1.
Tamanrasset Province
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Tamanrasset or Tamanghasset is the largest province in Algeria. It was named after its seat, Tamanrasset. The province has two parks, more than any other in Algeria. They are Tassili nAjjer National Park and Ahaggar National Park, the province makes up almost a quarter of the countrys area. The province is divided into 7 districts, which are divided into 10 communes or municipalities
2.
Mount Tahat
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Mount Tahat is the highest mountain peak in Algeria. It sits at an elevation of 2,908 metres, Tahat is also the highest peak in the Hoggar Mountains. Its nearest city is Tamanrasset which is located 56 km to the south, mount Tahat is of volcanic origin. It is located in an arid, rocky high plateau area of the central Sahara Desert, list of Ultras of Africa Tahat – Climbing, Hiking & Mountaineering
3.
Summit
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A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
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The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
6.
National park
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A national park is a park in use for conservation purposes. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns, although individual nations designate their own national parks differently, there is a common idea, the conservation of wild nature for posterity and as a symbol of national pride. An international organization, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, although Yellowstone was not officially termed a national park in its establishing law, it was always termed such in practice and is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. The first area to use national park in its legislation was the USs Mackinac Island. Australias Royal National Park, established in 1879, was the third official national park. In 1895 ownership of Mackinac Island was transferred to the State of Michigan as a state park, as a result, Australias Royal National Park is by some considerations the second oldest national park now in existence. The largest national park in the meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park. According to the IUCN,6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006, IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park. National parks are almost always open to visitors, in 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. In 1810, the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a sort of property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation, but no authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877, John Muir is today referred to as the Father of the National Parks due to his work in Yosemite. He published two articles in The Century Magazine, which formed the base for the subsequent legislation. President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on July 1,1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley, according to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for use, resort. Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation, a public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was a heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone at its establishment six years later was put under national control, in 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States first national park, being also the worlds first national park. In some European countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed, such as Drachenfels, Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory
7.
Algeria
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Algeria, officially the Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast. Its capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres, Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes. Abdelaziz Bouteflika has been President since 1999, Berbers are the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. Algeria is a regional and middle power, the North African country supplies large amounts of natural gas to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to OPEC Algeria has the 16th largest oil reserves in the world, Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent, most of Algerias weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC, the countrys name derives from the city of Algiers. The citys name in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazāir, a form of the older Jazāir Banī Mazghanna. In the region of Ain Hanech, early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa were found, neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles similar to those in the Levant. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques, tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian. The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian and this industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC and this life, richly depicted in the Tassili nAjjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a native population that came to be called Berbers. These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages, as Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, by the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthages North African territory, the Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars
8.
Tamanrasset
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Tamanrasset /tæmᵻnræsᵻt/ is an oasis city and capital of Tamanrasset Province in southern Algeria, in the Ahaggar Mountains. It is the city of the Algerian Tuareg. It is located an altitude of 1,320 metres, as of the 2008 census, it has a population of 92,635, up from 72,741 in 1998, with an annual growth rate of 2. 5%. Tamanrasset was originally established as a military outpost to guard the trade routes. Surrounded by the barren Sahara Desert, very high temperatures of over 47 °C have been recorded here, Tamanrasset is located at an oasis where, despite the difficult climate, citrus fruits, apricots, dates, almonds, cereals, corn, and figs are grown. The Tuareg people are the main inhabitants. Tamanrasset is a tourist attraction during the cooler months, visitors are also drawn to the Museum of the Hoggar, which offers many exhibits depicting Tuareg life and culture. The city is served by Tamanrasset Airport and the Trans-Sahara Highway, Tamanrasset originated as the centre of a network of camel caravan trading routes from Kano, Lake Chad, Gao, Agades and Zinder. When Algeria was under French rule the town was established as a military post, originally named Fort Laperrine, charles de Foucauld was shot to death outside his Tamanrasset compound by Sermi ag Thora under the command of El Madani ag Soba on December 1,1916. On 13 February 1960, during the Algerian War, Gerboise Bleue - the first French nuclear test - detonated in the middle of the Algerian Sahara desert, located about 800 km southwest of Tamanrasset. On May 1,1962, near Ecker,150 km north of Tamanrasset, due to improper sealing of the shaft, a spectacular flame burst through the concrete cap and radioactive gases and dust were vented into the atmosphere. The plume climbed up to 2600 m high and radiation was detected hundreds of km away, about a hundred French soldiers and officials, including two ministers, were irradiated. The number of contaminated Algerians is unknown, in 2003 Air Algérie Flight 6289 crashed in the city. In 2010, the town is the site of the Joint Military Staff Committee headquarters for combating Al-Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb. The four-country Committee intends to use Tamanrasset to coordinate their activity in the Pan-Sahel. Tamanrasset has a hot climate, with very hot summers. There is very little throughout the year, although occasional rain does fall in late summer from the northern extension of the Intertropical Convergence Zone. 4. 3% of the population has an education
9.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
10.
Berber languages
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Berber or the Berber languages or the Amazigh language are a family of similar and closely related languages and dialects indigenous to North Africa. Large Berber-speaking migrant communities, numbering today about 4 million, have been living in Western Europe, about half of this population was born in Europe. Berber constitutes a branch of the Afroasiatic language family, and has been attested since ancient times, the number of Berbers is much higher than the number of Berber speakers. The bulk of the populations of the Maghreb countries are considered to have Berber ancestors, in Algeria, for example, a majority of the population consists of Arabized Berbers. There is a cultural and political movement among speakers of the closely related varieties of Northern Berber to promote and unify them under a standard language, called. The name Tamaziɣt is the current native name of the Berber language in the Moroccan Middle-Atlas region, the Rif regions, in other Berber-speaking area this name was lost. There is historical evidence, from medieval Berber manusctipts, that all native North Africans from Libya to Morocco have called their language, Tamaziɣt. The name Tamaziɣt is currently being used by educated Berbers to refer to the written Berber language. Around 90 percent of the Berber-speaking population speak one of six major varieties of Berber and they are, in the order of demographic weight, Tashelhit, Kabyle, Atlas Tamazight, Riffian, Shawi and Tuareg. The Berber languages and dialects have had a tradition, on and off, for about 2,500 years, although the tradition has been frequently disrupted by cultural shifts. They were first written in the Libyco-Berber and Tifinagh abjad, still used by the Tuareg, the oldest dated inscription is from about 200 BCE. The Berber Latin alphabet was used by most European and Berber linguists during the 19th and 20th centuries. In the 19th and 20th century European and native Berber linguists, a modernized form of the Tifinagh alphabet, called Neo-Tifinagh, was adopted in Morocco in 2003 for writing Berber, but many Moroccan Berber publications still use the Berber Latin alphabet. Algerians mostly use the Berber Latin alphabet in Berber language education at public schools, Mali and Niger recognize a Tuareg-Berber Latin alphabet customized to the Tuareg phonological system. However, traditional Tifinagh is still used in those countries, the term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century, and is still used today. It was borrowed from Latin Barbari, the Latin word is also found in the Arabic designation for these populations, البربر, al-Barbar, see names of the Berber people. Etymologically, the Berber root Mazigh means free man, noble man, the feminine Tamazight traditionally referred specifically to the Riffian and Central Atlas Tamazight languages. European languages distinguish between the words Berber and barbaric, while Arabic has the same word al-barbari for both meanings, some other Berber writers, especially in Morocco, prefer to refer to Berber with Amazigh when writing about it in French or English
11.
Tuareg languages
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Tuareg dialects belong to the South Berber group, and are commonly regarded as a single language. They are distinguished mainly by a few sound shifts, the Tuareg languages are traditionally written in the indigenous Tifinagh alphabet. However, the Arabic script is used in some areas, while the Latin script is official in Mali. In Morocco, of the three languages, Central Atlas Tamazight is the second Berber language. Northern Tamahaq – Language of the Kel Ahaggar, and Kel Ajjer spoken in Algeria, southern Tamasheq – Language of the Kel Adrar, spoken in Mali by approximately 270,000 people. Tayart Tamajaq language – Language of the Kel Ayer, spoken in Niger by approximately 250,000 people, Tawallammat Tamajaq – Language of the Iwellemmeden, spoken in Mali and Niger by approximately 870,000 people. The term Iwellemmeden is sometimes used to denote the language, the Tuareg languages may be written in the Latin script, the Arabic script, or Tifinagh. There is also variation in Tifinagh and in the Arabic script. The Arabic script is mostly in use by tribes more involved in Islamic learning, Tifinagh usage is restricted mainly to writing magical formulae, writing on palms when silence is required, and recently letter-writing. The DNAFLA system is a somewhat morphophonemic orthography, not indicating initial vowel shortening, always writing the directional particle as < dd⟩, in Burkina Faso the emphatics are denoted by hooked letters, as in Fula, e. g. ⟨ɗ ƭ⟩. The vowel system includes 5 long vowels, /a, e, i, o, u/, emphatic versions of /e, o/, Karl Prasse argued that /e/ goes back to Proto-Berber, while /o/ is derived from /u/. Comparative evidence shows that /ə/ derives from a merger of Proto-Berber */ĭ/ and */ŭ/. Sudlow classes the semivowels /w, j/ with the vowels, and notes the following diphthongs, /əw/, /ăw/, /aw/, /ew/, /iw/, /ow/, /uw/. Before emphatics, vowels lower, turning /ə/ into, /e, i/ into emphatic, /ŋ/ is rare, /ʒ/ is rare in Tadraq, and /ħ, ʕ/ are only used in Arabic words in the Tanəsləmt dialect. Phrase-final /a/ is also followed by a glottal stop. Normally /ɣɣ/ becomes, /ww/ becomes, and /dˤdˤ/ becomes, /q/ and /tˤ/ are predominantly geminate. In addition, in Tadraq /ɡ/ is usually geminate, but in Tudalt singleton /ɡ/ may occur, voicing assimilation occurs, with the first consonant taking the voicing of the second. Cluster reduction turns word/morpheme-final /-ɣt, -ɣk/ into and /-kt, -ɟt, syllable structure is CV, including glottal stops
12.
