1.
Lewis and Clark County, Montana
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Lewis and Clark County is a county located in the U. S. state of Montana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 63,395 and its county seat is Helena, the state capital. The numerical designation for Lewis and Clark County is 5, the county was established in 1865 as Edgerton County, and was renamed Lewis and Clark County two years later. The present name was given in honor of explorers Lewis and Clark, Lewis and Clark County is part of the Helena, Montana Micropolitan Statistical Area. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 3,948 square miles. Interstate 15 U. S. Highway 12 U. S, the population density was 16 people per square mile. There were 25,672 housing units at a density of 7 per square mile. 1. 51% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,22. 6% were of German,15. 5% Irish,10. 9% English,9. 5% Norwegian and 6. 1% American ancestry. 29. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.95. In the county, the population was out with 25. 60% under the age of 18,8. 50% from 18 to 24,27. 90% from 25 to 44,26. 20% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 96.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.00 males, the median income for a household in the county was $37,360, and the median income for a family was $46,766. Males had an income of $33,515 versus $23,961 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,763, about 7. 30% of families and 10. 90% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12. 60% of those under age 18 and 6. 50% of those age 65 or over. According to the 2000 Census 59. 7% of the population is married but, for the women it is only 3% lower at 56. 7%. The average family size is 2.95, in the county, there are 25,672 homes,2,822 of which are vacant. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 63,395 people,26,694 households, the population density was 18.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 30,180 housing units at a density of 8.7 per square mile
2.
Montana
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Montana /mɒnˈtænə/ is a state in the Western region of the United States. The states name is derived from the Spanish word montaña, Montana has several nicknames, although none official, including Big Sky Country and The Treasure State, and slogans that include Land of the Shining Mountains and more recently The Last Best Place. Montana has a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, Montana is ranked 4th in size, but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges, smaller island ranges are found throughout the state. In total,77 named ranges are part of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern half of Montana is characterized by western prairie terrain and badlands. The economy is based on agriculture, including ranching and cereal grain farming. Other significant economic activities include oil, gas, coal and hard rock mining, lumber, the health care, service, and government sectors also are significant to the states economy. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, the name Montana comes from the Spanish word Montaña and the Latin word Montana, meaning mountain, or more broadly, mountainous country. Montaña del Norte was the name given by early Spanish explorers to the mountainous region of the west. The name was changed by Representatives Henry Wilson and Benjamin F. Harding, when Ashley presented a bill to establish a temporary government in 1864 for a new territory to be carved out of Idaho, he again chose Montana Territory. This time Rep. Samuel Cox, also of Ohio, objected to the name, Cox complained that the name was a misnomer given most of the territory was not mountainous and that a Native American name would be more appropriate than a Spanish one. Other names such as Shoshone were suggested, but it was decided that the Committee on Territories could name it whatever they wanted, with an area of 147,040 square miles, Montana is slightly larger than Japan. It is the fourth largest state in the United States after Alaska, Texas, and California, the largest landlocked U. S. state, and the worlds 56th largest national state/province subdivision. To the north, Montana shares a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, the states topography is roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which splits much of the state into distinct eastern and western regions. Most of Montanas 100 or more named mountain ranges are in the western half. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the states south-central part are part of the Central Rocky Mountains
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
NorthWestern Corporation
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NorthWestern Corporation owns NorthWestern Energy, a utility company that serves South Dakota, Nebraska, and Montana that is based in Sioux Falls. As of December 31,2007, the company serves approximately 650,000 customers, the companys corporate headquarters are located in Sioux Falls while the headquarters for the South Dakota operations are in Huron, SD. The Montana operations were acquired around 2000 after that state passed legislation allowing the electric utility industry to be unbundled. Out of state investors then immediately acquired the assets of Montana Power. In 2014, NorthWestern purchased the dams that were part of Montana Power for $900 Million from the PPL Corporation. A $41 million settlement fund was established in 2005, in March 2009, NorthWestern Energy was involved with a gas explosion in Bozeman, Montana. The explosion destroyed several businesses and killed one person, by November, the company was sued by numerous owners of the destroyed businesses
6.
Missouri River
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The Missouri River is the longest river in North America. Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana, the Missouri flows east and south for 2,341 miles before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis, Missouri. The river takes drainage from a populated, semi-arid watershed of more than half a million square miles. When combined with the lower Mississippi River, it forms the fourth longest river system. For over 12,000 years, people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation. More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed, most leading a nomadic lifestyle, the Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century. The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region, pioneers headed west en masse beginning in the 1830s, first by covered wagon, then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river. Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers, leading to some of the most longstanding, during the 20th century, the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation, flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power. Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river, with more on tributaries. Meanders have been cut and the river channelized to improve navigation, from the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River. The longest begins near Browers Spring,9,100 feet above sea level, on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains. Flowing west then north, it runs first in Hell Roaring Creek, then west into the Red Rock, swings northeast to become the Beaverhead and these two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana. The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks, Montana, the Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake, a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains. Issuing from the mountains near Cascade, the flows northeast to the city of Great Falls, where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri. Farther on, the passes through the Fort Peck Dam, and immediately downstream. At the confluence, the Yellowstone is actually the larger river, the Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea, the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam. Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck, the capital of North Dakota and it slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence. While it continues south, eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota, the Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains, receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest
7.
Megawatt
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The watt is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units defined as 1 joule per second and can be used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. Power has dimensions of M L2 T −3, when an objects velocity is held constant at one meter per second against constant opposing force of one newton the rate at which work is done is 1 watt. 1 W =1 V ⋅ A Two additional unit conversions for watt can be using the above equation. 1 W =1 V2 Ω =1 A2 ⋅ Ω Where ohm is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance, a person having a mass of 100 kilograms who climbs a 3-meter-high ladder in 5 seconds is doing work at a rate of about 600 watts. Mass times acceleration due to gravity times height divided by the time it takes to lift the object to the given height gives the rate of doing work or power. A laborer over the course of an 8-hour day can sustain an output of about 75 watts, higher power levels can be achieved for short intervals. The watt is named after the Scottish scientist James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, in 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted it for the measurement of power into the International System of Units. For additional examples of magnitude for multiples and submultiples of the watt, technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and these input levels are often stated in dBf. This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load, the picowatt is equal to one trillionth of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics, the nanowatt is equal to one billionth of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts are also used in reference to radio. The microwatt is equal to one millionth of a watt, compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts. The milliwatt is equal to one thousandth of a watt, a typical laser pointer outputs about five milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt. Audio signals and other electronic signal levels are measured in dBm. The kilowatt is equal to one thousand watts and this unit is typically used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio. One kilowatt is equal to 1.34 horsepower
8.
