1.
Homework
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Homework, or a homework assignment, is a set of tasks assigned to students by their teachers to be completed outside the class. The effect of homework is debated, generally speaking, homework does not improve academic performance among children and may improve academic skills among older students. It also creates stress for students and their parents and reduces the amount of time students could spend outdoors, exercising, playing sports. Homework also provides an opportunity for parents to participate in their childrens education, Homework also may be designed to reinforce what students have already learned. Opponents of homework cite the practice as rote, or grind work, designed to take up childrens time, methods to assess the correlation between homework and academic performance vary. Homework research dates back to the early 1900s, however, no consensus exists on the general effectiveness on homework. Results of homework studies varied based on multiple factors, such as the age group of those studied, Cooper, Robinson & Patall studied the literature on homework from 1987 to 2003, yielding varied results from different studies. The studies compared the time spent on homework with grades and test scores as measures of academic achievement, the authors recommended that researchers commence further studies using different methodology, warning that the correlation may not be caused by age. For older students, very high amounts of homework caused students academic performance to worsen, to measure the time spent on homework, the studies analyzed in Cooper, Robinson & Patall used the reports of either the students or the parents. When students provided the report, the correlation was positive and significant, but when parents provided the report, after a comprehensive review, academics scholar Harris Cooper concluded that homework does not improve academic achievements for grade school students. Methodologies used to study the effectiveness of homework have been disputed, to measure student achievement, most studies used either grades, test scores, or both. In Cooper, Robinson & Patall, the correlation between time spent on homework and measures of academic achievement became slightly weaker using standardized test scores rather than grades. The analysis of attitudes differed between assumptions, and were positive, but ranged from insignificant and significant from a correlation of zero, for conduct, the analysis pointed towards Epstein and Vazsonyi & Pickering. Epstein studied parent reports of the conduct of elementary school students, for all three of the correlations, higher values represent a higher correlation between time spent on homework and poor conduct. Bempechat suggested that homework develops students motivation and study skills, xu & Yuan notes that parents and teachers generally deem homework as a builder of students study skills and personal responsibility skills. Students are more likely to have negative perceptions about homework, being likely to ascribe the development of such skills to homework. Leone & Richards found that generally had negative emotions when completing homework. Homework has been identified in studies and articles as a dominant or significant source of stress
2.
Good Housekeeping
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It is well known for the Good Housekeeping Seal, popularly known as the Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval. Good Housekeeping was founded May 2,1885 by Clark W. Bryan in Holyoke, the magazine achieved a circulation of 300,000 by 1911, at which time it was bought by the Hearst Corporation. It topped one million in the mid-1920s, and continued to rise, even during the Great Depression and its aftermath. Circulation topped 2,500,000 in 1943,3,500,000 in the mid-1950s,5,000,000 in 1962,1959 profits were more than $11 million. Good Housekeeping is one of the Seven Sisters, a group of womens service magazines, the Hearst Corporation created a British edition along the same lines in 1922. Famous writers who have contributed to the magazine include Somerset Maugham, Edwin Markham, Edna St. Vincent Millay, Frances Parkinson Keyes, A. J. Cronin, Virginia Woolf, and Evelyn Waugh. In 1900, the Experiment Station, the predecessor to the Good Housekeeping Research Institute, was founded, in 1902, the magazine was calling this An Inflexible Contract Between the Publisher and Each Subscriber. The formal opening of the headquarters of GHRI - the Model Kitchen, Testing Station for Household Devices, in 1909, the magazine established the Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval. Products advertised in the magazine that bear the seal are tested by GHRI and are backed by a two-year limited warranty, about 5,000 products have been given the seal. Beginning with a Beauty Clinic in 1932, departments were added to the Institute, including a Babys Center, Foods and Cookery, some functioned as testing laboratories, while others were designed to produce editorial copy. After the passage of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act in 1938, the Hearst Corporation opposed the policy in spirit, and began publishing a monthly tabloid attacking federal oversight. The publisher fought the proceedings for two years, during which time competing editors from the Ladies Home Journal and McCalls testified against Good Housekeeping, the FTCs ultimate ruling was against the magazine, forcing it to remove some claims and phraseology from its ad pages. The words Tested and Approved were dropped from the Seal of Approval, but the magazines popularity was unaffected, steadily rising in circulation and profitability. In 1962, the wording of the Seal was changed to a guarantee of Product or Performance, in its varying forms, the Seal of Approval became inextricably associated with the magazine, and many others mimicked the practice. Good Housekeeping began to be published in the United Kingdom in 1922, in Latin America and particularly in the Latin American community resident in the United States, the magazine is known in Spanish as Buenhogar and is published by Editorial Televisa
3.
Periodical literature
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Periodical literature is a published work that appears in a new edition on a regular schedule. The most familiar example is the magazine, typically published weekly, monthly, newspapers, often published daily or weekly, are, strictly speaking, serials, not periodicals. Other examples of periodicals are newsletters, literary magazines, academic journals, science magazines and these examples are typically published and referenced by volume and issue. Volume typically refers to the number of years the publication has been circulated, for example, the April 2011 publication of a monthly magazine first published in 2002 would be listed as, Volume 10, Issue 4. Roman numerals are used in reference to the Volume number. When citing a work in a periodical, there are standardized formats such as The Chicago Manual of Style. In the latest edition of this style, a work with volume number 17 and issue number 3 may be written as follows, James M. Heilman, wikipedia and Medicine, Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language. Journal of Medical Internet Research 17, no.3, periodicals can be classified into two types, popular and scholarly. Scholarly journals are most commonly found in libraries and databases, examples are The Journal of Psychology and the Journal of Social Work. Trade/professional magazine are also examples of periodicals and they are written for an audience of professionals in the world. As of the early 1990s, there were over 6,000 business, technical, academic, scientific and trade publications in the United States alone. These examples are related to the idea of a continuing cycle of production and publication, magazines plan to continue publishing. A novel, in contrast, might be published in monthly parts and this approach is called part-publication, particularly when each part is from a whole work, or a serial, for example in comic books. It flourished during the century, for example with Abraham John Valpys Delphin Classics. The International Standard Serial Number is to serial publications what the International Standard Book Number is to books, postal services often carry periodicals at a preferential rate, for example, Second Class Mail in the United States only applies to publications issued at least quarterly
4.
Housekeeping
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Housekeeping refers to the management of duties and chores involved in the running of a household, such as cleaning, cooking, home maintenance, shopping, laundry and bill pay. These tasks may be performed by any of the household members, the term is also used to refer to the money allocated for such use. By extension, an office or organization, as well as the maintenance of computer storage systems, a housekeeper is a person employed to manage a household, and the domestic staff. It includes activities such as housecleaning, that is, disposing of rubbish, cleaning dirty surfaces and it may also involve some outdoor chores, such as removing leaves from rain gutters, washing windows and sweeping doormats. The term housecleaning is often used figuratively in politics and business, for the removal of unwanted personnel. Housecleaning is done to make the look and smell better. Tools used in housecleaning include vacuums, brooms, mops and sponges, together with cleaning products such as detergents, disinfectants, disposal of rubbish is an important aspect of house cleaning. Plastic bags are designed and manufactured specifically for the collection of litter, many are sized to fit common waste baskets and trash cans. Paper bags are made to carry aluminum cans, glass jars and other things although most people use plastic bins for glass since it could break, recycling is possible with some kinds of litter. Over time dust accumulates on household surfaces, as well as making the surfaces dirty, when dust is disturbed it can become suspended in the air, causing sneezing and breathing trouble. It can also transfer from furniture to clothing, making it unclean, vacuum cleaners often have a variety of tools to enable them to remove dirt not just from carpets and rugs, but from hard surfaces and upholstery. Examples of dirt or soil are detritus and common spills and stains that exists in the home, equipment used with a cleaner might be a bucket and sponge or a rag. A modern tool is the bottle, but the principle is the same. Various household cleaning products have been developed to facilitate the removal of dust and dirt, for surface maintenance, Products are available in powder, liquid or spray form. The basic ingredients determine the type of cleaning tasks for which they are suitable, some are packaged as general purpose cleaning materials while others are targeted at specific cleaning tasks such as drain clearing, oven cleaning, lime scale removal and polishing furniture. Household cleaning products provide aesthetic and hygiene benefits but are associated with health risks for the users. The US Department of Health and Human Services offers the public access to the Household Products Database and this database provides consumer information for over 4,000 products based on information provided by the manufacturer through the material safety data sheet. Surfactants lower the tension of water, making it able to flow into smaller tiny cracks
5.
Housewife
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A housewife may also be called a stay-at-home mother and a male homemaker may also be called a stay-at-home father or househusband. Websters Dictionary describes a housewife as a woman who is in charge of her household. The British Chamberss Twentieth Century Dictionary defined a housewife as, the mistress of a household, a female domestic manager, some feminists and non-feminist economists note that the value of housewives work is ignored in standard formulations of economic output, such as GDP or employment figures. Housewives work many hours a week, often depending on income from their husbands or partners employment for financial support. One of the reasons for this division of labor was that it is easier to look after a baby while gathering fruit than while hunting a fast-moving animal. Even when homes were simple and there were few possessions. Regarding work, being a housewife may be seen as the opposite of being a career woman, however, a career woman may also be contrasted to someone following the mommy track, or a shared earning/shared parenting marriage. It is becoming commonplace for the husband and wife to be employed in paid work. Studies have shown the percentage of women staying home does not increase consistently as husbands earnings go up, in fact, women with the lowest earning husbands are more likely to stay home, followed by women with the highest earning husbands. The method, necessity and extent of education of house wives has been debated since at least the 20th century, the housewifes tasks have often been the subject of songs. The housewifes alphabet, by Peggy Seeger, was issued as a Blackthorne Records single with My son, in imperial China, women were bound to homemaking by the doctrines of Confucianism and cultural norms. Generally, girls did not attend school and, therefore, spent the day doing chores with their mothers. In most cases, the husband was alive and able to work, so the wife was almost always forbidden to take a job, as Confucianism spread across East Asia, this social norm was also observed in Korea, Japan and Vietnam. As foot binding became common after the Song Dynasty, many women lost the ability to work outside, after the founding of the Republic of China in 1911, these norms were gradually loosened and many women were able to enter the workforce. Shortly thereafter, a number of females began to be permitted to attend schools. Starting with the rule of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949, during the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution, some women even worked in fields that were traditionally reserved for males. In modern China, housewives are no longer as common, especially in the largest cities, nonetheless, the number of Chinese housewives has been steadily rising in recent years as Chinas economy expands. In a traditional Hindu family, the head of the family is the Griha Swami, the Sanskrit words Grihast and Grihasta perhaps come closest to describing the entire gamut of activities and roles undertaken by the homemaker
6.