Highland
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The term highland or uplands is used to denote any mountainous region or elevated mountainous plateau. Generally speaking, upland tends to refer to ranges of hills, Highland is usually reserved for ranges of low mountains. Probably the most known highlands in the anglosphere are the Scottish Highlands in the United Kingdom, the Highland council area is a local government area in the Scottish Highlands and Britains largest local government area. Many countries have areas that are officially or unofficially referred to as highlands, other than Scotland, these include parts Ethiopia, Kenya, Eritrea, Yemen, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Syria, Cantabria and Nova Scotia. The highlands in Australia are often above the elevation of 500 metres and these areas often receive snowfalls through winter. Most of the lead up to large alpine or sub-alpine mountainous regions such as the Australian Alps, Snowy Mountains, Great Dividing Range, Northern Tablelands. The most mountainous region of Tasmania is the Central Highlands area, many of these areas are highly elevated alpine regions. A spine of mountains runs the length of the island of New Guinea, the highlands of Iceland cover about 40% of the country and are mostly inhospitable to humans. They are generally referred to as land above 500 meters, additionally, the mountainous natural region of the Thai highlands is found in Northern Thailand. The Cameron Highlands are an area and hill station in Northern Malaysia. Shillong in India in the state of Meghalaya is a station which is surrounded by highlands. Officers of the British Raj referred to Shillong as The Scotland of the East, Highland continents – or terrae – are areas of topographically unstable terrain, with high peaks and valleys. They resemble highlands on Earth, but the term is applied to larger areas on other planets. They can be found on Venus, Mercury, Mars and the Moon
13.
Sahara
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The Sahara is the largest hot desert and the third largest desert in the world after Antarctica and the Arctic. Its area of 9,200,000 square kilometres is comparable to the area of the United States. The desert comprises much of North Africa, excluding the fertile region on the Mediterranean Sea coast, the Atlas Mountains of the Maghreb, and the Nile Valley in Egypt and Sudan. It stretches from the Red Sea in the east and the Mediterranean in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, where the landscape gradually changes from desert to coastal plains. To the south, it is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of tropical savanna around the Niger River valley. The Sahara can be divided into several regions including, the western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Aïr Mountains, the Ténéré desert, the name Sahara is derived from ṣaḥārā, the plural of the Arabic word for desert. The Sahara covers large parts of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Western Sahara, Sudan and it covers 9 million square kilometres, amounting to 31% of Africa. If all areas with an annual precipitation of less than 250 mm were included. It is one of three physiographic provinces of the African massive physiographic division. The Sahara is mainly rocky hamada, Ergs form only a minor part, wind or rare rainfall shape the desert features, sand dunes, dune fields, sand seas, stone plateaus, gravel plains, dry valleys, dry lakes, and salt flats. Unusual landforms include the Richat Structure in Mauritania, several deeply dissected mountains, many volcanic, rise from the desert, including the Aïr Mountains, Ahaggar Mountains, Saharan Atlas, Tibesti Mountains, Adrar des Iforas, and the Red Sea hills. The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi, a volcano in the Tibesti range of northern Chad. The central Sahara is hyperarid, with sparse vegetation, the northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and desert shrub, with trees and taller shrubs in wadis, where moisture collects. In the central, hyperarid region, there are subdivisions of the great desert, Tanezrouft, the Ténéré, the Libyan Desert, the Eastern Desert. These extremely arid areas often receive no rain for years, the northern limit also corresponds to the 100 mm isohyet of annual precipitation. To the south, the Sahara is bounded by the Sahel, the southern limit of the Sahara is indicated botanically by the southern limit of Cornulaca monacantha, or northern limit of Cenchrus biflorus, a grass typical of the Sahel. According to climatic criteria, the limit of the Sahara corresponds to the 150 mm isohyet of annual precipitation. The Sahara is the worlds largest low-latitude hot desert and this steady descending airflow causes a warming and a drying effect in the upper troposphere
14.
Oasis
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In geography, an oasis is an isolated area of vegetation in a desert, typically surrounding a spring or similar water source, such as a pond or small lake. Oases also provide habitat for animals and even if the area is big enough. The location of oases has been of importance for trade and transportation routes in desert areas, caravans must travel via oases so that supplies of water. Thus, political or military control of an oasis has in many cases meant control of trade on a particular route. For example, the oases of Awjila, Ghadames, and Kufra, oases are formed from underground rivers or aquifers such as an artesian aquifer, where water can reach the surface naturally by pressure or by man-made wells. Occasional brief thunderstorms provide subterranean water to sustain natural oases, such as the Tuat, substrata of impermeable rock and stone can trap water and retain it in pockets, or on long faulting subsurface ridges or volcanic dikes water can collect and percolate to the surface. Any incidence of water is used by migrating birds, which also pass seeds with their droppings which will grow at the waters edge forming an oasis. It can also be used to plant crops, the word oasis came into English via Latin, oasis from Ancient Greek, ὄασις óasis, which in turn is a direct borrowing from Demotic Egyptian. The word for oasis in the later attested Coptic language is wahe or ouahe which means a dwelling place, people who live in an oasis must manage land and water use carefully, fields must be irrigated to grow plants like apricots, dates, figs, and olives. The most important plant in an oasis is the date palm and these palm trees provide shade for smaller trees like peach trees, which form the middle layer. By growing plants in different layers, the farmers make best use of the soil, many vegetables are also grown and some cereals, such as barley, millet, and wheat, are grown where there is more moisture. Great Man-Made River – the worlds largest irrigation project, developed in Libya to connect cities with fossil water. Guelta Mirage Oasification Qanat Wadi Water supply référence, Jardins au désert |Battesti, Jardins au désert, Evolution des pratiques et savoirs oasiens, Jérid tunisien, Paris, Éditions IRD, coll. À travers champs,2005,440 p. ISBN 2-7099-1564-2 Open Archives, book in free access / in French The dictionary definition of oasis at Wiktionary
15.
Algiers
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Algiers is the capital and largest city of Algeria. In 2011, the population was estimated to be around 3,500,000. An estimate puts the population of the metropolitan city to be around 5,000,000. Algiers is located on the Mediterranean Sea and in the portion of Algeria. The casbah and the two form a triangle. A Phoenician commercial outpost called Ikosim which later developed into a small Roman town called Icosium existed on what is now the quarter of the city. The rue de la Marine follows the lines of what used to be a Roman street, Roman cemeteries existed near Bab-el-Oued and Bab Azoun. The city was given Latin rights by Emperor Vespasian, the bishops of Icosium are mentioned as late as the 5th century. The present-day city was founded in 944 by Bologhine ibn Ziri and he had earlier built his own house and a Sanhaja center at Ashir, just south of Algiers. Although his Zirid dynasty was overthrown by Roger II of Sicily in 1148, the city was wrested from the Hammadids by the Almohads in 1159, and in the 13th century came under the dominion of the Ziyanid sultans of Tlemcen. Nominally part of the sultanate of Tlemcen, Algiers had a measure of independence under amirs of its own due to Oran being the chief seaport of the Ziyanids. As early as 1302 the islet of Peñón in front of Algiers harbour had been occupied by Spaniards, thereafter, a considerable amount of trade began to flow between Algiers and Spain. However, Algiers continued to be of little importance until after the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. In 1510, following their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of Africa, in 1516, the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the corsair brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa to expel the Spaniards, Aruj came to Algiers, ordered the assassination of Selim, and seized the town and ousted the Spanish in the Capture of Algiers. Hayreddin, succeeding Aruj after the latter was killed in battle against the Spaniards in the Fall of Tlemcen, was the founder of the pashaluk, Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the Barbary pirates. Formally part of the Ottoman Empire but essentially free from Ottoman control, starting in the 16th century Algiers turned to piracy, repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in the western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Iceland. The United States fought two wars over Algiers attacks on shipping, among the notable people held for ransom was the future Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes, who was captive in Algiers almost five years, and who wrote two plays set in Algiers of the period
16.