Kilowatt hour
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The kilowatt-hour is a derived unit of energy equal to 3.6 megajoules. If the energy is being transmitted or used at a constant rate over a period of time, the kilowatt-hour is commonly used as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by electric utilities. The kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy equivalent to one kilowatt of power sustained for one hour. 1 k W ⋅ h = =3600 =3600 k J =3.6 M J One watt is equal to 1 J/s. One kilowatt-hour is 3.6 megajoules, which is the amount of energy converted if work is done at a rate of one thousand watts for one hour. The base unit of energy within the International System of Units is the joule, the hour is a unit of time outside the SI, making the kilowatt-hour a non-SI unit of energy. The kilowatt-hour is not listed among the non-SI units accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI, although the hour, an electric heater rated at 1000 watts, operating for one hour uses one kilowatt-hour of energy. A television rated at 100 watts operating for 10 hours continuously uses one kilowatt-hour, a 40-watt light bulb operating continuously for 25 hours uses one kilowatt-hour. Electrical energy is sold in kilowatt-hours, cost of running equipment is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours, the unit price of electricity may depend upon the rate of consumption and the time of day. Industrial users may also have extra charges according to their peak usage, the symbol kWh is commonly used in commercial, educational, scientific and media publications, and is the usual practice in electrical power engineering. Other abbreviations and symbols may be encountered, kW h is less commonly used and it is consistent with SI standards. This is supported by a standard issued jointly by an international and national organization. However, at least one major usage guide and the IEEE/ASTM standard allow kWh, One guide published by NIST specifically recommends avoiding kWh to avoid possible confusion. KW·h is, like kW h, preferred with SI standards, the US official fuel-economy window sticker for electric vehicles uses the abbreviation kW-hrs. Variations in capitalization are sometimes seen, KWh, KWH, kwh, the notation kW/h, as a symbol for kilowatt-hour, is not correct. To convert a quantity measured in a unit in the column to the units in the top row, multiply by the factor in the cell where the row. All the SI prefixes are commonly applied to the watt-hour, a kilowatt-hour is 1,000 W·h (symbols kW·h, kWh or kW h, a megawatt-hour is 1 million W·h, a milliwatt-hour is 1/1000 W·h and so on. Megawatt-hours, gigawatt-hours, and terawatt-hours are often used for metering larger amounts of energy to industrial customers
9.
Hydroelectricity
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Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower. In 2015 hydropower generated 16. 6% of the total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity. Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 33 percent of global hydropower in 2013, China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 920 TWh of production in 2013, representing 16.9 percent of domestic electricity use. The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a source of renewable electricity. The hydro station consumes no water, unlike coal or gas plants, the average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U. S. cents per kilowatt-hour. With a dam and reservoir it is also a source of electricity since the amount produced by the station can be changed up or down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the mid-1770s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique which described vertical-, by the late 19th century, the electrical generator was developed and could now be coupled with hydraulics. The growing demand for the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well, in 1878 the worlds first hydroelectric power scheme was developed at Cragside in Northumberland, England by William George Armstrong. It was used to power an arc lamp in his art gallery. The old Schoelkopf Power Station No.1 near Niagara Falls in the U. S. side began to produce electricity in 1881. The first Edison hydroelectric power station, the Vulcan Street Plant, began operating September 30,1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin, by 1886 there were 45 hydroelectric power stations in the U. S. and Canada. By 1889 there were 200 in the U. S. alone, at the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power stations were being constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble, France held the International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism with over one million visitors, by 1920 as 40% of the power produced in the United States was hydroelectric, the Federal Power Act was enacted into law. The Act created the Federal Power Commission to regulate hydroelectric power stations on federal land, as the power stations became larger, their associated dams developed additional purposes to include flood control, irrigation and navigation. Federal funding became necessary for development and federally owned corporations, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority. Hydroelectric power stations continued to become larger throughout the 20th century, Hydropower was referred to as white coal for its power and plenty. Hoover Dams initial 1,345 MW power station was the worlds largest hydroelectric station in 1936
10.
Dam
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A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity, a dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions. The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, the first known appearance of dam occurs in 1165. However, there is one village, Obdam, that is mentioned in 1120. The word seems to be related to the Greek word taphos, so the word should be understood as dike from dug out earth. The names of more than 40 places from the Middle Dutch era such as Amsterdam and Rotterdam, early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the level, for Mesopotamias weather affected the Tigris. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan,100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman and this gravity dam featured an originally 9-metre-high and 1 m-wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m-wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC, the Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC as a dam for flood control. During the Twelfth Dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III, two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called Mer-wer or Lake Moeris covered 1,700 km2 and is today as Berkat Qaroun. One of the wonders of the ancient world was the Great Dam of Marib in Yemen. Repairs were carried out during various periods, most important around 750 BC and these extensive works were not actually finalized until 325 AD and allowed the irrigation of 25,000 acres. By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern-day India was built, the system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it. Eflatun Pınar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya and it is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC
11.
Helena, Montana
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Helena /ˈhɛlᵻnə/ is the capital city of the U. S. state of Montana and the county seat of Lewis and Clark County. It was founded as a camp during the Montana gold rush. Over $3.6 billion of gold was extracted in the city limits over a duration of two decades, making it one of the wealthiest cities in the United States by the nineteenth century. The concentration of wealth contributed to the prominent, elaborate Victorian architecture. The 2010 census put the population at 28,190 and the Lewis, Helena is the principal city of the Helena Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Lewis and Clark and Jefferson counties, its population is 77,414 according to the 2015 Census Estimate. The local daily newspaper is the Independent Record, professional sports teams include the Helena Brewers minor league baseball and Helena Bighorns Tier III Junior A hockey team. The city is served by Helena Regional Airport, the Helena area was long used by various indigenous peoples. Before the introduction of the horse some 300 years ago, and since, other peoples, including the Salish. Yet like the native peoples none of them stayed for long, gold strikes in Idaho Territory in the early 1860s attracted many migrants who initiated major gold rushes at Grasshopper Creek and Alder Gulch in 1862 and 1863 respectively. So many people came that the government created a new territory called Montana in May 1864. These miners prospected far and wide for new gold discoveries. The original camp was named Last Chance by the Four Georgians, by fall, the population had grown to over 200, and some thought the name Last Chance was too crass. On October 30,1864, a group of at least seven self-appointed men met to name the town, authorize the layout of the streets, the first suggestion was Tomah, a word the committee thought had connections to the local Indian people. Other nominations included Pumpkinville and Squashtown, other suggestions were to name the community after various Minnesota towns, such as Winona and Rochester, as a number of settlers had come from Minnesota. Finally, a Scotsman named John Summerville proposed Helena, which he pronounced /həˈliːnə/ hə-LEE-nə in honor of Helena Township, Scott County, Minnesota. This immediately caused an uproar from the former Confederates in the room, who insisted upon the pronunciation /ˈhɛlᵻnə/ HEL-i-nə, after Helena, Arkansas, a town on the Mississippi River. While the name Helena won, the pronunciation varied until approximately 1882 when the /ˈhɛlᵻnə/ HEL-i-nə pronunciation became dominant and has remained so to the present. Later tales of the naming of Helena claimed the name came variously from the island of St. Helena, the townsite was first surveyed in 1865 by Captain John Wood
12.
Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity
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Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity or run-of-river hydroelectricity is a type of hydroelectric generation plant whereby little or no water storage is provided. Run-of-the-river power plants may have no water storage at all or an amount of storage. A plant without pondage has no water storage and is, therefore, thus, the plant will operate as an intermittent energy source while a plant with pondage can regulate the water flow at all times and can serve as a peaking power plant or base load power plant. Run-of-the-river or ROR hydroelectricity is considered ideal for streams or rivers that can sustain a minimum flow or those regulated by a lake or reservoir upstream. A small dam is built to create a headpond ensuring that there is enough water entering the penstock pipes that lead to the turbines which are at a lower elevation. Projects with pondage, as opposed to those without pondage, can store water for daily load demands, in general, projects divert some or most of a rivers flow through a pipe and/or tunnel leading to electricity-generating turbines, then return the water back to the river downstream. ROR projects are dramatically different in design and appearance from conventional hydroelectric projects, traditional hydro dams store enormous quantities of water in reservoirs, sometimes flooding large tracts of land. In contrast, run-of-river projects do not have most of the associated with dams and reservoirs. The use of the term run-of-the-river for power projects varies around the world, some may consider a project ROR if power is produced with no water storage while limited storage is considered ROR by others. Developers may mislabel a project ROR to soothe public perception about its environmental or social effects, in such stations, the normal course of the river is not materially altered. Many of the larger ROR projects have been designed to a scale, for example, the Beauharnois Hydroelectric Generating Station in Quebec is rated at 1,853 MW and a 2006 proposal in British Columbia, Canada has been designed to generate 1027 megawatts capacity. Some run of the projects are downstream of other dams. The run of the project didnt build the reservoir. An example would be the 1995,1,436 MW La Grande-1 generating station, previous upstream dams, when developed with care to footprint size and location, ROR hydro projects can create sustainable energy minimizing impacts to the surrounding environment and nearby communities. Substantial flooding of the part of the river is not required for run-of-river projects as a large reservoir is not required. As a result, people living at or near the river dont need to be relocated and natural habitats and it thus generates much more power during times when seasonal river flows are high, and depending on location, much less during drier summer months or frozen winter months. The potential power at a site is a result of the head, by damming a river, the head is available to generate power at the face of the dam. Where a dam may create a reservoir hundreds of long, in run of the river the head is usually delivered by a canal
13.
Mining
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Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
14.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
15.
Ranch
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A ranch is an area of land, including various structures, given primarily to the practice of ranching, the practice of raising grazing livestock such as cattle or sheep for meat or wool. The word most often applies to livestock-raising operations in Mexico, the Western United States and Canada, people who own or operate a ranch are called ranchers, cattlemen, or stockgrowers. Ranching is also a used to raise less common livestock such as elk, American bison or even ostrich, emu. Ranches generally consist of areas, but may be of nearly any size. In the western United States, many ranches are a combination of owned land supplemented by grazing leases on land under the control of the federal Bureau of Land Management. If the ranch includes arable or irrigated land, the ranch may also engage in an amount of farming, raising crops for feeding the animals, such as hay. Ranches that cater exclusively to tourists are called guest ranches or, colloquially, most working ranches do not cater to guests, though they may allow private hunters or outfitters onto their property to hunt native wildlife. Ranching is part of the iconography of the Wild West as seen in Western movies, the person who owns and manages the operation of a ranch is usually called a rancher, but the terms cattleman, stockgrower, or stockman are also sometimes used. If this individual in charge of management is an employee of the actual owner. A rancher who primarily raises young stock sometimes is called an operator or a cow-calf man. This person is usually the owner, though in cases, particularly where there is absentee ownership. The people who are employees of the rancher and involved in handling livestock are called a number of terms, including cowhand, ranch hand, people exclusively involved with handling horses are sometimes called wranglers. Ranching and the tradition originated in Spain, out of the necessity to handle large herds of grazing animals on dry land from horseback. During the Reconquista, members of the Spanish nobility and various military orders received large land grants that the Kingdom of Castile had conquered from the Moors and these landowners were to defend the lands put into their control and could use them for earning revenue. When the Conquistadors came to the Americas in the 16th century, followed by settlers, they brought their cattle, huge land grants by the Spanish government, part of the hacienda system, allowed large numbers of animals to roam freely over vast areas. A number of different traditions developed, often related to the location in Spain from which a settlement originated. For example, many of the traditions of the Jalisco charros in central Mexico come from the Salamanca charros of Castile, however, there were cattle on the eastern seaboard. Deep Hollow Ranch,110 miles east of New York City in Montauk, New York, claims to be the first ranch in the United States, the prairie and desert lands of what today is Mexico and the western United States were well-suited to open range grazing
16.
Smelting
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Smelting is a form of extractive metallurgy, its main use is to produce a base metal from its ore. This includes production of silver, iron, copper and other metals from their ores. Smelting makes use of heat and a reducing agent to decompose the ore, driving off other elements as gases or slag. The reducing agent is commonly a source of such as coke. The carbon removes oxygen from the ore, leaving behind the elemental metal, the carbon is thus oxidized in two stages, producing first carbon monoxide and then carbon dioxide. As most ores are impure, it is necessary to use flux, such as limestone. Plants for the reduction of aluminium are also generally referred to as aluminium smelters. Smelting involves more than just melting the metal out of its ore, most ores are a chemical compound of the metal with other elements, such as oxygen, sulfur or carbon and oxygen together. To produce the metal, these compounds have to undergo a chemical reaction, smelting therefore consists of using suitable reducing substances that will combine with those oxidizing elements to free the metal. In the case of carbonates and sulfides, a process called roasting drives out the carbon or sulfur, leaving an oxide. Roasting is usually carried out in an oxidizing environment, a few practical examples, Malachite, a common ore of copper, is primarily copper carbonate hydroxide Cu22. This mineral undergoes thermal decomposition to 2CuO, CO2, and H2O in several stages between 250 °C and 350 °C, the carbon dioxide and water are expelled into the atmosphere, leaving copper oxide which can be directly reduced to copper as described in the following section titled Reduction. Galena, the most common mineral of lead, is primarily lead sulfide, the sulfide is oxidized to a sulfite which thermally decomposes into lead oxide and sulfur dioxide gas. The sulfur dioxide is expelled, and the oxide is reduced as below. Reduction is the final, high-temperature step in smelting and it is here that the oxide becomes the elemental metal. A reducing environment pulls the final oxygen atoms from the raw metal, the required temperature varies over a very large range, both in absolute terms and in terms of the melting point of the base metal. Fluxes are used in smelting for several purposes, chief among them catalyzing the desired reactions, of the seven metals known in antiquity, only gold occurred regularly in native form in the natural environment. The others – copper, lead, silver, tin, iron and mercury – occur primarily as minerals and these minerals are primarily carbonates, sulfides, or oxides of the metal, mixed with other components such as silica and alumina
17.
Panic of 1893
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The Panic of 1893 was a serious economic depression in the United States that began in 1893 and ended in 1897. It deeply affected every sector of the economy, and produced political upheaval that led to the 1896 realigning election, one of the causes for the panic of 1893 can be traced back to Argentina. Investment was encouraged by the Argentine agent bank, Baring Brothers, however, the failure of the 1890 wheat crop and a coup in Buenos Aires ended further investments. As concern for the state of the economy worsened, people rushed to withdraw their money from banks, the credit crunch rippled through the economy. A financial panic in the United Kingdom and a drop in trade in Europe caused foreign investors to sell American stocks to obtain American funds backed by gold. The Populists were a short-lived agrarian-populist political party which appealed politically to wheat farmers in the West and they saw the resulting panic as confirmation that the values of rootless global finance were assailing traditional American values. Historian Hasia Diner notes, Some Populists believed that Jews made up a class of international financiers whose policies had ruined small family farms, Jews, they asserted, owned the banks and promoted the gold standard, the chief sources of their impoverishment. Agrarian radicalism posited the city as antithetical to American values, asserting that Jews were the essence of urban corruption, the Free Silver movement arose, gaining support from farmers and mining interests. People attempted to redeem notes for gold. Ultimately, the limit for the minimum amount of gold in federal reserves was reached. Investments during the time of the panic were heavily financed through bond issues with high interest payments, the National Cordage Company went into receivership as a result of its bankers calling their loans in response to rumors regarding the NCCs financial distress. The company, a manufacturer, had tried to corner the market for imported hemp. As the demand for silver and silver notes fell, the price, holders worried about a loss of face value of bonds and many became worthless. A series of bank failures followed, and the Northern Pacific Railway, the Union Pacific Railroad and this was followed by the bankruptcy of many other companies, in total over 15,000 companies and 500 banks, many of them in the west, failed. According to high estimates, about 17%–19% of the workforce was unemployed at the panics peak, the huge spike in unemployment, combined with the loss of life savings kept in failed banks, meant that a once-secure middle-class could not meet their mortgage obligations. Many walked away from recently built homes as a result, as a result of the panic, stock prices declined. 500 banks closed,15,000 businesses failed, and numerous farms ceased operation, the unemployment rate hit 25% in Pennsylvania, 35% in New York, and 43% in Michigan. Soup kitchens were opened to feed the destitute
18.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
19.
