1.
Homeland (TV series)
–
Homeland is an American crime thriller television series developed by Howard Gordon and Alex Gansa based on the Israeli series Prisoners of War, which was created by Gideon Raff. The series stars Claire Danes as Carrie Mathison, a Central Intelligence Agency officer with bipolar disorder, and Damian Lewis as Nicholas Brody, a U. S. Marine Corps Scout Sniper. Mathison had come to believe that Brody, who was held captive by al-Qaeda as a prisoner of war, was turned by the enemy, the series is broadcast in the U. S. on the cable channel Showtime, and is produced by Fox 21 Television Studios. It premiered on October 2,2011, the first episode was made available online, more than two weeks before the television broadcast, with viewers having to complete game tasks to gain access. On October 22,2013, Showtime renewed Homeland for a fourth season, on November 10,2014, Showtime renewed the series for a 12-episode fifth season that premiered on October 4,2015. On December 9,2015, the series was renewed for a sixth season, the sixth season debuted on January 15,2017. The series has also renewed for a seventh and eighth season. In Iraq, Carrie was warned by an asset that an American prisoner of war had been turned by al-Qaeda, Carries job grows complicated when her boss, Director of the Counterterrorism Center David Estes, calls Carrie and her colleagues in for an emergency briefing. Carrie comes to believe that Brody is the American prisoner of war whom her asset in Iraq was talking about, however, the federal government and her superiors at the CIA consider Brody a war hero. Later, another Marine, Tom Walker is also rescued casting doubt on which of the Marines is the suspected spy. Realizing it would be impossible to convince her boss to place Brody under surveillance, Carrie approaches the only other person she can trust, her mentor. The two must now work together to investigate Brody and prevent another terrorist attack on American soil, the second season follows Carrie and the CIA working with Brody to capture Abu Nazir. Discovering a video of Brodys confession during a CIA operation in Lebanon, Carrie and Saul, along with analyst Peter Quinn, Brody gives in to the CIA interrogation and is now an asset for the CIA, sending information to both sides. The downside of being an agent as well as a rising Congressman with the Vice Presidents support brings Brody closer to Carrie while worsening his relationship with his family. Brodys friend Mike tries to find the truth behind Tom Walkers death, seemingly free of being Nazirs man, Brody celebrates with Carrie at the CIA headquarters and both survive an explosion that kills Director Estes and many others. Brody then flees the U. S. with Carries help, Saul, who was attending the burying of Nazirs body at sea, is left to pick up the pieces. The beginning of season 3 presents the aftermath of a terrorist attack committed by Abu Nazirs people, Carrie is blamed for the CIAs failings as Senator Lockhart grills Saul, now Acting Director of the CIA, in front of the Senate Committee. However, it turned out to be part of a bigger plot and he later relayed the information to Carrie that the main perpetrator of the bombing was still in the U. S. and the CIA acted to bring the real bomber and the officers lawyers in for questioning
Homeland (TV series)
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Homeland
Homeland (TV series)
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Promotional poster of season 1 of the series.
2.
Liberty Leading the People
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Liberty Leading the People is a painting by Eugène Delacroix commemorating the July Revolution of 1830, which toppled King Charles X of France. The figure of Liberty is also viewed as a symbol of France, by the time Delacroix painted Liberty Leading the People, he was already the acknowledged leader of the Romantic school in French painting. Delacroix painted his work in the autumn of 1830, in a letter to his brother dated 21 October, he wrote, My bad mood is vanishing thanks to hard work. I’ve embarked on a modern subject—a barricade, and if I haven’t fought for my country at least I’ll paint for her. The painting was first exhibited at the official Salon of 1831, Delacroix depicted Liberty as both an allegorical goddess-figure and a robust woman of the people. The mound of corpses acts as a kind of pedestal from which Liberty strides, barefoot and bare-breasted, out of the canvas, the Phrygian cap she wears had come to symbolize liberty during the first French Revolution, of 1789–94. The painting has been seen as a marker to the end of the Age of Enlightenment, what they have in common is the fierceness and determination in their eyes. Aside from the flag held by Liberty, a second, minute tricolore can be discerned in the flying from the towers of Notre Dame. The identity of the man in the top hat has been widely debated, the suggestion that it was a self-portrait by Delacroix has been discounted by modern art historians. This plan did not come to fruition and the canvas hung in the museum gallery for a few months. After the June Rebellion of 1832, it was returned to the artist, according to Albert Boime, Champfleury wrote in August 1848 that it had been “hidden in an attic for being too revolutionary. Delacroix was permitted to send the painting to his aunt Félicité for safekeeping and it was exhibited briefly in 1848, after the Republic was restored in the revolution of that year, and then in the Salon of 1855. In 1874, the painting entered the collection of Palais du Louvre in Paris, the exhibit, entitled French Painting 1774–1830, The Age of Revolution, marked a rare display of the Delacroix painting, and many of the other 148 works, outside France. The exhibit was first shown at the Grand Palais from 16 November 1974 to 3 February 1975 and it moved to Detroit from 5 March to 4 May 1975, then New York from 12 June to 7 September 1975. In 1999, it was flown on board an Airbus Beluga from Paris to Tokyo via Bahrain, the large canvas, measuring 2.99 metres high by 3.62 metres long, was too large to fit into a Boeing 747. It was transported in the position inside a special pressurised container provided with isothermal protection. In 2012, it was moved to the new Louvre-Lens museum in Lens, Pas-de-Calais, on 7 February 2013, the painting was vandalized by a visitor in Lens. An unidentified 28-year-old woman allegedly wrote an inscription on the painting, the young woman was immediately arrested by a security guard and a visitor
Liberty Leading the People
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Liberty Leading the People
Liberty Leading the People
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Freedom for France, freedom for the French (1940), a poster depicting
Marianne
Liberty Leading the People
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An interpretation of Liberty Leading the People on the separation barrier which runs through
Bethlehem
3.
Country of origin
–
Country of origin, is the country of manufacture, production, or growth where an article or product comes from. There are differing rules of origin under various laws and international treaties. The effects of country of origin labeling on consumer purchasing have been extensively studied The country of origin effect is known as the made-in image. Its effect is strongest on consumers who dont know much about the product or product type, sensitivity to country of origin varies by product category. It is strongest for durable goods and luxury goods and weakest for low involvement product categories such as shampoo, in various studies it has also been proven that the Country-of-Origin Effect also applies to services. The requirements for Country of Origin markings are complicated by the various designations which may be required such as Made in X, Product of X and they also vary by country of import and export. For example, For imports to the United Kingdom, there is a code for Food. Other products are not subject to labelling requirements, but misleading labelling can result in prosecution under the Trade Descriptions Act 1968, meats, produce, and several other raw agricultural products generally were exempt. Textile products that are imported must be labeled as required by the Customs Service, a textile or wool product partially manufactured in the U. S. and partially manufactured in another country must be labeled to show both foreign and domestic processing. On a garment without a neck and on other kinds of textile products, catalogs and other mail order promotional materials for textile and wool products, including those disseminated on the Internet, must disclose whether a product is made in the U. S. imported, or both. The Fur Products Labeling Act requires the country of origin of imported furs to be disclosed on all labels, any representation that a car marketer makes that is required by the AALA is exempt from the Commission’s policy. When a company makes claims in advertising or promotional materials that go beyond the AALA requirements, it will be held to the Commission’s standard. The Buy American Act requires that a product be manufactured in the U. S. of more than 50 percent U. S. parts to be considered Made in USA for government procurement purposes. For more information, review the Buy American Act at 41 U. S. C. §§ 10a-10c, part 25, and the Trade Agreements Act at 19 U. S. C. The Lanham Act gives any person who is damaged by a designation of origin the right to sue the party making the false claim. Companies may indicate with a number of different strategies, though not all of these legal requirements in all jurisdictions. Use of the phrase Made in, Country of origin will affect its admissibility, the rate of duty, its entitlement to special duty or trade preference programs, antidumping, and government procurement. Today, many products are an outcome of a number of parts and pieces that come from many different countries
Country of origin
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"Swiss Made" label on a
TAG Heuer chronograph.
Country of origin
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Country of origin label for a product designed in the
United States of America, but actually manufactured in the
People's Republic of China.
Country of origin
–
Ford automobile hubcap
4.
Cultural geography
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Cultural geography is a sub-field within human geography. Rather than studying pre-determined regions based upon environmental classifications, cultural geography became interested in cultural landscapes and this was led by Carl O. Sauer, at the University of California, Berkeley. As a result, cultural geography was long dominated by American writers, Sauer defined the landscape as the defining unit of geographic study. He saw that cultures and societies both developed out of their landscape, but also shaped them too and this interaction between the natural landscape and humans creates the cultural landscape. Sauers work was highly qualitative and descriptive and was surpassed in the 1930s by the geography of Richard Hartshorne. Cultural geography was generally sidelined, though such as David Lowenthal continued to work on the concept of landscape. The areas of study of cultural geography are very broad, among many applicable topics within the field of study are, Globalization has been theorised as an explanation for cultural convergence. Westernization or other processes such as modernization, americanization, islamization. Theories of cultural hegemony or cultural assimilation via cultural imperialism, study of cultural landscapes and cultural ecology. Other topics include spirit of place, colonialism, post-colonialism, internationalism, immigration, emigration, rather than studying pre-determined regions based upon environmental classifications, cultural geography became interested in cultural landscapes. This was led by Carl O. Sauer, at the University of California, as a result, cultural geography was long dominated by American writers. Sauer defined the landscape as the unit of geographic study. He saw that cultures and societies both developed out of their landscape, but also shaped them too and this interaction between the natural landscape and humans creates the cultural landscape. Sauers work was highly qualitative and descriptive and was surpassed in the 1930s by the geography of Richard Hartshorne. Cultural geography was generally sidelined, though such as David Lowenthal continued to work on the concept of landscape. In the 1970s, the critique of positivism in geography caused geographers to look beyond the quantitative geography for its ideas, one of these re-assessed areas was also cultural geography. However, as in many geographic subdisciplines, post-positivist cultural geography continues playing an important role, a particular area of interest is that of identity politics and construction of identity. It has followed the critiques of Foucault made by other poststructuralist theorists such as Michel de Certeau, in this area, non-representational geography and population mobility research have dominated
Cultural geography
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Globalization and Mall Culture in
Jakarta
Cultural geography
–
Sub-fields
5.
Ethnic group
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An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive
Ethnic group
–
Before the 1970s, the
Korowai people of
Papua were an
uncontacted people. Their population numbers no more than 3,000.
Ethnic group
–
The
Assyrians are the indigenous peoples of
Northern Iraq.
Ethnic group
–
Some European ethnic groups, such as
Basque people, do not constitute a majority in any one country.
6.