Househusband
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A stay-at-home dad is a father who is the main caregiver of the children and is the homemaker of the household. As families have evolved, the practice of being a stay-at-home dad has more common. Pre-industrialisation, the family worked together as a unit and was self-sufficient, when affection-based marriages emerged in the 1830s, parents began devoting more attention to children and family relationships became more open. Some women opted to return to the care giver role, when women chose to work outside of the home, alternative childcare became a necessity. If childcare options were too costly, unavailable, or undesirable, the number of stay-at-home dads began gradually increasing in the late 20th century, especially in developed Western nations. The recent statistic that Pew Research released, showed a report in June 2014 that found 2 million men to be stay-at-home dads, however, in 2010, the number of stay-at-home dads had reached its highest point of 2.2 million. The stay-at-home dad was more regularly portrayed in the media by the 2000s, however, due to traditional family structures and stereotypic expectations, the stay at home father figure is culturally unacceptable in countries in South Asia such as India. In the colonial United States the nuclear family was the most common family form, typical families consisted of five or more children initially, because of high infant mortality rates, only a few children survived adolescence. Colonial families existed to serve six main functions, self-sufficient business, school, vocational institute, church, house of correction, the first African-Americans to reach America were initially brought over as indentured servants, but instead became slaves. By the 19th century, slave trading was a thriving business, typical slave families consisted of one or two children. Women were primarily the head of the families, either because the fathers had died or had been separated from the family, african-American women experienced what came to be known as the double day, a full day of domestic chores plus a full day of work outside the home. The Industrial Revolution led to extensive mechanization, resulting in a shift from manufacturing to large-scale factory production. As this rapid transition took place, families lost many of their production functions, instead, family members had to work outside the home to support their families. As a result, husbands and wives began operating in separate spheres of activity, the husband became the breadwinner by going out and working, while the wife stayed home and took care of the family. The modern family is thought to have originated in the 1830s, courtship became more open, marriages were often based on affection. At the beginning of the 20th century, married couples began to emphasize the importance of sexual attraction and this led to more intimate and open relationships along with more adolescent freedom. The transition of the family was influenced by the Great Depression, in 1932, a federal executive order stated that only one spouse could work for the federal government. This resulted in women being forced to resign allowing their husbands to continue working
7.
Social work
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Social work is an academic and practice-based professional discipline that seeks to facilitate the welfare of communities, individuals, families, and groups. Social work tries to promote change and grassroots empowerment of people and aids in socioeconomic development, social cohesion. A practicing professional with a degree in social work is called a social worker, the practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern and scientific origin, and is generally considered to have developed out of three strands. The first was individual casework, a strategy pioneered by the Charity Organization Society in the mid-19th century, the second was social administration, which included various forms of poverty relief – relief of paupers. Statewide poverty relief could be said to have its roots in the English Poor Laws of the 17th century and this approach was developed originally by the Settlement House Movement. This was accompanied by an easily defined movement, the development of institutions to deal with the entire range of social problems. All had their most rapid growth during the century, and laid the foundational basis for modern social work. Because poverty was the focus of early social work, it was intricately linked with the idea of charity work. With the decline of feudalism in 16th century England, the indigent poor came to be seen as a direct threat to the social order. The first complete code of poor relief was made in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 and it created a system administered at parish level, paid for by levying local rates on rate payers. Relief for those too ill or old to work, the impotent poor, was in the form of a payment or items of food or clothing also known as outdoor relief. The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 completely overhauled the system in Britain. This included the forming together of small parishes into Poor Law Unions, the 19th century saw a great leap forward in technological and scientific achievement. There was also a migration to urban areas throughout the Western world. This galvanised the socially active, prosperous middle and upper classes to search for ways to ameliorate the physical and spiritual conditions of the poor underclasses. A new philosophy of scientific charity emerged, which stated charity should be secular, rational and empirical as opposed to sectarian, sentimental, COS had its main focus on individual casework. It supported the concept of self-help and limited government intervention to deal with the effects of poverty, the organisation claimed to use scientific principles to root out scroungers and target relief where it was most needed. Octavia Hill is regarded by many as the founder of social work
8.
Cooking
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Cooking or cookery is the art, technology and craft of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill, cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though evidence for it reaches no more than 1 million years ago. The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients, New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to further enhance the flavor of the dish served, phylogenetic analysis suggests that human ancestors may have invented cooking as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago. Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave, there is evidence that Homo erectus was cooking their food as early as 500,000 years ago. Evidence for the use of fire by Homo erectus beginning some 400,000 years ago has wide scholarly support. Archeological evidence, from 300,000 years ago, in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe, anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago, when hearths started appearing. More recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the nineteenth-century Age of Nationalism cuisine became a symbol of national identity. Communication between the Old World and the New World in the Colombian exchange influenced the history of cooking, the Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, in the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias and fast-food establishments emerged. Along with changes in food, starting early in the 20th century, governments have issued nutrition guidelines, the 1916 Food For Young Children became the first USDA guide to give specific dietary guidelines. Updated in the 1920s, these guides gave shopping suggestions for different-sized families along with a Depression Era revision which included four cost levels, in 1943, the USDA created the Basic Seven chart to make sure that people got the recommended nutrients. It included the first-ever Recommended Daily Allowances from the National Academy of Sciences, in 1956, the Essentials of an Adequate Diet brought recommendations which cut the number of groups that American school children would learn about down to four. In 1979, a guide called Food addressed the link between too much of certain foods and chronic diseases, but added fats, oils, most ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi
9.
Nutrition
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Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes food intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism, the diet of an organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the availability, the processing and palatability of foods. A healthy diet includes preparation of food and storage methods that preserve nutrients from oxidation, heat or leaching, and they also provide preventive and therapeutic programs at work places, schools and similar institutions. Government regulation especially in terms of licensing, is less universal for the CCN than that of RD or RDN. Another advanced Nutrition Professional is a Certified Nutrition Specialist or CNS and these Board Certified Nutritionists typically specialize in obesity and chronic disease. In order to become certified, potential CNS candidate must pass an examination. This exam covers specific domains within the health sphere including, Clinical Intervention, a poor diet can cause the wasting of kwashiorkor in acute cases, and the stunting of marasmus in chronic cases of malnutrition. The first recorded dietary advice, carved into a Babylonian stone tablet in about 2500 BC, scurvy, later found to be a vitamin C deficiency, was first described in 1500 BC in the Ebers Papyrus. According to Walter Gratzer, the study of nutrition probably began during the 6th century BC, in China, the concept of Qi developed, a spirit or wind similar to what Western Europeans later called pneuma. Food was classified into hot and cold in China, India, Malaya, humours developed perhaps first in China alongside qi. Ho the Physician concluded that diseases are caused by deficiencies of elements, the first recorded nutritional experiment with human subjects is found in the Bibles Book of Daniel. Daniel and his friends were captured by the king of Babylon during an invasion of Israel, selected as court servants, they were to share in the kings fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring vegetables and water in accordance with their Jewish dietary restrictions, the kings chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for ten days and were compared to the kings men. Appearing healthier, they were allowed to continue with their diet, around 475 BC, Anaxagoras stated that food is absorbed by the human body and, therefore, contains homeomerics, suggesting the existence of nutrients. Around 400 BC, Hippocrates, who recognized and was concerned with obesity, the works that are still attributed to him, Corpus Hippocraticum, called for moderation and emphasized exercise. Salt, pepper and other spices were prescribed for various ailments in various preparations for example mixed with vinegar, in the 2nd century BC, Cato the Elder believed that cabbage could cure digestive diseases, ulcers, warts, and intoxication. Living about the turn of the millennium, Aulus Celsus, an ancient Roman doctor, believed in strong and weak foods
10.
Home economics
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Home economics or domestic science, now known as family and consumer sciences, is the profession and field of study that deals with the economics and management of the home and community. The field deals with the relationship between individuals, families, and communities, and the environment in which they live. As a subject of study, FCS is taught in schools, colleges and universities, vocational schools. It prepares students for homemaking or professional careers, or to assist in preparing to fulfill real-life responsibilities at home, as an academic profession, it includes educators in the field and human services professionals. Other topics such as education, and fire prevention may also be covered. Family and consumer science was known in the United States as home economics. The field is known by other names, including human sciences, home science. One of the first to champion the economics of running a home was Catherine Beecher, sister to Harriet Beecher Stowe, Catherine and Harriet both were leaders in mid-19th century North America in talking about domestic science. They came from a religious family that valued education especially for women. Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Illinois, Minnesota and Michigan were early leaders offering programs for women, there were women graduates of these institutions several years before the Lake Placid Conferences which gave birth to the home economics movement. The home economics movement started with Ellen Swallow Richards, who was the first woman to attend Massachusetts Institute of Technology, through her chemistry research, she became an expert in water quality and later began to focus on applying scientific principles to domestic situations. She shunned an invitation to participate in the Women’s Building as she said none of her research was just women’s work and they met at pristine Lake Placid, New York at the invitation of Melvil Dewey. Over the course of the next 10 years, these educators worked tirelessly to elevate the discipline, Richards wanted to call this oekology or the science of right living. Euthenics, the science of environment, was also a name of her choice. Richards then founded the American Home Economics Association in 1909, in the 1910s the AHEA won passage of two crucial pieces of legislation that allowed home economists to establish formal niches for research and teaching within institutions of higher education. This legislation contributed to the creation of the Office of Home Economics, Home economics emerged at the turn of the twentieth century as a movement to train women to be more efficient household managers. At the same moment, American families began to consume many more goods, in the 19th century, home economics classes were intended to ready young women for their duties in the home in healthy environments. Classes were first offered in the United States, Canada, Germany and Great Britain, followed by Latin America, Asia, International organizations such as those associated with the United Nations have been involved in starting home economics programs around the world
11.