Hauser Dam
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Hauser Dam is a hydroelectric straight gravity dam on the Missouri River about 14 miles northeast of Helena, Montana, in the United States. The original dam, built between 1905 and 1907, failed in 1908 and caused flooding and damage downstream. A second dam was built on the site in 1908 and opened in 1911, the current Hauser Dam is 700 feet long and 80 feet high. The reservoir formed by the dam, Hauser Lake is 25 miles long, has an area of 3,800 acres. The dam is a dam because it can generate electricity without needing to store additional water supplies behind the dam. The powerhouse contains six generators, bringing Hauser dams generating capacity to 17 MW, the first Hauser Dam was built by the Missouri River Power Company and its successor, the United Missouri River Power Company. In his early 60s, Hauser began to rebuild his finances by branching out into the new industry of hydroelectric power generation. In 1894, he formed the Missouri River Power Company, in 1905, Hauser and other directors of the Missouri River Power Company formed the Helena Power Transmission Company. The two companies merged on February 16,1906, to form the United Missouri River Power Company, the dam was named for Samuel T. Hauser. Hauser Dam was a dam built on masonry footings on top of gravel. The Wisconsin Bridge and Iron Company constructed the dam for the power company, J. F. Jackson, a Wisconsin Bridge and Iron engineer, designed the structure. Martin Gerry supervised the construction for the power company, Gerry and Wisconsin Bridge engineer James McKittrick argued several times over the dams design, and Gerry ordered a number of changes to the dam to strengthen it. The dam was 630 feet long and 75 feet high, the pilings were set at an angle of 1.5,1 to discourage sliding, and a triangular masonry footing capped with concrete on the upstream side set against the pilings in the riverbed to support the dam. The upstream face of the dam was covered in concrete, the spillway was 500 feet wide and 13 feet deep. The 10 horizontal turbines in the powerhouse delivered 14,000 kilowatts of power, the total cost of the dam at that time was $1.5 million. The United Missouri Power declared Hauser Dam operational on February 12,1907, on April 14,1908, at about 2,30 PM, Hauser Dam failed after water pressure undermined the masonry footings. The first sign of trouble was when silt-heavy water began gushing from the base of the dam near the powerhouse, a power company employee, spotting the problem, ran into the powerhouse and told everyone to flee for their lives. About 15 minutes later, the masonry footings gave way, causing the section of the dam to settle
20.
Steel dam
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A steel dam is a type of dam that is made of steel, rather than the more common masonry, earthworks, concrete or timber construction materials. Relatively few examples were ever built, the third, the Hauser Lake Dam in Montana, was finished in 1907 but failed in 1908. Steel dams were found uneconomical after the World War I as the steel prices raised many times compared to cement prices though they are equally sound like other dam building materials, Steel dams use a series of footings anchored in the earth. These footings hold struts which in turn hold up a series of deck girders which in turn hold steel plates and it is these plates that the water comes in contact with. The girders and plates are angled in the direction so that part of the weight of the water acts with a downward force on the struts and footings. In the direct strutted version, shown in the illustration at left, there is thus no tensile force in the plate girders. In the cantilever strutted version, shown in the illustration at left, by all going to the same footing, the upper part of the deck girders are thus in tension and the moment of the cantilever section is offset by the moment of the water impinging on that section. In both types of construction, it is typical for the plates to have an appearance, as can be seen in the Redridge dam illustration. It is not known if this is due to the stretching or if this was a designed-in feature. It may have been to allow for expansion/contraction as the temperature changed, there are two design trade-offs, the girder plate angle and the strut angle. Increasing the strut angle towards vertical reduces the moment on the footings. Steel dams may or may not have a spillway, the long term strength of the dam is not known. As with other dams, undermining is a failure mode Jackson. Great American Bridges and Dams, John Wiley & Sons, New York, ISBN 0-471-14385-5,1984, irrigation and Water Power Engineering, a book found via Google books. One of few sources to mention steel dams, says there are 3 extant in the US, some of this article uses material from this text. University of Queensland A Brief History of Steel Dams by Hubert CHANSON and it indicates that the Hauser Lake dam was built between 1905-1907 and failed in 1908, after SCHUYLER
21.
Masonry
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Masonry is the building of structures from individual units, which are often laid in and bound together by mortar, the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of construction are brick, building stone such as marble, granite, travertine, and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block. Masonry is generally a durable form of construction. However, the used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship. A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer, Masonry is commonly used for walls and buildings. Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations, Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great strength, and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement offers much greater tensile, the use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building and can protect the building from fire. Masonry walls are resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes. Extreme weather, under circumstances, can cause degradation of masonry due to expansion. Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a foundation, such as reinforced concrete. Other than concrete, masonry construction does not lend well to mechanization. Masonry consists of components and has a low tolerance to oscillation as compared to other materials such as reinforced concrete, plastics, wood. Masonry has high compressive strength under vertical loads but has low tensile strength unless reinforced, the tensile strength of masonry walls can be increased by thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers at intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcements such as windposts can be added, a masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this context the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural, the brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by brick ties. There is typically an air gap between the veneer and the structural wall. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion
22.
Anaconda Copper
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Anaconda Copper Mining Company was one of the largest trusts of the early 20th century. Founded in 1881 when Marcus Daly bought a mine, the company expanded rapidly based on the discovery of huge copper deposits. Daly built a smelter to process copper mined in Butte, Montana, by 1910, Anaconda had expanded its operations and bought the assets of two other Montana copper companies. In 1922 it bought mining operations in Mexico and Chile, the latter was the largest mine in the world, the company added aluminum reduction to its portfolio in 1955. In 1960 its operations still had 37,000 employees in North America and it was purchased by Atlantic Richfield Company on January 12,1977. Anaconda halted production in 1980, and mining ceased completely in 1982 when the deep pumps keeping the mine drained were shut off and it currently exists only as a massive environmental liability for BP, the current owner of ARCO. Anaconda Copper Mining Company was started in 1881 when Marcus Daly bought a silver mine called Anaconda near Butte. At the time, Daly was working for the Walker Bros. of Salt Lake City, Utah as a manager and engineer of the Alice, a silver mine in Walkerville. He was a geologist and knew the red mineral he was looking at, after Dalys employers refused to buy the Anaconda, Daly sold his interest in the Alice and bought it himself. Placer gold and silver mining had taken place at Butte, placer mining at Helena, Bannock and Virginia City. Daly asked George Hearst, San Francisco mining magnate, for additional support, Hearst agreed to buy one-fourth of the new companys stock without visiting the site. While mining the silver left in his mine, huge deposits of copper were soon developed, when surrounding silver mines played out and closed, Daly quietly bought up the neighboring mines, forming a mining company. Daly built a smelter at Anaconda, Montana and connected his smelter to Butte by a railway, Anaconda Company eventually owned all the mines on Butte Hill. Butte, a small and poor town, became one of the most prosperous cities in the country, from 1892 through 1903, the Anaconda mine was the largest copper-producing mine in the world. It produced more than $300 billion worth of metal in its lifetime, in 1889 the Rothschilds tried to gain control of the world copper market. In 1892 the French Rothschilds began negotiations to buy the Anaconda mine, in mid-October 1895 the Rothschilds, French and British, bought one quarter of the stock in Anaconda for $7.5 million. By the late 1890s the Rothschilds probably had control over the sale of about forty percent of the copper production. The Rothschilds role in Anaconda was brief, in 1899, Daly teamed up with two directors of Standard Oil to create the giant Amalgamated Copper Mining Company, one of the largest trusts of the early 20th century
23.
