Williams driver Nigel Mansell after he started from pole position and his teammate Riccardo Patrese finished second with Ferrari driver Jean Alesi third. Ayrton Senna spent a night in a hospital in Mannheim after crashing during pre-race testing a week earlier, the accident was caused by a tyre failure. Elsewhere Satoru Nakajima announced he would retire at the end of the year, in Saturday Practice Érik Comas had a massive accident in his Ligier, the French driver was unhurt, but it raised questions about the safety of the second chicane. Qualifying saw Nigel Mansell take pole from title rival Ayrton Senna, balestre then instigated a democratic vote, and the vote went towards removing the tire walls and replacing them with traffic cones. At the start of the race, Mansell made a great start while Berger slotted into second ahead of team-mate Senna, with Prost, Patrese, at the back Mark Blundell collided with Nicola Larini, Blundell continued, but Larinis day was over. Berger made a bad pit-stop and fell back to tenth, while Prost started to reel in Senna. Mansell was running away at the front and when he pitted for tyres he dropped just behind Alesi, while Mansell was surging away, a tremendous battle developed for third place between Senna, Prost, and Patrese, with Riccardo beating both men before setting off after Alesi. Senna and Prost continued to squabble over fourth and the talking point came on lap 37 when Prost attempted to pass Senna going into the first chicane. Prost was faster and tried to go around the outside, Senna would not give way and Prost went off, Prost blamed Senna and said he would not be so forgiving the next time while Senna accused Prost of complaining for the sake of complaining. Pre-qualifying was reshaped following the mid season point, jordan, Dallara and Modena were all removed from pre-qualifying as they had performed better than teams allowed in qualifying proper. AGS, Footwork and Brabham all slipped into pre-qualifying, Satoru Nakajima announced his decision to retire from F1 at the end of the season. German driver Michael Bartels stood in for Johnny Herbert but failed to qualify Alex Caffi returned to the Footwork team replacing Stefan Johansson, Caffi had threatened legal action should his wish not be granted. Prost controversially claimed after the race If I catch him in that position again I will push him out, Senna ran out of fuel when 4th and stopped with one lap left coincidentally in the same spot where Prost stalled. The 1991 German Grand Prix was the first Grand Prix under a unified Germany, German Reunification had occurred on October 3,1990,3 months and 3 days after the previous Grand Prix. Bold text indicates who still has a chance of becoming World Champion. Note, Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings
33.
Ayrton Senna
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He was killed in an accident while leading the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix for Williams. Senna began his career in karting, moved up to open-wheel racing in 1981. He made his Formula One debut with Toleman-Hart in 1984 before moving to Lotus-Renault the following year, in 1988, he joined Frenchman Alain Prost at McLaren-Honda. Between them, they won all but one of the 16 Grands Prix that year, Prost claimed the championship in 1989, and Senna his second and third championships in 1990 and 1991. In 1992, the Williams-Renault combination began to dominate Formula One, Senna nonetheless managed to finish the 1993 season as runner-up, winning five races and negotiating a move to Williams in 1994. Senna has often voted as the best and most influential Formula One driver of all time in various motorsport polls. He was recognised for his speed over one lap and from 1989 until 2006 held the record for most pole positions. He was also acclaimed for his wet weather performances, such as the 1984 Monaco Grand Prix, the 1985 Portuguese Grand Prix, and he holds a record six victories at the Monaco Grand Prix, and is the fifth-most successful driver of all time in terms of race wins. Senna courted controversy throughout his career, particularly during his turbulent rivalry with Prost, in the Japanese Grands Prix of 1989 and 1990, each of which decided the championship of that year, collisions between Senna and Prost determined the eventual winner. Senna was born in the Pro-Matre Maternity Hospital of Santana, a neighbourhood of São Paulo, the middle child of wealthy Brazilian landowner and factory owner Milton da Silva and his wife Neide Senna da Silva, he had an older sister, Viviane and a younger brother, Leonardo. The house where Senna spent the first four years of his life belonged to Neides father, Senna was highly athletic, excelling in gymnastics and other sports, and developed an interest in cars and motor racing at the age of four. He also suffered from poor coordination and had trouble climbing stairways by the age of three. An electroencephalogram found that Senna was not suffering from any problems and his parents gave Senna the nickname Beco. At the age of seven, Senna first learned to drive a Jeep around his familys farm, Senna attended Colegio Rio Branco in the São Paulo neighbourhood of Jardins and graduated in 1977 with a grade 5 in physics along with other grades in mathematics, chemistry, and English. He later enrolled in a college that specialised in business administration, overall, his grades amounted up to 68%. Sennas first kart was built by his father using a small 1-HP lawnmower engine, Senna started racing at Interlagos and entered a karting competition at the age of 13. He started his first race on pole position, facing rivals who were some older than him, despite this. His father supported his son and Lucio Pascal Gascon soon managed the developing talent, Senna went on to win the South American Kart Championship in 1977
34.