Desert
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A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation, about one third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid. This includes much of the regions where little precipitation occurs. Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation falls, by the temperature that prevails. Deserts are formed by weathering processes as large variations in temperature between day and night put strains on the rocks which consequently break in pieces, although rain seldom occurs in deserts, there are occasional downpours that can result in flash floods. Rain falling on hot rocks can cause them to shatter and the resulting fragments and this picks up particles of sand and dust and wafts them aloft in sand or dust storms. Wind-blown sand grains striking any solid object in their path can abrade the surface, rocks are smoothed down, and the wind sorts sand into uniform deposits. The grains end up as level sheets of sand or are piled high in billowing sand dunes, other deserts are flat, stony plains where all the fine material has been blown away and the surface consists of a mosaic of smooth stones. These areas are known as desert pavements and little further erosion takes place, other desert features include rock outcrops, exposed bedrock and clays once deposited by flowing water. Temporary lakes may form and salt pans may be left when waters evaporate, there may be underground sources of water in the form of springs and seepages from aquifers. Where these are found, oases can occur, plants and animals living in the desert need special adaptations to survive in the harsh environment. Plants tend to be tough and wiry with small or no leaves, water-resistant cuticles, some annual plants germinate, bloom and die in the course of a few weeks after rainfall while other long-lived plants survive for years and have deep root systems able to tap underground moisture. Animals need to cool and find enough food and water to survive. Many are nocturnal and stay in the shade or underground during the heat of the day and they tend to be efficient at conserving water, extracting most of their needs from their food and concentrating their urine. Some animals remain in a state of dormancy for long periods and they then reproduce rapidly while conditions are favorable before returning to dormancy. People have struggled to live in deserts and the surrounding lands for millennia. Nomads have moved their flocks and herds to wherever grazing is available, the cultivation of semi-arid regions encourages erosion of soil and is one of the causes of increased desertification. Many trade routes have been forged across deserts, especially across the Sahara Desert, large numbers of slaves were also taken northwards across the Sahara
17.
Metamorphic rock
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Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process called metamorphism, which means change in form. The original rock is subjected to heat and pressure, causing profound physical and/or chemical change, the protolith may be a sedimentary, an igneous, or even an existing type of metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rocks make up a part of the Earths crust. They are classified by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage and they may be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earths surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above it. They can form from tectonic processes such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure and they are also formed when rock is heated up by the intrusion of hot molten rock called magma from the Earths interior. The study of rocks provides information about the temperatures and pressures that occur at great depths within the Earths crust. Some examples of rocks are gneiss, slate, marble, schist. Metamorphic minerals are those that only at the high temperatures and pressures associated with the process of metamorphism. These minerals, known as index minerals, include sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and some garnet. Other minerals, such as olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, feldspars, and quartz, may be found in metamorphic rocks and these minerals formed during the crystallization of igneous rocks. They are stable at temperatures and pressures and may remain chemically unchanged during the metamorphic process. However, all minerals are only within certain limits. The change in the size of the rock during the process of metamorphism is called recrystallization. Both high temperatures and pressures contribute to recrystallization, high temperatures allow the atoms and ions in solid crystals to migrate, thus reorganizing the crystals, while high pressures cause solution of the crystals within the rock at their point of contact. The layering within metamorphic rocks is called foliation, and it occurs when a rock is being shortened along one axis during recrystallization. This causes the platy or elongated crystals of minerals, such as mica and chlorite and this results in a banded, or foliated rock, with the bands showing the colors of the minerals that formed them. Textures are separated into foliated and non-foliated categories, foliated rock is a product of differential stress that deforms the rock in one plane, sometimes creating a plane of cleavage. For example, slate is a metamorphic rock, originating from shale
18.
Volcano
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A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. Earths volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of plate hypothesis volcanism, Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called hotspots, for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the boundary,3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created where two plates slide past one another. Erupting volcanoes can pose hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines, the word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology, at the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot molten rock. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, therefore, most volcanic activity is submarine, black smokers are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example, subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the temperature of the overlying mantle wedge. This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high content, so it often does not reach the surface. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed, typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant and is eventually re-formed as the plate advances over the postulated plume and this theory is currently under criticism, however. The most common perception of a volcano is of a mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit, however. The features of volcanoes are more complicated and their structure. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have features such as massive plateaus
19.
Charles de Foucauld
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Blessed Charles Eugène de Foucauld was a French Catholic religious and priest living among the Tuareg in the Sahara in Algeria. He was assassinated in 1916 outside the door of the fort he built for the protection of the Tuareg and his inspiration and writings led to the founding of the Little Brothers of Jesus among other religious congregations. He was beatified on 13 November 2005 by Pope Benedict XVI, Charles de Foucauld was an officer of the French Army in North Africa where he first developed his strong feelings about the desert and solitude. On his subsequent return to France, and towards the end of October 1886, at the age of 28, Charles de Foucauld was born in a house located 3, Place Broglie in Strasbourg, France. In 1925, the house was torn down along with two others to make way for the building of the Strasbourg branch of the Banque de France. A commemorative plaque was set in the façade, in 1890, de Foucauld joined the Cistercian Trappist order first in France and then at Akbès on the Syrian-Turkish border, but left in 1897 to follow an undefined religious vocation in Nazareth. He began to lead a life of prayer, near a convent of Poor Clares. In 1901, at the age of 43, he was ordained in Viviers, France and he first settled in Béni Abbès, near the Moroccan border, building a small hermitage for adoration and hospitality, which he soon referred to as the Fraternity. Later, he moved to be with the Tuareg people, in Tamanghasset in southern Algeria and this region is the central part of the Sahara with the Ahaggar Mountains immediately to the west. Foucauld used the highest point in the region, the Assekrem, living close to the Tuareg, and sharing their life and hardships, he made a ten-year study of their language and cultural traditions. He learned the Tuareg language and worked on a dictionary and grammar and his dictionary manuscript was published posthumously in four volumes and has become known among Berberologues for its rich and apt descriptions. He formulated the idea of founding a new institute, which became a reality only after his death. On December 1,1916, de Foucauld was dragged from his fortress by a gang of armed bandits led by El Madani ag Soba, who was connected with the Senussi Bedouin. Their intention was to kidnap de Foucauld, but when the gang was disturbed by two guardsmen, one startled bandit shot their prisoner through the head, killing him instantly. The murder was witnessed by sacristan and servant Paul Embarek, an African Arab former slave liberated and instructed by Fr de Foucauld, the French authorities continued for years searching for the bandits involved. In 1943 El Madani fled French forces in Libya to the remote South Fezzan, sermi ag Thora was apprehended, and executed at Djanet in 1944. De Foucauld was beatified by Pope Benedict XVI on November 13,2005, Charles de Foucauld died alone, and without the immediate fellowship of others sharing his practice of the life of Jesus of Nazareth and hospitality in the desert of Algeria. Yet he was successful at inspiring and helping to organize a confraternity within France in support of his idea
20.
Wadi
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Wadi is the Arabic and Hebrew term traditionally referring to a valley. In some instances, it may refer to a dry riverbed that contains water only during times of heavy rain, the term wādī is very widely found in Arabic toponyms. Seasonal streams, frequent in south-east Spain, are called ramblas instead, in the Maghreb, the term wadi is applied to all rivers including regular ones. Wadis are located on the sloping, nearly flat parts of deserts, commonly they begin on the distal portions of fans. In basin and range topography, wadis trend along basin axes at the terminus of fans, permanent channels do not exist, due to lack of continual water flow. Wadi show braided stream patterns because of the deficiency of water, Water percolates down into the stream bed causing abrupt loss in energy and resulting vast deposition. Wadis may develop dams of sediment which results in change of stream patterns in the flash flood. Wind also plays its role in deposition, when wadi sediments are underwater or moist, wind sediments are deposited over them. Thus wadi sediments contain both wind and water sediments, wadi sediments may contain whole range from gravel to mud. There is also range of sedimentary structures. Thus, wadi sediments are most diagnostic of all other desert environments, flash floods represents severe energy conditions and results in wide range of sedimentary structures, including ripples and commonly plane beds. Gravels common display imbrications, Mud drapes show desiccation cracks, wind activity also generates its own sedimentary structures, large scales cross-stratification and wedge shape cross-sets are present. Typical wadi sequence consists of alternating units of wind and water sediments, Water laid sediments show complete fining upward sequence. Wind deposits are stratified and covered with mud-cracked deposits. Some horizontal Loess may also present, modern English usage differentiates a wadi from another canyon or wash by the action and prevalence of water. Wadis, as courses, are formed by water, but are distinguished from river valleys or gullies in that surface water is intermittent or ephemeral. Wadis are generally dry year round, except after a rain, the desert environment is characterized by sudden but infrequent heavy rainfall, often resulting in flash floods. Crossing wadis at certain times of the year can be dangerous as a result, Wadis tend to be associated with centers of human population because sub-surface water is sometimes available in them
21.
Biodiversity
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Biodiversity, a contraction of biological diversity, generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. One of the most widely used definitions defines it in terms of the variability within species and it is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation within an area, biome, terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is richest in the tropics and these tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 per cent of earths surface, and contain about 90 percent of the worlds species. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, there are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, the number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist is known as biodiversity. It is a component of nature and it ensures the survival of human species by providing food, fuel, shelter, medicines. The richness of biodiversity depends on the conditions and area of the region. All species of plants taken together are known as flora and about 300,000 species of plants are known to date, all species of animals taken together are known as fauna which includes birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, insects, crustaceans, molluscs, etc. Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions, more than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described, the total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor of all living on Earth. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old, there are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, remains of life were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe
22.