Hetch Hetchy
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Hetch Hetchy is the name of a valley, a reservoir and a water system in California in the United States. The glacial Hetch Hetchy Valley lies in the part of Yosemite National Park and is drained by the Tuolumne River. For thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans in the 1850s, in 1923, the OShaughnessy Dam was completed on the Tuolumne River, flooding the entire valley under the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir. The valley floor consisted of roughly 1,200 acres of meadows fringed by pine forest, through which meandered the Tuolumne River, Kolana Rock, at 5,772 ft, is a massive rock spire on the south side of the Hetch Hetchy Valley. Hetch Hetchy Dome, at 6,197 ft, lies north of it. The locations of two formations roughly correspond with those of Cathedral Rocks and El Capitan seen from Tunnel View in Yosemite Valley. A broad, low rocky outcrop situated between Kolana Rock and Hetch Hetchy Dome divided the former meadow in two distinct sections. The valley is fed by the Tuolumne River, Falls Creek, Tiltill Creek, Rancheria Creek, the entire valley is now flooded under an average 300 ft of water behind the dam, although it occasionally reemerges in droughts, as it did in 1955,1977 and 1991. Upstream from the lies the Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne. The Hetch Hetchy Road drops into the valley at the dam, but all points east of there are roadless, the OShaughnessy Dam is near Yosemites western boundary, but the long, narrow, fingerlike reservoir stretches eastward for about 8 miles. Wapama Falls, at 1,700 ft, and Tueeulala Falls, Rancheria Falls is located farther southeast, on Rancheria Creek. Formerly, a small but noisy waterfall and natural pool existed on the Tuolumne River marked the entrance to Hetch Hetchy Valley. The waterfall on the Tuolumne is now submerged under Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, the Hetch Hetchy Valley began as a V-shaped river canyon cut out by the ancestral Tuolumne River. When the glacier retreated for the time, sediment-laden meltwater deposited thick layers of silt. Compared with Yosemite Valley, the walls of Hetch Hetchy are smoother and rounder because it was glaciated to a greater extent. This is because the Tuolumne catchment basin above Hetch Hetchy is almost three times as large as the catchment area of the Merced River above Yosemite, allowing a greater volume of ice to form, Hetch Hetchy is home to a diverse array of plants and animals. Gray pine, incense-cedar, and California black oak grow in abundance, many examples of red-barked manzanita can be seen along the Hetch Hetchy Road. Spring and early summer bring wildflowers including lupine, wallflower, monkey flower, seventeen species of bats inhabit the Hetch Hetchy area, including the largest North American bat, the western mastiff
24.
Charles River Dam
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Also known as The Gridley Dam, named after General Washingtons first army engineer Col. Richard Gridley. Built and operational in 1978, the three locks can be crossed by pedestrians as well as bicyclists and it is part of the popular Boston Harborwalk. The dam contains three locks, with one wider than the other two to accommodate the occasional passing of a larger vessel. Recent attempts by illicit fishing groups have made the ladder inoperable, six diesel-powered,2700 horsepower turbo-charged engines drive six pumps with a combined capacity of about 3.7 million US gallons per minute or 8140 cubic feet per second. It replaced the Charles River Dam Bridge upstream where the Boston Museum of Science is now located, the 1912 dams one lock is now kept open for navigation. The older dam could not keep sea water out and a layer of water accumulated at the bottom of the fresh water basin, contributing to pollution. The dams walkway is the site of the Charlestown Bells, an art installation by Paul Matisse. The work was refurbished in 2013 after it had fallen into disrepair, the Charles River Dam was once in the shadow of the former Charlestown High Bridge located upstream. It was replaced by the Zakim Bridge further upstream
25.
Lock and Dam No. 19
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Lock and Dam No.19 is a lock and dam located on the Upper Mississippi River near Keokuk, Iowa. In 2004, the facility was listed in the National Register of Historic Places as Lock and Dam No.19 Historic District, the lock is owned and operated by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. The dam is owned and operated by Ameren Missouri, the main lock was constructed from 1952 to 1957 and is 1,200 feet long and 110 feet wide with a lift of just over 38 feet and large enough to handle a full-length tow of barges. It was put into operation in 1957 at a cost of 13.5 million dollars, the 1957 lock replaced a 1910-1913 lock. The 1913 lock was a variant of the standardized Panama canal design and was 110 feet wide,358 feet long and 57 feet tall with a 40 feet lift. The lock and dam, as well as the rest of the river, construction of the dam began in 1910, and was completed in 1913. The movable portion of the dam is 4,620 feet long with 119 separate 30 feet rectangular, steel-skin plated, the gates are either installed or removed and river flow is controlled by the number of gates installed. They are removed by a crane that travels on the service bridge above the dam. At the time it was completed it was second in only to the Aswan Low Dam on the Nile River. Construction began in 1910 and when completed in 1913 it was the largest capacity, the Power House and spillways are owned and operated by Ameren Missouri and has a 134 MW capacity. The powerhouse contains 15 generators, originally designed to produce 25 Hz instead of the 60 Hz alternating current used today, in the 1930s, Union Electric Company purchased this 25 Hz power for Streetcars in St. Louis, Missouri. This 25 Hz power configuration is used for Amtraks 25 Hz traction power system in the Northeast Corridor. 1, Lock and Dam No.2 and the upper St. Anthony Falls dam also produce electricity, Keokuk Rail Bridge Keokuk-Hamilton Bridge Hallwas, John E. Keokuk and the Great Dam. Diver, Lorene Curtis, To Sound Waves, a booklet Mrs. Diver wrote about the sounds heard from her Keokuk and her husband was James Brice Diver, an engineer and bridge builder. HAER - Mississippi River 9-Foot Channel, Lock & Dam No,19, Upper Mississippi River, Keokuk, Lee County, IA Keokuk Area Convention and Tourism Bureau Ameren Missouri Fact Sheet Hugh L. Cooper speaks to MIT civil engineers Jan.1915
26.