1994 San Marino Grand Prix
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The 1994 San Marino Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 1 May 1994 at the Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari, located in Imola, Italy. It was the race of the 1994 Formula One season. Fatalities and injuries at this race proved to be a turning point in both the 1994 season, and in the development of Formula One itself, particularly with regard to safety. The race weekend was marked by the deaths of Austrian driver Roland Ratzenberger, other incidents saw driver Rubens Barrichello injured and several mechanics and spectators injured. In terms of fatalities, this was Formula Ones darkest weekend since two drivers were killed at the 1960 Belgian Grand Prix. Michael Schumacher, driving for Benetton, won the race despite contact with Damon Hill, Nicola Larini, driving for Ferrari, scored the first points of his career when he achieved a podium finish in second position. Mika Häkkinen finished third in a McLaren, since the race, numerous regulation changes have been made to slow Formula One cars down and new circuits incorporate large run-off areas to slow cars before they collide with a wall. Senna was given a funeral in his home town of São Paulo, Brazil. Italian prosecutors charged six people with manslaughter in connection with Sennas death, the case took more than 11 years to conclude due to an appeal and a retrial following the original verdict of not guilty. Behind Schumacher and Barrichello was Damon Hill in third place on six points, bergers teammate Jean Alesi was fifth on four points. In the World Constructors Championship, Benetton were leading on 20 points and Ferrari were second on ten points, there were two driver changes heading into the race. JJ Lehto replaced Jos Verstappen at Benetton, the latter having replaced Lehto for the two races of the season due to an injury sustained by Lehto in pre-season testing. Aguri Suzuki was replaced with Andrea de Cesaris at Jordan, Drivers had two hours, split over two days, Friday and Saturday, to register the fastest possible time. The driver who could register the fastest time would start on pole position, giving them a headstart of eight metres over the second-fastest driver, third place would start eight metres behind the second-fastest driver and on the side of the track where the first placed car is. This practice continues until twenty-sixth place, and the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth placed cars are not allowed to race and he hit the top of the tyre barrier, and was knocked unconscious. His car rolled several times after landing before coming to rest upside down and he returned to the race meeting the next day, although his broken nose and a plaster cast on his arm forced him to sit out the rest of the race weekend. Despite a spin, Senna was the fastest driver at the end of Fridays session with a time of 1,21.548, Sennas teammate Damon Hill was seventh, having spun himself, over 1.6 seconds behind Senna. Although the survival cell remained intact, the force of the impact inflicted a basal skull fracture
35.