West Saharan montane xeric woodlands
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The West Saharan montane xeric woodlands is an ecoregion that extends across several highland regions in the Sahara. The Sahara is a vast desert, stretching across northern Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea, some mountains ranges rise up from the desert and receive more rainfall and mostly present slightly cooler summer temperatures. These highlands support dry woodlands and shrublands distinct from the hot dry desert lowlands and this ecoregion has an area of 258,100 km2. The boundaries for the largest part of this ecoregion, which includes the Tassili nAjjer Ahaggar and Aïr massifs, follow the regs, hamadas and this covers a good part of southeast Algeria. These areas reach almost 3,000 meters in altitude, the mountains of the West Saharan Montane Xeric Woodland ecoregion are found within the Sahara Desert and are predominantly of volcanic origin. They rise from the flat desert landscape or sand dunes and create islands of moister habitat which support flora. The most important area is the Tassili nAjjer Plateau, an outlier of the Ahaggar Mountains in Algeria which supports some near-endemic species, the highest point of these mountains is 3,003 meters. Winters are quite rigorous, with an amplitude in temperature of over 20°C, day temperatures may be over 20°C while nights are freezing. In summer, days are hot, though less so than in the central Sahara. Vegetation varies greatly depending on altitude and landscape, in particular wind protection and it is often composed of relict mediterranean vegetation. In the gueltas, vegetation is very diverse and hosts many animals, trees may be found at lower elevations, while higher areas mostly host bushes. It is possible to find wild olive trees, or Olea lapperrini, endemic and rare species include the Saharan Cypress and Saharan Myrtle, both of which are relict Saharan-Mediterranean species. Olive and myrtle trees grow at the bottom of wadis, intermittent stream valleys, or beside gueltas, other species with a preference for moist habitats are Trianthema pentandra, Lupinus pilosus, and Convolvulus fatmensis. Silene kiliani, Acacia laeta, A. scorpiodes, and Cordia rochii grow in wadis, other representatives of the 28 national Algerian plant rarities found on Tassili nAjjer include Ficus ingens and Anticharis glandulosa. The human population of the ecoregion is very small, with less than 5 persons per square kilometre, many people are nomadic though some small cities also exist
23.
Ecoregion
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An ecoregion is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than an ecozone. All three of these are less or greater than an ecosystem. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and contain characteristic, the biodiversity of flora, fauna and ecosystems that characterise an ecoregion tends to be distinct from that of other ecoregions. Three caveats are appropriate for all bio-geographic mapping approaches, firstly, no single bio-geographic framework is optimal for all taxa. Ecoregions reflect the best compromise for as many taxa as possible, secondly, ecoregion boundaries rarely form abrupt edges, rather, ecotones and mosaic habitats bound them. Thirdly, most ecoregions contain habitats that differ from their assigned biome, biogeographic provinces may originate due to various barriers. Some physical, some climatic and some ocean chemical related, the history of the term is somewhat vague as it was used in many contexts, forest classifications, biome classifications, biogeographic classifications, etc. The concept of ecoregion of Bailey gives more importance to ecological criteria, while the WWF concept gives more importance to biogeography, there is significant, but not absolute, spatial correlation among these characteristics, making the delineation of ecoregions an imperfect science. Such transition zones are called ecotones, Ecoregions can be categorized using an algorithmic approach or a holistic, “weight-of-evidence” approach where the importance of various factors may vary. An example of the approach is Robert Bailey’s work for the U. S. The intended purpose of ecoregion delineation may affect the method used, according to WWF, the boundaries of an ecoregion approximate the original extent of the natural communities prior to any major recent disruptions or changes. WWF has identified 867 terrestrial ecoregions, and approximately 450 freshwater ecoregions across the Earth, the use of the term ecoregion is an outgrowth of a surge of interest in ecosystems and their functioning. In particular, there is awareness of issues relating to spatial scale in the study and it is widely recognized that interlinked ecosystems combine to form a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. The Global 200 is the list of ecoregions identified by WWF as priorities for conservation, Terrestrial ecoregions are land ecoregions, as distinct from freshwater and marine ecoregions. In this context, terrestrial is used to mean of land, WWF ecologists currently divide the land surface of the Earth into 8 major ecozones containing 867 smaller terrestrial ecoregions. The WWF effort is a synthesis of previous efforts to define. Many consider this classification to be decisive, and some propose these as stable borders for bioregional democracy initiatives. The eight terrestrial ecozones follow the major floral and faunal boundaries, identified by botanists and zoologists, ecozone boundaries generally follow continental boundaries, or major barriers to plant and animal distribution, like the Himalayas and the Sahara
24.
African wild dog
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The African wild dog, also known as African hunting dog, African painted dog, Cape hunting dog or painted wolf, is a canid native to Sub-Saharan Africa. It is classified as endangered by the IUCN, as it has disappeared from much of its original range, the current population has been estimated at roughly 39 subpopulations containing 6,600 adults, only 1,400 of which are fully grown. The decline of populations is ongoing, due to habitat fragmentation, human persecution. The African wild dog is a social animal, living in packs with separate dominance hierarchies for males and females. Uniquely among social carnivores, it is the rather than the males that scatter from the natal pack once sexually mature. The species is a diurnal hunter of antelopes, which it catches by chasing them to exhaustion. Like other canids, it regurgitates food for its young, but this action is also extended to adults and it has few natural predators, though lions are a major source of mortality, and spotted hyenas are frequent kleptoparasites. The earliest possible reference to the species comes from Oppian, who wrote of the thoa. Solinuss Collectanea rerum memorabilium from the 3rd century AD describes a multicoloured wolf-like animal with a native to Ethiopia. The species was first described scientifically in 1820 by Coenraad Temminck and he named the animal Hyaena picta, erroneously classifying it as a species of hyena. It was later recognised as a canid by Joshua Brookes in 1827, the root word of Lycaon is the Greek λυκαίος, meaning wolf-like. The specific epithet pictus, which derived from the original picta, was returned to it. The English language has several names for Lycaon pictus, including painted lycaon, African wild dog, Cape hunting dog, and painted dog or painted wolf. The latter name is being promoted by some conservationists as a way of rebranding the species, Nevertheless, the name African wild dog is still widely used. The evolution of the African wild dog was once poorly understood, one proposed ancestral genus was Xenocyon, which lived throughout Eurasia, from Germany to Japan, as well as in Africa from the Early Pleistocene to the early Middle Pleistocene. The species X. falconeri shared the African wild dogs absent first metacarpal, L. sekowei had not yet lost the first metacarpal absent in L. pictus, and was more robust than the modern species, having 10% larger teeth. Wang and Tedford proposed that in Eurasia during the Middle Pleistocene, C. falconeri gave rise to the hypercarnivore genus Xenocyon, just before the appearance of C. dirus, North America was invaded by genus Xenocyon that was as large as C. dirus and more hypercarnivorous. The fossil record shows them as rare and it is assumed that they could not compete with the newly derived C. dirus
25.
Local extinction
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Local extinction, or extirpation, is the condition of a species that ceases to exist in the chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere. Local extinctions are contrasted with global extinctions, local extinctions may be followed by a replacement of the species taken from other locations, wolf reintroduction is an example of this. Local extinctions mark a change in the ecology of an area, the area of study chosen may reflect a natural subpopula, political boundaries, or both. The Cetacean Specialist Group of the IUCN has assessed the threat of an extinction of the Black Sea stock of Harbour Porpoise that touches six different countries. COSEWIC, by contrast, investigates wildlife only in Canada, so only the risk of a Canadian local extinction even for species that cross into the United States or other countries. Other subpopulations may be divided by political or country boundaries. Many crocodilian species have experienced localized extinction, particularly the saltwater crocodile, which has been extirpated from Vietnam, Thailand, Java, often a subpopulation of a species will also be a subspecies. However, similar studies are not carried out where a population is at risk. In all,119 stocks or subpopulations across 69 species have been assessed by the IUCN in 2006, no plant or fungi subpopulations have been assessed by the IUCN. Major environmental events, such as volcanic eruptions, may lead to large numbers of local extinctions, such as with the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption, extinction List of extinct animals Threatened species Genocide
26.