Food and cooking hygiene
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Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards, in this way food safety often overlaps with food defense to prevent harm to consumers. The tracks within this line of thought are safety between industry and the market and then between the market and the consumer. In considering market to consumer practices, the thought is that food ought to be safe in the market. Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a medium for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. In theory, food poisoning is 100% preventable, the five key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO, are, Prevent contaminating food with pathogens spreading from people, pets, and pests. Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods, cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature to kill pathogens. Store food at the proper temperature, do use safe water and safe raw materials. This is a derivative of ISO9000. A2003 World Health Organization report concluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes. According to the WHO and CDC, in the USA alone, annually, in 1963, the WHO and FAO published the Codex Alimentarius which serves as an guideline to food safety. Same for polysorbate E435, see 2012.0838 from Denmark, unauthorised polysorbates in coconut milk, only for the latter the EU amended its regulations with No 583/2012 per 2 July 2012 to allow this additive, already used for decades and absolutely necessary. Food Standards Australia New Zealand requires all businesses to implement food safety systems. These systems are designed to ensure food is safe to consume and halt the increasing incidence of food poisoning, potential problems associated with product packaging such as leaks in vacuum packs, damage to packaging or pest infestation, as well as problems and diseases spread by pests. Also covers potential causes of cross contamination, catering for customers who are particularly at risk of food-borne illness, as well as those with allergies or intolerance. Correct cleaning and sanitizing procedures, cleaning products and their use. Personal hygiene, hand washing, illness, and protective clothing, Food safety standards and requirements are set out at the national level in the Food Standards Code, and brought Into force in each state by state-based Acts and Regulations. Legislation means that people responsible for selling or serving unsafe food may be liable for heavy fines, Food safety is a growing concern in Chinese agriculture
12.
Apron
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An apron is a functional accessory that layers over ones outfit to protect ones clothes and skin from incidental stains and marks. As a top layer that covers the front body, the apron is worn as a uniform, adornment. Apron styles adapt to the tastes of the times to suite the values, the practical, fashionable sentimental nature of the apron has made it a cherished accessory for centuries. Because aprons provide comfort, protection and a sense of preparedness—the apron will always be a garment for people who work, clean, entertain. Because the apron is a top layer, the apron will continue to be worn as a fashion accessory both inside—and outside—the home, aprons were used by both the Native Indians and the pilgrims when America was first colonized—and have been well worn in America ever since. The apron fell out of favor in the 1960s after its rise to celebrity in the 50’s when it became the symbol for family. As women started looking outside the home for satisfaction and work, people started doing their work without an apron entirely or they choose to wear a bib apron. The bib apron remains the dominate apron on the market and is offered in a multitude of variations, colors, detailing, simple, functional aprons were already a staple by the time the Pilgrims docked on the shore of Plymouth Rock. American Indians wore aprons for both practical and ceremonial purposes, early female settlers wore plain, long white aprons. Later, Quaker women wore long and colorful silk aprons, as cities in New England grew, more elaborate options began to appear. The “Hooverette” or “Hoover apron” emerged in the 1910s, named after the man in charge of the U. S. Food Administration at the time and this wraparound apron was popular into the 1920s when fancy half-aprons became fashionable. Stores began selling patterns and kits to make and adorn aprons, aprons of this period followed the silhouette of dapper fashions—long, with no waist line. Women working outside the home wore whatever protective garments their jobs required, including coveralls, smocks, at home, they worked in full-length aprons with hefty pockets and a cinched waistline that were often decorated with buttons, pockets and contrasting colors. Aprons became plain during the Great Depression, since fabric was scarce, women would make aprons out of Flour Sacks and feed sacks to protect their clothing. Pinafore aprons, or “pinnies” as they were called, began to gain popularity. Dorothy famously wore a blue and white gingham pinafore in The Wizard of Oz, post-war family values made the apron the symbol of home, family, mother and wife. As Sewing machines and cloth became available, aprons—both commercial and homemade—became the uniform of the professional housewife, magazines from the 1940s and 50s feature apron-adorned women in nearly every advertisement that is related to housework or cooking. Aprons were a feature for irons, kitchen appliances, food products
13.
Invention
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An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition or process. The invention process is a process within an overall engineering and product development process and it may be an improvement upon a machine or product or a new process for creating an object or a result. An invention that achieves a unique function or result may be a radical breakthrough. Such works are novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field, an inventor may be taking a big step in success or failure. A patent legally protects the property rights of the inventor. The rules and requirements for patenting an invention vary from country to country, another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviours adopted by people and passed on to others. The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines, Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of knowledge, experience or capability. Brainstorming also can spark new ideas for an invention, collaborative creative processes are frequently used by engineers, designers, architects and scientists. Co-inventors are frequently named on patents, in addition, many inventors keep records of their working process - notebooks, photos, etc. including Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Evangelista Torricelli, Thomas Jefferson and Albert Einstein. In the process of developing an invention, the idea may change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand, working on one invention can lead to others too. History shows that turning the concept of an invention into a device is not always swift or direct. Inventions may also more useful after time passes and other changes occur. For example, the became more useful once powered flight was a reality. Invention is often a creative process, an open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, connection, or relationship can spark an invention, inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Sometimes inventors disregard the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields, several concepts may be considered when thinking about invention
14.
Domestic worker
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A domestic worker or domestic helper or domestic servant is a person who works within the employers household. Other responsibilities may include cooking, laundry and ironing, shopping for food, such work has always needed to be done but before the Industrial Revolution and the advent of labour saving devices, it was physically much harder. Some domestic helpers live within their employers household, in some cases, the contribution and skill of servants whose work encompassed complex management tasks in large households have been highly valued. However, for the most part, domestic work, while necessary, is demanding, although legislation protecting domestic workers is in place in many countries, it is often not extensively enforced. In many jurisdictions, domestic work is regulated and domestic workers are subject to serious abuses. Servant is an older English word for domestic worker, though not all servants worked inside the home, Domestic service, or the employment of people for wages in their employers residence, was sometimes simply called service and has often been part of a hierarchical system. The United Kingdoms Master and Servant Act 1823 was the first of its kind and influenced the creation of domestic laws in other nations. However, before the passing of such Acts servants, and workers in general, had no protection in law, the only real advantage that domestic service provided was the provision of meals, accommodation, and sometimes clothes, in addition to a modest wage. Service was normally an apprentice system with room for advancement through the ranks, the conditions faced by domestic workers have varied considerably throughout history and in the contemporary world. In 2011, the International Labour Organization adopted the Convention Concerning Decent Work for Domestic Workers. In July 2011, at the annual International Labour Conference, held by the ILO, conference delegates adopted the Convention on Domestic Workers by a vote of 396 to 16, the Convention recognized domestic workers as workers with the same rights as other workers. On 26 April 2012, Uruguay was the first country to ratify the convention, many domestic workers are live-in domestics. Though they often have their own quarters, their accommodations are not usually as comfortable as those reserved for the family members, in some cases, they sleep in the kitchen or small rooms, such as a box room, sometimes located in the basement or attic. Domestic workers may live in their own home, though often they are live-in domestics, meaning that they receive their room. The majority of workers in China, Mexico, India. Employers may require their domestic workers to wear a uniform, livery or other domestic workers clothes when in their employers residence, the uniform is usually simple, though aristocratic employers sometimes provided elaborate decorative liveries, especially for use on formal occasions. In traditional portrayals, the attire of domestic workers especially was typically more formal, on 30 March 2009, Peru adopted a law banning employers from requiring domestic workers to wear uniform at public places. However, it’s not explained which punishments will be given to employers violating the law, chile adopted a similar law in 2014, also banning employers to require domestic workers to wear uniform at public places
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Tool
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A tool is any physical item that can be used to achieve a goal, especially if the item is not consumed in the process. Tool use by humans dates back millions of years, and other animals are known to employ simple tools. Tools that are used in fields or activities may have different designations such as instrument, utensil, implement, machine, device. The set of tools needed to achieve a goal is equipment, the knowledge of constructing, obtaining and using tools is technology. Anthropologists believe that the use of tools was an important step in the evolution of mankind, because tools are used extensively by both humans and wild chimpanzees, it is widely assumed that the first routine use of tools took place prior to the divergence between the two species. These early tools, however, were made of perishable materials such as sticks. Stone artifacts only date back to about 2.5 million years ago, however, a 2010 study suggests the hominin species Australopithecus afarensis ate meat by carving animal carcasses with stone implements. This finding pushes back the earliest known use of tools among hominins to about 3.4 million years ago. Finds of actual tools date back at least 2.6 million years in Ethiopia, one of the earliest distinguishable stone tool forms is the hand axe. Up until recently, weapons found in digs were the tools of “early man” that were studied. Now, more tools are recognized as culturally and historically relevant, as well as hunting, other activities required tools such as preparing food, “…nutting, leatherworking, grain harvesting and woodworking…” Included in this group are “flake stone tools. “Man the hunter” as the catalyst for Hominin change has been questioned, based on marks on the bones at archaeological sites, it is now more evident that pre-humans were scavenging off of other predators carcasses rather than killing their own food. Mechanical devices experienced an expansion in their use in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome with the systematic employment of new energy sources. Their use expanded through the Dark Ages with the addition of windmills, machine tools occasioned a surge in producing new tools in the industrial revolution. Advocates of nanotechnology expect a similar surge as tools become microscopic in size, one can classify tools according to their basic functions, Cutting and edge tools, such as the knife, scythe or sickle, are wedge-shaped implements that produce a shearing force along a narrow face. Ideally, the edge of the needs to be harder than the material being cut or else the blade will become dulled with repeated use. But even resilient tools will require periodic sharpening, which is the process of removing deformation wear from the edge, other examples of cutting tools include gouges and drill bits. Moving tools move large and tiny items, many are levers which give the user a mechanical advantage