Nationality
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Nationality is the legal relationship between a person and a state. Nationality affords the state jurisdiction over the person and affords the person the protection of the state, what these rights and duties are vary from state to state. By custom and international conventions, it is the right of state to determine who its nationals are. Such determinations are part of nationality law, in some cases, determinations of nationality are also governed by public international law—for example, by treaties on statelessness and the European Convention on Nationality. Nationality differs technically and legally from citizenship, which is a different legal relationship between a person and a country, the noun national can include both citizens and non-citizens. The most common distinguishing feature of citizenship is that citizens have the right to participate in the life of the state. However, in most modern countries all nationals are citizens of the state, in English and some other languages, the word nationality is sometimes used to refer to an ethnic group. This meaning of nationality is not defined by political borders or passport ownership, individuals may also be considered nationals of groups with autonomous status which have ceded some power to a larger government. In international law, nationality is the status or relationship that gives a nation the right to protect a person from other nations, diplomatic and consular protection are dependent upon this relationship between the person and the state. A persons status as being the national of a country is used to resolve the conflict of laws, Nationality is also the status that allows a nation to grant rights to the subject and to impose obligations upon the subject. In most cases, no rights or obligations are automatically attached to this status, although the status is a precondition for any rights. Within the broad limits imposed by few treaties and international law, however, since the Nottebohm case, other states are only required to respect their claim to protect an alleged national if the nationality is based on a true social bond. In the case of dual nationality, states may determine the most effective nationality for a person, there are also limits on removing a persons status as a national. Nationals normally have the right to enter or return to the country belong to. Passports are issued to nationals of a state, rather only to citizens. However, nationals may not have the right of abode in the countries that grant them passports, Nationality is legally a distinct concept from citizenship. Conceptually, citizenship is focused on the political life of the state. In the modern era, the concept of full citizenship encompasses not only political rights
Nationality
–
Legal status of
persons
7.
Ethnic nationalism
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Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethno-nationalism, is a form of nationalism wherein the nation is defined in terms of ethnicity. The central theme of ethnic nationalists is that nations are defined by a heritage, which usually includes a common language, a common faith. It also includes ideas of a culture shared between members of the group, and with their ancestors, herodotus is the first who stated the main characteristics of ethnicity, with his famous account of what defines Greek identity. He lists kinship, language, cults and customs, the central political tenet of ethnic nationalism is that ethnic groups can be identified unambiguously, and that each such group is entitled to self-determination. In international relations, it leads to policies and movements for irredentism to claim a common nation based upon ethnicity. In scholarly literature, ethnic nationalism is usually contrasted with civic nationalism, Ethnic nationalism bases membership of the nation on descent or heredity, often articulated in terms of common blood or kinship, rather than on political membership. Ethnic nationalism is, therefore, seen as exclusive, while civic nationalism tends to be inclusive, rather than allegiance to common civic ideals and cultural traditions, then, ethnic nationalism tends to emphasise narratives of common descent. The theorist Anthony D. Smith uses the term ethnic nationalism for non-Western concepts of nationalism as opposed to Western views of a nation defined by its geographical territory, Ethnic nationalism is also present in many states immigration policies in the form of repatriation laws. For example, Israels Law of Return, grants every Jew the right to settle in Israel, in German nationality law, citizenship is open to ethnic Germans. According to the Greek nationality law, Greeks born abroad may transmit citizenship to their children from generation to generation indefinitely, on the other hand, civic nationalism defines membership as an individuals duty to observe given laws and in turn receive legal privileges. Nations before Nationalism excerpt and text search Breuilly, John, Nationalism and the State excerpt and text search De Benoist, Alain. Telos page, online text De Benoist, Alain, vu de droite, Anthologie critique des idées contemporaines. Text search Esman, Milton J. and Itamar Rabinovich, eds, Ethnicity, Pluralism, and the State in the Middle East Gurr, Ted Robert, and Barbara Harff. Ethnic Conflict in World Politics online Jones, Larry Eugene & Retallack, James, studies in the History of German Conservatism from 1789 to 1945. Nationalism in Europe & America, Politics, Cultures, and Identities since 1775 online Mohler, die Konservative Revolution in Deutschland 1918–1932. Excerpt and text search Smith, Anthony D, the Ethnic Origins of Nations excerpt and text search Smith, Anthony D. The Nation in History, Historiographical Debates about Ethnicity and Nationalism excerpt and text search Smith, the Antiquity of Nations Sunic, Tomislav. Postmortem Report, Cultural Examinations from Postmodernity, shamley Green, UK, The Paligenesis Project,2010
Ethnic nationalism
8.
Metropolis
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The term is Greek and means the mother city of a colony, that is, the city which sent out settlers. This was later generalized to a city regarded as a center of an activity, or any large. A big city belonging to an urban agglomeration, but which is not the core of that agglomeration, is not generally considered a metropolis. The plural of the word is most commonly metropolises, although the correct plural is metropoles, in the ancient past, metropolis was the designation for a city or state of origin of a colony. Many large cities founded by ancient civilizations have been considered important world metropoles of their times due to their large populations, some of these ancient metropoles survived until the modern days and are among the worlds oldest continuously inhabited cities. This usage equates the province with the diocese or episcopal see, in modern usage the word has come to refer to a metropolitan area, a set of adjacent and interconnected cities clustered around a major urban center. In this sense, metropolitan usually means spanning the whole metropolis or proper of a metropolis, the concept of a global city is of a city that has a direct and tangible effect on global affairs through socioeconomic means. The term has become familiar, because of the rise of globalization. An attempt to define and categorize world cities by financial criteria was made by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, the study ranked cities based on their provision of advanced producer services such as accountancy, advertising, finance and law. The inventory identifies three levels of cities and several sub-ranks. A metropolis is not necessarily a global city—or, being one, it not be among the top-ranking—due to its standards of living, development. A metropolis that is also a city is a global metropolis. Cairo and Alexandria are considered Egypts biggest metropolis, lagos is Nigerias biggest metropolis city. In South Africa, a municipality or Category A municipality is a municipality which executes all the functions of local government for a conurbation. This is by contrast to areas which are rural, where the local government is divided into district municipalities. There are eight municipalities in South Africa. In the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, there are eleven metropolitan areas, Dhaka North, Dhaka South, Gazipur Chittagong, Rajshahi, Khulna, Sylhet, Barisal, lands are highly priced and residents are considered to have a better urban lifestyle. Special police departments are allotted for the cities, and there are city corporations for which mayors are elected for five-year regimes
Metropolis
–
Tokyo, the world's largest metropolis
Metropolis
–
São Paulo, the largest metropolis of the
Southern Hemisphere
Metropolis
–
The
Colosseum at night
Metropolis
–
A wide angle shot of the Mediterranean coastline of Alexandria.
9.
Bharat Mata
–
Bhārat Mātā, Mother India, or Bhāratāmbā is the national personification of India as a mother goddess. She is an amalgam of all the goddesses of Indian culture and more significantly of goddess Durga and she is usually depicted as a woman clad in a saffron sari holding the Indian national flag, and sometimes accompanied by a lion. The image of Bhāratmātā formed with the Indian independence movement of the late 19th century, a play by Kiran Chandra Bannerjee, Bhārat Mātā, was first performed in 1873. The play set in 1770 Bengal famine depicted a woman and her husband who went to forest, the priest takes them to temple where they were shown Bharat Mata. Thus they are inspired and led rebellion which result in defeat of the British, the Manushi magazine story traces origin to a satirical work Unabimsa Purana or The Nineteenth Purana by Bhudeb Mukhopadhyay which was first published anonymously in 1866. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in 1882 wrote a novel Anandamath, introduced the hymn Vande Mātaram, which soon became the song of the emerging freedom movement in India. As the British Raj created cartographic shape of India through the Geological Survey of India, in 1920s, it became In the 1920s, it became more political image sometimes including images of Mahatma Gandhi and Bhagat Singh. The Tiranga flag was also started being included during this period, in 1930s, the image entered in religious practice. The Bharat Mata temple was built in Benaras in 1936 by Shiv Prashad Gupt and was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi and this temple does not have any statue but only marble relief of the map of India. Bipin Chandra Pal elaborated its meaning in idealizing and idealist terms, along with Hindu philosophical traditions and it represented an archaic spiritual essence, a transcendental idea of Universe as well as expressing Universal Hinduism and nationhood. Abanindranath Tagore portrayed Bhārat Mātā as a four-armed Hindu goddess wearing saffron-colored robes, holding the manuscripts, sheaves of rice, a mala, the image of Bharatmata was an icon to create nationalist feeling in Indians during the freedom struggle. Indian Independence activist Subramania Bharati saw Bharat Mata as the land of Ganga and he identified Bharat Mata as Parashakti. He also says that he has got the dharsan of Bharat Mata during his visit with his guru Sister Nivedita and this association with Hinduism has caused controversy with Indias religious minorities, especially its Muslim population. The motto Bharat Mata ki Jai’ is used by the Indian Army, the temple is located in the Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapeeth campus in Varanasi. The temple houses an idol of Bharat Mata along with a marble relief map of India. The Temple, a gift from the nationalists Shiv Prasad Gupta, the temple was founded by Swami Satyamitranand Giri on the banks of the Ganges in Haridwar. It has 8 storeys and is 180 feet tall and it was inaugurated by Indira Gandhi in 1983. Floors are dedicated to legends, religious deities, freedom fighters and leaders
Bharat Mata
–
Bharat Mata statue accompanied by a lion at Yanam,India
Bharat Mata
–
Bharat Mata statue at Kanyakumari,India
Bharat Mata
–
The saffron clad goddess Bharat Mata,
a painting by
Abanindranath Tagore
Bharat Mata
–
Bharat Mata at Indian Army base gate near
Leh, Ladakh
10.
Yanam
–
Yanam is a town in the Indian union territory of Puducherry, located in Yanam district, which forms a 30 km² enclave in the district of East Godavari in Andhra Pradesh. It has a population of 32,000, most of whom speak Telugu, for 200 years it was a French colony, and, though united with India in 1954, is still sometimes known as French Yanam. It possesses a blend of French and Telugu culture prevailing in Andhra Pradesh, also, after implementation of the Sarda Act in British India in 1929, Telugu people came to Yanam to conduct child marriages, which remained legal under the French administration. In 1936, Yanams population was 5,220, the district lies in the delta of the Godavari River, the town is situated where the river meets its tributary, the Koringa River, nine kilometres from the Bay of Bengal on the Coromandel coast. Yanams soil is alluvium consisting of clay and gravel. It is greyish black and clayey in composition, a few thin layers of sandy clay or sand, not exceeding 0. 3-metre in thickness, are intercalated with the clay soil. The river sands on the bank of Gauthami, Godavari consist of quartz, felspar, a few grains of monazite are also found in the black streaks. There are no minerals of value in the region. Yanam receives irrigation water via the Bank Canal, which begins at the Dowleswaram headworks and it provides irrigation and drinking water to the areas west of the Coringa River. After merger, irrigation was provided to about 5, the work was undertaken by the Andhra Pradesh Public Works Department in 1964, and was completed and commissioned in June 1966. Like the French Channel, it provides irrigation and drinking water, Yanams climate is characterised by high humidity, an oppressive summer season, and plentiful rainfall. It enjoys the benefits of both the Southwest and Northeast monsoons, average annual rainfall is 1226 mm. Temperatures in Yanam range from 27 °C to 45 °C in summer, from February, temperatures start rising rapidly until May, which is the hottest month, with the mean maximum around 37 °C and mean minimum around 28 °C. Humidity being high, the heat is exhausting, the maximum temperature on some days in May or early June, before the onset of the south-west monsoon, may touch 47 °C. The sea breeze affords some relief in the afternoons, similarly, pre-monsoon thunder-showers may also bring relief on some days. With the onset of the monsoon in June the temperature falls rapidly, at times the minimum temperature may drop to 14 °C. December and January are the coolest months, as of 2001 India census, Yanam had a population of 31,362. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%, in Yanam, 14% of the population is under 6 years of age
Yanam
–
View of central Yanam
Yanam
–
Entrance to Yanam
Yanam
–
Sri Potti Sreeramulu Yanam Bridge
Yanam
–
Rajiv Gandhi Beach
11.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
–
Flag
India
–
The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
–
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
12.