West African crocodile
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The West African crocodile or desert crocodile is a species of crocodile related to – and often confused with – the Nile crocodile. The species was named by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1807, who discovered differences between the skulls of a crocodile and those of C. niloticus. Niloticus, and thereby resurrected the name C. suchus, one C. suchus specimen also exists at the St. Augustine Alligator Farm Zoological Park, and pairs live in Copenhagen Zoo and Dublin Zoo. West African crocodiles in Mauritania have adapted to their environment by staying in caves or burrows in a state of æstivation during the driest periods. When it rains, the reptiles gather at gueltas, the people of Ancient Egypt worshiped Sobek, a crocodile-god associated with fertility, protection, and the power of the pharaoh. They had an ambivalent relationship with Sobek, as they did with C. suchus, sometimes they hunted crocodiles and reviled Sobek, C. suchus was known to be more docile than the Nile crocodile and was chosen by the Ancient Egyptians for spiritual rites, including mummification. A recent DNA test found that all sampled mummified crocodiles from Grottes de Thebes, Grottes de Samoun, Sobek was depicted as a crocodile, as a mummified crocodile, or as a man with the head of a crocodile. The center of his worship was in the Middle Kingdom city of Arsinoe in the Faiyum Oasis, another major temple to Sobek is in Kom-Ombo, other temples were scattered across the country. Historically, C. suchus inhabited the Nile River in Lower Egypt along with the Nile crocodile, herodotus wrote that the Ancient Egyptian priests were selective when picking crocodiles. Priests were aware of the difference between the two species, C. suchus being smaller and more docile, making it easier to catch, herodotus also indicated that some Egyptians kept crocodiles as pampered pets. In Sobeks temple in Arsinoe, a crocodile was kept in the pool of the temple, where it was fed, covered with jewelry, when the crocodiles died, they were embalmed, mummified, placed in sarcophagi, and then buried in a sacred tomb. Many mummified C. suchus specimens and even crocodile eggs have been found in Egyptian tombs, spells were used to appease crocodiles in Ancient Egypt, and even in modern times Nubian fishermen stuff and mount crocodiles over their doorsteps to ward against evil. In modern times, Mauritanian traditional peoples who live in proximity to West African crocodiles revere them. This is due to their belief that, just as water is essential to crocodiles, so crocodiles are essential to the water, the crocodiles live in harmony with the humans, and never attack swimmers. As late as the 1920s, museums continued to obtain C. suchus specimens from the Nile in Sudan
27.
Herbivore
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A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthparts adapted to rasping or grinding, horses and other herbivores have wide flat teeth that are adapted to grinding grass, tree bark, and other tough plant material. A large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut flora that help them digest plant matter and this gut flora is made up of cellulose-digesting protozoans or bacteria living in the herbivores intestines. Herbivore is the form of a modern Latin coinage, herbivora. Richard Owen employed the term in an 1854 work on fossil teeth. Herbivora is derived from the Latin herba meaning a small plant or herb, Herbivory is a form of consumption in which an organism principally eats autotrophs such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing bacteria. More generally, organisms feed on autotrophs in general are known as primary consumers. Herbivory usually refers to eating plants, fungi, bacteria and protists that feed on living plants are usually termed plant pathogens. Flowering plants that obtain nutrition from other living plants are usually termed parasitic plants, there is however no single exclusive and definitive ecological classification of consumption patterns, each textbook has its own variations on the theme. Insects fed on the spores of early Devonian plants, and the Rhynie chert also provides evidence that organisms fed on plants using a pierce, during the next 75 million years, plants evolved a range of more complex organs, such as roots and seeds. There is no evidence of any organism being fed upon until the middle-late Mississippian,330.9 million years ago, further than their arthropod status, the identity of these early herbivores is uncertain. Hole feeding and skeletonisation are recorded in the early Permian, with surface fluid feeding evolving by the end of that period, Herbivory among four-limbed terrestrial vertebrates, the tetrapods developed in the Late Carboniferous. Early tetrapods were large amphibious piscivores, while amphibians continued to feed on fish and insects, some reptiles began exploring two new food types, tetrapods and plants. The entire dinosaur order ornithischia was composed with herbivores dinosaurs, carnivory was a natural transition from insectivory for medium and large tetrapods, requiring minimal adaptation. In contrast, a set of adaptations was necessary for feeding on highly fibrous plant materials. Arthropods evolved herbivory in four phases, changing their approach to it in response to changing plant communities, tetrapod herbivores made their first appearance in the fossil record of their jaws near the Permio-Carboniferous boundary, approximately 300 million years ago. The earliest evidence of their herbivory has been attributed to dental occlusion, the evolution of dental occlusion led to a drastic increase in plant food processing and provides evidence about feeding strategies based on tooth wear patterns. Examination of phylogenetic frameworks of tooth and jaw morphologes has revealed that dental occlusion developed independently in several lineages tetrapod herbivores and this suggests that evolution and spread occurred simultaneously within various lineages
28.
Barbary sheep
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The Barbary sheep is a species of caprid native to rocky mountains in North Africa. Although it is rare in its native North Africa, it has introduced to North America, southern Europe. It is also known as aoudad, waddan, arui, Barbary sheep stand 80 to 100 cm tall at the shoulder and weigh 40 to 140 kg. They are sandy-brown, darkening with age, with a lighter underbelly. Upper parts and the parts of the legs are a uniform reddish brown or grayish brown. There is some shaggy hair on the throat and a sparse mane and their horns have a triangular cross section. The horns curve outward, backward, then inward, and reach up to 50 cm, the horns are fairly smooth, with slight wrinkles evident at the base as the animal matures. Barbary sheep naturally occur in northern Africa in Algeria, Tunisia, northern Chad, Egypt, Libya, northern Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger and Sudan. Barbary sheep have introduced to southeastern Spain, the southwestern United States, Niihau Island, Mexico. They have become common in a region of south-eastern Spain. Its adaptability enabled it to nearby areas quickly, and private game estates provided other centers of dispersion. The species is expanding, according to recent field surveys, now being found in the provinces of Alicante, Almería, Granada. This species is a competitor to native ungulates inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula. The species has also introduced to La Palma, and has spread throughout the northern and central parts of the island. A. lervia is the species in the genus Ammotragus. However, some authors include this genus in the goat genus Capra, the subspecies are found allopatrically in various parts of North Africa, A. l. lervia Pallas,1777 A. l. ornata I. They are able to all their metabolic water from food. That is they are active in the morning and late afternoon
29.
Dorcas gazelle
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The dorcas gazelle, also known as the ariel gazelle, is a small and common gazelle. The dorcas gazelle stands about 55–65 cm at the shoulder, with a head and body length of 90–110 cm, the numerous subspecies survive on vegetation in grassland, steppe, wadis, mountain desert and in semidesert climates of Africa and Arabia. About 35,000 -40,000 exist in the wild, the extinct Saudi gazelle from the Arabian Peninsula has been previously considered as a subspecies of the dorcas gazelle. The scientific name of the gazelle is Gazella dorcas. It is a member of the genus Gazella and the family Bovidae, the species was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758. Dorcas gazelles have longer ears and more strongly curved horns, which bow outwards then turn inwards and forwards at the tips, individuals belonging to the Saharan subspecies have very pale, fawn-colored coats. The white underside is bordered with a stripe, above which is a sandy stripe. The forehead and face are darker than the body, subspecies from north of the Sahara tend to be more ochre in color, and have dark flanks and facial stripes. Populations in Israel and around the Red Sea are darker and more reddish, in the last century, the populations of dorcas gazelle were partially destroyed in all the countries where it was found. Currently, large populations of dorcas gazelles are found in the Negev and the Arava, with large populations in Sudan, Iraq. In Israel, only 1000-1500 gazelles remain and they are able to withstand high temperatures, but when it is very hot, they are active mainly from dusk to dawn. In areas where they face human predation, they tend to be only at night to minimise the risk of falling prey to hunters. These gazelles feed on leaves, flowers, and pods of many species of trees, as well as the leaves, twigs. They occasionally stand on their legs to browse from trees. When conditions are harsh, dorcas gazelles live in pairs, but when conditions are favorable, they join together in family herds with one adult male, several females. During the breeding season, adult males tend to be territorial, in most parts of their range, mating takes place from September to November. Gestation takes six months, a single fawn is typical, although twins have been reported in Algeria, the newborn is well developed at birth, with fur and open eyes. Within the first hour, the attempts to stand
30.