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Vacuum cleaner
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The dirt is collected by either a dustbag or a cyclone for later disposal. Specialized shop vacuums can be used to suck up both dust and liquids, although vacuum cleaner and the short form vacuum are neutral names, in some countries hoover is used instead as a genericized trademark, and as a verb. The name comes from the Hoover Company, one of the first, the device is also sometimes called a sweeper although the same term also refers to a carpet sweeper, a similar invention. The vacuum cleaner evolved from the carpet sweeper via manual vacuum cleaners, the first manual models, using bellows, were developed in the 1860s, and the first motorized designs appeared at the turn of the 20th century, with the first decade being the boom decade. In 1860 a carpet sweeper was invented by Daniel Hess of West Union, Iowa that gathered dust with a rotating brush, another early model was the Whirlwind, invented in Chicago in 1868 by Ives W. McGaffey. The bulky device worked with a belt driven fan cranked by hand that made it awkward to operate, a similar model was constructed by Melville R. Bissell of Grand Rapids, Michigan in 1876. The company later added portable vacuum cleaners to its line of cleaning tools, the end of the 19th century saw the introduction of powered cleaners, although early types used some variation of blowing air to clean instead of suction. One appeared in 1898 when John S. Thurman of St. Louis, thurmans system, powered by an internal combustion engine, traveled to the customers residence on a horse-drawn wagon as part of a door to door cleaning service. Corrine Dufour of Savannah, Georgia received two patents in 1899 and 1900 for another blown air system that seems to have featured the first use of an electric motor. In 1901 powered vacuum cleaners using suction were invented independently by British engineer Hubert Cecil Booth, Booth also may have coined the word vacuum cleaner. Kenneys was a stationary 4,000 lb. steam engine powered system with pipes and hoses reaching into all parts of the building. The first vacuum-cleaning device to be portable and marketed at the market was built in 1905 by Walter Griffiths. In 1906 James B. Kirby developed his first of many vacuums called the Domestic Cyclone It used water for dirt separation. In 1907 department store janitor James Murray Spangler of Canton, Ohio invented the first portable vacuum cleaner. Crucially, in addition to suction from a fan that blew the dirt and dust into a soap box and one of his wifes pillow cases. Their first vacuum was the 1908 Model O, which sold for $60, subsequent innovations included the beater bar in 1919, disposal filter bags in the 1920s, and an upright vacuum cleaner in 1926. In Continental Europe, the Fisker and Nielsen company in Denmark was the first to sell vacuum cleaners in 1910, the design weighed just 17.5 kg and could be operated by a single person. The Swedish company Electrolux launched the innovative Model V in 1921 that was designed to lie on the floor on two thin metal runners and this innovation, conceived by Electrolux founder Axel Wenner-Gren, became a standard feature on generations of future vacuum cleaners
17.
Maid
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A maid, or housemaid or maidservant, is a female person employed in domestic service. Although now usually only in the most wealthy of households, in the Victorian era domestic service was the second largest category of employment in England and Wales. In the contemporary Western world, comparatively few households can afford live-in domestic help, Maids perform typical domestic chores such as cooking, ironing, washing, cleaning the house, grocery shopping, walking the family dog, and taking care of children. In many places in some countries, maids often take on the role of a nurse in taking care of the elderly. Many maids are required by their employers to wear a uniform, legislation in many countries makes certain living conditions, working hours, or minimum wages a requirement of domestic service. Nonetheless, the work of a maid has always been hard, involving a full day, the word maid itself is short for maiden, meaning virgin. Maids traditionally have a position in the hierarchy of the large households. House-maid or housemaid, a term for maids whose function was chiefly above stairs, and were usually a little older. Where a household included multiple House Maids they were often sub-divided as below, head house-maid, the senior house maid, reporting to the Housekeeper. Parlour maid, the parlour maids cleaned and tidied reception rooms and living areas by morning, and often served refreshments at afternoon tea and they tidied studies and libraries, and answered bells calling for service. Chamber maid, the chamber maids cleaned and maintained the bedrooms, ensured fires were lit in fireplaces, laundry maid, the laundry maids maintained bedding and towels. They also washed, dried, and ironed clothes for the whole household, under house parlour maid, the general deputy to the house parlour maid in a small establishment which had only two upstairs maids. Nursery maid, also a maid, but one who worked in the childrens nursery, maintaining fires, cleanliness. Reported to the Nanny rather than the Housekeeper, kitchen maid, a below stairs maid who reported to the Cook, and assisted in running the kitchens. Head kitchen maid, where multiple kitchen maids were employed, the kitchen maid was effectively a deputy to the cook. Under kitchen maid, where multiple kitchen maids were employed these were the staff who prepared vegetables, peeled potatoes, in more modest households a single maid-of-all-work or skivvy was often the only staff. It is possible this word originates from the Italian for slave, one of the most in-depth and enduring representations of the lives of several types of maid was seen in the 1970s television drama Upstairs, Downstairs, set in England between 1903 and 1936. Another representation of the lives of maids is seen nowadays in Downton Abbey, set in England between 1912 and 1926
18.
Homemaking
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Homemaking is a mainly American term for the management of a home, otherwise known as housework, housekeeping, or household management. It is the act of overseeing the organizational, day-to-day operations of a house or estate, and the managing of other domestic concerns. A person in charge of the homemaking, who isnt employed outside the home, is in the U. S. and Canada often called a homemaker, a gender-neutral term for a housewife or a househusband. The term homemaker, however, may refer to a social worker who manages a household during the incapacity of the housewife or househusband. Housework is not always a lifetime commitment, many, for economic or personal reasons, in previous decades, there were many mandatory courses for the young to learn the skills of homemaking. In high school, courses included cooking, nutrition, home economics, family and consumer science and this last one may underlie the tradition that a homemaker is portrayed wearing an apron. More recently, most of these courses have been abolished, and many youths in school and college would be more likely to study child development. The reason for this is that mechanical invention has been applied extensively to different tasks of the home, inventors have developed mechanical labor-saving devices not only for the shop and office, but also for the home. There are, on the market, thousands of tools, devices. It only remains for the homemaker to choose between them, another reason for the great supply and demand for household labor savers in the industrial world is that the homemaker has to face the increasingly complex problem of scarce domestic help. With cheap labor, the need for the mechanical replacers of labor, or mechanical servants, will not be felt, however. It is to class of homemakers who are actively concerned in domestic work that the labor-saver. The homemakers time and effort are worth conserving by every means, homemakers should, therefore, be eager to buy and use all the household tools that will save their strength and time and liberate them from household drudgery. While some homemakers are handy with tools, the remains that most homemakers are unfamiliar with the different principles involved in mechanical tools. The homemaker, however, is called to have knowledge of the principles of applied mechanics, courses in school physics unfortunately leave a student with little practical knowledge that can be applied to domestic equipment. The gaining of knowledge concerning domestic tools may lead the homemaker to purchase good quality equipment, housekeeping by the homemaker is the care and control of property, ensuring its maintenance and proper use and appearance. A home is a place of residence, in a private home a maid or housekeeper might be employed to do some of the housekeeping. Housework is work done by the act of housekeeping, Some housekeeping is housecleaning and some housekeeping is home chores
19.
Diet (nutrition)
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In nutrition, diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. The word diet often implies the use of intake of nutrition for health or weight-management reasons. Although humans are omnivores, each culture and each person holds some food preferences or some food taboos and this may be due to personal tastes or ethical reasons. Individual dietary choices may be more or less healthy, complete nutrition requires ingestion and absorption of vitamins, minerals, and food energy in the form of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Dietary habits and choices play a significant role in the quality of life, health, some cultures and religions have restrictions concerning what foods are acceptable in their diet. For example, only Kosher foods are permitted by Judaism, although Buddhists are generally vegetarians, the practice varies and meat-eating may be permitted depending on the sects. In Hinduism, vegetarianism is the ideal, jains are strictly vegetarian and consumption of roots is not permitted. Raw foodism is another contemporary trend and these diets may require tuning or supplementation such as vitamins to meet ordinary nutritional needs. A particular diet may be chosen to seek weight loss or weight gain, changing a subjects dietary intake, or going on a diet, can change the energy balance and increase or decrease the amount of fat stored by the body. Some foods are recommended, or even altered, for conformity to the requirements of a particular diet. These diets are recommended in conjunction with exercise. Specific weight loss programs can be harmful to health, while others may be beneficial, the terms healthy diet and diet for weight management are often related, as the two promote healthy weight management. Having a healthy diet is a way to prevent health problems, and will provide the body with the balance of vitamins, minerals. An eating disorder is a disorder that interferes with normal food consumption. It is defined by abnormal eating habits that may involve either insufficient or excessive diet, a healthy diet may improve or maintain optimal health. In developed countries, affluence enables unconstrained caloric intake and possibly inappropriate food choices, health agencies recommend that people maintain a normal weight by limiting consumption of energy-dense foods and sugary drinks, eat plant-based food, limit red and processed meat, and limit alcohol. Diet food Dieting Dessert crop Nutrition psychology The dictionary definition of diet at Wiktionary
20.