British Empire
–
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
British Empire
–
A replica of The Matthew,
John Cabot 's ship used for his second voyage to the
New World.
British Empire
–
Flag
British Empire
–
African slaves working in 17th-century
Virginia, by an unknown artist, 1670.
British Empire
–
Fort St. George was founded at
Madras in 1639.
13.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
–
Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
–
Flag
United Kingdom
–
The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
–
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
14.
Hispanic America
–
Hispanic America, more generally called Spanish America, is the region comprising the Spanish-speaking nations in the Americas. These countries have significant commonalities with other and with Spain. In all of these countries, Spanish is the language, sometimes sharing official status with one or more indigenous languages. Catholic Christianity is the predominant religion, Hispanic America is sometimes grouped together with Brazil under the term Ibero-America, meaning those countries in the Americas with cultural roots in the Iberian Peninsula. Hispanic America also contrasts with Latin America, which not only Hispanic America. Hispanic America became the part of the vast Spanish Empire. Napoleons takeover of Spain in 1808 and the consequent chaos initiated the dismemberment of the Spanish Empire, by 1830, the only remaining Spanish American and Asian territories were Philippine archipelago and the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico, until the 1898 Spanish–American War. While relatively unknown, there is a flag representing the countries of Spanish America, its people, history and it was created in October 1933 by Ángel Camblor, captain of the Uruguayan army. It was adopted by all the states of Spanish America during the Pan-American Conference of the year in Montevideo. The deep lilac color of the crosses evokes the color of the lion on the coat of arms of the medieval Crown of Castile
Hispanic America
–
Asunción
Hispanic America
–
Map of countries that make up Hispanic America.
Hispanic America
–
Bogotá
Hispanic America
–
Buenos Aires
15.
Illustrados
–
The Ilustrados constituted the Filipino educated class during the Spanish colonial period in the late 19th century. They were the class who were educated in Spanish and exposed to Spanish liberal. Stanley Karnow, in his In Our Image, Americas Empire in the Philippines and they were key figures in the development of Filipino nationalism. The most prominent Ilustrados were Graciano López Jaena, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, Antonio Luna and José Rizal, rizal’s novels Noli Me Tangere and El filibusterismo “exposed to the world the injustices imposed on Filipinos under the Spanish colonial regime”. The event and “other repressive acts outraitings and activities, Rizal was executed on December 30,1896 and this also prompted unity among the Ilustrados and Andrés Bonifacio’s radical Katipunan. Philippine policies by the United States reinforced the dominant position of the Ilustrados within Filipino society, friar estates were sold to the Ilustrados and most government positions were offered to them. 1, pp. 224-226, JSTOR. org,2007, retrieved on, August 1,2007 Majul, the Political and Constitutional Ideas of the Philippine Revolution, A Review by R. S. Milne, Pacific Affairs, Vol.42, No
Illustrados
–
Ilustrados in Madrid (c.1890)
Illustrados
–
Three prominent Ilustrados in Spain: José Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar and Mariano Ponce (from left to right). Photo was taken in Spain in 1890.
16.
Filipino people
–
Filipinos are the people who are identified with the country of the Philippines, either through descent or citizenship. Filipinos come from different ethnolinguistic nations, currently, there are more than 175 ethnolinguistic nations, each with its own language, identity, culture and history. The modern Filipino identity, with its Austronesian roots, was developed in conjunction with Spanish, Chinese, the Philippines was a Spanish colony for 333 years, setting a foundation for contemporary Filipino culture. Under Spanish rule, most of the Filipino populace embraced Roman Catholicism, almost all Filipinos adopted Spanish surnames from the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos published in 1849 by the Spanish colonial government. As neither past governments nor the modern Philippine Statistics Authority account for the background of an individual. The lack of the letter F in the pre-1987 Philippine alphabet, upon official adoption of the modern, 28-letter Filipino alphabet in 1987, the name Filipino was preferred over Pilipino. However the ABAKADA is only the Alphabet of the Tagalogs as other Ethnic Nations also have their own alphabet and/or writing script, use of the term Filipino in the Philippines started during the Spanish colonial period. The original meaning was a person of Spanish descent born in the Philippines and this original usage is now archaic and obsolete. Historian Ambeth Ocampo has suggested that the first documented use of the word to refer to Indios was the Spanish language poem A la juventud filipina, published in 1879 by José Rizal. A number of Filipinos refer to themselves colloquially as Pinoy, which is a word formed by taking the last four letters of Filipino. The term, although in popular usage, is considered by some Filipinos as a racial slur. Other collective endonyms for the Filipino people include, Patria Adorada as popularized by Jose Rizal through his poem Mi último adiós, in 2010, a metatarsal from Callao Man, discovered in 2007, was dated through uranium-series dating as being 67,000 years old. Prior to that, the earliest human remains found in the Philippines were thought to be the fragments of a skull and jawbone. Fox, an anthropologist from the National Museum, anthropologists who examined these remains agreed that they belonged to modern human beings. These include the Homo sapiens, as distinguished from the mid-Pleistocene Homo erectus species, the Tabon Man fossils are considered to have come from a third group of inhabitants, who worked the cave between 22,000 and 20,000 BCE. An earlier cave level lies so far below the level containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper Pleistocene dates like 45 or 50 thousand years ago, researchers say this indicates that the human remains were pre-Mongoloid, from about 40,000 years ago. Fluctuations in ancient shorelines between 150,000 BP and 17,000 BP connected the Malay Archipelago region with Maritime Southeast Asia and this may have enabled ancient migrations into the Philippines from Maritime Southeast Asia approximately 50,000 BP to 13,000 BP. A January 2009 study of language phylogenies by R. D and this was a two-pronged expansion, which moved north through the Philippines and into Taiwan, while a second expansion prong spread east along the New Guinea coast and into Oceania and Polynesia
Filipino people
–
Lapu-Lapu
Filipino people
–
José Rizal
Filipino people
–
Andrés Bonifacio
Filipino people
–
Emilio Aguinaldo
17.
Fatherland
–
Fatherland is the nation of ones fathers, forefathers or ancestors. It can be compared to motherland and homeland, and some languages use more than one of these terms. The national anthem of the Netherlands between 1815 and 1932, Wien Neêrlands Bloed, makes use of the parallel Dutch word. The Ancient Greek patris, fatherland, led to patrios, of our fathers and thence to the Latin patriota and Old French patriote, meaning compatriot, the related Ancient Roman word Patria led to similar forms in modern Romance languages. Fatherland was first encountered by the vast majority of citizens in countries that did not themselves use it during World War II, German government propaganda used its appeal to nationalism when making references to Germany and the state. It was used in Mein Kampf, and on a sign in a German concentration camp, also signed, as such, the word Vaterland could be connected with National Socialism outside Germany, in Germany, this is not the case. Otechestvo is neuter, otchizna is feminine, the Slovenes as očetnjava, although domovina is more common. The Swedes as fäderneslandet, although fosterlandet is more common the Ukrainians as batʹkivshchyna meaning parental land the Vietnamese as Tổ quốc
Fatherland
–
Postcard of an Austrian and a German soldier on the
First World War with the text "Shoulder to shoulder, hand in hand, for God, Emperor and Fatherland!"
18.
German-speaking Europe
–
The following is a list of the territorial entities where German is an official language. It includes countries, which have German as their official language. German is the language of six countries, all of which lie in central Europe. These countries also form the Council for German Orthography and are referred to as the German Sprachraum, the three major German-speaking countries are commonly denoted as the DACH-area. German, or one of its dialects, is a language in several dependent entities. In each of these regions, German, along with the language of the host nation, is an official language on the administrative level. In the two Slovak villages of Krahule/Blaufuss and Kunešov/Kuneschhau the percentage of ethnic Germans exceeds 20%, therefore making German a co-official language according to Slovak law, however, due to the size of the villages and the approximate number of native German speakers, the administrative impact is negligible. There are other entities which acknowledge other legal statuses for the German language or one of its dialects. e. Being required in public offices or administrative texts, the constitution of South Africa identifies German as a commonly used language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it. Due to the German diaspora, other countries with populations of German L1 speakers include Argentina, Australia, Canada, Costa Rica, Paraguay. However, in none of these countries does German or a German variety have any legal status
German-speaking Europe
–
"German
Sprachraum ": German is (co-)official language (de jure or de facto) and first language of the majority of the population
19.
National anthem
–
The majority of national anthems are either marches or hymns in style. The countries of Latin America tend towards more operatic pieces, while a handful of countries use a simple fanfare, a national anthem is usually in the national or most common language of the country, whether de facto or official, there are notable exceptions. Amhrán na bhFiann, the anthem of the Republic of Ireland, was written in English, the current national anthem of South Africa is unique in that five of the countrys eleven official languages are used in the same anthem. One of the two national anthems of New Zealand, God Defend New Zealand, is commonly now sung with the first verse in Māori. The tune is the same but the words are not a translation of each other. God Bless Fiji has lyrics in English and Fijian which are not translations of each other, although official, the Fijian version is rarely sung, and it is usually the English version that is performed at international sporting events. There are several countries that do not have official lyrics to their anthems, one of these is the Marcha Real, the anthem of Spain. In 2007 a national competition to write words was held, other anthems with no words include Inno Nazionale della Repubblica, the anthem of San Marino, and that of Kosovo, entitled Europe. National anthems rose to prominence in Europe during the 19th century, the oldest national anthem belongs to the Netherlands and is called the Wilhelmus. It was written between 1568 and 1572 during the Dutch Revolt, but did not become the anthem until 1932. The Japanese anthem, Kimigayo, has the oldest lyrics, which were taken from a Heian period poem, in contrast, the music of Qaumi Taranah, Pakistans national anthem was composed in 1949, preceding its lyrics, which were written in 1952. The Philippine anthem Lupang Hinirang was composed in 1898 as wordless incidental music for the ceremony declaring independence from the Spanish Empire, the Spanish poem Filipinas was written the following year to serve as the anthems lyrics, the current Tagalog version dates to 1962. Spains national anthem, the Marcha Real, written in 1761, was among the first to be adopted as such, in 1770. Denmark adopted the older of its two national anthems, Kong Christian stod ved højen mast, in 1780, and La Marseillaise, Serbia became the first Eastern European nation to have a national anthem – Rise up, Serbia. – in 1804. Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu, the anthem of Kenya, is one of the first national anthems to be specifically commissioned. It was written by the Kenyan Anthem Commission in 1963 to serve as the anthem after independence from the United Kingdom, National anthems are used in a wide array of contexts. Certain etiquette may be involved in the playing of a countrys anthem and these usually involve military honours, standing up/rising, removing headwear etc. In diplomatic situations the rules may be very formal, there may also be royal anthems, presidential anthems, state anthems etc. for special occasions
National anthem
–
Early version of the Wilhelmus as preserved in a manuscript of 1617 (Brussels,
Royal Library, MS 15662, fol. 37v-38r)
National anthem
National anthem
–
Schoolroom in
Turkey with the words of the
İstiklâl Marşı
National anthem
–
The words of the
National Anthem of the Republic of China written by Dr.
Sun Yat-sen
20.
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands in 5500 BC
Netherlands
–
Flag
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands in 500 BC
Netherlands
–
An oak figurine found in
Willemstad, North Brabant (4500 BC).
21.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
22.