Los Angeles Aqueduct
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The system delivers water from the Owens River in the Eastern Sierra Nevada Mountains to Los Angeles, California. In 1971 it was recognized by the American Society of Civil Engineers on the List of Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks and its construction was controversial from the start, as it is alleged that water diversions to Los Angeles all but ended agriculture in the Owens Valley. Since then its continued operation has led to debate, legislation and court battles over the environmental impacts of the aqueduct on Mono Lake. The aqueduct project began in 1905 when the people of Los Angeles approved a US$1.5 million bond for the purchase of lands and water, on June 12,1907 a second bond was passed with a budget of US$24.5 million to fund construction. Construction began in 1908 and was divided up into 11 divisions, the number of men who were on the payroll the first year was 2,629 and peaked at 6,060 in May 1909. In 1910 employment dropped to 1,150 due to financial reasons, between 1911 and 1912 employment ranged from 2,800 to 3,800 workers. The number of actual laborers working on the aqueduct, at its peak, was 3,900, in 1913 the City of Los Angeles completed construction of the first Los Angeles Aqueduct. The aqueduct as originally constructed consisted of six reservoirs and 215 mi of conduit. Beginning three and one miles north of Black Rock Springs, the aqueduct diverts the Owens River into an unlined canal to begin its 233 mi journey south to the Lower San Fernando Reservoir. This reservoir was renamed the Lower Van Norman Reservoir. The original project consisted of 24 mi of open unlined canal,37 mi of lined open canal,97 mi of covered concrete conduit,43 mi of tunnels,12. The aqueduct uses gravity alone to move the water and also uses the water to generate electricity, the aqueduct system has been operated safely throughout its history and is still in operation. The construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct effectively eliminated the Owens Valley as a farming community. By the 1920s, the pursuits of the water rights. Farmers in Owens Valley attacked infrastructure, dynamiting the aqueduct numerous times, the aqueducts water provided developers with the resources to quickly develop the San Fernando Valley and Los Angeles through World War II. Mulhollands role in the vision and completion of the aqueduct and the growth of Los Angeles into a metropolis is recognized and well-documented. The William Mulholland Memorial Fountain, built in 1940 and located at Riverside Drive and Los Feliz Blvd. in Los Feliz is dedicated to his memory, Mulholland Drive and Mulholland Dam are named for him as well. In an effort to more water, the city of Los Angeles reached further north
27.
Panama Canal
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The Panama Canal is an artificial 48-mile waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for maritime trade. The original locks are 33.5 metres wide, a third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began operation on June 26,2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo, France began work on the canal in 1881 but stopped due to engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The United States took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal on August 15,1914, Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The U. S. continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999 the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government and is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, by 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes six to eight hours to pass through the Panama Canal, the American Society of Civil Engineers has called the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Such a route would have given the Spanish a military advantage over the Portuguese, during an expedition from 1788 to 1793, Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans for its construction. Given the strategic location of Panama and the potential offered by its narrow isthmus separating two great oceans, other links in the area were attempted over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up a trade route. Generally inhospitable conditions thwarted the effort, and it was abandoned in April 1700, another effort was made in 1843. They referred to it as the Atlantic and Pacific Canal and it was a wholly British endeavor and it was expected to be completed in five years, but the plan was never carried out. At nearly the same time, other ideas were floated, including a canal across Mexicos Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nothing came of that plan either. )In 1846 the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty, negotiated between the U. S. and New Granada, granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. In 1849, the discovery of gold in California created great interest in a crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Panama Railway was built by the United States to cross the isthmus and opened in 1855
28.
Stone & Webster
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Stone & Webster was an American engineering services company based in Stoughton, Massachusetts. It was founded as a testing lab and consulting firm by electrical engineers Charles Stone. In the early 20th century, Stone & Webster was known for operating systems in many cities across the United States, examples include Dallas, Houston. Charles A. Stone and Edwin S. Webster first met in 1884, in 1890, only two years after graduating, they formed the Massachusetts Electrical Engineering Company. The name was changed to Stone & Webster in 1893 and their company was one of the earliest electrical engineering consulting firms in the United States. Stone & Websters first major project was the construction of a plant for the New England paper company in 1890. Stone & Webster not only had valuable insight into developing and managing utilities, through the panic of 1893, Stone & Webster were able to acquire the Nashville Electric Light and Power Co. for a few thousand dollars and later sold it for $500,000. Throughout the next ten years, Stone & Webster acquired interest in number of utilities while offering managerial, engineering. Even though Stone & Webster were not a company, their financial and managerial presence meant that they had considerable influence in policy decisions. They would often be paid in utility stock, by 1900, they had controlled and merged eight small rail lines in Seattle, soon after, they also took over the street railway systems of Tacoma and Everett. The Seattle Electric Co. and Whatcom County Railway and Light Co, Stone & Webster took over construction operations and on September 21,1906, Bellingham received power from the plant via a 47 mile long transmission line. Despite the independence allowed its subsidiaries, J. D. Ross, listing 49 companies under Stone & Websters management at the time. Founded in 1886, to form Stone & Webster and Blodgett Inc, in January,1946, the name of the business, was changed to Stone and Webster Securities Corporation. Much of the capacity in petrochemical and plastics development was also developed as a result of Stone & Webster efforts. Americas entry into World War II brought an increase in demand for all types of engineering and construction. According to former Stone & Webster president Allen, Few elements of war production were not impacted in a significant way by Stone & Webster, the company was also called upon to engage in more creative projects. Perhaps the most creative Stone & Webster wartime effort was its involvement in the Manhattan Project, Stone & Webster was involved in creating the facilities and laboratories for the Manhattan Project. Prior to its acquisition it was part of the Maine Yankee decommissioning project
29.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
30.
Corporate bond
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A corporate bond is a bond issued by a corporation in order to raise financing for a variety of reasons such as to ongoing operations, M&A, or to expand business. The term is applied to longer-term debt instruments, with maturity of at least one year. Corporate debt instruments with maturity shorter than one year are referred to as commercial paper, the term corporate bond is not strictly defined. Sometimes, the term is used to include all bonds except those issued by governments in their own currencies, in this case governments issuing in other currencies will be included. The term sometimes also encompasses bonds issued by supranational organizations, strictly speaking, however, it only applies to those issued by corporations. The bonds of local authorities are not included, Corporate bonds trade in decentralized, dealer-based, over-the-counter markets. In over-the-counter trading dealers act as intermediaries between buyers and sellers, Corporate bonds are sometimes listed on exchanges and ECNs. However, vast majority of trading volume happens over-the-counter, by far the largest market for corporate bonds is in corporate bonds denominated in US Dollars. US Dollar corporate bond market is the oldest, largest, as the term corporate bond is not well defined, the size of the market varies according to who is doing the counting, but it is in the $5 to $6 trillion range. The second largest market is in Euro denominated corporate bonds, other markets tend to be small by comparison and are usually not well developed, with low trading volumes. Many corporations from other issue in either US Dollars or Euros. Foreign corporates issuing bonds in the US Dollar market are called Yankees, Corporate bonds are divided into two main categories High Grade and High Yield according to their credit rating. Bonds rated AAA, AA, A, and BBB are High Grade, while bonds rated BB and this is a significant distinction as High Grade and High Yield bonds are traded by different trading desks and held by different investors. For example, many pension funds and insurance companies are prohibited from holding more than an amount of High Yield bonds. The distinction between High Grade and High Yield is also common to most corporate bond markets, the coupon is usually taxable for the investor. It is tax deductible for the corporation paying it, for US Dollar corporates, the coupon is almost always semi annual, while Euro denominated corporates pay coupon quarterly. In this case the bond, a bond, is sold at a discount. The investor benefits by paying $80, but collecting $100 at maturity, the $20 gain is in lieu of the regular coupon
31.