Cuisine
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A cuisine is a style of cooking characterized by distinctive ingredients, techniques and dishes, and usually associated with a specific culture or geographic region. A cuisine is influenced by the ingredients that are available locally or through trade. Religious food laws, such as Hindu, Islamic and Jewish dietary laws, regional food preparation traditions, customs and ingredients often combine to create dishes unique to a particular region. Some factors that have an influence on a regions cuisine include the areas climate, for example a Tropical diet may be based more on fruits and vegetables, while a polar diet might rely more on meat and fish. The areas climate in large measure determines the native foods that are available, in addition, climate influences food preservation. For example, foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing, the trade among different countries also largely affects a regions cuisine. Dating back to the ancient spice trade, seasonings such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, cinnamon and cassia found their way to the Middle East at least 4,000 years ago. Certain foods and food preparations are required or proscribed by the religiousness or sumptuary laws, such as Islamic dietary laws, Cuisine dates back to the Antiquity. Rome was known for its cuisine, wealthy families would dine in the Triclinium on a variety of dishes, their diet consisted of eggs, cheese, bread, meat, cuisines evolve continually, and new cuisines are created by innovation and cultural interaction. Molecular gastronomy, is a style of cooking which takes advantage of many technical innovations from the scientific disciplines. The term was coined in 1988 by late Oxford physicist Nicholas Kurti and it is also named as multi sensory cooking, modernist cuisine, culinary physics, and experimental cuisine by some chefs. Besides, international trade brings new foodstuffs including ingredients to existing cuisines, a global cuisine is a cuisine that is practiced around the world, and can be categorized according to the common use of major foodstuffs, including grains, produce and cooking fats. Regional cuisines may vary based upon food availability and trade, cooking traditions and practices, for example, in Central and South America, corn, both fresh and dried, is a staple food. In northern Europe, wheat, rye, and fats of animal origin predominate, while in southern Europe olive oil is ubiquitous and rice is more prevalent. In Italy the cuisine of the north, featuring butter and rice, stands in contrast to that of the south, with its wheat pasta, china likewise can be divided into rice regions and noodle & bread regions. Throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean there is a common thread marking the use of lamb, olive oil, lemons, peppers, the vegetarianism practiced in much of India has made pulses such as chickpeas and lentils as significant as wheat or rice. From India to Indonesia the use of spices is characteristic, coconuts, african cuisines use a combination of locally available fruits, cereal grains and vegetables, as well as milk and meat products. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet features a preponderance of milk, curd, in much of tropical Africa, however, cows milk is rare and cannot be produced locally
21.
Cookbook
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A cookbook is a kitchen reference publication that typically contains a collection of recipes. Modern versions may also include illustrations and advice on purchasing quality ingredients or making substitutions. Cookbooks can also cover a variety of topics, including cooking techniques for the home, recipes and commentary from famous chefs, institutional kitchen manuals. Ancient Mesopotamian recipes have been found on three Akkadian tablets, dating to about 1700 BC, the earliest collection of recipes that has survived in Europe is De re coquinaria, written in Latin. An early version was first compiled sometime in the 1st century and has often attributed to the Roman gourmet Marcus Gavius Apicius. An Apicius came to designate a book of recipes, the current text appears to have been compiled in the late 4th or early 5th century, the first print edition is from 1483. It records a mix of ancient Greek and Roman cuisine, but with few details on preparation, an abbreviated epitome entitled Apici Excerpta a Vinidario, a pocket Apicius by Vinidarius, an illustrious man, was made in the Carolingian era. In spite of its date it represents the last manifestation of the cuisine of Antiquity. The earliest cookbooks known in Arabic are those of al-Warraq and al-Baghdadi, chinese recipe books are known from the Tang dynasty, but most were lost. One of the earliest surviving Chinese-language cookbooks is Hu Sihuis Yinshan Zhengyao, Hu Sihui, Buyantu Khans dietitian and therapist, recorded a Chinese-inflected Central Asian cuisine as eaten by the Yuan court, his recipes were adapted from foods eaten all over the Mongol Empire. Eumsik dimibang, written around 1670, is the oldest Korean cookbook, after a long interval, the first recipe books to be compiled in Europe since Late Antiquity started to appear in the late thirteenth century. About a hundred are known to have survived, some fragmentary, low and High German manuscripts are among the most numerous. Among them is Daz buch von guter spise written c.1350 in Würzberg and Kuchenmeysterey, recipes originating in England include the earliest recorded recipe for ravioli and Forme of Cury, a late 14th-century manuscript written by chefs of Richard II of England. With the advent of the press in the 16th and 17th centuries, numerous books were written on how to manage households. In Holland and England competition grew between the families as to who could prepare the most lavish banquet. By the 1660s, cookery had progressed to an art form, many of them published their own books detailing their recipes in competition with their rivals. Many of these books have now been translated and are available online, by the 19th century, the Victorian preoccupation for domestic respectability brought about the emergence of cookery writing in its modern form. Although eclipsed in fame and regard by Isabella Beeton, the first modern writer and compiler of recipes for the home was Eliza Acton
22.
Sanitation
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These hazards may be physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause problems include human and animal excreta, solid wastes, domestic wastewater, industrial wastes. Hygienic means of prevention may involve engineering solutions, simple technologies, or even simply by behavior changes in personal hygiene practices, providing sanitation to people requires a systems approach, rather than only focusing on the toilet or wastewater treatment plant itself. The experience of the user, excreta and wastewater collection methods, transportation or conveyance of waste, treatment, the main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. The World Health Organization defines the term sanitation as follows, Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the disposal of human urine. The word sanitation also refers to the maintenance of conditions, through services such as garbage collection. There are some variations on the definition of sanitation in use. For example, for many organisations, hygiene promotion is seen as an part of sanitation. Despite the fact that sanitation includes wastewater treatment, the two terms are often use side by side as sanitation and wastewater management, Sanitation should be regarded with a systems approach in mind which includes collection/containment, conveyance/transport, treatment, disposal or reuse. Effective sanitation systems provide barriers between excreta and humans in such a way as to break the transmission cycle. This aspect is visualised with the F-diagram where all routes of fecal-oral disease transmission begin with the letter F, feces, fingers, flies, fields, fluids. Container-based sanitation is usually provided as a service involving provision of types of portable toilets. In most cases, CBS is based on the use of urine-diverting dry toilets, the term dry sanitation is somewhat misleading as sanitation includes hand-washing and can never be dry. A more precise term would be dry excreta management, when people speak of dry sanitation they usually mean sanitation systems with dry toilets with urine diversion, in particular the urine-diverting dry toilet. Put in other words, Ecosan systems safely recycle excreta resources to crop production in such a way that the use of resources is minimised. Ecosan is also called resource-oriented sanitation, environmental sanitation encompasses the control of environmental factors that are connected to disease transmission. Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water and wastewater treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise, improved sanitation and unimproved sanitation refers to the management of human feces at the household level. This terminology is the used to describe the target of the Millennium Development Goal on sanitation, by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply
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Kitchen
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A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation in a dwelling or in a commercial establishment. Many households have an oven, a dishwasher and other electric appliances. The main function of a kitchen is serving as a location for storing, cooking and preparing food, commercial kitchens are found in restaurants, cafeterias, hotels, hospitals, educational and workplace facilities, army barracks, and similar establishments. These kitchens are generally larger and equipped with bigger and more heavy-duty equipment than a residential kitchen, for example, a large restaurant may have a huge walk-in refrigerator and a large commercial dishwasher machine. Commercial kitchens are generally subject to public health laws and they are inspected periodically by public-health officials, and forced to close if they do not meet hygienic requirements mandated by law. The evolution of the kitchen is linked to the invention of the range or stove. Food was cooked over an open fire, technical advances in heating food in the 18th and 19th centuries changed the architecture of the kitchen. Before the advent of modern pipes, water was brought from a source such as wells. The houses in Ancient Greece were commonly of the atrium-type, the rooms were arranged around a courtyard for women. In many such homes, a covered but otherwise open patio served as the kitchen, homes of the wealthy had the kitchen as a separate room, usually next to a bathroom, both rooms being accessible from the court. In such houses, there was often a small storage room in the back of the kitchen used for storing food. In the Roman Empire, common folk in cities often had no kitchen of their own, some had small mobile bronze stoves, on which a fire could be lit for cooking. Wealthy Romans had relatively well-equipped kitchens, the fireplace was typically on the floor, placed at a wall—sometimes raised a little bit—such that one had to kneel to cook. Early medieval European longhouses had a fire under the highest point of the building. The kitchen area was between the entrance and the fireplace, in wealthy homes there was typically more than one kitchen. In some homes there were upwards of three kitchens, the kitchens were divided based on the types of food prepared in them. In place of a chimney, these buildings had a hole in the roof through which some of the smoke could escape. Besides cooking, the fire served as a source of heat
24.