Croatian language
–
It is the official and literary standard of Croatia and one of the official languages of the European Union. Croatian is also one of the languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a recognized minority language in Serbia. Croatian is written in Gajs Latin alphabet, besides the Shtokavian dialect, on which Standard Croatian is based, there are two other main dialects, Chakavian and Kajkavian. It is still used now in parts of Istria, which became a crossroads of various mixtures of Chakavian with Ekavian/Ijekavian/Ikavian dialects, the cultural apex of this 17th century idiom is represented by the editions of Adrianskoga mora sirena by Petar Zrinski and Putni tovaruš by Katarina Zrinska. However, this first linguistic renaissance in Croatia was halted by the execution of Petar Zrinski. Subsequently the Croatian elite in the 18th century gradually abandoned this combined Croatian standard, specifically, three major groups of dialects were spoken on Croatian territory, and there had been several literary languages over four centuries. The leader of the Illyrian movement Ljudevit Gaj standardized the Latin alphabet in 1830–1850, the uniform Neo-Shtokavian then became common in the Croatian elite. In the 1860s, the Zagreb Philological School dominated the Croatian cultural life, drawing upon linguistic, while it was dominant over the rival Rijeka Philological School and Zadar Philological Schools, its influence waned with the rise of the Croatian Vukovians. Croatian is commonly characterized by the Ijekavian pronunciation, the use of the Latin alphabet. Some differences are absolute, while some appear mainly in the frequency of use, Croatian, although technically a form of Serbo-Croatian, is sometimes considered a distinct language by itself. Differences between various forms of Serbo-Croatian are often exaggerated for political reasons. Most Croatian linguists regard Croatian as a language that is considered key to national identity. The issue is sensitive in Croatia as the notion of a language being the most important characteristic of a nation is widely accepted. The terms Serbo-Croatian or Serbo-Croat are still used as a term for all these forms by foreign scholars. Within ex-Yugoslavia, the term has largely replaced by the ethnic terms Serbian, Croatian. In 2013, the EU started publishing a Croatian language version of its official gazette, Standard Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia and, along with Standard Bosnian and Standard Serbian, one of three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is also official in the regions of Burgenland, Molise, additionally, it has co-official status alongside Romanian in the communes of Carașova and Lupac, Romania. Croatian is officially used and taught at all the universities in Croatia, there is no regulatory body that determines the proper usage of Croatian
Croatian language
–
Features
Croatian language
–
Traditional extent of Serbo-Croatian dialects in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina
23.
Serbian language
–
Serbian is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Serbs. It is the language of Serbia and one of the three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In addition, it is a minority language in Montenegro, Croatia, Macedonia, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia. Standard Serbian is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian, which is also the basis of Standard Croatian, Bosnian, the other dialect spoken by Serbs is Torlakian in southeastern Serbia, which is transitional to Macedonian and Bulgarian. Serbian is practically the only European standard language with complete synchronic digraphia, the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, who created the alphabet on phonemic principles. The Latin alphabet was designed by Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj in 1830, Serbian is a standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language, of the South Slavic subgroup. Other standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian are Bosnian, Croatian, and Montenegrin and it has lower intelligibility with the Eastern South Slavic languages Bulgarian and Macedonian, than with Slovene. The 2011 census show that 42. 88% still declare Serbian to be their native language, Standard Serbian language uses both Cyrillic and Latin script. Even in official government documents this constitutional requirement is rarely enforced, Serbian is a rare example of synchronic digraphia, a situation where all literate members of a society have two interchangeable writing systems available to them. Media and publishers typically select one alphabet or another, for example, the public broadcaster, Radio Television of Serbia, predominantly uses the Cyrillic script whereas the privately run broadcasters, like RTV Pink, predominantly use the Latin script. A survey from 2014 showed that 47% of the Serbian population favors the Latin alphabet whereas 36% favors the Cyrillic one and these are the tenses of the indicative mood. Apart from the mood, there is also the imperative mood. The conditional mood has two more tenses, the first conditional and the second conditional, Serbian has active and passive voice. As for the verb forms, Serbian has one infinitive. Most Serbian words are of native Slavic lexical stock, tracing back to the Proto-Slavic language, there are many loanwords from different languages, reflecting cultural interaction throughout history. Notable loanwords were borrowed from Greek, Latin, Italian, Turkish, Hungarian, Russian, Serbian literature emerged in the Middle Ages, and included such works as Miroslavljevo jevanđelje in 1192 and Dušanov zakonik in 1349. In the mid-15th century, Serbia was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, however, some of the greatest literary works in Serbian come from this time, in the form of oral literature, the most notable form being Serbian epic poetry. The epic poems were written down in the 19th century, and preserved in oral tradition up to the 1950s
Serbian language
–
Serbian language as co-official minority language in municipalities in Croatia
Serbian language
–
Countries where Serbian is an official language.
24.
Macedonian language
–
It is the official language of the Republic of Macedonia and a recognized minority language in parts of Albania, Romania and Serbia. Standard Macedonian was implemented as the language of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia in 1945 and has since developed a modern literature. Most of the codification was formalized during the same period, Macedonian dialects form a continuum with Bulgarian dialects, they in turn form a broader continuum with Serbo-Croatian through the transitional Torlakian dialects. The name of the Macedonian language is a matter of controversy in Greece. Macedonians closest relative is Bulgarian, with which it has a degree of mutual intelligibility. The next closest relative is Serbo-Croatian, all South Slavic languages, including Macedonian, form a dialect continuum. Its other principal members are Romanian, Greek and Albanian, all of which belong to different genetic branches of the Indo-European family and they are also the only Slavic languages with any definite articles. Bulgarian and Macedonian are the only Indo-European languages that use of the narrative mood. Prior to the codification of the language, Macedonian dialects were described by linguists as being either dialects of Bulgarian or Serbian. Similarly, Torlakian was also regarded as Bulgarian. On the other hand, many Macedonian intellectuals maintained that their language was neither a dialect of Serbian nor of Bulgarian, but the core of its standard was not formed out of dialects or variants that had ever been covered by the Bulgarian standard. Consequently, its autonomy could not have resulted from a conscious distancing of a variant of a pluricentric language, like the other South Slavic standards, the Macedonian standard was based on dialects which had never before been covered by a standard. Modern questions of classification are largely shaped by political and social factors, likewise, this view does not take into account the fact that a Macedonian koiné language was already in existence. The codifiers ultimately chose the dialects, but did so because they were most widespread. The population of the Republic of Macedonia was 2,022,547 in 2002, outside of the Republic, there are Macedonians living in other parts of the geographical area of Macedonia. There are ethnic Macedonian minorities in neighbouring Albania, in Bulgaria, in Greece, according to the official Albanian census of 1989,4,697 ethnic Macedonians reside in Albania. A large number of Macedonians live outside the traditional Balkan Macedonian region, with Australia, Canada, according to a 1964 estimate, approximately 580,000 Macedonians live outside of the Macedonian Republic, nearly 30% of the total population. The Macedonian language has the status of official language only in the Republic of Macedonia, and is a minority and official language in parts of Albania, Romania
Macedonian language
–
Struga Poetry Evenings Festival sign in Macedonia, written in the Macedonian language.
Macedonian language
–
regions where Macedonian is the language of the majority
Macedonian language
–
The front page of the
Abecedar, school book published by the Greek government in 1925. The book was in the
Lerin dialect and
Latin script
Macedonian language
–
Police car of Macedonia, with Macedonian language word for "police."
25.
Czech language
–
Czech, historically also Bohemian, is a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group. It is spoken by over 10 million people and is the language of the Czech Republic. Czech is closely related to Slovak, to the point of being intelligible to a very high degree. In the later 18th to mid-19th century, the written standard was codified in the context of the Czech National Revival. The main vernacular, known as Common Czech, is based on the vernacular of Prague, the Moravian dialects spoken in the eastern part of the country are mostly also counted as Czech, although some of their eastern variants are closer to Slovak. The Czech phoneme inventory is moderate in size, comprising five vowels, words may contain uncommon consonant clusters, including one consonant represented by the grapheme ř, or lack vowels altogether. Czech orthography is simple, and has used as a model by phonologists. Czech is classified as a member of the West Slavic sub-branch of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family and this branch includes Polish, Kashubian, Upper and Lower Sorbian and Slovak. Slovak is by far the closest genetic neighbor of Czech, the West Slavic languages are spoken in an area classified as part of Central Europe. Around the 7th century, the Slavic expansion reached Central Europe, the West Slavic polity of Great Moravia formed by the 9th century. The Christianization of Bohemia took place during the 9th and 10th centuries, the Bohemian language is first recorded in writing in glosses and short notes during the 12th to 13th centuries. Literary works written in Czech appear in the early 14th century, the first complete Bible translation also dates to this period. Old Czech texts, including poetry and cookbooks, were produced outside the university as well, literary activity becomes widespread in the early 15th century in the context of the Bohemian Reformation. There was no standardization distinguishing between Czech and Slovak prior to the 15th century, the publication of the Kralice Bible between 1579 and 1593 became very important for standardization of the Czech language in the following centuries. In 1615, the Bohemian diet tried to declare Czech to be the official language of the kingdom. After the Bohemian Revolt which was defeated by the Habsburgs in 1620 and this emigration together with other consequences of the Thirty Years War had a negative impact on the further use of the Czech language. In 1627, Czech and German became official languages of the Kingdom of Bohemia and in the 18th century German became dominant in Bohemia and Moravia, the modern standard Czech language originates in standardization efforts of the 18th century. Changes include the shift of í to ej and é to í and the merging of í
Czech language
–
The
Bible of Kralice was the first complete
translation of the Bible into the Czech language. Its six volumes were first published between 1579 and 1593.
Czech language
–
regions where Czech is the language of the majority
Czech language
–
Jan Hus
Czech language
–
Josef Dobrovský, whose writing played a key role in reviving Czech as a written language
26.
Polish language
–
Polish is a West Slavic language spoken primarily in Poland and is the native language of the Poles. It belongs to the Lechitic subgroup of the West Slavic languages, Polish is the official language of Poland, but it is also used throughout the world by Polish minorities in other countries. It is one of the languages of the European Union. Its written standard is the Polish alphabet, which has 9 additions to the letters of the basic Latin script, Polish is closely related to Kashubian, Silesian, Upper Sorbian, Lower Sorbian, Czech and Slovak. It is also the second most widely spoken Slavic language, after Russian, in history, Polish is known to be an important language, both diplomatically and academically in Central and Eastern Europe. Today, Polish is spoken by over 38.5 million people as their first language in Poland. It is also spoken as a language in western parts of Belarus and Ukraine, west and central Lithuania, as well as the northern parts of the Czech Republic. There are 55 million Polish language speakers around the world, Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. With Christianity, Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet, which made it possible to write down Polish, the precursor to modern Polish is the Old Polish language. Ultimately, Polish is thought to descend from the unattested Proto-Slavic language, Poland is the most linguistically homogeneous European country, nearly 97% of Polands citizens declare Polish as their first language. Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in Lithuania, Belarus, Polish is the most widely used minority language in Lithuanias Vilnius County and is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries, in the United States, Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census were found in three states, Illinois, New York, and New Jersey. Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services offer services available in Polish at all of their machines in addition to English and Spanish. According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England, in Canada, there is a significant Polish Canadian population, There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to the 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto and Montreal. The geographical distribution of the Polish language was affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II. Poles settled in the Recovered Territories in the west and north and this tendency toward a homogeneity also stems from the vertically integrated nature of the authoritarian Polish Peoples Republic. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak standard Polish somewhat differently, first-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty distinguishing regional variations
Polish language
–
The oldest printed text in Polish – Statuta synodalia Episcoporum Wratislaviensis printed in 1475 in
Wrocław by Kasper Elyan.