Canyon Ferry Dam
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The dam is for flood control, irrigation, recreation and hydroelectric power. The building of the dam created a reservoir known as Canyon Ferry Lake, in 1941, the first study for the dam was carried out by the Bureau of Reclamation, the Montana Water Board and Montana Power Company. The dam and power plant were part of the Pick-Sloan Plan, known as the Canyon Ferry Unit, construction began on May 24,1949, and was completed on June 23,1954. On December 18,1953, the plants first generator became operational. The 1949 structure replaced the original Canyon Ferry Dam 1.5 mi upstream, the original dam was constructed between 1896 and 1898 by the Helena Water and Electric Power Company. It was a timber crib dam with rock-fill and was 29 ft high and 485 ft long, the dam is a 225 ft tall concrete gravity type has a length of 1,000 ft. The crest of the dam is 20 ft while the base is 173 ft, the dam structure compromises a total of 414,400 cu yd of concrete. The dams spillway is located on its central portion and is controlled by four radial gates and it has a maximum discharge of 150,000 cu ft/s. Adjacent to the spillway is the power plant which contains three 16.5 MW Francis turbine generators for an installed capacity of 50 MW. Each turbine is fed water by a 13.5 ft diameter penstock. At a normal elevation of 3,797 ft, the reservoir contains 1,891,000 acre·ft of water, U. S. Reclamation website, Canyon Ferry Unit Canyon Ferry Dam and Visiting Center website Helena History website
32.
Butte, Anaconda and Pacific Railway
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The Butte, Anaconda and Pacific Railway is a short line railroad in the U. S. state of Montana which was founded in 1892. The BA&P was a pioneer, converting in 1913 and being the first primarily freight railroad to electrify. Electrification was at 2,400 volts DC, the work was performed by General Electric, as described in a period article, The length of this line was 30 miles, having a total of 114 miles of single trackage, and considerable heavy grade. The electric locomotives hauled heavy ore trains and the results from every viewpoint far exceeded expectations. The electrification was abandoned in 1967 as it had become cheaper to operate diesel-electric locomotives, the railroad as a whole lost much of its business following the closure of the Anaconda smelters, and in 1985 was sold to a consortium of local investors and reconstituted as the Rarus Railway. Wright, Roy V. Winter, Charles, eds, wired for Success, The Butte, Anaconda & Pacific Railway, 1892-1985. Pullman, Washington, Washington State University Press, on the High Speed Electric Railway. Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Institute of Japan, where Electrification First Made Good - Butte, Anaconda & Pacific, laboratory under catenary. Butte, Anaconda & Pacific Railway Web site
33.
Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad
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The eastern half of the system merged into the Soo Line Railroad on January 1,1986. The company went through several names and faced bankruptcy several times in that period. The company incorporated in 1847, but changed its name to the Milwaukee and its first line, all of 5 miles, opened between Milwaukee and Wauwatosa, on November 20,1850. Extensions followed to Waukesha in February 1851, Madison, and finally the Mississippi River at Prairie du Chien in 1857. As a result of the panic of 1857, the M&M went into receivership in 1859. In 1867, Alexander Mitchell combined the M&PdC with the Milwaukee and St. Paul under the name Milwaukee, critical to the development and financing of the railroad was the acquisition of significant land grants. Prominent individual investors in the line included Alexander Mitchell, Russell Sage, Jeremiah Milbank, in 1874, the name was changed to Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul. By 1887, the railroad had lines running through Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, South Dakota, the company General Offices were later located in Chicagos Railway Exchange building until 1924, at which time they moved to Chicago Union Station. In the 1890s the Milwaukees directors felt they had to extend the railroad to the Pacific in order to remain competitive with other roads, a survey in 1901 estimated costs to build to the Pacific Northwest as $45 million. In 1905 the board approved the Pacific Extension, now estimated at $60 million, the contract for the western part of the route was awarded to Horace Chapin Henry of Seattle. Construction began in 1906 and was completed in 1909, the two main mountain ranges that had to be crossed required major civil engineering works and additional locomotive power. The completion of 2,300 miles of railroad through some of the most varied topography in the nation in three years was a major feat. Some historians question the choice of route, since it bypassed some population centers, much of the line paralleled the Northern Pacific Railway. It was primarily a long-haul route, Trains magazine called the building of the extension egregious and a disaster. George H. Drury listed the Pacific Extension as one of several decisions made by the Milwaukees management which contributed to the companys eventual failure. Operating conditions in the regions of the Pacific Extension proved difficult. In winter, temperatures dropped to −40 °F, making it challenging for steam locomotives to generate sufficient steam, the line snaked through mountainous areas, resulting in long steep grades and sharp curves. Electrification provided an answer, especially with abundant hydroelectric power in the mountains, between 1914–1916, the Milwaukee implemented a 3,000 volt direct current overhead system between Harlowton, Montana and Avery, Idaho, a distance of 438 miles
34.
Butte, Montana
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Butte /ˈbjuːt/ is a city in, and the county seat of Silver Bow County, Montana, United States. In 1977, the city and county governments consolidated to form the entity of Butte-Silver Bow. As of the 2010 census, Buttes population was approximately 34,200, Butte is Montanas fifth largest city. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Butte experienced every stage of development of a town, from camp to boomtown to mature city to center for historic preservation. Unlike most such towns, Buttes urban landscape includes mining operations set within residential areas, despite the dominance of the Anaconda Company, Butte was never a company town. It prided itself on architectural diversity and an ethos of rough-and-tumble individualism. In the 21st century, efforts at interpreting and preserving Buttes heritage are addressing both the historical significance and the continuing importance of mining to its economy and culture. Butte was one of the largest cities in the Rocky Mountains in the late 1800s, Silver Bow County had 24,000 people in 1890, and peaked at 100,000 in 1920. The population steadily declined with falling copper prices after World War I, eventually dropping to 34,000 in 1990, in 2013, the population remains at 34,200. The documentary Butte, America, depicts its history as a producer and the issues of labor unionism, economic rise and decline. The city is served by Bert Mooney Airport with airport code BTM, Butte began as a mining town in the late 19th century in the Silver Bow Creek Valley, a natural bowl sitting high in the Rockies straddling the Continental Divide. At first only gold and silver were mined in the area, but the advent of electricity caused a demand for copper. The small town was called the Richest Hill on Earth. It was the largest city for hundreds of miles in all directions. Among the migrants, many Chinese workers moved in, and amongst them set up businesses that led to the creation of a Chinatown in Butte, the Chinese migrations stopped in 1882 with the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act. The business owners fought back by suing the unions and winning, the history of the Chinese migrants in Butte is documented in the Mai Wah Museum. The influx of miners gave Butte a reputation as a town where any vice was obtainable. The citys famous saloon and red-light district, called the Line or The Copper Block, was centered on Mercury Street, behind the brothel was the equally famous Venus Alley, where women plied their trade in small cubicles called cribs
35.
Engineer
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Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators
36.