Outline of food preparation
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Food preparation includes but is not limited to cooking. Art – an art, one of the arts, is a creative endeavor or discipline, culinary art – art of preparing and cooking foods. Skill – learned capacity to carry out pre-determined results often with the minimum outlay of time, energy, meal preparation – the process of planning meals. Chef – a person who cooks professionally for other people, although over time the term has come to describe any person who cooks for a living, traditionally it refers to a highly skilled professional who is proficient in all aspects of food preparation. Cooking – act of preparing food for eating and it encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of ingredients to improve the flavour or digestibility of food. It generally requires the selection, measurement and combining of ingredients in a procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Cuisine – specific set of cooking traditions and practices, often associated with a specific culture and it is often named after the region or place where its underlying culture is present. A cuisine is influenced by the ingredients that are available locally or through trade. Baking – the technique of prolonged cooking of food by dry heat acting by convection, normally in an oven, blind baking – baking pastry before adding a filling. Coddling – food is heated in water kept just below the boiling point, infusion – going to a health cafe and ordering tea without the milk or sugar. Pressure cooking – cooking in a vessel that does not permit air or liquids to escape below a preset pressure. Simmering – foods are cooked in hot liquids kept at or just below the point of water. Poaching – process of gently simmering food in liquid, generally milk, steaming – boiling water continuously so it vaporizes into steam and carries heat to the food being steamed, thus cooking the food. Double steaming – Chinese cooking technique in which food is covered with water and put in a ceramic jar. Steeping – saturation of a food in a solvent to extract a soluble ingredient into the solvent. A cup of tea is made by steeping tea leaves in a cup of hot water, stewing – food is cooked in liquid and served in the resultant gravy. Vacuum flask cooking – Grilling – a form of cooking that involves dry heat applied to the surface of food, frying – cooking food in oil or another fat, a technique that originated in ancient Egypt around 2500 BC. Deep frying – food is submerged in hot oil or fat and this is normally performed with a deep fryer or chip pan
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Stove
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A stove is an enclosed space in which fuel is burned to provide heating, either to heat the space in which the stove is situated, or to heat the stove itself and items placed on it. This article is concerned with enclosed stoves burning solid fuels for room heating. A kitchen stove is used to cook food, a wood-burning stove or a coal stove is typically used for heating a dwelling. Enclosed stoves are efficient and prevents air from being sucked from the room into the chimney. Due to concerns about air pollution, efforts have made to improve stove design. Pellet stoves, for example are a type of clean-burning stove, air-tight stoves more completely combust wood and eliminate polluting combustion products. In the U. S. since 1992, all wood stoves being manufactured must limit particulate emission, the Old English word stofa meant any individual enclosed space, such as a room, and stove is still occasionally used in that sense, as in stoved in. In its earliest attestation, cooking was done by roasting meat, pottery and other cooking vessels may be placed directly on an open fire, but setting the vessel on a support, as simple as a base of three stones, resulted in a stove. The three-stone stove is still used around the world. In some areas it developed into a U-shaped dried mud or brick enclosure with the opening in the front for fuel and air, a kitchen stove, cooker, or cookstove is a kitchen appliance designed for the purpose of cooking food. Kitchen stoves rely on the application of heat for the cooking process. Traditionally these have been fueled by wood and one of the earliest recorded instances of a burning kitchen stove was the so-called stew stove. More modern versions such as the popular Rayburn Range offer a choice between using wood or gas as the fuel source, the most common stove for heating in the industrial world for almost a century and a half was the coal stove that burned coal. Coal stoves came in all sizes and shapes and different operating principles, coal burns at a much higher temperature than wood, and coal stoves must be constructed to withstand the high heat levels. A coal stove can burn wood or coal, but a wood stove cannot burn coal unless a grate is supplied. The grate may be removable or an extra and this is because coal stoves are fitted with a grate so allowing part of the combustion air to be admitted below the fire. The proportion of air admitted above/below the fire depends on the type of coal, brown coal and lignites evolve more combustible gases than say anthracite and so need more air above the fire. The ratio of air above/below the fire must be adjusted to enable complete combustion
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Sink
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A sink—also known by other names including sinker, washbowl, hand basin and wash basin—is a bowl-shaped plumbing fixture used for washing hands, dishwashing, and other purposes. Sinks have taps that supply hot and cold water and may include a feature to be used for faster rinsing. They also include a drain to remove used water, this drain may itself include a strainer and/or shut-off device, Sinks may also have an integrated soap dispenser. When a sink becomes stopped-up or clogged, a person will often resort to use a chemical drain cleaner or a plunger, the washstand was a bathroom sink made in the United States in the late 18th century. The washstands were small tables on which were placed a pitcher, sometimes the table had a hole where the large bowl rested, which led to the making of dry sinks. From about 1820 to 1900 the dry sink evolved by the addition of a cabinet with a trough built on the top. This is where the bowls or buckets for water were kept, splashboards were sometimes added to the back wall, as well as shelves and drawers, the more elaborate designs usually placed in the kitchen. Sinks are made of different materials. These include, Stainless steel is used in kitchens and commercial applications because it represents a good trade-off between cost, usability, durability, and ease of cleaning. Most stainless steel sinks are made by drawing a sheet of steel over a die. Some very deep sinks are fabricated by welding, Stainless steel sinks will not be damaged by hot or cold objects and resist damage from impacts. Enamel over cast iron is a material for kitchen and bathroom sinks. Heavy and durable, these sinks can also be manufactured in a wide range of shapes. Aggressive cleaning will dull the surface, leading to more dirt accumulation, enamel over steel is a similar-appearing but far less rugged and less cost-effective alternative. Solid ceramic sinks have many of the characteristics as enamel over cast iron. Plastic sinks come in basic forms, Inexpensive sinks are simply made using injection-molded thermoplastics. These are often deep, free-standing sinks used in laundry rooms, subject to damage by hot or sharp objects, the principal virtue of these sinks is their low cost. High-end acrylic drop-in and undermount sinks are becoming popular, although they tend to be easily damaged by hard objects - like scouring a cast iron frying pan in the sink
27.
Refrigerator
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Refrigeration is an essential food storage technique in developed countries. The lower temperature lowers the rate of bacteria, so the refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage. A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above the point of water. Optimum temperature range for food storage is 3 to 5 °C. A similar device that maintains a temperature below the point of water is called a freezer. The refrigerator replaced the icebox, which had been a household appliance for almost a century. For this reason, a refrigerator is sometimes referred to as an icebox in American usage, the first cooling systems for food involved using ice. Artificial refrigeration began in the mid-1750s, and developed in the early 1800s, in 1834, the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system was built. The first commercial ice-making machine was invented in 1854, in 1913, refrigerators for home use were invented. In 1923 Frigidaire introduced the first self-contained unit, the introduction of Freon in the 1920s expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s. Home freezers as separate compartments were introduced in 1940, frozen foods, previously a luxury item, became commonplace. Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce, commercial refrigerator and freezer units were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home models. Most households use the style, which has been the basic style since the 1940s. A vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators, refrigerator–freezers and freezers, newer refrigerators may include automatic defrosting, chilled water and ice from a dispenser in the door. Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes, among the smallest is a 4 L Peltier refrigerator advertised as being able to hold 6 cans of beer. A large domestic refrigerator stands as tall as a person and may be about 1 m wide with a capacity of 600 L. Refrigerators and freezers may be free-standing, the refrigerator allows the modern household to keep food fresh for longer than before. Freezers allow people to buy food in bulk and eat it at leisure, before the invention of the refrigerator, icehouses were used to provide cool storage for most of the year. Placed near freshwater lakes or packed snow and ice during the winter
28.
Kitchen cabinet
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Kitchen cabinets are the built-in furniture installed in many kitchens for storage of food, cooking equipment, and often silverware and dishes for table service. Appliances such as refrigerators, dishwashers, and ovens are often integrated into kitchen cabinetry, there are many options for cabinets available at present. As commonly used today, the kitchen cabinet denotes a built-in kitchen installation of either a floor or a wall cabinet. Typically, multiple floor cabinets are covered by a counter and floors and walls are not accessible behind. Kitchen cabinets per se were invented in the 20th century, a precursor, not built-in, was the Hoosier cabinet of the 1910s, a single piece of furniture incorporating storage and work surfaces, of which over 2 million were sold by 1920. Typical kitchens before World War I used freestanding work tables and a pantry for dry storage, cupboards were sometimes used in kitchens, though in larger houses dishes were more typically stored in the dining room or butlers pantry. Perishable foods such as milk, meat, and vegetables were purchased daily, increasing interest in household efficiency led to pioneering motion studies of housework in the 1920s by industrial psychologist Lillian Moller Gilbreth. Subsequent improvements in kitchen design set the stage for the familiar built-in cabinetry of the present day, at the time, work surfaces were typically made of linoleum or stainless steel. Improvements in technology eventually made industrial-scale cabinet production possible, in the U. S. countertops of high-pressure laminates such as Formica became popular. In Europe, built-in cabinets had also pioneered in the 1920s. With improved materials, the frameless cabinet style, notable for its architectural minimalism reminiscent of Bauhaus design, other elements of kitchen design affect the choice of cabinetry. For example, post-modern kitchens tend to be characterized by hardwood floors, earth tones, while these are general kitchen design trends, they have also influenced cabinetry. Modern kitchen design has improved partly as a result of ergonomic research, functionality is important, one research study had anthropological scientists observing homeowners interact with their kitchen cabinets. Kitchens are larger and have more cabinets, some kitchens may have as many as fifty drawers, in 2009, there is more emphasis on cabinets designed with environmental factors in mind. So-called green cabinets are becoming more popular, as homes are becoming more airtight to save on heating and cooling costs, sometimes air quality can suffer, and gases which are released from resins as they cure. Resins, organic materials which convert from liquid to form, are used to manufacture engineered wood frequently used to build kitchen cabinet carcases can be a factor. According to a recent report, Considering Americans spend 90% of their lives indoors, additionally, air quality is not a stand-alone issue, rather, every other component of the home can affect overall air quality. Cabinets consist of six-sided wooden boxes or carcases closed on five sides with a door on the sixth, solid wood remains a popular choice for cabinet parts, including bases, frames, doors, and sides
29.
Microwave oven
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A microwave oven is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to microwave radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum. This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce energy in a process known as dielectric heating. Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the Radarange, it was first sold in 1946, Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955, but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use. The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation, Microwave ovens are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and cooking a variety of foods. They are also useful for heating of otherwise slowly prepared cooking items, such as hot butter, fats. Unlike conventional ovens, microwave ovens usually do not directly brown or caramelize food, exceptions occur in rare cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other very oily items, which attain far higher temperatures than that of boiling water. Some modern microwave ovens are part of units with built-in extractor hoods. The exploitation of high-frequency radio waves for heating substances was possible by the development of vacuum tube radio transmitters around 1920. By 1930 the application of waves to heat human tissue had developed into the medical therapy of diathermy. At the 1933 Chicago Worlds Fair, Westinghouse demonstrated the cooking of foods between two metal plates attached to a 10 kW,60 MHz shortwave transmitter. The Westinghouse team, led by I. F. Mouromtseff, found that foods like steaks and this patent proposed radio frequency heating, at 10 to 20 megahertz. The invention of the cavity magnetron made possible the production of waves of a small enough wavelength. The magnetron was originally a component in the development of short wavelength radar during World War II. A more high-powered microwave generator that worked at shorter wavelengths was needed, sir Henry Tizard travelled to the U. S. in late September 1940 to offer the magnetron in exchange for their financial and industrial help. An early 6 kW version, built in England by the General Electric Company Research Laboratories, Wembley, contracts were awarded to Raytheon and other companies for mass production of the magnetron. In 1945, the heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer. Employed by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from a radar set he was working on started to melt a candy bar he had in his pocket
30.