Polish language
–
Polish
Polish language
–
The
Jakub Wujek Bible in Polish, 1599 print
27.
Ukrainian language
–
Ukrainian /juːˈkreɪniən/ is an East Slavic language. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script, historical linguists trace the origin of the Ukrainian language to the Old East Slavic of the early medieval state of Kievan Rus. After the fall of the Kievan Rus as well as the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, the Modern Ukrainian language has been in common use since the late 17th century, associated with the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate. From 1804 until the Russian Revolution, the Ukrainian language was banned from schools in the Russian Empire and it has always maintained a sufficient base in Western Ukraine, where the language was never banned, in its folklore songs, itinerant musicians, and prominent authors. The Ukrainian language retains a degree of intelligibility with Belarusian and Russian. The first theory of the origin of Ukrainian language was suggested in Imperial Russia in the middle of the 18th century by Mikhail Lomonosov and this theory posits the existence of a common language spoken by all East Slavic people in the time of the Rus. Another point of view developed during the 19th and 20th centuries by linguists of Imperial Russia, like Lomonosov, they assumed the existence of a common language spoken by East Slavs in the past. This general point of view is the most accepted amongst academics worldwide, the supporters of this theory disagree, however, about the time when the different languages were formed. Soviet scholars set the divergence between Ukrainian and Russian only at time periods. During the time of the incorporation of Ruthenia into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and this point of view is, however, at variance with some historical data. In fact, several East Slavic tribes, such as Polans, Drevlyans, Severians, Dulebes, White Croats, Tiverians, notably, some Ukrainian features were recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic as far back as the language can be documented. In contrast, Ahatanhel Krymsky and Alexei Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century, Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky went even further, denying the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo, Ivan Ohienko, according to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to a migration of the population within the territory of todays Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was supported by George Shevelovs phonological studies. During the 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of Galicia-Vollhynia and their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts, examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh, rura, rynok, kushnir, and majster
Ukrainian language
–
Miniature of
St Luke from the
Peresopnytsia Gospels (1561).
Ukrainian language
–
Ukrainian-speaking world
Ukrainian language
–
The 1921 Soviet recruitment poster. It uses traditional Ukrainian imagery with Ukrainian-language text: "Son! Enroll in the school of
Red commanders, and the defense of
Soviet Ukraine will be ensured."
Ukrainian language
–
Anti-russification protest. The banner reads "For Ukrainian Children – a Ukrainian school!".
28.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
29.
Volga German ASSR
–
The Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was an autonomous republic established in Soviet Russia. Its capital was the Volga River port of Engels and it became the first national autonomous unit in the Soviet Union after the Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic. It occupied the area of settlement of the large Volga German minority in Russia. The republic was declared on January 6,1924, as of 1919, pastors were labelled counterrevolutionary propagandists and sent to gulags in Siberia. At the moment of declaration of the autonomy an amnesty was announced, however it eventually was applied to a small number of people. According to the 1939 census, there were 366,685 Germans in the autonomy, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 marked the end of the Volga German ASSR. On August 28,1941, Joseph Stalin issued a formal Decree of Banishment abolishing the ASSR and, fearing they could act as German spies, exiling all Volga Germans to the Kazakh SSR, many were interned in labor camps merely due to their heritage. The Republic was formally extinguished on September 7,1941, following the death of Stalin in 1953, the situation for Volga Germans improved dramatically. With the existence of a socialist German state in East Germany now a reality of the post-war world, the land area is now mostly part of Saratov Oblast, except for a small area in northern Volgograd Oblast
Volga German ASSR
–
Streckerau, 1920 (Novokamenka).
Volga German ASSR
–
Flag
Volga German ASSR
–
Russian map depicting the location of the Volga German republic in the Soviet Union (yellow, bottom of the map).
Volga German ASSR
–
Map of the Volga German ASSR, 1928
30.
Jewish Autonomous Oblast
–
The Jewish Autonomous Oblast is a federal subject of Russia in the Russian Far East, bordering Khabarovsk Krai and Amur Oblast in Russia and Heilongjiang province in China. Russian Jews are sometimes referred to as Yevrey and its administrative center is the town of Birobidzhan. As of the 2010 Census, JAOs population was 176,558 people, Judaism is practiced by only 0. 2% of the population of the JAO. Per Article 65 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the JAO is Russias only autonomous oblast, aside from Israel, it is the worlds only official Jewish territory. In December 1858, the Russian government authorized formation of the Amur Cossacks to protect the southeast boundary of Siberia and communications on the Amur and this military colonization included settlers from Transbaikalia. During 1858–82, many consisting of wooden houses were founded. It is estimated that as much as 40,000 men from the Russian military moved into the region, in 1898, construction began on the Trans-Siberian Railway connecting Chita and Vladivostok. The project produced an influx of new settlers and the foundation of new settlements. Between 1908 and 1912, stations opened at Volochayevka, Obluchye, Bira, Birakan, Londoko, In, the railway construction finished in October 1916 with the opening of the 2, 590-meter Khabarovsk Bridge across the Amur at Khabarovsk. During this time, before the revolution, most local inhabitants were farmers, the only industrial enterprise was the Tungussky timber mill, although gold was mined in the Sutara River, and there were some small railway workshops. In 1922, during the Russian Civil War, the territory of the future Jewish Autonomous Oblast was the scene of Battle of Volochayevka. Although Judaism ran counter to the state policy of atheism, Vladimir Lenin wanted to appease minority groups to gain their support. In such framework, literature and the arts would replace religion as the expression of culture. The Soviets envisaged setting up a new Soviet Zion, where a proletarian Jewish culture could be developed, the Soviets also wanted to offer an alternative to Zionism, the establishment of Palestine as a Jewish homeland. Socialist Zionists such as Ber Borochov were gaining followers at that time, in 1924, the unemployment rate among Jews exceeded 30%, partially as a result of pogroms but also as a result of communism, which prohibited people from being craftspeople and small businessmen. With the goal of getting Jews back to work to be productive members of society, the government established Komzet. Originally the plan was to settle the Jews in Ukraine and Crimea, Two Jewish districts were formed in Crimea and three in south Ukraine. However, local opposition made the governmental committees look elsewhere, Birobidzhan, in what is now the JAO, was chosen by the Soviet elite as the site for the Jewish region
Jewish Autonomous Oblast
–
Statue of settlers on the railway station in
Birobidzhan.
Jewish Autonomous Oblast
Jewish Autonomous Oblast
–
Sign on the JAO government headquarters.
Jewish Autonomous Oblast
–
A giant
menorah dominating the main square in Birobidzhan
31.
Siberia
–
Siberia is an extensive geographical region, and by the broadest definition is also known as North Asia. Siberia has historically been a part of Russia since the 17th century, the territory of Siberia extends eastwards from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins. It stretches southwards from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and to the borders of Mongolia. With an area of 13.1 million square kilometres, Siberia accounts for 77% of Russias land area and this is equivalent to an average population density of about 3 inhabitants per square kilometre, making Siberia one of the most sparsely populated regions on Earth. If it were a country by itself, it would still be the largest country in area, the origin of the name is unknown. Some sources say that Siberia originates from the Siberian Tatar word for sleeping land, another account sees the name as the ancient tribal ethnonym of the Sirtya, a folk, which spoke a language that later evolved into the Ugric languages. This ethnic group was assimilated to the Siberian Tatar people. The modern usage of the name was recorded in the Russian language after the Empires conquest of the Siberian Khanate, a further variant claims that the region was named after the Xibe people. The Polish historian Chycliczkowski has proposed that the name derives from the word for north. He said that the neighbouring Chinese, Arabs and Mongolians would not have known Russian and he suggests that the name is a combination of two words, su and bir. The region is of significance, as it contains bodies of prehistoric animals from the Pleistocene Epoch. Specimens of Goldfuss cave lion cubs, Yuka and another woolly mammoth from Oymyakon, a rhinoceros from the Kolyma River. The Siberian Traps were formed by one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earths geological history. They continued for a million years and are considered a cause of the Great Dying about 250 million years ago. At least three species of human lived in Southern Siberia around 40,000 years ago, H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis, the last was determined in 2010, by DNA evidence, to be a new species. Siberia was inhabited by different groups of such as the Enets, the Nenets, the Huns, the Scythians. The Khan of Sibir in the vicinity of modern Tobolsk was known as a prominent figure who endorsed Kubrat as Khagan of Old Great Bulgaria in 630, the Mongols conquered a large part of this area early in the 13th century. With the breakup of the Golden Horde, the autonomous Khanate of Sibir was established in the late 15th century, turkic-speaking Yakut migrated north from the Lake Baikal region under pressure from the Mongol tribes during the 13th to 15th century
Siberia
–
Painting of
Chukchi by
Louis Choris, 1816
Siberia
–
Siberian Federal District Geographic Russian Siberia Siberia in its widest definition and historical use
Siberia
–
The tower of a 17th-century
ostrog fort in
Yakutsk
Siberia
–
Siberian
Cossack family in
Novosibirsk
32.
Kazakh SSR
–
It was created on December 5,1936 from the Kazakh ASSR, an autonomous republic of the Russian SFSR. At 2,717,300 square kilometres in area, it was the second largest republic in the USSR, today it is the independent state of Kazakhstan in Central Asia. During its existence as a Soviet republic it was led by the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR, on October 25,1990, the Supreme Soviet of the Kazakh SSR declared its sovereignty on its soil. Nursultan Nazarbayev was elected as president – a role he has remained in to this day, the Soviet republic was renamed the Republic of Kazakhstan on December 10,1991, which declared its independence six days later, on December 16,1991. The Soviet Union was disbanded on December 26,1991 by the Soviet of Nationalities, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the legal successor to the Kazakh SSR, was admitted to the United Nations on March 2,1992. The country is named after the Kazakh people, Turkic-speaking former nomads who sustained a powerful khanate in the region before Russian and then Soviet domination. The Soviet Unions spaceport, now known as the Baikonur Cosmodrome, was located in this republic at Tyuratam, established on August 26,1920, it was initially called Kirghiz ASSR and was a part of the Russian SFSR. On April 15–19,1925, it was renamed Kazak ASSR and on December 5,1936 it was elevated to the status of a Union-level republic, Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. Between 1932 and 1933, a famine struck Kazakhstan, killing 1.5 million people during the catastrophe of whom 1.3 million were ethnic Kazakhs, during the 1950s and 1960s Soviet citizens were urged to settle in the Virgin Lands of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. The influx of immigrants, mostly Russians, skewed the ethnic mixture, independence has caused many of these newcomers to emigrate. Only 168-200 civilians were killed or executed, the events were then spilled over to Shymkent, Pavlodar, Karaganda and Taldykorgan. On March 25,1990, Kazakhstan held its first elections with Nursultan Nazarbayev, later that year on October 25, it then declared sovereignty. The republic participated in a referendum to preserve the union in a different entity with 94. 1% voted in favor and it did not happened when hardline communists in Moscow took control of the government in August. Nazarbayev then condemned the failed coup, as a result of those events, the Kazakh SSR was renamed to the Republic of Kazakhstan on December 10,1991. It became independent on December 16, becoming the last republic to secede and its capital was the site of the Alma-Ata Protocol on December 21,1991 that dissolved the Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States in its place which Kazakhstan joined. The Soviet Union officially ceased to exist as a state on December 26,1991. On January 28,1993, the new Constitution of Kazakhstan was officially adopted, according to the 1897 census, the earliest census taken in the region, Kazakhs constituted 81. 7% of the total population within the territory of contemporary Kazakhstan. The Russian population in Kazakhstan was 454,402, or 10, table, Ethnic Composition of Kazakhstan One of the greatest factors that shaped the ethnic composition of Kazakhstan was 1920s and 1930s famines
Kazakh SSR
–
Flag
33.