Downforce
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Downforce is a downwards thrust created by the aerodynamic characteristics of a car. The purpose of downforce is to allow a car to travel faster through a corner by increasing the force on the tires. The same principle that allows an airplane to rise off the ground by creating lift from its wings is used in reverse to apply force that presses the race car against the surface of the track. This effect is referred to as aerodynamic grip and is distinguished from mechanical grip, which is a function of the mass, tires. The creation of downforce by passive devices can be achieved only at the cost of increased drag. The aerodynamic setup for a car can vary considerably between race tracks, depending on the length of the straights and the types of corners. Some cars have had rather unstable aerodynamics, such that a change in angle of attack or height of the vehicle can cause large changes in downforce. Two primary components of a car can be used to create downforce when the car is travelling at racing speed, the shape of the body. Most racing formulae have a ban on aerodynamic devices that can be adjusted during a race, in aerodynamics, it is usual to use the top-view projected area of the wing, instead of its frontal area, as a reference surface to define the lift coefficient. This results in different values for F, although the calculated downforce stays the same, the rounded and tapered shape of the top of the car is designed to slice through the air and minimize wind resistance. Detailed pieces of bodywork on top of the car can be added to allow a flow of air to reach the downforce-creating elements. The overall shape of a street car resembles an airplane wing, almost all street cars have aerodynamic lift as a result of this shape. There are many techniques that are used to counterbalance a street car, using this method, the air flowing under the front bumper will be constricted to a lower cross sectional area, and thus achieve a lower pressure. Volume does not affect the air pressure because it is not an enclosed volume, race cars will exemplify this effect by adding a rear diffuser to accelerate air under the car in front of the diffuser, and raise the air pressure behind it to lessen the cars wake. Other aerodynamic components that can be found on the underside to improve downforce and/or reduce drag, include splitters, some cars, such as the DeltaWing, do not have wings, and generate all of their downforce through their body. A larger surface area creates greater downforce and greater drag, the aspect ratio is the width of the airfoil divided by its depth. The aspect ratio formula is written like AR=b squared/s, where AR=aspect ratio, b=spand squared, also, a greater angle of attack of the wing or spoiler, creates more downforce, which puts more pressure on the rear wheels and more drag. The function of the airfoils at the front of the car is twofold and they create downforce that enhances the grip of the front tires, while also optimizing the flow of air to the rest of the car
36.
Alain Prost
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Alain Marie Pascal Prost, OBE, Chevalier de la Légion dhonneur is a French former racing driver. A four-time Formula One Drivers Champion, only Sebastian Vettel, Juan Manuel Fangio, from 1987 until 2001 Prost held the record for most Grand Prix victories. Schumacher surpassed Prosts total of 51 victories at the 2001 Belgian Grand Prix, in 1999, Prost received the World Sports Awards of the Century in the motor sport category. Prost discovered karting at the age of 14 during a family holiday and he progressed through motor sports junior ranks, winning the French and European Formula Three championships, before joining the McLaren Formula One team in 1980 at the age of 24. During the 1980s and early 1990s, Prost formed a fierce rivalry mainly with Ayrton Senna, but also Nelson Piquet and Nigel Mansell. In 1986, at the last race of the season, he beat Mansell and Piquet of Williams to the title after Mansell retired late on in the race, and Piquet was pulled in for a late precautionary pit stop. Senna joined Prost at McLaren in 1988 and the two had a series of clashes, including a collision at the 1989 Japanese Grand Prix that gave Prost his third Drivers Championship. A year later at the venue they collided again, but this time Prost, driving for Ferrari. Before the end of a winless 1991 season Prost was fired by Ferrari for his criticism of the team. After a sabbatical in 1992, Prost joined the Williams team, with a competitive car, Prost won the 1993 championship and retired from Formula One driving at the end of the year. In 1997, Prost took over the French Ligier team, running it as Prost Grand Prix until it went bankrupt in 2002. From 2003 to 2012 he competed in the Andros Trophy, which is an ice racing championship, taking 38 race victories, Prost employed a smooth, relaxed style behind the wheel, deliberately modeling himself on personal heroes like Jackie Stewart and Jim Clark. He was nicknamed The Professor for his approach to competition. Though it was not a name he particularly cared for, he would later that it was an appropriate summation of his approach to his racing. Skilled at setting up his car for race conditions, Prost would often conserve his brakes and tyres early in a race, Prost had one younger brother called Daniel, who died of cancer in September 1986. Although short, standing at 1.67 m Prost was an active, athletic child, in doing so he broke his nose several times. He considered careers as a gym instructor or a professional footballer before he discovered kart racing at the age of 14 while on a family holiday and this new sport quickly became his career of choice. They have two sons, Nicolas and Sacha Prost, Prost also has a daughter, Victoria
37.