Dishwasher
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A dishwasher is a mechanical device for cleaning dishware and cutlery. A mix of water and dishwasher detergent is pumped to one or more rotating spray arms, once the wash is finished, the water is drained, more hot water is pumped in and a rinse cycle begins. After the rinse cycle finishes and the water is drained, the dishes are dried using one of several drying methods, typically a rinse aid is used to eliminate water spots for streak-free dishes and glassware resulting from hard water or other reasons. In addition to units, industrial dishwashers are available for use in commercial establishments such as hotels and restaurants. Users operate dishwashers by scraping food from dirty dishes, loading them into the dishwasher racks, adding dishwasher detergent, turning on the device, dishwasher use starts with installation as an appliance. Most home users fix their dishwashers in one place, such as under a countertop, the user scrapes dishes clean, such as by pushing uneaten food from a plate into a waste container as food waste. From the early 2010s, manufacturers have designed consumer dishwashers for use without pre-rinsing or pre-washing, Dishwashers are designed to hold different dishes in different places. For the most common installed two-rack consumer style of dishwasher, the user loads cups, bowls, eating utensils go in the bottom rack into a container, with pointed ends down for safety. Some dishwashers have a rack for utensils. Heavier dishes go on the rack, with large pots facing downward toward the spray nozzle. After the dishwasher is loaded, the user puts dishwasher detergent into the machine, contemporary dishwashers use sensors to determine how much washing is required, and when they finish, will provide clean dishes. Dishwashers and the used in dishwashers are not designed for use with some materials. The washing cycles heat and chemicals can harm kitchen knives and non-stick surface pans, detergents have their own usage restrictions, including not being safe for cleaning various materials like wood or certain metals. The first reports of a mechanical dishwashing device are of an 1850 patent in the United States by Joel Houghton for a hand-powered wood device and this device was made of wood and was cranked by hand while water sprayed onto the dishes. This device was both slow and unreliable, another patent was granted to L. A. Alexander in 1865 that was similar to the first but featured a hand-cranked rack system. Neither device was practical or widely accepted, cochranes inspiration was her frustration at the damage to her good china that occurred when her servants handled it during cleaning. Europes first domestic dishwasher with a motor was invented and manufactured by Miele in 1929. In the United Kingdom, William Howard Livens invented a small, drying elements were even added to his design in 1940
31.
Blender
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A blender is a kitchen and laboratory appliance used to mix, purée, or emulsify food and other substances. A stationary blender consists of a jar with a rotating metal blade at the bottom. Some powerful models can also crush ice, the newer immersion blender configuration has a motor on top connected by a shaft to a rotating blade at the bottom, which can be used with any container. Different blenders have different functions and features but product testing indicates that many blenders, glass blenders are heavier and more stable. Plastic is prone to scratching and absorbing the smell of blended food, stainless steel is preferred for its looks, but limits visibility of the food as it is blended. Countertop blenders typically offer 3-16 speed settings, but having more choices in speed settings is not an indication of increased utility for all users. In cases where the blades are removable, the container should have an o-ring or gasket between the body of the container and the base to seal the container and prevent the contents from leaking. The blending container is generally shaped in a way that encourages material to circulate through the blades, the container rests upon a base that contains a motor for turning the blade assembly and has controls on its surface. Most modern blenders offer a number of possible speeds, low-powered blenders require the addition of some liquid to operate correctly. In these blenders, the liquid helps move the solids around the jar, the blades create a whirlpool effect which moves solids from top to bottom, ensuring even contact with the blade. High-powered blenders are capable of milling grains and crushing ice without such assistance, the hand-held immersion blender or stick blender has no container of its own, but instead has a mixing head with rotating blades that can be immersed in a container. Immersion blenders are convenient for homogenizing volumes that are too large to fit in the bowl of a blender or. The operation of an immersion blender requires that the user hold down a switch for as long as the blades operate, handheld blenders are ideal for small and specific tasks, but do not have as many uses as a countertop blender. Countertop blenders are designed to mix, purée, and chop food and their strength is such that the ability to crush ice is an expected feature. In addition to standard food-type blenders, there is a variety of configurations of blender for laboratories. He also introduced the liquefier blender in 1922, in the 1930s, L. Hamilton, Chester Beach and Fred Osius, produced Poplawski’s invention under the brand name Hamilton Beach Company. Fred Osius improved the appliance, making another kind of blender and he approached Fred Waring, a popular musician who financed and promoted the Miracle Mixer, released in 1933. Waring Products is now a part of Conair, Waring long used the spelling blendor for its product
32.
Cooker
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Cooker may refer to several types of cooking appliances and devices used for cooking foods. Cook stove – heated by burning wood, charcoal, animal dung or crop residue, Cook stoves are commonly used for cooking and heating food in developing countries. Electric cooker – an electric powered cooking device for heating and cooking of food Gas stove – uses natural gas, propane, butane, most modern stoves come in a unit with built-in extractor hoods. Induction cooker – heats a cooking vessel with induction heating, instead of infrared radiation from electrical wires or a gas flame as with a cooking stove. For all models of induction cooktop, a vessel must be made of a ferromagnetic metal such as cast iron or stainless steel or at least compounded with a steel inlay. Copper, glass and aluminum vessels can be placed on a ferromagnetic disk which enables these materials to be used. Kitchen stove – a kitchen designed for the purpose of cooking food. Kitchen stoves rely on the application of heat for the cooking process and may also contain an oven. Pressure cooker – heats food quickly because the steam pressure from the boiling liquid causes saturated steam to bombard. Thus, higher temperature water vapour, which heat more rapidly compared to dry air. Rice cooker – also referred to as a steamer, is an electric kitchen appliance used to boil or steam rice. Electric rice cookers were developed in Japan, where they are known as suihanki, slow cooker – also known as a Crock-Pot, is a countertop electrical cooking appliance that is used for simmering, which requires maintaining a relatively low temperature. It allows for the cooking for many hours of pot roast, stews, soups, boiled dinners and other suitable dishes, including dips, desserts. Solar cooker – a device uses the energy of direct sunlight to heat. Cookers Cooking apple Cook List of cooking appliances List of cooking techniques List of ovens List of stoves List of words having different meanings in British and American English, A–L#C
33.
Dining
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Eating is the ingestion of food, typically to provide a heterotrophic organism with energy and to allow for growth. Fungi digest organic matter outside of their bodies as opposed to animals that digest their food inside their bodies, for humans, eating is an activity of daily living. Some individuals may limit their amount of nutritional intake and this may be a result of a lifestyle choice, due to hunger or famine, as part of a diet or as religious fasting. Many homes have an eating room or outside kitchen area devoted to preparation of meals and food. Some trains have a dining car, most societies also have restaurants, food courts, and food vendors so that people may eat when away from home, when lacking time to prepare food, or as a social occasion. At their highest level of sophistication, these places become theatrical spectacles of global cosmopolitanism, at picnics, potlucks, and food festivals, eating is in fact the primary purpose of a social gathering. At many social events, food and beverages are available to attendees. Dishware, silverware, drinkware, and cookware come in an array of forms. People usually have two or three meals a day regularly, snacks of smaller amounts may be consumed between meals. Some propose not snacking, instead advocating three meals a day with four to six hours between, having three well-balanced meals will then account to some 1800–2000 kcal, which is the average requirement for a regular person. The issue of healthy eating has long been an important concern to individuals, among other practices, fasting, dieting, and vegetarianism are all techniques employed by individuals and encouraged by societies to increase longevity and health. Some religions promote vegetarianism, considering it wrong to consume animals, Eating can also be a way of making money. In jurisdictions under sharia law, it may be proscribed for Muslim adults during the hours of Ramadan. Newborn babies do not eat adult foods and they survive solely on breast milk or formula. Small amounts of pureed food are sometimes fed to infants as young as two or three months old, but most infants do not eat adult food until they are between six and eight months old. Young babies eat pureed baby foods because they have few teeth, between 8 and 12 months of age, the digestive system improves, and many babies begin eating finger foods. Their diet is limited, however, because most babies lack molars or canines at this age. By 18 months, babies often have teeth and a sufficiently mature digestive system to eat the same foods as adults
34.
Entertaining
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Entertainment is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience, or gives pleasure and delight. It can be an idea or a task, but is likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audiences attention. Although peoples attention is held by different things, because individuals have different preferences in entertainment, most forms are recognisable, the process has been accelerated in modern times by an entertainment industry that records and sells entertainment products. This may be the case in the forms of ceremony, celebration, religious festival. Hence, there is the possibility that what appears as entertainment may also be a means of achieving insight or intellectual growth, an important aspect of entertainment is the audience, which turns a private recreation or leisure activity into entertainment. Entertainment can be public or private, involving formal, scripted performance, as in the case of theatre or concerts, or unscripted and spontaneous, most forms of entertainment have persisted over many centuries, evolving due to changes in culture, technology, and fashion. Films and video games, for example, although they use media, continue to tell stories, present drama. Festivals devoted to music, film, or dance allow audiences to be entertained over a number of consecutive days, some activities that were once considered entertaining, particularly public punishments, have been removed from the public arena. In the same way, other necessary skills, such as cooking, have developed into performances among professionals, staged as global competitions, what is entertainment for one group or individual may be regarded as work by another. The familiar forms of entertainment have the capacity to cross over different media and have demonstrated a seemingly unlimited potential for creative remix and this has ensured the continuity and longevity of many themes, images, and structures. Entertainment can be distinguished from other such as education and marketing even though they have learned how to use the appeal of entertainment to achieve their different goals. The importance and impact of entertainment is recognised by scholars and its increasing sophistication has influenced practices in other such as museology. Psychologists say the function of entertainment is the attainment of gratification. No other results or measurable benefit are usually expected from it and this is in contrast to education and marketing. However, the distinctions become blurred when education seeks to be more entertaining, such mixtures are often known by the neologisms edutainment or infotainment. The psychology of entertainment as well as of learning has been applied to all these fields, some education-entertainment is a serious attempt to combine the best features of the two. Some people are entertained by others pain or the idea of their unhappiness, an entertainment might go beyond gratification and produce some insight in its audience when it skillfully considers universal philosophical questions such as, What is the meaning of life. What does it mean to be human, what is the right thing to do
35.