York, Pennsylvania
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York, known as the White Rose City, is the city serving as the county seat of York County, Pennsylvania, United States, both being located in the south-central region of the state. The population within Yorks city limits was 43,718 at the 2010 census, when combined with the adjacent boroughs of West York and North York and surrounding Spring Garden, West Manchester, and Springettsbury townships, the population of Greater York was 108,386. York is the county seat of York County and is located at 39°58′00″N 76°45′00″W, York is currently the 11th largest city in Pennsylvania. The city is home to four national historic districts, Fairmount Historic District, Northwest York Historic District, Springdale Historic District, and York Historic District. York, also known as Yorktown in the mid 18th to early 19th centuries, was founded in 1741 by settlers from the Philadelphia region, by 1777, most of the area residents were of either German or Scots-Irish descent. York was incorporated as a borough on September 24,1787, during the American Revolutionary War, York served as the temporary capital of the Continental Congress. The Articles of Confederation were drafted and adopted in York, though they were not ratified until March 1781, York styles itself the first Capital of the United States, although historians generally consider it to be the fourth capital, after Philadelphia, Baltimore and Lancaster. The claim arises from the assertion that the Articles of Confederation was the first legal document to refer to the colonies as the United States of America and this does not, however, prevent modern businesses and organizations in the York area, such as the First Capital Dispensing Co. First Capital Engineering and First Capital Federal Credit Union from using the name, the Conway Cabal, a political intrigue against General George Washington, had its origins in the Golden Plough Tavern in York. According to U. S. census reports from 1800 through 1840, gordon marched to the Susquehanna River at Wrightsville and back. Early laid York under tribute and collected food, supplies, clothing, shoes, the sprawling York U. S. Army Hospital on Penn Commons served thousands of Union soldiers wounded at the battles of Antietam and Gettysburg. York also features unique architecture ranging from colonial era buildings to large gothic churches. The York Motor Car Co. built Pullman automobiles on North George St. from 1905 thorough 1917, an early and unique six-wheeled prototype was involved in one of the citys first known automobile accidents. The York area had also been home for more than 100 years to the Pfaltzgraff company, though now produced by The Hershey Company, the York Peppermint Pattie was created in York in 1940. Throughout the middle 20th Century, the residents of the city were subject to hostile racial prejudice. Between 1955 and 1970, the people of York experienced racial discrimination leading to riots, most notably the 1969 York Race Riot, which resulted in the death of Lily Allen and Henry C. These murders were left ignored until 31 years later, when allegations of murder and racial prejudice were raised against the mayor at the time. Additionally, throughout the century, the city commonly held unopposed Ku Klux Klan rallies and public meetings
37.
Water wheel
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A water wheel is a machine for converting the energy of flowing or falling water into useful forms of power, often in a watermill. A water wheel consists of a wheel, with a number of blades or buckets arranged on the outside rim forming the driving surface. Most commonly, the wheel is mounted vertically on a horizontal axle, vertical wheels can transmit power either through the axle or via a ring gear and typically drive belts or gears, horizontal wheels usually directly drive their load. Water wheels were still in use well into the 20th century. Uses included milling flour in gristmills, grinding wood into pulp for papermaking, hammering wrought iron, machining, some water wheels are fed by water from a mill pond, which is formed when a flowing stream is dammed. A channel for the water flowing to or from a wheel is called a mill race. The race bringing water from the pond to the water wheel is a headrace. In the mid to late 18th century John Smeatons scientific investigation of the water led to significant increases in efficiency supplying much needed power for the Industrial Revolution. Water wheels began being displaced by the smaller, less expensive and more efficient turbine, developed by Benoît Fourneyron, turbines are capable of handling high heads, or elevations, that exceed the capability of practical-sized waterwheels. The main difficulty of water wheels is their dependence on flowing water, modern hydroelectric dams can be viewed as the descendants of the water wheel, as they too take advantage of the movement of water downhill. The two main functions of water wheels were historically water-lifting for irrigation purposes and as a power source, when used for water-lifting power can be supplied by either human or animal force or by the water current itself. Water wheels come in two designs, either a vertical or a horizontal axle. The latter type can be subdivided, depending on where the hits the wheel. Engineers of the Hellenistic era Mediterranean region are credited with the development of the water wheel, Mediterranean engineers of the Hellenistic and Roman periods were also the first to use it for both irrigation and as a power source. The technological breakthrough occurred in the advanced and scientifically minded Hellenistic period between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. This is seen as an evolution of the paddle-driven water-lifting wheels that had appeared in ancient Egypt by the 4th century BCE. According to John Peter Oleson, both the wheel and the hydraulic Noria appeared in Egypt by the 4th century BCE. This is supported by finds at Faiyum, where the oldest archeological evidence of a water-wheel has been found
38.
Bunkhouse
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A bunkhouse is a barracks-like building that historically was used to house working cowboys on ranches in North America. As most cowboys were young men, the standard bunkhouse was a large open room with narrow beds or cots for each individual. The bunkhouse of the late 19th century was usually heated by a wood stove, in the United Kingdom, a bunkhouse provides accommodation with fewer facilities than a larger, staffed youth hostel. Bunkhouses are found in areas, such as the Scottish Highlands, as well as rural areas in England and Wales
39.
Dormitory
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A dormitory or hall of residence, is a building primarily providing sleeping and residential quarters for large numbers of people, often boarding school, college or university students. In the United States dorm is the most common term, which comes originally from the Latin word dormitorium, on the other hand, in the United Kingdom the term hall is more usual, especially in a university context. A dormitory can also be a room containing several beds – see Sleeping dormitories. Most colleges and universities provide single or multiple rooms for their students. These buildings consist of such rooms, like an apartment building. The largest dormitory building is Bancroft Hall at the United States Naval Academy, many colleges and universities no longer use the word dormitory and staff are now using the term residence hall or simply hall instead. Outside academia however, the dorm or dormitory is commonly used without negative connotations. Indeed, the words are used regularly in the marketplace as well as routinely in advertising, College and university residential rooms vary in size, shape, facilities and number of occupants. Typically, a United States residence hall holds two students with no toilet. This is usually referred to as a double, often, residence halls have communal bathroom facilities. In the United States, residence halls are segregated by sex, with men living in one group of rooms. Some dormitory complexes are single-sex with varying limits on visits by persons of each sex, for example, the University of Notre Dame in Indiana has a long history of Parietals, or mixed visiting hours. In the early 2000s, dorms that allowed people of opposite sexes to share a room available in some public universities. Some colleges and university coeducational dormitories also feature coeducational bathrooms, most residence halls are much closer to campus than comparable private housing such as apartment buildings. Universities may therefore provide priority to students when allocating this accommodation. Halls located away from university facilities sometimes have extra amenities such as a room or bar. Catered halls may charge for food by the meal or through a termly subscription and they may also contain basic kitchen facilities for student use outside catering hours. Most halls contain a laundry room, as of 2015 there was an expanding market for private luxury off-campus student residences which offered substantial amenities in both the United States and Britain, particularly in London
40.
Penstock
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A penstock is a sluice or gate or intake structure that controls water flow, or an enclosed pipe that delivers water to hydro turbines and sewerage systems. It is a term that has inherited from the earlier technology of mill ponds. Penstocks for hydroelectric installations are normally equipped with a gate system, flow is regulated by turbine operation and is nil when turbines are not in service. Penstocks, particularly used in polluted water systems, need to be maintained by hot water washing, manual cleaning, antifouling coatings. The term is used in irrigation dams to refer to the channels leading to. Penstocks are also used in mine tailings dam construction, the penstock is usually situated fairly close to the center of the tailings dam and built up using penstock rings. These control the level, letting the slimes settle out of the water. This water is piped under the tailings dam back to the plant via a penstock pipeline. Similar structures which are not enclosed are head races or leats, penstocks are commonly used in water management systems such as surface water drainage and foul water sewers. Penstocks provide a means of isolation of flows, penstocks are incorporated into the surface water management systems of many landfill sites. Attenuation lagoons are constructed in order to store water, limiting the discharge from the site to pre-development rate. Penstocks are installed at the outfall from the lagoon so that in the event that the surface water becomes contaminated the penstock may be closed. This will have the effect of isolating the site from the watercourse, penstock cross-sections for the Grand Coulee Dam U. S. Department of Energy Hydropower Basics
41.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