Vachellia tortilis
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Vachellia tortilis tends to grow in areas where temperatures vary from 0 to 50 degree Celsius and rainfall is anywhere from about 100–1,000 mm per year. In extremely arid conditions, it may occur as a small and it grows up to 21 m in height. The tree carries leaves that grow to approx,2.5 cm in length with between 4 and 10 pair of pinnae each with up to 15 pairs of leaflets. Flowers are small and white, highly aromatic, and occur in tight clusters, seeds are produced in pods which are flat and coiled into a springlike structure. The plant is known to tolerate high alkalinity, drought, high temperatures, sandy & stony soils, strongly sloped rooting surfaces, also, plants older than 2 years have been observed to be somewhat frost resistant. Timber from the tree is used for furniture, wagon wheels, fence posts, cages, vachellia wood was also used exclusively by the Israelites in the Old Testament in the building of the tabernacle and the tabernacle furniture, including the Ark of the Covenant. The pods and foliage, which grow prolifically on the tree, are used as fodder for grazing animals. The bark is used as a string medium in Tanganyika. Gum from the tree is edible and can be used as Gum Arabic, parts of the tree including roots, shoots, and pods are also often used by natives for a vast number of purposes including decorations, weapons, tools, and medicines. Spread over such an area inhabited by diverse cultures, the V. tortilis is known by a wide number of common names. Vachellia tortilis Acacia tortilis in West African plants – A Photo Guide, vachellia tortilis Israel wildflowers and native plants
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Vachellia seyal
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Vachellia seyal, the Red acacia, known also as the shittah tree, is a thorny, 6–10 m high tree with a pale greenish or reddish bark. At the base of the 3–10 cm feathery leaves there are two straight, light grey thorns, growing to 7–20 cm long, the blossoms are displayed in round, bright yellow clusters approximately in 1.5 cm diameter. In Vachellia seyal var. fistula, which is common on heavy clay soils, some of the thorns are swollen. It is distributed from Egypt to Kenya and west Senegal, in the Sahara, it often grows in damp valleys. It is also found at wadis in the Arabian Peninsula, Vachellia seyal is, along with other Vachellias, an important source for gum arabic, a natural polysaccharide, that exudes from damaged stems and solidifies. Parts of the tree have a content of up to 18-20%. The bark and seed pods of Vachellia seyal var. seyal have a content of about 20%. Wood from the tree is said to have used in Ancient Egypt to make coffins. The bark is used to treat dysentery and bacterial infections of the skin, the bark is also used as a stimulant. The gum is used as an aphrodisiac, to treat diarrhoea, as an emollient, to treat hemorrhaging, inflammation of the eye, intestinal ailments, the gum is used to ward off arthritis and bronchitis. Incense from the wood is used to treat pain from rheumatism and to keep expectant mothers from contracting rhinitis, Vachellia seyal occasionally hybridizes with V. xanthophloea. Acacia seyal in West African plants – A Photo Guide, arbonnier, M. Arbres, arbustes et the lianes zones seches dAfrique de lOuest
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Myrtus
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Myrtus, with the common name myrtle, is a genus of flowering plants in the family Myrtaceae, described by Linnaeus in 1753. Over 600 names have been proposed in the genus, but nearly all have either moved to other genera or been regarded as synonyms. The Myrtus genus has three species recognised today, Myrtus communis — Common myrtle, native to the Mediterranean region in southern Europe, Myrtus nivellei — Saharan myrtle, native to North Africa. Myrtus phyllireaefolia Myrtus communis, the myrtle, is native across the Mediterranean region, Macaronesia, western Asia. The plant is a shrub or small tree, growing to 5 metres tall. The leaf is entire, 3–5 cm long, with a fragrant essential oil, the star-like flower has five petals and sepals, and numerous stamens. The flower is pollinated by insects, the fruit is a round berry containing several seeds, most commonly blue-black in colour. A variety with yellow-amber berries is also present, the seeds are dispersed by birds that eat the berries. Myrtus nivellei, the Saharan myrtle, is endemic to the mountains of the central Sahara Desert and it is found in a restricted range in the Tassili nAjjer Mountains in southern Algeria, and the Tibesti Mountains in northern Chad. It occurs in areas of sparse relict woodland at montaine elevations above the central Saharan desert plains. It is a medicinal plant for the Tuareg people. Myrtus communis, the myrtle, is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant for use as a shrub in gardens. It is often used as a plant, with its small leaves shearing cleanly. When trimmed less frequently, it has numerous flowers in late summer and it requires a long hot summer to produce its flowers, and protection from winter frosts. The species and the subspecies M. communis subsp, tarentina have gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit. Myrtus communis, the myrtle, is used in the islands of Sardinia. Many Mediterranean pork dishes include Myrtle berries, and roasted baby pig is often stuffed with myrtle sprigs in the belly cavity, the berries, whole or ground, have been used as a pepper substitute. They contribute to the flavor of Mortadella sausage and the related American Bologna sausage
33.
Tamarix aphylla
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Tamarix aphylla is the largest known species of Tamarix. The species has a variety of names, including Athel tamarisk, Athel tree, Athel pine. It is a tree, native across North, East and Central Africa, through the Middle East. Tamarix aphylla is found along watercourses in arid areas and it is very resistant to saline and alkaline soils. The latitudinal range ranges from 35 N to 0 N, and it ranges from Morocco and Algeria in North Africa eastwards to Egypt and south to the Horn of Africa and into Kenya. It is found in the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula, east through Iran and into India, Tamarix aphylla grows as a tree to 18 metres high. The tiny leaves are arranged along the branches, and exude salt, which can form a crusted layer on the surface. The species can reproduce by seed or by suckering, due to its higher fire adaptability it can be used as a barrier to fire. Even the dry wood of Tamarix due to its high ash, after a fire it usually regrows unless the root crown is also destroyed. The nectar from the blossoms of tamarix aphylla produces a high quality honey with a unique taste, Australia Within these regions it has spread, most dramatically and noticeably in central Australia after floods of 1974 along the Finke River in the Northern Territory. Since then it has become a weed and invasive species in the Northern Territory. The species had been present for decades without much spread before this. It tends to use more water than most native plants in Australia and it has replaced the indigenous eucalyptus along watercourses in the interior. It has been declared a Weed of National Significance in Australia, United States It is commonly used for windbreaks on the edges of agricultural fields and as a shade tree in the deserts of the Southwestern United States. While in Punjabi it is called kooan, in Baluchi it is called Shakargaaz or Siahgaaz 2, 6-Digalloyl glucose and 3, 6-digalloyl glucose are gallotannins found in galls of T. aphylla
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Citrullus colocynthis
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It resembles a common watermelon vine, but bears small, hard fruits with a bitter pulp. It originally bore the scientific name Colocynthis citrullus, C. colocynthis is a desert viny plant that grows in sandy, arid soils. It grows also in southern European countries as in Spain and on the islands of the Grecian archipelago, on the island of Cyprus, it is cultivated on a small scale, it has been an income source since the 14th century and is still exported today. It is an annual or a plant in Indian arid zones and has a great survival rate under extreme xeric conditions. In fact, it can tolerate annual precipitation of 250 to 1500 mm and it grows from sea level up to 1500 meters above sea level on sandy loam, subdesert soils, and sandy sea coasts with a pH range between 5.0 and 7.8. The roots are large, fleshy, and perennial, leading to a survival rate due to the long tap root. The vine-like stems spread in all directions for a few looking for something over which to climb. If present, shrubs and herbs are preferred and climbed by means of axiliary branching tendrils, very similar to watermelon, the leaves are palmate and angular with three to seven divided lobes. The flowers are yellow and solitary in the axes of leaves and are borne by yellow-greenish peduncles, each has a subcampanulated five-lobed corolla and a five-parted calyx. They are monoecious, so the male and the reproductive parts are borne in different flowers on the same plant. The male flowers’ calyx is shorter than the corolla and they have five stamens, four of which are coupled and one is single with monadelphous anther. The female flowers have three staminoids and a three-carpel ovary, the two sexes are distinguishable by observing the globular and hairy inferior ovary of the female flowers. The fruit is smooth, spheric with a 5– to 10-cm-diameter, the calyx englobe the yellow-green fruit which becomes marble at maturity. The mesocarp is filled with a soft, dry, and spongy white pulp, each of the three carpels bears six seeds. Each plant produces 15 to 30 fruits, the seeds are grey and 5 mm long by 3 mm wide. They are edible but similarly bitter, nutty-flavored, and rich in fat and they are eaten whole or used as an oilseed. The oil content of the seeds is 17–19%, consisting of 67–73% linoleic acid, 10–16% oleic acid, 5–8% stearic acid, the oil yield is about 400 l/hectare. In addition, the seeds contain an amount of arginine, tryptophan
35.
Calotropis procera
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Calotropis procera is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae that is native to North Africa, Tropical Africa, Western Asia, South Asia, and Indochina. The green globes are hollow but the flesh contains a milky sap that is extremely bitter. Common names for the plant include apple of Sodom, Sodom apple, stabragh, kapok tree, kings crown, rubber bush, the name apple of Sodom derives from the Hebrew Tapuah Sdom. He says the fruit resembled a large, smooth apple or orange, when pressed or struck, it exploded with a puff, like a bladder or puff-ball, leaving in the hand only the shreds of the thin rind and a few fibers. It is filled chiefly with air, which gives it the round form, in the center a small slender pod runs through it which contains a small quantity of fine silk, which the Arabs collect and twist into matches for their guns. The plant, however, is not native solely to Palestine and it is known to occur throughout the tropical belt and is also common in the West Indies, where the locals know it as pillow cotton. When the ripe apples burst, the contents are ejected along with the seeds. The former are collected by the Jamaicans and used for filling pillows, Sodom apple is listed in the Mishnah and Talmud. The fibers attached to the seeds may have used as wicks. However the Mishnah forbids this for the Sabbath, in this story, a well-meaning servant of the prophet Elisha gathers herbs and a large quantity of the unknown gourds, and casts them into the pot. After the outcry from the band of prophets, Elisha, instructs them to cast flour into the stew pot, the fibre of the Sodom Apple may have been used for the linen of the high priests. In 1938, botanists Hannah and Ephraim HaReuveni, authors of the The Squill, the milky sap contains a complex mix of chemicals, some of which are steroidal heart poisons known as cardiac aglycones. These belong to the chemical family as similar chemicals found in foxgloves. The steroidal component includes a group in the C3β position, a second attached to the C14 carbon, a C/D-cis ring junction. In the plants, the component is commonly attached via a glycosidic link to a 2-desoxy or a 2. The features described are those required for toxicity but in addition there can be other substitutions into the steroid nucleus and these can be a C19-aldehyde in place of the more usual methyl group in this position as well as additional hydroxyl functions and sometimes epoxide structures. In the case of the Calotropis glycosides, their names are calotropin, calotoxin, calactin, uscharidin and voruscharin, the steroidal moiety has one of the more unusual structures. The C-19 formyl group is present and there is a secondary alcohol as well as the common C3
36.