Food
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Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce
36.
Heat
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In physics, heat is the amount of energy flowing from one body to another spontaneously due to their temperature difference, or by any means other than through work or the transfer of matter. Thus, energy exchanged as heat during a process changes the energy of each body by equal. The sign of the quantity of heat can indicate the direction of the transfer, for example from system A to system B, negation indicates energy flowing in the opposite direction. While heat flows spontaneously from hot to cold, it is possible to construct a heat pump or refrigeration system that does work to increase the difference in temperature between two systems, conversely, a heat engine reduces an existing temperature difference to do work on another system. Heat is a consequence of the motion of particles. When heat is transferred between two objects or systems, the energy of the object or systems particles increases, as this occurs, the arrangement between particles becomes more and more disordered. In other words, heat is related to the concept of entropy, historically, many energy units for measurement of heat have been used. The standards-based unit in the International System of Units is the joule, Heat is measured by its effect on the states of interacting bodies, for example, by the amount of ice melted or a change in temperature. The quantification of heat via the change of a body is called calorimetry. In calorimetry, sensible heat is defined with respect to a specific chosen state variable of the system, sensible heat causes a change of the temperature of the system while leaving the chosen state variable unchanged. Heat transfer that occurs at a constant system temperature but changes the state variable is called latent heat with respect to the variable, for infinitesimal changes, the total incremental heat transfer is then the sum of the latent and sensible heat. Physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in his 1871 classic Theory of Heat, was one of many who began to build on the established idea that heat has something to do with matter in motion. This was the idea put forth by Benjamin Thompson in 1798. One of Maxwells recommended books was Heat as a Mode of Motion, Maxwell outlined four stipulations for the definition of heat, It is something which may be transferred from one body to another, according to the second law of thermodynamics. It is a quantity, and so can be treated mathematically. It cannot be treated as a substance, because it may be transformed into something that is not a material substance. Heat is one of the forms of energy and this was the way of the historical pioneers of thermodynamics. Maxwell writes that convection as such is not a purely thermal phenomenon, in thermodynamics, convection in general is regarded as transport of internal energy
37.
Digestion
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Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is divided into two processes based on how food is broken down, mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use. In the human system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication, a form of mechanical digestion. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small and it will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion, gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. As these two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis and this allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. After some time, the resulting liquid is called chyme. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood, 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~6.9, some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation, there is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, some organisms, including nearly all spiders, simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent soup. Bacteria use several systems to obtain nutrients from other organisms in the environments, in a channel transupport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a system, which consists of only three protein subunits, the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein, and outer membrane protein
38.
Chemistry
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Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
39.
Liquid
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A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four states of matter. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, water is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, a distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is in form as interstellar clouds or in plasma form within stars. Liquid is one of the four states of matter, with the others being solid, gas. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, a liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, if liquid is placed in a bag, it can be squeezed into any shape. These properties make a suitable for applications such as hydraulics. Liquid particles are bound firmly but not rigidly and they are able to move around one another freely, resulting in a limited degree of particle mobility. As the temperature increases, the vibrations of the molecules causes distances between the molecules to increase. When a liquid reaches its point, the cohesive forces that bind the molecules closely together break. If the temperature is decreased, the distances between the molecules become smaller, only two elements are liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, mercury and bromine. Four more elements have melting points slightly above room temperature, francium, caesium, gallium and rubidium, metal alloys that are liquid at room temperature include NaK, a sodium-potassium metal alloy, galinstan, a fusible alloy liquid, and some amalgams
40.
Pottery
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Pottery is the craft of making ceramic material into pots or potterywares using mud. Major types of potterywares include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain, the place where such wares are made by a potter is also called a pottery. Early Neolithic pottery have found in places such as Jomon Japan. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing, however, prior to shaping processes. Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body, air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished either by a called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging. Wedging can also produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, after shaping, it is dried and then fired. Clay ware takes on varying physical characteristics during the making of pottery, at sufficient moisture content, bodies at this stage are in their most plastic form. Leather-hard refers to a body that has been dried partially. At this stage the clay object has approximately 15% moisture content, clay bodies at this stage are very firm and only slightly pliable. Trimming and handle attachment often occurs at the leather-hard state, bone-dry refers to clay bodies when they reach a moisture content at or near 0%. It is now ready to be bisque fired, bisque refers to the clay after the object is shaped to the desired form and fired in the kiln for the first time, known as bisque fired or biscuit fired. This firing changes the body in several ways. Mineral components of the body will undergo chemical changes that will change the colour of the clay. Glaze fired is the stage of some pottery making. A glaze may be applied to the form and the object can be decorated in several ways. After this the object is glazed fired, which causes the material to melt
41.
Housecleaning
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Housekeeping refers to the management of duties and chores involved in the running of a household, such as cleaning, cooking, home maintenance, shopping, laundry and bill pay. These tasks may be performed by any of the household members, the term is also used to refer to the money allocated for such use. By extension, an office or organization, as well as the maintenance of computer storage systems, a housekeeper is a person employed to manage a household, and the domestic staff. It includes activities such as housecleaning, that is, disposing of rubbish, cleaning dirty surfaces and it may also involve some outdoor chores, such as removing leaves from rain gutters, washing windows and sweeping doormats. The term housecleaning is often used figuratively in politics and business, for the removal of unwanted personnel. Housecleaning is done to make the look and smell better. Tools used in housecleaning include vacuums, brooms, mops and sponges, together with cleaning products such as detergents, disinfectants, disposal of rubbish is an important aspect of house cleaning. Plastic bags are designed and manufactured specifically for the collection of litter, many are sized to fit common waste baskets and trash cans. Paper bags are made to carry aluminum cans, glass jars and other things although most people use plastic bins for glass since it could break, recycling is possible with some kinds of litter. Over time dust accumulates on household surfaces, as well as making the surfaces dirty, when dust is disturbed it can become suspended in the air, causing sneezing and breathing trouble. It can also transfer from furniture to clothing, making it unclean, vacuum cleaners often have a variety of tools to enable them to remove dirt not just from carpets and rugs, but from hard surfaces and upholstery. Examples of dirt or soil are detritus and common spills and stains that exists in the home, equipment used with a cleaner might be a bucket and sponge or a rag. A modern tool is the bottle, but the principle is the same. Various household cleaning products have been developed to facilitate the removal of dust and dirt, for surface maintenance, Products are available in powder, liquid or spray form. The basic ingredients determine the type of cleaning tasks for which they are suitable, some are packaged as general purpose cleaning materials while others are targeted at specific cleaning tasks such as drain clearing, oven cleaning, lime scale removal and polishing furniture. Household cleaning products provide aesthetic and hygiene benefits but are associated with health risks for the users. The US Department of Health and Human Services offers the public access to the Household Products Database and this database provides consumer information for over 4,000 products based on information provided by the manufacturer through the material safety data sheet. Surfactants lower the tension of water, making it able to flow into smaller tiny cracks
42.
Municipal solid waste
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Municipal solid waste, commonly known as trash or garbage in the United States and as refuse or rubbish in Britain, is a waste type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public. Garbage can also specifically to food waste, as in a garbage disposal. The composition of municipal solid waste varies greatly from municipality to municipality, in municipalities which have a well developed waste recycling system, the waste stream consists mainly of intractable wastes such as plastic film, and non-recyclable packaging materials. At the start of the 20th century, the majority of waste in the UK consisted of coal ash from open fires. Most definitions of municipal solid waste do not include industrial wastes, agricultural wastes, medical waste, Waste collection is performed by the municipality within a given area. The term residual waste relates to waste left from household sources containing materials that have not been separated out or sent for reprocessing, the municipal solid waste industry has four components, recycling, composting, disposal, and waste-to-energy via incineration. This location may be a processing facility, a transfer station or a landfill disposal site. Waste handling and separation involves activities associated with waste management until the waste is placed in containers for collection. Handling also encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection, separating different types of waste components is an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the source. The types of means and facilities that are now used for the recovery of materials that have been separated at the source include curbside collection, drop-off. This element involves two main steps, first, the waste is transferred from a smaller collection vehicle to larger transport equipment. The waste is transported, usually over long distances, to a processing or disposal site. In the recent years environmental organizations, such as Freegle or Freecycle Network, have been gaining popularity for their online reuse networks and these networks provide a worldwide online registry of unwanted items that would otherwise be thrown away, for individuals and nonprofits to reuse or recycle. Therefore, this free Internet-based service reduces landfill pollution and promotes the gift economy, landfills are created by land dumping. Land dumping methods vary, most commonly it involves the mass dumping of waste into a designated area, after the waste is dumped, it is then compacted by large machines. When the dumping cell is full, it is sealed with a plastic sheet. This is the method of dumping in the United States because of the low cost. Landfills pose the threat of pollution, and can intoxicate ground water, the signs of pollution are effectively masked by disposal companies and it is often hard to see any evidence