1986 German Grand Prix
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The 1986 German Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Hockenheimring on July 27,1986. It was the race of the 1986 Formula One season. Alain Prosts car ran out of fuel on the straight of the last lap. Instead of retiring, Prost got out of his car and tried to push it to the finish, the finish line was too far, though, and he never reached it. He was classified sixth in the race, and he was running third when his car ran out of fuel, rosberg entered the last lap ahead of Prost so was classified 5th despite stopping first. Senna swerved his Lotus sideways frantically to the line on the pit straight to get the last drops of fuel into the valves of his Lotuss Renault engine. The grid represented the first all-McLaren front row since the 1972 Canadian Grand Prix and it was also Keke Rosbergs only pole position with the team and the 5th and last pole of his F1 career. Note, Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings
38.
McLaren MP4/2
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The McLaren MP4/2 was a Formula One car designed by John Barnard of McLaren for the 1984 season. An iteration of it, the MP4/2B, was used in the 1985 season, and a updated version. It was closely based on the MP4/1E model that was used as a test car, like the majority of its major competitors, the car used an all carbon fibre chassis pioneered by the cars designer John Barnard with its predecessor, the MP4/1. The car was powered by a 1.5 Litre, 90° V6 TAG-Porsche turbo engine that produced (650 bhp in race set-up and up to 800 bhp in qualifying set-up i. e. with maximum turbo pressure. It was first used in the 1983 Dutch Grand Prix, at the insistence of veteran Niki Lauda and he was running second with only six laps remaining, but his race ended with electrical failure on lap 71 of the Kyalami circuit. Lauda was joined for 1984 by Alain Prost, who had narrowly lost the 1983 championship to Brabhams Nelson Piquet by just two points, Prost was openly critical of Renaults failure to develop the Renault RE40 and was fired two days after the season ended. McLaren boss Ron Dennis immediately snapped up the young Frenchman in place of John Watson, Prost and Lauda proved to be a formidable combination and gave McLaren what many considered to be the strongest driver line up of the season. Both were excellent development drivers, and both gave technical feedback on the car and the engine pushed the cars development far further than the other teams. Prost, who before 1984 had won nine races for Renault, was considered to be the best driver in Formula One and just needed a fast and reliable car to prove it. Lauda beat Prost to the championship by just half a point in the final race and this remains the closest finish to a championship in Formula One history. Often the MP4/2s were the cars to finish on the same lap. McLaren comfortably won the championship from Ferrari with a score of 143.5 to just 57.5 from the Prancing Horse. Only twice during the season were the McLarens outclassed on pure pace and these were Michele Alboretos win for Ferrari in Belgium at Zolder, and Piquets first win of the year in Canada. The other two races the team did not win were the North American street races at Detroit and Dallas. On the official FIA video review of the 1984 season, narrator Clive James summed up the year with the words Anything as fast as the McLarens fell apart, ironically, it was lucky that both McLarens actually started the race at Kyalami. This was due to a massive race morning warm up crash that destroyed the Osella-Alfa Romeo of Piercarlo Ghinzani and gave the Italian driver burns to his hands and face forcing him to miss the race. As a result, McLaren were given approximately 30 minutes of time to fix a misfire that had developed in Laudas TAG-Porsche which required a complete electrical system replacement. During 1984, both McLarens failed to finish a race only on two occasions in Belgium and Dallas, while recording four 1-2 finishes in South Africa, Germany, Holland and Portugal
39.