Massif
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In geology, a massif is a section of a planets crust that is demarcated by faults or flexures. In the movement of the crust, a massif tends to retain its structure while being displaced as a whole. The term is used to refer to a group of mountains formed by such a structure. In mountaineering and climbing literature, a massif is frequently used to denote the mass of an individual mountain. The massif is a structural unit of the crust than a tectonic plate and is considered the fourth largest driving force in geomorphology. The word is taken from French, where it is used to refer to a mountain mass or compact group of connected mountains forming an independent portion of a range. One of the most notable European examples of a massif is the Massif Central of the Auvergne region of France, the Face on Mars is an example of an extraterrestrial massif. Massifs may also form such as with the Atlantis Massif
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Tuareg people
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The Tuareg people are a large Berber ethnic confederation. They principally inhabit the Sahara desert, in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Algeria, Niger, Mali, traditionally nomadic pastoralists, small groups of Tuareg are also found in northern Nigeria. The Tuareg speak the Tuareg languages, which belong to the Berber branch of the Afro-Asiatic family, the Tuaregs have been called the blue people for the indigo-dye colored clothes they traditionally wear and which stains their skin. A semi-nomadic Muslim people, they are believed to be descendants of the Berber autochthones of North Africa, the Tuaregs have been one of the ethnic groups that have been historically influential in the spread of Islam and its legacy in North Africa and the adjacent Sahel region. Tuareg society has traditionally featured clan membership, social status and caste hierarchies within each political confederation, the Tuareg have controlled several trans-Saharan trade routes, and have been an important party to the conflicts in the Saharan region during the colonial and post-colonial era. The origin and the meaning of the name Tuareg have long been debated and it would appear that Twārəg is derived from the broken plural of Tārgi, a name whose former meaning was inhabitant of Targa, the Tuareg name of the Libyan region commonly known as Fezzan. Another theory is that Tuareg is derived from Tuwariq, the plural of the Arabic exonym Tariqi, the term for a Tuareg man is Amajagh, the term for a woman Tamajaq. Spellings of the appellation vary by Tuareg dialect, however, they all reflect the same linguistic root, expressing the notion of freemen. As such, the endonym strictly refers only to the Tuareg nobility, not the artisanal client castes, the English exonym Blue People is similarly derived from the indigo color of the tagelmust veils and other clothing, which sometimes stains the skin underneath. Another term for the Tuareg is Imuhagh or Imushagh, a cognate to the northern Berber self-name Imazighen, the Tuareg today inhabit a vast area in the Sahara, stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Algeria, Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso. Their combined population in these territories exceeds 2.5 million, with a population in Niger of around 2 million. The Tuareg are also the majority group in the Kidal Region of northeastern Mali. The Tuareg traditionally speak the Tuareg languages, also known as Tamasheq, Tamachen, Tamashekin, Tomacheck and these tongues belong to the Berber branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. According to Ethnologue, there are an estimated 1.2 million Tuareg speakers, around half this number consists of speakers of the Eastern dialect. The exact number of Tuareg speakers per territory is uncertain, the CIA estimates that the Tuareg population in Mali constitutes approximately 0. 9% of the national population, whereas about 3. 5% of local inhabitants speak Tuareg as a primary language. In contrast, Imperato estimates that the Tuareg represent around 3% of Malis population, in antiquity, the Tuareg moved southward from the Tafilalt region into the Sahel under the Tuareg founding queen Tin Hinan, who is believed to have lived between the 4th and 5th century. The matriarchs 1,500 year old tomb is located in the Sahara at Abalessa in the Hoggar Mountains of southern Algeria. Vestiges of an inscription in Tifinagh, the Tuaregs traditional Libyco-Berber writing script, have found on one of the ancient sepulchres walls
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Tin Hinan
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Tin Hinan is the name given by the Tuareg to a 4th-century queen and warrior woman of prestige whose monumental tomb is located in the Sahara at Abalessa in the Hoggar region of Algeria. Tin Hinan is sometimes referred to as Queen of the Hoggar, the name means literally she of the tents, but may be metaphorically translated as mother of the tribe or even queen of the camp. Not far from the oasis of Abalessa, Algeria about 1,000 miles south of Algiers, the tomb of Tin Hinan is on the summit. The ruin is pear-shaped on plan with an axis of about 88 ft. It contains 11 room or courts, the tomb of Tin Hinan was opened by Byron Khun de Prorok with support from the French army in 1925, and archaeologists made a more thorough investigation in 1933. It was found to contain the skeleton of a woman on a wooden litter and she was accompanied by heavy gold and silver jewellery, some of it adorned with pearls. On her right forearm she wore 7 silver bracelets, and on her left,7 gold bracelets, another silver bracelet and a gold ring were placed with the body. Remains of a complex piecework necklace of gold and pearls were also present, a number of funerary objects were also found. A 4th to 5th century date is consistent with dating of the wooden bed and also with the style of pottery, a pottery lamp of third-century Roman type. Tifinagh inscriptions are inscribed on the wall stones, the tomb itself is constructed in a style that is widespread in the Sahara. The body is now in the Bardo Museum in Algiers, the Tuareg were well aware that the tomb contained a woman of prestige and a number of legends about her had long been in circulation before the tomb was opened. The 14th-century historian Ibn Khaldun recorded a legend about a queen named Tiski who was ancestral mother of the Ahaggar tribes. In this legend, Tin Hinan had a daughter, whose name is Kella and these children are said to be the ancestors of the Tuareg of the Ahaggar. Another version is that Tin Hinan had three daughters who were the tribal ancestors and her Muslim religion is anachronistic, as is the statement that Kella was her daughter or granddaughter, because the historical figure and real tribal matriarch Kella lived during the 17th century. Gabriel Camps, Lâge du tombeau de Tin Hinan, ancêtre des Touareg du Hoggar, brett, Michael, Elizabeth Fentress The Berbers WileyBlackwell 1997 ISBN 978-0-631-20767-2 p.208 Wheeler, Sir Mortimer, Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontier, Penguin Books,1955, pp. 133-137
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Abalessa
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Abalessa is a town and commune in Tamanrasset Province, in southern Algeria, coextensive with the district of the same name. According to the 2008 census it has a population of 9,163 up from 6,484 in 1998, Abalessa is located along the ancient Trans-Saharan trade route,80 kilometres west of the city of Tamanrasset, the capital of the province. The postcode of the town is 11120, the former capital of the Ahaggar, Abalessa is famous for the Tomb of Tin Hinan, the queen and mythical ancestor of the Tuareg people. Tin Hinan supposedly arrived in the Ahaggar Mountains area and lived there in the fourth or fifth century AD. However some archeologist -like Henri Llote- think that the tomb was done on the ruins of a Roman castrum built under Augustus, on 18 October 1927 Byron Khun de Prorok, discovered a vault near Abalessa containing a skeleton, belonging to a woman, and her furniture. In his book Mysterious Sahara, The Land of Gold, of Sand, the municipality reaches an average elevation of approximately 909 metres above sea level. The main town lies at an elevation of 893 metres, at the confluence of the two intermittent wadis Oued Rellachene and Oued Iheri, a rocky mountain range, part of the Ahaggar Mountains rises to the west of the town reaching about 1,200 metres. There is significant vegetation in the valleys, the area belongs to the West Saharan montane xeric woodlands ecoregion. The N55A national highway, which branches off from the Trans-Sahara Highway at Tit, is the road through the area. 4. 6% of the population has an education. The overall literacy rate is 78. 7%, and is 85. 4% among males and 70. 8% among females, the commune is composed of eight localities
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Tafilalt
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Tafilalt or Tafilet, historically Sijilmasa, is a region and the largest oasis in Morocco. The word Tafilalt is an Amazigh word and it means Jug, in the area, the town of Sijilmasa founded by Miknasa Amazigh leader Moussa ben Nasser in 757, formerly existed. It was on the caravan route from the Niger river to Tangier. A decade after this, a small revolt built up in Tafilalt against the sultan, later, Tafilalt was a major center of the Dilaites. In 1648, a custom was established of the Moorish sultans of Morocco sending superfluous sons or daughters to Tafilalt, medieval traveler Ibn Batuta wrote about visiting Sijilmasa in the fourteenth century on his journey from Fez to Mali, the country of the blacks. It was later destroyed in 1818 by the Aït Atta, but its ruins remain, the first European to visit Tafilalt in the modern era was René Caillié, and later Gerhard Rohlfs. English writer WB Harris described Tafilalt in a journal after his visit, entirely located along the Ziz River, the oasis ten days journey south of Fez and Meknes, across the Atlas Mountains. It is known for its dates and it is the birthplace of the famed Rabbi Israel Abuhatzeira, known as the Baba Sali. Tafilet, The Narrative of a Journey of Exploration in the Atlas Mountains and the Oases of the North-west Sahara, Edinburgh, W. Blackwood and Sons
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Morocco