Department of Homeland Security
–
Its stated missions involve anti-terrorism, border security, immigration and customs, cyber security, and disaster prevention and management. It was created in response to the September 11 attacks, in fiscal year 2017, it was allocated a net discretionary budget of $40.6 billion. With more than 240,000 employees, DHS is the third largest Cabinet department, after the Departments of Defense, Homeland security policy is coordinated at the White House by the Homeland Security Council. Other agencies with significant homeland security responsibilities include the Departments of Health and Human Services, Justice and its stated goal is to prepare for, prevent, and respond to domestic emergencies, particularly terrorism. On March 1,2003, DHS absorbed the Immigration and Naturalization Service, in doing so, it divided the enforcement and services functions into two separate and new agencies, Immigration and Customs Enforcement and Citizenship and Immigration Services. The investigative divisions and intelligence gathering units of the INS and Customs Service were merged forming Homeland Security Investigations, additionally, the border enforcement functions of the INS, including the U. S. Border Patrol, the U. S. Customs Service, the Federal Protective Service falls under the National Protection and Programs Directorate. The Department of Homeland Security is headed by the Secretary of Homeland Security with the assistance of the Deputy Secretary, the Department contains the components listed below. Agencies, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services, Processes and examines citizenship, residency, U. S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Law enforcement agency divided into two bureaus, An agency that enforces U. S. It also investigates crimes against the U. S. monetary system including the crime of counterfeiting U. S. currency, Federal Emergency Management Agency, agency that oversees the federal governments response to natural disasters like earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, forest fires, etc. National Protection and Programs Directorate, risk-reduction, encompassing both physical and virtual threats and their associated human elements, Federal Protective Service, Federal law enforcement and security agency that protects and investigates crimes against U. S. federal buildings, properties, assets, and federal government interests. National Cybersecurity Center In an August 5,2002 speech, President Bush said, to secure freedom in the homeland. Prior to the creation of DHS, American presidents had referred to the U. S. as the nation or the republic, also unprecedented was the use, from 2002, of the phrase the homeland by White House spokespeople. In 2011 the Department of Homeland Security phased out the old Homeland Security Advisory System with a two-level National Terrorism Advisory System, the system has two types of advisories, Alerts and Bulletins. Alerts are issued when there is specific and credible information of a terrorist threat against the United States, Alerts themselves have two levels, Elevated and Imminent. An Elevated Alert is issued when there is information about an attack. An Imminent Alert is issued when the threat is very specific, many procedures at government facilities are tied in to the alert level, for example a facility may search all entering vehicles when the alert is above a certain level. After resigning, Tom Ridge stated that he did not always agree with the threat level adjustments pushed by other government agencies
Department of Homeland Security
–
A
U.S. Customs and Border Protection Officer addresses
Dick Cheney (center), then
Vice President of the United States,
Saxby Chambliss (center right), a
U.S. senator from
Georgia and
Michael Chertoff (far right), then
United States Secretary of Homeland Security in 2005
Department of Homeland Security
–
Seal of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security
Department of Homeland Security
–
President
George W. Bush signs the Homeland Security Appropriations Act of 2004 on October 1, 2003.
Department of Homeland Security
–
Ready.gov program logo
34.
September 11, 2001 attacks
–
The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
September 11, 2001 attacks
–
Top row: The Twin Towers of the
World Trade Center burning
September 11, 2001 attacks
–
1997 picture of Osama bin Laden
September 11, 2001 attacks
–
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed after his capture in 2003
September 11, 2001 attacks
–
Flight paths of the four planes used on September 11
35.
Republican Party (United States)
–
The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883. The Republicans supported the pietistic Protestants who demanded Prohibition, nevertheless, by 1890 the Republicans had agreed to the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Interstate Commerce Commission in response to complaints from owners of small businesses and farmers
Republican Party (United States)
–
Abraham Lincoln, the first Republican U.S. President (1861–1865).
Republican Party (United States)
–
Theodore Roosevelt,
26th President of the United States (1901–1909)
Republican Party (United States)
–
Dwight Eisenhower,
34th President of the United States (1953–1961)
Republican Party (United States)
–
Richard Nixon,
37th President of the United States (1969–1974)
36.
Peggy Noonan
–
Margaret Ellen Peggy Noonan is an American author of several books on politics, religion, and culture, and a weekly columnist for The Wall Street Journal. She was a speech writer and Special Assistant to President Ronald Reagan and has maintained a conservative leaning in her writings since leaving the Reagan administration. Five of Noonans books have been New York Times bestsellers, Noonan is a trustee of the Manhattan Institute. She has been awarded doctorates from Miami University, St. John Fisher College, her alma mater, Fairleigh Dickinson University, Adelphi College. She was nominated for an Emmy Award for her work on America and she has also been widely recognized for her regular appearances on ABCs This Week and NBCs Meet The Press. In her political writings, Noonan frequently cites the political figures she admires, including Ronald Reagan, Abraham Lincoln, Noonan was born in Brooklyn, New York, the daughter of a merchant seaman. Noonan is a graduate of Rutherford High School in Rutherford, New Jersey, Noonan worked as the daily CBS Radio commentary writer for anchorman Dan Rather at CBS News, whom she once called the best boss I ever had. From 1975 through 1977 she worked the overnight shift as a newswriter at WEEI Radio in Boston, in 1978 and 1979 she was an adjunct professor of journalism at New York University. In 1984, Noonan, as a speechwriter for President Reagan and she also wrote Reagans address to the nation after the Challenger explosion, drawing upon the poet John Magees famous words about aviators who slipped the surly bonds of earth. And touched the face of God, the Pointe du Hoc speech ranks as the 58th best speech of the century. She also worked on a tribute Reagan gave to honor John F. Kennedy at an event held at the McLean, Virginia. Noonan also wrote the speech in which Bush pledged, Read my lips, Noonan also worked as a consultant on the American television drama The West Wing. In mid August 2004, Noonan took an unpaid leave from the Wall Street Journal to campaign for George W. Bushs reelection. During the 2008 presidential campaign, Noonan wrote about Sarah Palins vice presidential candidacy in the Wall Street Journal, such commentary resulted in a backlash from many conservatives. Noonan is now an author, a columnist for The Wall Street Journal, and she is a member of the Manhattan Institutes board of trustees and one of the founding members of wowOwow. com, along with Liz Smith, Lesley Stahl, Mary Wells Lawrence and Joni Evans. In 1985, Noonan married Richard W. Rahn, who was chief economist at the U. S. Chamber of Commerce. They lived in Great Falls, Virginia and their son Will was born in 1987. Noonan and her husband were divorced five years of marriage
Peggy Noonan
–
Noonan meeting with President Ronald Reagan in 1988
37.
George W. Bush administration
–
The presidency of George W. Bush began on January 20,2001 at noon Eastern Standard Time, when George W. Bush was inaugurated as President of the United States. Bushs presidency ended on January 20,2009, a Republican, he took office following a very close win in the 2000 presidential election over Democratic nominee Al Gore, the then–incumbent Vice President. Bush, the 43rd United States president, is the son of the 41st president, Bush was re-elected in 2004, defeating his Democratic opponent John Kerry by a slim margin. He was succeeded in office by Democrat Barack Obama, who won the 2008 presidential election, upon taking office, Bush pushed through a $1.3 trillion tax cut program and the No Child Left Behind Act, a major education bill. He also pushed for socially conservative efforts, such as the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act and that same month, he signed into law the controversial Patriot Act in order to strengthen security and allow for greater surveillance. In 2003, Bush ordered an invasion of Iraq, asserting that Iraq possessed stockpiles of weapons of destruction in violation of UN Security Council Resolution 1441. Later that year, he signed the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act, Bush pushed for Social Security and immigration reform, but both efforts failed. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq continued, and in 2007 he launched a surge of troops in Iraq. The Bush administrations response to Hurricane Katrina and the dismissal of U. S. attorneys controversy earned wide coverage, and his second term saw a drop in his approval ratings. The financial crisis of 2007–2008 dominated his last days in office as policymakers looked to avert a major economic disaster, Bushs presidency is frequently ranked by historians as among the worst in American history. W. Vice President Dick Cheney served as Secretary of Defense under George H. W. Bush, Bush placed a high value on personal loyalty and, as a result, his administration had high message discipline. He maintained a style of management. Im confident in my management style, Im a delegator because I trust the people Ive asked to join the team. That makes it easier to be President, he said in an interview with Diane Sawyer on ABC in December 2003, critics alleged, however, that Bush was willing to overlook mistakes made by loyal subordinates. There was only one non-Republican in Bushs cabinet, Secretary of Transportation Norman Mineta, Mineta resigned from Bushs cabinet on July 7,2006 to pursue other challenges. Mary Peters, a Republican, was nominated and confirmed to succeed him as Transportation Secretary, at least one other non-Republican was apparently offered a position in the administration but declined. CNN reported that in the transition to his term, Bush offered the positions of Ambassador to the United Nations. In 2006, Bush replaced long-time chief of staff Andrew Card with Joshua Bolten and made major staff, on November 8,2006, Bush announced plans to replace Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld with former CIA Director Robert Gates
George W. Bush administration
–
Presidency of George W. Bush
George W. Bush administration
–
Cabinet meeting
George W. Bush administration
38.
History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era
–
Apartheid was a system of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa between 1948 and 1991. Apartheid as a policy was embraced by the South African government shortly after the ascension of the National Party during the countrys 1948 general elections, with the rapid growth and industrialisation of the British Cape Colony in the nineteenth century, racial policies and laws became increasingly rigid. Cape legislation that discriminated specifically against black Africans began appearing shortly before 1900, the policies of the Boer republics were also racially exclusive, for instance, the Transvaal constitution barred nonwhite participation in church and state. Places of residence were determined by racial classification, from 1960 to 1983,3.5 million nonwhite South Africans were removed from their homes, and forced into segregated neighbourhoods, in one of the largest mass removals in modern history. Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the population to ten designated tribal homelands, also known as bantustans. The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans, Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the twentieth century. It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations, some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and coloured political representation in parliament, but these measures failed in appeasing most activist groups. In 1990, prominent ANC leaders such as Nelson Mandela were released from detention, Apartheid legislation was abolished in mid-1991, pending multiracial elections set for April 1994. Apartheid is an Afrikaans word meaning separateness, or the state of being apart and its first recorded use was in 1929. The governors and assemblies that governed the process in the various colonies of South Africa were launched on a different and independent legislative path from the rest of the British Empire. In the days of slavery, slaves required passes to travel away from their masters, in 1797 the Landdrost and Heemraden of Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet extended pass laws beyond slaves and ordained that all Khoikhoi moving about the country for any purpose should carry passes. Ordinance No.49 of 1828 decreed that prospective black immigrants were to be granted passes for the purpose of seeking work. These passes were to be issued for Coloureds and Khoikhoi, but not for other Africans, the United Kingdoms Slavery Abolition Act 1833 abolished slavery throughout the British Empire and overrode the Cape Articles of Capitulation. To comply with the act the South African legislation was expanded to include Ordinance 1 in 1835 and this was followed by Ordinance 3 in 1848, which introduced an indenture system for Xhosa that was little different from slavery. The Glen Grey Act of 1894, instigated by the government of Prime Minister Cecil John Rhodes limited the amount of land Africans could hold, in 1905 the General Pass Regulations Act denied blacks the vote, limited them to fixed areas and inaugurated the infamous Pass System. The Asiatic Registration Act required all Indians to register and carry passes, one of the first pieces of segregating legislation enacted by Jan Smuts United Party government was the Asiatic Land Tenure Bill, which banned land sales to Indians. The United Party government began to move away from the enforcement of segregationist laws during World War II. Amid fears integration would lead to racial assimilation, the legislature established the Sauer Commission to investigate the effects of the United Partys policies
History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era
–
Daniel François Malan, the first apartheid prime minister (1948–1954)
History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era
–
Cape Coloured children in
Bonteheuwel.