1986 FIA Formula One World Championship
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The 1986 Formula One season was the 40th season of FIA Formula One motor racing. It featured the 1986 Formula One World Championship which commenced on 23 March, the Formula One World Championship for Drivers was won by Alain Prost and the Formula One World Championship for Manufacturers was awarded to Williams. Prost became the first driver since Jack Brabham 26 years before to defend his championship title, the championship culminated in a points battle between the Williams duo of Nelson Piquet and Nigel Mansell versus McLarens Alain Prost at the final race, the 1986 Australian Grand Prix. This enabled Prost to take the lead and the race victory, Mansell, Piquet, Prost, along with Lotus rising star Ayrton Senna, dominated throughout the season and formed what was popularly dubbed as the Gang of Four. For the first time, turbocharged engines were due to a ban on naturally aspirated engines. The law banning atmospheric engines was rescinded in 1987, in preparation for a ban on all forced induction engines for 1989, for 2014 turbocharged engines are now the norm effectively ending naturally aspirated engines. The Formula One cars of 1986 are the most powerful Grand Prix cars to ever have raced and these drivetrain units were then taken out and then replaced with the boost-restricted engines and specifically prepared gearboxes for races. When these turbocharged engines were fitted to the cars, the whole package weighed about 540 kg – so the power-to-weight ratios were extreme, to put that in perspective, a modern family car produces about 80–100 hp/ton and the fastest modern road-going cars produce about 450–550 hp/ton. But a consistent problem for these new turbo engines that was smoothed over over the years was the terrible turbo lag. This was similar to what had gone on in American IndyCar racing in the early 1970s, the boost of the engines would often be restricted to the point where they would only be producing around 900–1,000 hp during the race. The major automotive manufacturers participating in F1 at the time, with their superior money, the power difference in engines from 1980 to 1986 was huge – the power of engines over those 6 years doubled. As a result, fuel became an problem for most teams since the engines were slightly more powerful than before. He got out and desperately tried to push his car across the finish line, ultimately never making it. The Honda engines had the edge on fuel consumption and reliability, the three races exiting the calendar were the Dutch Grand Prix after 33 years, the infrequently run European Grand Prix, and the South African Grand Prix after 21 years. The following competitors contested the 1986 Formula One World Championship, the 1986 Formula One World Championship was contested over a sixteen race series. There had been big changes over the winter with most of the teams changing at least one driver. Ferrari was unchanged but McLaren had hired Keke Rosberg from Williams, Ayrton Senna stayed at Team Lotus but the Brazilian had blocked the recruitment of Derek Warwick and so rising British star Johnny Dumfries had been signed. Eddie Cheever and Derek Warwick were left out of work while Patrick Tambay joined Alan Jones in the new Haas team, Bergers place at Arrows was taken by Marc Surer
40.