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Morocco, officially known as the Kingdom of Morocco, is a sovereign country located in the Maghreb region of North Africa. Geographically, Morocco is characterized by a mountainous interior, large tracts of desert. Morocco has a population of over 33.8 million and an area of 446,550 km2 and its capital is Rabat, and the largest city is Casablanca. Other major cities include Marrakesh, Tangier, Tetouan, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, a historically prominent regional power, Morocco has a history of independence not shared by its neighbours. Marinid and Saadi dynasties continued the struggle against foreign domination, the Alaouite dynasty, the current ruling dynasty, seized power in 1666. In 1912 Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorates, with a zone in Tangier. Moroccan culture is a blend of Arab, indigenous Berber, Sub-Saharan African, Morocco claims the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces. Morocco annexed the territory in 1975, leading to a war with indigenous forces until a cease-fire in 1991. Peace processes have thus far failed to break the political deadlock, Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military, foreign policy, the king can issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. He can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the Prime Minister, Moroccos predominant religion is Islam, and the official languages are Arabic and Tamazight. The Moroccan dialect, referred to as Darija, and French are also widely spoken, Morocco is a member of the Arab League, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the African Union. It has the fifth largest economy of Africa, the full Arabic name al-Mamlakah al-Maghribiyyah translates to Kingdom of the West, although the West in Arabic is الغرب Al-Gharb. The basis of Moroccos English name is Marrakesh, its capital under the Almoravid dynasty, the origin of the name Marrakesh is disputed, but is most likely from the Berber words amur akush or Land of God. The modern Berber name for Marrakesh is Mṛṛakc, in Turkish, Morocco is known as Fas, a name derived from its ancient capital of Fes. The English name Morocco is an anglicisation of the Spanish Marruecos, the area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since Paleolithic times, sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC. During the Upper Paleolithic, the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, twenty-two thousand years ago, the Aterian was succeeded by the Iberomaurusian culture, which shared similarities with Iberian cultures. Skeletal similarities have been suggested between the Iberomaurusian Mechta-Afalou burials and European Cro-Magnon remains, the Iberomaurusian was succeeded by the Beaker culture in Morocco
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Atlas Mountains
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The Atlas Mountains are a mountain range in the Maghreb. It stretches around 2,500 km through Algeria, Morocco, the ranges highest peak is Jebel Toubkal, with an elevation of 4,167 metres in southwestern Morocco. It separates the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines from the Sahara Desert, the Atlas mountains are primarily inhabited by Berber populations. The terms for mountain in some Berber languages are adrar and adras, the mountains are home to a number of plant and animal species unique in Africa, often more like those of Europe, many of them are endangered and some have already gone extinct. The basement rock of most of Africa was formed during the Precambrian period, the Atlas was formed during three subsequent phases of Earths geology. The first tectonic deformation phase involves only the Anti-Atlas, which was formed in the Paleozoic Era as the result of continental collisions, North America, Europe and Africa were connected millions of years ago. The Anti-Atlas Mountains are believed to have originally formed as part of Alleghenian orogeny. These mountains were formed when Africa and America collided, and were once a chain rivaling todays Himalayas, today, the remains of this chain can be seen in the Fall Line region in the Eastern United States. Some remnants can also be found in the later formed Appalachians in North America, a second phase took place during the Mesozoic Era. It consisted of an extension of the Earths crust that rifted and separated the continents mentioned above. This extension was responsible for the formation of many thick intracontinental sedimentary basins including the present Atlas, most of the rocks forming the surface of the present High Atlas were deposited under the ocean at that time. Such convergent tectonic boundaries occur where two plates slide towards each other forming a zone, and/or a continental collision. However, there is a lack of evidence for the nature of the subduction in the Atlas region, or for the thickening of the Earths crust generally associated with continental collisions. In fact, one of the most striking features of the Atlas to geologists is the small amount of crustal thickening. Recent studies suggest that deep processes rooted in the Earths mantle may have contributed to the uplift of the High, the Atlas are rich in natural resources. There are deposits of ore, lead ore, copper, silver, mercury, rock salt, phosphate, marble. The range can be divided into four regions, Middle Atlas. The Middle Atlas is a portion of the Atlas mountain range lying completely in Morocco, the Middle Atlas is the westernmost of three Atlas Mountains chains that define a large, plateaued basin extending eastward
43.
France and weapons of mass destruction
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France is one of the five Nuclear Weapons States under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but is not known to possess or develop any chemical or biological weapons. France was the country to test an independently developed nuclear weapon in 1960. France denies currently having chemical weapons, ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention in 1995, France had also ratified the Geneva Protocol in 1926. France was one of the pioneers, going back to the work of Marie Skłodowska Curie. Curie’s last assistant Bertrand Goldschmidt became the father of the French Bomb, after World War II Frances former position of leadership suffered greatly because of the instability of the Fourth Republic, and the lack of finance available. During the Second World War Goldschmidt invented the method for extracting plutonium while working as part of the British/Canadian team participating in the Manhattan Project. But after the Liberation in 1945, France had to start its own program almost from scratch, nevertheless, the first French reactor went critical in 1948 and small amounts of plutonium were extracted in 1949. There was no commitment to a nuclear weapons program at that time. However, in the 1950s a civilian nuclear program was started. In 1956 a secret Committee for the Military Applications of Atomic Energy was formed, the intervention of the United States in the Suez Crisis that year is credited with convincing France that it needed to accelerate its own nuclear weapons program to remain a global power. With the return of Charles de Gaulle to the presidency of France in the midst of the May 1958 crisis, the decisions to build an atomic bomb were taken. According to Lieutenant Colonel Warner D, progress in nuclear science and technology in France and Israel remained closely linked throughout the early fifties. Israeli scientists probably helped construct the G-1 plutonium production reactor and UP-1 reprocessing plant at Marcoule, in 1957 Euratom was created, and under cover of the peaceful use of nuclear power the French signed deals with Germany and Italy to work together on nuclear weapons development. The West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer told his cabinet that he wanted to achieve, through EURATOM, as quickly as possible, in 1958 de Gaulle became President and Germany and Italy were excluded. France developed its nuclear and thermonuclear bombs without outside assistance, the United States, however, began providing technical assistance in the early 1970s through the 1980s. The aid was secret, unlike the relationship with the British nuclear program, areas in which the French received help included MIRV, radiation hardening, missile design, intelligence on Soviet anti-missile defences, and advanced computer technology. Because the French program attracted the best brains of the nation, France is understood to have tested neutron or enhanced radiation bombs in the past, apparently leading the field with an early test of the technology in 1967 and an actual neutron bomb in 1980. There were 210 French nuclear tests from 1960 through 1995, seventeen of them were done in the Algerian Sahara between 1960 and 1966, starting in the middle of the Algerian War
44.
Saharan rock art
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Saharan rock art is a significant area of archaeological study focusing on artwork carved or painted on the natural rocks of the central Sahara desert. The rock art dates from numerous periods starting c.12,000 years ago, the paintings and carvings of the Sahara are endangered, and vulnerable rock art on uncovered rock has already disappeared. Organizations such as the Trust for African Rock Art are researching and recording as much information about Saharan rock art as possible, while raising awareness of threats to the art itself, the mountains are volcanic and are approximately 300 miles long and 175 miles wide. The rock art that exists in these mountains was created before dramatic climate change in the Saharan Desert caused the inhabitants to move towards the Nile Valley, large animal engravings and other rock art dates to between 12,000 and 4,000 years ago. Ennedi, Chad, Next to the Tibesti Mountain chain is another chain named Ennedi. Much of the art in this area is from the Horse Period. Pastoral Period art was shown here. Messak Settafet, Libya, Abundant rock art is found in this location, Art is made from engraving techniques such as grinding, pecking, and scratching. Outlines of animals are found in blackened sandstone, tadrart Acacus, Libya, Near the sand dune of Murzuk, bordering Tassili nAjjer, exists 12,000 year old prehistoric rock art. It appears to much of the same culture as the Tassili nAjjer rock art. There are over 15,000 individual pieces of artwork in Tassili nAjjer, the art includes paintings and engravings into the rock that depicts the culture of Africans up to 12,000 years ago. The site was founded by French anthropologist Henri Lhote 50 years ago, many photographs are taken of the art so it can be studied further. Dating the art of the Sahara is made possible through radiometric dating of organic material, organic artifacts found at the sites can be dated, as can some residues on the rock art itself. Large Wild Fauna Period This was a time when Saharan hunter-gatherer societies made rock art and these images included animals that were hunted or were in their surrounding area, including hippos, rhinos, elephants giraffes, bubalus, aurochs, and large antelopes. Many of those no longer exist in the Sahara due to changes in climate that have caused the desiccation of the desert over the past several thousand years. Humans are shown hunting with spears and axes, the artwork portrays not only hunting, but the relationship between humans and animals. Most of the artwork can be found in Tassili nAjjer, Algeria, round Head Period Hunter-gatherers on the Tassili Plateau painted distinctive human figures with round, featureless heads. Pastoral Period During this period, humans were depicted with domesticated cattle, pictures show cultures herding animals and hunting as well, portrayed through men holding bows