History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era
–
Rural area in
Ciskei, one of the apartheid era
homelands
39.
Bantustans
–
A Bantustan was a territory set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and South West Africa, as part of the policy of apartheid. The term was first used in the late 1940s and was coined from Bantu and it was regarded as a disparaging term by some critics of the apartheid-era governments homelands. Four of the South African Bantustans—Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei —were declared independent, other South African Bantustans received partial autonomy but were never granted independence. In South West Africa, Ovamboland, Kavangoland, and East Caprivi were granted self-determination, the Bantustans were abolished with the end of apartheid and re-joined South Africa proper in 1994. The creation of the homelands or Bantustans was an element of this strategy. As a result, blacks would lose their South African citizenship and voting rights, the term Bantustan was used by apartheids apologists in reference to the partition of India in 1947. However, it quickly became pejorative in left and anti-apartheid usage, verwoerd argued that the Bantustans were the original homes of the black peoples of South Africa. In 1951, the government of Daniel François Malan introduced the Bantu Authorities Act to establish homelands allocated to the countrys ethnic groups. These amounted to 13% of the land, the remainder being reserved for the white population. The homelands were run by tribal leaders, while uncooperative chiefs were forcibly deposed. Over time, a ruling black élite emerged with a personal and financial interest in the preservation of the homelands, while this aided the homelands political stability to an extent, their position was still entirely dependent on South African support. The role of the homelands was expanded in 1959 with the passage of the Bantu Self-Government Act and this enabled the homelands to establish themselves as self-governing, quasi-independent states. This plan was stepped up under Verwoerds successor as minister, John Vorster. The homelands were encouraged to opt for independence, as this would reduce the number of black citizens of South Africa. In parallel with the creation of the homelands, South Africas black population was subjected to a programme of forced relocation. It has been estimated that 3.5 million people were forced from their homes from the 1960s through the 1980s, the government made clear that its ultimate aim was the total removal of the black population from South Africa. But this goal was not achieved, only about 55% of South Africas population lived in the Bantustans, the remainder lived in South Africa proper, many in townships, shanty-towns and slums on the outskirts of South African cities. Bantustans within the borders of South Africa were classified as self-governing or independent, in theory, self-governing Bantustans had control over many aspects of their internal functioning but were not yet sovereign nations
Bantustans
–
Map of the black homelands in
Namibia as of 1978
Bantustans
–
Racial-demographic map of South Africa published by the
CIA in 1979 with data from the 1970 South African census
40.
Turkish language
–
Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
Turkish language
–
Old Turkic inscription with the
Orkhon script (c. 8th century).
Kyzyl, Russia
Turkish language
–
Countries where Turkish is an official language
Turkish language
–
Road signs in
Prizren,
Republic of Kosovo. Official languages are:
Albanian (top),
Serbian (middle) and Turkish (bottom).
Turkish language
–
Map of the main subgroups of
Turkish dialects.
41.
Hearth
–
In historic and modern usage, a hearth /ˈhɑːrθ/ is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace, with or without an oven, used for heating and originally also used for cooking food. In a medieval hall, the hearth commonly stood in the middle of the hall, later, such hearths were moved to the side of the room and provided with a chimney. In fireplace design, the hearth is the part of the fireplace where the fire burns, usually consisting of masonry at floor level or higher, the word hearth derives from an Indo-European root, *ker-, referring to burning, heat, and fire. In archaeology, a hearth is a firepit or other feature of any period. Hearths are common features of many eras going back to prehistoric campsites and they were used for cooking, heating, and the processing of some stone, wood, faunal, and floral resources. Farming or excavation—deform or disperse hearth features, making difficult to identify without careful study. Lined hearths are easily identified by the presence of fire-cracked rock, often present are fragmented fish and animal bones, carbonized shell, charcoal, ash, and other waste products, all embedded in a sequence of soil that has been deposited atop the hearth. Unlined hearths, which are easily identified, may also include these materials. Because of the nature of most of these items, they can be used to pinpoint the date the hearth was last used via the process of radiocarbon dating. Although carbon dates can be affected if the users of the hearth burned old wood or coal. This was the most common way to cook, and to interior spaces in cool seasons. Kapnikon was a tax raised on households without exceptions for the poor, in England, a tax on hearths was introduced on 19 May 1662. Householders were required to pay a charge of two shillings per annum for each hearth, with half the payment due at Michaelmas and half at Lady Day. Exemptions to the tax were granted, to those in receipt of relief, those whose houses were worth less than 20 shillings a year. Also exempt were charitable institutions such as schools and almshouses, and industrial hearths with the exception of smiths forges, the returns were lodged with the Clerk of the Peace between 1662 and 1688. A revision of the Act in 1664 made the tax payable by all who had more than two chimneys The tax was abolished by William III in 1689 and the last collection was for Lady Day of that year and it was abolished in Scotland in 1690. Hearth tax records are important to historians as they provide an indication of the size of each assessed house at the time. The numbers of hearths are generally proportional to the size of the house, the assessments can be used to indicate the numbers and local distribution of larger and smaller houses
Hearth
–
Hearth with cooking utensils
Hearth
–
Japanese traditional hearth (Irori)
Hearth
–
A cauldron over a fire in
William Blake 's illustrations to his mythical
Europe a Prophecy first published in 1794. This version of the print is currently held by the
Fitzwilliam Museum
Hearth
–
Dutch style kitchen hearth in
Hofwijck mansion, Voorburg, Netherlands.
42.
Diaspora politics
–
Diaspora politics is the political behavior of transnational ethnic diasporas, their relationship with their ethnic homelands and their host states, and their prominent role in ethnic conflicts. The study of politics is part of the broader field of diaspora studies. To understand a diasporas politics, one must first understand its historical context, a diaspora is a transnational community that defined itself as a singular ethnic group based upon its shared identity. Diasporas result from historical emigration from an original homeland, in modern cases, this migration can be historically documented, and the diaspora associated with a certain territory. Whether this territory is in fact the homeland of an ethnic group, is a political matter. The older the migration, the evidence there is for the event, in the case of the Romani people the migration, the homeland. A claim to a homeland always has political connotations and is often disputed, self-identified diasporas place great importance on their homeland, because of their ethnic and cultural association with it, especially if it has been lost or conquered. That has led ethnic nationalist movements within several diasporas, often resulting in the establishment of a sovereign homeland, second, a diaspora can exert significant pressure in its homelands domestic political arena regarding issues of diaspora concern. Lately, a transnational community can engage directly with third-party states and international organizations, in effect bypassing its homeland. Diasporas are thus perceived as political entities, operating on behalf of their entire people and capable of acting independently from any individual state. Diaspora politics in the United States Identity politics Irredentism Transnationalism
Diaspora politics
43.
Separatism
–
A common definition of separatism is that it is the advocacy of a state of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental or gender separation from the larger group. While it often refers to political secession, separatist groups may seek nothing more than greater autonomy. There is some debate about this definition, and in particular how it relates to secessionism. Separatist groups practice a form of identity politics, political activity, such groups believe attempts at integration with dominant groups compromise their identity and ability to pursue greater self-determination. However, economic and political factors usually are critical in creating strong separatist movements as opposed to less ambitious identity movements, groups may have one or more motivations for separation, including, emotional resentment and hatred of rival communities. Protection from ethnic cleansing and genocide, resistance by victims of oppression, including denigration of their language, culture or religion. Propaganda by those who hope to gain politically from intergroup conflict, Economic and political dominance of one group that does not share power and privilege in an egalitarian fashion. Economic motivations, seeking to end exploitation by more powerful group or, conversely. Preservation of threatened religious, language or other cultural tradition, destabilization from one separatist movement giving rise to others. Geopolitical power vacuum from breakup of larger states or empires, continuing fragmentation as more and more states break up. Feeling that the nation was added to the larger state by illegitimate means. The perception that the state can no longer support ones own group or has betrayed their interests, governments may respond in a number of ways, some of which are mutually exclusive. Settle for a confederation or a relationship where there are only limited ties among states. Some governments suppress any separatist movement in their own country, Ethnic separatism is based more on cultural and linguistic differences than religious or racial differences, which also may exist. Chechen separatism in the Caucasus, currently the Republic of Chechnya is part of the Russian Federation, serb separatism in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo. Albanian separatism in Kosovo and R. Macedonia Turkish separatism in Cyprus, South Ossetian and Abkhazian separatism in Georgia. Armenian separatists of Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan, azeri separatists in Iran want to unite the provinces of East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan, Zanjan and Ardabil with Azerbaijan. Kurdish separatism in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, silesian separatism in Poland and Czech Republic
Separatism
–
Eastern
Ukraine 's separatism emerged as a reaction to the
Euromaidan revolution
Separatism
–
Mural for Catalan independence in
Belfast.
Separatism
–
OLF rebels in Kenya armed with AK-47 rifles.
Separatism
–
A
Tuareg rebel fighter in northern
Niger.
44.
Secession
–
Secession is the withdrawal of a group from a larger entity, especially a political entity, but also any organization, union or military alliance. Threats of secession can also be a strategy for achieving more limited goals, theories of secession relate to a fundamental question of political philosophy, the basis of the states authority. Ramet, Rights of Secession by Daniel Kofman, The Very Idea of Secession by Donald Livingston and Secession, Autonomy, in 2007 the University of South Carolina sponsored a conference called Secession As an International Phenomenon which produced a number of papers on the topic. Some theories of secession emphasize a general right of secession for any reason while others emphasize that secession should be considered only to rectify grave injustices, if it can not live in the affections of the people, it must one day perish. Congress possesses many means of preserving it by conciliation, but the sword was not placed in their hand to preserve it by force, former President of the United States Thomas Jefferson, in a letter to William H. If any State in the Union will declare that it prefers separation with the first alternative, to a continuance in union without it, I have no hesitation in saying, let us separate. I would rather the States should withdraw, which are for unlimited commerce and war, economic enfranchisement of an economically oppressed class that is regionally concentrated within the scope of a larger national territory. e. Tax schemes, regulatory policies, economic programs, etc, cultural Secessionism, any group which was previously in a minority has a right to protect and develop its own culture and distinct national identity through seceding into an independent state. Institutional empowerment - The growing inability of empires and ethnic federations to maintain colonies, relative strength - Increasingly powerful secessionist movements are more likely to achieve statehood. Negotiated consent - Home states and the international community increasingly consent to secessionist demands, during the 19th century, the single British colony in eastern mainland Australia, New South Wales was progressively divided up by the British government as new settlements were formed and spread. Victoria in 1851 and Queensland in 1859, however, settlers agitated to divide the colonies throughout the later part of the century, particularly in central Queensland in the 1860s and 1890s, and in North Queensland in the 1870s. Western Australia Secession movements have surfaced several times in Western Australia, the referendum had to be ratified by the British Parliament, which declined to act, on the grounds that it would contravene the Australian Constitution. The Principality of Hutt River claims to have seceded from Australia in 1970, according to a lexicon on nationalist movements across the world, Macau happened to recognise that Principality. Austria successfully seceded from Nazi Germany on April 27,1945 and this took place after seven years of Austria being part of Adolf Hitlers Third Reich due to the Anschluss annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938. On August 25,1830, during the reign of William I, soon after, the Belgian Revolt occurred, which resulted in the Belgian secession from the Netherlands. The peace treaty accepted Uruguay independence, reasserted the rule of both nations over their land and some important points like free navigation in the Silver River, three rather disorganized secessionist rebellions happened in Grão-Pará, Bahia and Maranhão, where the people were unhappy with the Empire. The Malê Revolt, in Bahia, was an Islamic slave revolt and these three rebellions were bloodily crushed by the Empire of Brazil. In the attempts the rebels were crushed, the shot and its territory divided
Secession
–
U.S. Vice President
Joe Biden and
Hashim Thaçi with Declaration of Independence of
Kosovo
Secession
–
Northern Cyprus
Secession
–
September 1999 demonstration for
independence from Indonesia
Secession
–
Map showing the shrinking territory of
Gran Colombia from 1824 to 1890 (red line).