2000 German Grand Prix
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The 2000 German Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 30 July 2000 at the Hockenheimring near Hockenheim, Germany. It was the round of the 2000 Formula One season. The 45-lap race was won by Ferrari driver Rubens Barrichello after starting from 18th position, Mika Häkkinen finished second for the McLaren team with teammate David Coulthard third. Coulthard started from pole position alongside Michael Schumacher, coulthards teammate Häkkinen began from third. At the first corner Michael Schumacher moved to the left and Giancarlo Fisichella collided with him, Häkkinen took the lead of the race which he held until an intruder penetrated circuit limits on lap 25 causing drivers to make pit stops under safety car conditions. Barrichello, meanwhile, had gained thirteen positions to run fifth until the first safety car period, Häkkinen retook the lead after Coulthard pitted on lap 27. Barrichello stayed out on dry tyres, taking the lead which he held to clinch the first victory of his Formula One career. Barrichellos victory was considered popular amongst the Formula One paddock as it came after a setback during his career, the race result meant Häkkinen and Coulthard were tied for second place but the points advantage to Michael Schumacher was reduced to two points. Barrichello remained a further eight points behind the McLaren drivers, in the Constructors Championship McLaren reduced Ferraris lead to four points, who were 80 points ahead of Williams with six races of the season remaining. The track intruder, named as 47-year-old Frenchman Robert Sehli, later apologised for his actions, the Grand Prix was contested by eleven teams, each of two drivers. The teams, also known as constructors were, McLaren, Ferrari, Jordan, Jaguar, Williams, Benetton, Prost, Sauber, Arrows, Minardi and BAR. Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought four different tyre types to the race, going into the race, Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher led the Drivers Championship with 56 points, ahead of David Coulthard on 50 points and Mika Häkkinen on 48 points. Rubens Barrichello was fourth with 36 points whilst Giancarlo Fisichella was fifth with 18 points, Ferrari and McLaren had so far dominated the championship winning ten out of the ten previous races. Championship competitors Barrichello and Fisichella had each gained second-place finishes, whilst Ralf Schumacher, following the Austrian Grand Prix on 16 July, the teams conducted testing sessions at three circuits from July 18–21 to prepare for the Grand Prix. McLaren, Benetton, Jordan, Jaguar, Sauber and BAR went to Silverstone over three days, olivier Panis, McLarens test driver, set the fastest time on the first day of testing. Jaguar test driver Luciano Burti crashed at Stowe corner where his cars suspension, front and rear wings, the resulting incident caused a brief halt to testing and Jaguar shipped a spare car for the next days testing. Panis remained fastest on the second day, Trulli damaged his suspension and rear wing, resulting in repairs which limited his teams testing time. Burti suffered another incident when he lost his rear wheel
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Rubens Barrichello
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Rubens Rubinho Gonçalves Barrichello is a Brazilian racing driver who competed in Formula One between 1993 and 2011. After losing his seat at the Williams F1 team, Barrichello moved to the IndyCar Series in 2012 with KV Racing Technology, Barrichello holds the record for most races in Formula One and has scored the eleventh highest points total in Formula One history. Barrichello drove for Ferrari from 2000 to 2005, as Michael Schumachers teammate and he also finished third in 2001 and 2009. During his six years with Ferrari, Barrichello was involved in winning five constructors titles, at the end of 2005 Barrichello left Ferrari to sign a contract with Honda. Schumachers retirement at the end of 2006 made Barrichello the most experienced driver on the grid, in 2009, he finished third in the drivers championship for Brawn GP, as his team mate Jenson Button won the title. This meant Barrichello was involved in a sixth constructors title and he became the first driver to reach 300 Grand Prix entries and 300 starts, doing so in 2010. He was also appointed chairman of the Grand Prix Drivers Association in 2010, in 2013 he started covering F1 race weekends for Brazils TV Globo, interviewing drivers and team members on the grid and commentating during qualifying and race coverages. Barrichello has won eleven Formula One Grands Prix, the paternal side of his family comes from Veneto, Italy. Both his father and paternal grandfather are also named Rubens, therefore, Rubens Barrichello was known as Rubinho, which has become his nickname. Barrichello won five karting titles in Brazil before going to Europe to race in the Formula Vauxhall Lotus series in 1990, in his first year, he won the championship, a feat he replicated the following year in the British Formula 3 Championship, beating David Coulthard. He very nearly joined Formula One, the highest category of single seater racing, instead he competed in Formula 3000 in 1992. He finished third in the championship, and joined the Jordan Formula One team for the 1993 Formula One season, during this time, and also early in his Formula One career, Barrichello lived in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, UK. Barrichello had a rookie year. In his third race, the European Grand Prix, he started from 12th place in wet conditions but was fourth by the end of the first lap. He ran as high as second and was running third, having passed the Williams of Damon Hill and Alain Prost and his Jordans reliability in 1993 was poor, and he finished few races. Barrichello regularly outpaced his more experienced teammates, Ivan Capelli and Thierry Boutsen, in the French Grand Prix, he almost scored his first grand prix point but Michael Andretti passed Barrichello for the sixth and final point-paying position on the final lap. His only points finish of the season came at the Japanese Grand Prix with fifth place and these 2 points put him in 18th place in the standings. 1994 started well with a place in Brazil and a third place at Aida
42.
Jean Alesi
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Jean Alesi is a French racing driver of Italian origin. His father, Franco, was a mechanic from Alcamo, Sicily, during his time in Formula One, Alesi was particularly good in the wet, and was a mercurial and passionate racer, whose emotions sometimes got the better of him. After leaving Formula One, from 2002 to 2006 Alesi raced in the DTM championship, winning some races and he raced in the Speedcar Series in 2008 and 2009, and raced at Le Mans in 2010. He raced in the Indianapolis 500 in 2012 and became the oldest professional driver to perform the rookie test for admission to the competition, for several years he was also a commentator for the Italian TV show Pole Position. In 2006 Alesi was awarded Chevalier de la Légion d’honneur, giovanni Alesi was born Avignon, Vaucluse, to expatriate Sicilian parents. His father ran an automotive bodywork repair garage in the town, to avert this, they decided to change their names to Jean and José, respectively. In addition to spending time in the garage, Alesis father also provided his first taste of motorsport, being a keen amateur competitor in rallying. He won the 1987 French Formula 3 title before moving up to International Formula 3000 in 1988, the 1988 season was a disappointment, finishing tenth in the championship with two podium finishes, not helped by problems within the team. However, in 1989 he joined the Jordan Formula 3000 team, both crowns were after duels with his rival Érik Comas. In 1989 Alesi tied on points for the F3000 title with Comas and he also raced in the Le Mans 24 hours in the same year, but a fire forced him to retire in the fourth hour of the race. Alesi debuted in the 1989 French Grand Prix at Paul Ricard in a Tyrrell-Ford, replacing Michele Alboreto and finishing fourth, Ken Tyrrell was sufficiently impressed to give him an eighteen-month contract. He drove most of the rest of the season for Tyrrell while continuing his successful Formula 3000 campaign, scoring again at the Italian. While Alesi was seen as a talent of the future, his start as a Formula One driver was somewhat fortuitous, prior to the 1989 French Grand Prix, Ken Tyrrell had signed a deal to run Camel cigarette sponsorship on his previously unsponsored cars. However this caused problems for Michele Alboreto who was sponsored by rival cigarette brand Marlboro. The sponsorship clash forced Tyrrell to release Alboreto and find another driver, second place in the Monaco Grand Prix followed the second place gained in Phoenix, and by mid-season, top teams were clamouring for his services in 1991. A very confused situation erupted, with Tyrrell, Williams, the results dropped away during the rest of the 1990 season, and Alesi finished ninth in the championship, with 13 points. There were signs of Alesis talent such as the Italian Grand Prix at Monza where he qualified the under powered Tyrrell in 5th place less than a slower than Sennas pole time. At both the original and re-start, Alesi passed the more powerful V12 Ferrari of reigning World Champion Alain Prost for 3rd place, unfortunately however, this race also showed his relative inexperience when on lap 5 he ended his race by spinning into the barriers at the Rettifilo chicane
Kimi Räikkönen, McLaren, 2004, Formula One)
Juan Pablo Montoya, Williams, 2001, Formula One)
Hockenheimring Baden-Württemberg (help·info) is a motor racing circuit situated in the Rhine valley near the town of Hockenheim in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, located on the Bertha Benz Memorial Route. Amongst other motor racing events, it biennially hosts the German Grand Prix, with the most recent being in 2016, the circuit has very little change in elevation. The circuit has FIA Grade 1 license.[1]
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Sergio Pérez
Petter Solberg