Panama separated from Colombia in 1903.
45.
Simon Schama
–
Simon Michael Schama, CBE is an English historian specializing in art history, Dutch history, and French history. He is a University Professor of History and Art History at Columbia University and he first came to popular public attention with his history of the French Revolution titled Citizens, published in 1989. In the United Kingdom, he is perhaps best known for writing and hosting the 15-part BBC television documentary series A History of Britain broadcast between 2000 and 2002, Schama was born in Marylebone, London. His mother, Gertie, was from an Ashkenazi Jewish family, in the mid-1940s, the family moved to Southend-on-Sea in Essex before moving back to London. Schama writes of this period in the introduction to his 1996 book Landscape & Memory, I had no hill and it was not the upstream river that the poets in my Palgrave claimed burbled betwixt mossy banks. It was the low, gull-swept estuary, the bed of salt and fresh water, stretching as far as I could see from my northern Essex bank. That would be Kent, the enemy who always seemed to beat us in the County Cricket Championship. In 1956, Schama won a scholarship to the private Haberdashers Askes Boys School in Cricklewood and he then studied history at Christs College, Cambridge, where he was taught by John H. Plumb. He graduated from the University of Cambridge with a Starred First in 1966, at this time, Schama wrote his first book, Patriots and Liberators, which won the Wolfson History Prize. His second book, Two Rothschilds and the Land of Israel, is a study of the Zionist aims of Edmond James de Rothschild, in 1980 Schama took up a chair at Harvard University. His next book, The Embarrassment of Riches, again focused on Dutch history, Citizens, written at speed to a publishers commission, finally saw the publication of his long-awaited study of the French Revolution, and won the 1990 NCR Book Award. Its view that the violence of the Terror was inherent from the start of the Revolution, not all readers absorbed the nuance of the title, it received a greatly mixed critical and academic reception. Traditional historians in particular denounced Schamas integration of fact and conjecture to produce a seamless narrative and it was an approach soon taken up by such historical writers as Peter Ackroyd, David Taylor and Richard Holmes. Sales in hardback exceeded those of Schamas earlier works as shown by relative rankings by Amazon. com, while many reviews remained decidedly mixed, the book was a definite commercial success and won numerous prizes. Appropriately, many of the came from the art world rather than from traditional academia. This was borne out when Schama became art critic for The New Yorker in 1995, during this time, Schama also produced a lavishly illustrated Rembrandts Eyes, another critical and commercial success. Despite the books title, it contrasts the biographies of Rembrandt van Rijn, in 1995 Schama wrote and presented a series called Landscape and Memory to accompany his book of the same name. Schama wrote and presented the episodes himself, in a friendly and often jocular style with his highly characteristic delivery, and was rewarded with excellent reviews and unexpectedly high ratings
Simon Schama
–
Schama in 2013
Simon Schama
–
Schama at New York City's
Strand Bookstore in 2006.
46.
Indigenous intellectual property
–
The first international congress of the International Society of Ethnobiology involving anthropologists, biologists, chemists, sociologists, and indigenous peoples met at Belem, Brazil. They identified themselves collectively as ethnobiologists, and announced that since Indigenous cultures around the world are being disrupted and destroyed, specific reference is made within the Indigenous Peoples Earth Charter to perceived abuses of indigenous peoples intellectual and cultural properties. 104, The protection, norms and mechanism of artistic and artisan creation of our peoples must be established and implemented in order to plunder, plagiarism, undue exposure. Representatives affirmed a policy on the exploitation of Lakota, Dakota and Nakota ceremonial knowledge. Aboriginal intellectual property, within Aboriginal Common Law, is an inherent, inalienable right which cannot be terminated, extinguished, any use of the intellectual property of Aboriginal Nations and Peoples may only be done in accordance with Aboriginal Common Law, and any unauthorised use is strictly prohibited. Work must be conducted on the design of a protection and recognition system which is in accordance with. our own conception, which will prevent appropriation of our resources and knowledge. In particular participants, Reaffirme that imperialism is perpetuated through intellectual property rights systems, incorporate the concerns of Indigenous peoples. into legislation. Strengthen the capacities of Indigenous peoples to maintain their oral traditions, according to their customary access procedures. Our traditional knowledge is not in the domain, it is collective. Unauthorized use and misappropriation of traditional knowledge is theft, at the United Nations General Assemblys 61st session, on 13 September 2007, an overwhelming majority of members resolved to adopt the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Regarding the intellectual property rights of peoples, the General Assembly recognized. Reaffirmed. that indigenous peoples possess collective rights which are indispensable for their existence, well-being, and solemnly proclaimed as an agreed standard for member nations around the world, Article 11, Indigenous peoples have the right to practise and revitalize their cultural traditions and customs. Article 24, Indigenous peoples have the right to their traditional medicines and to maintain their health practices, including the conservation of their vital medicinal plants, animals and minerals. They also have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their property over such cultural heritage, traditional knowledge. In conjunction with indigenous peoples, States shall take effective measures to recognize and they are transmitted from one generation to the next, and include handmade textiles, paintings, stories, legends, ceremonies, music, songs, rhythms and dance. Indigenous customary law can provide better protection, so alarming that it came to the attention of an international and intertribal group of medicine people and spiritual leaders called the Circle of Elders. One of the best known Plastic Shamans, Lynn Andrews, has been picketed by the Native communities in New York, Minneapolis, San Francisco, Seattle and other cities. Between 1998 and 2006, the Ngati Toa iwi attempted to trademark the Ka Mate haka, in 2009, as a part of a wider settlement of grievances, the New Zealand government agreed to. record the authorship and significance of the haka Ka Mate to Ngāti Toa and
Indigenous intellectual property
–
United Nations General Assembly 2003
Indigenous intellectual property
–
Julayinbul Aboriginal Intellectual Property Conference Logo (1993)
Indigenous intellectual property
–
Te Rauparaha, alleged composer of Ka Mate.
Indigenous intellectual property
–
Phillip Morris' L&M Maori Mix cigarettes
47.
Indigenous land rights
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Indigenous land rights are the rights of indigenous peoples to land, either individually or collectively. Land is an economic asset. The majority of peoples living in forest areas depend on the natural resources of their lands to fulfill their subsistence needs. Hunting, fishing, gathering of forest products, and small garden plots still form the basis of their household economy, the security and permanence of their control and use of the natural resource base is actually more important to most indigenous groups than direct ownership of the land itself. Land is also an important instrument of inheritance and it is a symbol of social status, the land is essential for people’s spiritual development. The land is sacred and everything they get from the land is a gift from their gods, losing their land means a loss of contact with the earth and a loss of identity. Land is not only an asset with economic and financial value, Indigenous land claims have been addressed, with varying degrees of success on the national and international level, since colonization. Such claims may be based upon the principles of law, treaties, common law. Indigenous land rights have historically been undermined by a variety of such as terra nullius. Aboriginal title is the law doctrine that the land rights of indigenous peoples to customary tenure persist after the assumption of sovereignty. Indigenous peoples may also have rights on Crown land in many jurisdictions. The leading case for aboriginal title in Canada is Delgamuukw v. British Columbia, Indigenous land rights were recognised in the Treaty of Waitangi made between the British Crown and various Māori chiefs. The Treaty itself has often been ignored, but New Zealand courts have accepted the existence of native title. Controversies over indigenous land rights have tended to revolve around the means by which Māori lost ownership, the foundational decision for aboriginal title in the United States is Johnson v. McIntosh, authored by Chief Justice John Marshall. Native Americans in the United States have largely been relegated to Indian reservations managed by tribes under the United States Department of the Interiors Bureau of Indian Affairs, the legal situation of indigenous land rights in the countries of Latin America is highly varied. There is still a broad variation of indigenous rights, laws. In the year 1957, the International Labour Organization, made the ILO Convention 107 and this convention created laws and norms for the protection and integration of indigenous peoples in independent countries. All the independent countries of Latin America and the Caribbean of that time ratified this convention, since the 1960s they started with the recognition of the first indigenous land claims since the colonial era
Indigenous land rights
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A demonstration for Aboriginal land rights, marches through
Brisbane during the
1982 Commonwealth Games
48.
Indigenous language
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An indigenous language or autochthonous language is a language that is native to a region and spoken by indigenous people, often reduced to the status of a minority language. This language would be from a distinct community that has been settled in the area for many generations. Indigenous languages are not necessarily national languages, and the reverse is also true, many indigenous languages are disappearing as there are no longer any young people left to speak those languages, so their remaining speakers are dying out. In North America, since 1600 at least 52 Native American languages have disappeared and it is estimated that 6,809 living languages exist in the world today, but 90% of them are spoken by fewer than 100,000 people. Some languages are close to disappearing. Forty six languages are known to have just one native speaker while 357 languages have fewer than 50 speakers, rare languages are more likely to show evidence of decline than more common ones. Of those languages, this means that roughly 6,100 languages are facing a risk of extinction, Oklahoma provides the backdrop for an example of language loss in the developed world. It boasts the highest density of languages in the United States. This includes languages spoken in the region, as well as those of Native American tribes from other areas that were forcibly relocated onto reservations there. The U. S. government drove the Yuchi from Tennessee to Oklahoma in the early 19th century, until the early 20th century, most Yuchi tribe members spoke the language fluently. Then, government boarding schools severely punished American Indian students who were speaking their own language. To avoid beatings and other punishments, Yuchi, and other Indian children abandoned their languages in favor of English. In 2005, only five members of the Yuchi tribe were fluent in the language. These remaining speakers spoke Yuchi fluently before they went to school and have maintained the language despite strong pressure to abandon it and this situation was not limited to Oklahoma. In the Northwest Pacific plateau there are no speakers left of the tribal languages from that area. Oregons Siletz reservation, established in 1855, was home to the endangered language Siletz Dee-ni, the reservation held members of 27 different Indian bands speaking many languages. In order to communicate, people adopted Chinook Jargon, a pidgin or hybrid language, between the use of Chinook Jargon and the increased presence of English, the number of speakers of indigenous languages dwindled. Other tribes of Native Americans were also forced into government schools and they were also treated badly if they did not become civilized
Indigenous language
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Challenges and needs for developing content in Indigenous Languages in
Wikimedia projects
