1.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
2.
South Florida
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South Florida is a region of the U. S. state of Florida, comprising the southernmost part of the state. It is one of Floridas three most common directional regions, the others being Central Florida and North Florida and it includes the populous Miami metropolitan area, the Florida Keys, and other localities. South Florida is the part of the continental United States with a tropical climate. As with all regions, South Florida has no official boundaries or status and is defined differently by different sources. A2007 study of Floridas regions by Ary Lamme and Raymond K. Oldakowski found that Floridians surveyed identified South Florida as comprising the southernmost sections of peninsular Florida and that area includes the Miami metropolitan area, the Florida Keys, and the interior region known as the Glades. Additionally, Southwest Florida, representing the states southern Gulf Coast, has emerged as a vernacular region. Some respondents from as far northwest as the southern Tampa Bay area identified their region as being in South Florida rather than Southwest or Central Florida, some entities alternately designate this region South Florida. Its definition includes much of the territory as Lamme and Oldakowskis report as well as additional area. It includes Monroe County and the three counties of Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach, as well as the three Treasure Coast counties of Indian River, St. Lucie, and Martin to the north. The demographics of South Florida residents can be segmented as following, the Miami accent is a regional accent of the American English dialect spoken in South Florida, particularly in Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, and Monroe counties. The accent was born in central Miami, but has expanded to much of South Florida in the past few decades, the Miami accent is most prevalent in younger, native south Floridians. Lamme and Oldakowski identify several demographic, political, and cultural elements that characterize South Florida, politically, South Florida is more liberal than the rest of the state. While less than 10% of people in either North or Central Florida felt their area was liberal, 38% characterized the area as conservative, 26% as moderate. The economy in South Florida is very similar to that in Central Florida, compared to the more diversified economy in North Florida, tourism is by far the most significant industry in South and Central Florida, with a much smaller but vibrant agricultural industry. Lamme and Oldakowskis survey also found some cultural indicators distinguishing South Florida, South Florida is the only region of the state where ethnic foods are as popular as general American cuisine. Additionally, while there was little variation for most styles of music. Country was significantly less popular in South Florida than in North or Central Florida, the Anthony J. Catanese Center for Urban and Environmental Solutions at Florida Atlantic University notes the unusual growth pattern of South Florida. The developed area is urbanized and increasingly continuous and decentralized
3.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
4.
New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
5.
New Orleans
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
6.
Houston
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Houston is the most populous city in the state of Texas and the fourth-most populous city in the United States. With a census-estimated 2014 population of 2.239 million within an area of 667 square miles, it also is the largest city in the southern United States and the seat of Harris County. Located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico, it is the city of Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land. Houston was founded on August 28,1836, near the banks of Buffalo Bayou and incorporated as a city on June 5,1837. The city was named after former General Sam Houston, who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded, the burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the citys population. Houstons economy has an industrial base in energy, manufacturing, aeronautics. Leading in health care sectors and building equipment, Houston has more Fortune 500 headquarters within its city limits than any city except for New York City. The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled, the city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community. Houston is the most diverse city in Texas and has described as the most diverse in the United States. It is home to cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District. Houston has a visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District. In August 1836, two real estate entrepreneurs from New York, Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen, purchased 6,642 acres of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city. The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the general at the Battle of San Jacinto. The great majority of slaves in Texas came with their owners from the slave states. Sizable numbers, however, came through the slave trade. New Orleans was the center of trade in the Deep South. Thousands of enslaved African Americans lived near the city before the Civil War, many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs. Houston was granted incorporation on June 5,1837, with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor, in the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas
7.
Northern Virginia
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With 2.8 million residents, it is the most populous region of Virginia and the Washington metropolitan area. Communities in the form the Virginia portion of the Washington metropolitan area. Notable features of the include the Pentagon and the Central Intelligence Agency, and the many companies which serve them. The areas attractions include various monuments and Colonial and Civil War-era sites such as Mount Vernon and Arlington National Cemetery and it is the most affluent region in the nation. g. Eastern United States vs. western Massachusetts, the name Northern Virginia does not seem to have been used in the early history of the area. The Fairfax line, surveyed in 1746, ran from the first spring of the Potomac to the first spring of the Rappahannock, at the head of the Conway River. The Northern Neck was composed of 5,282,000 acres, at some point, these eastern counties came to be called separately simply the Northern Neck, and, for the remaining area west of them, the term was no longer used. One of the most prominent early mentions of Northern Virginia as a title was the naming of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia during the American Civil War. The most common definition of Northern Virginia includes those counties and independent cities on the Virginia side of the Washington-Baltimore-Northern Virginia Combined Statistical Area. Most narrowly defined, Northern Virginia consists of the counties of Arlington and Fairfax, as well as the independent cities of Alexandria, Falls Church, businesses, governments and non-profit agencies may define the area considered Northern Virginia differently for various purposes. Eight of his supporters were named, among them Thomas Culpeper. On February 25,1673, a new charter was given to Thomas Lord Culpeper, Lord Culpeper was named the Royal Governor of Virginia from 1677–1683. Culpeper County was later named for him when it was formed in 1749, however, in 1682 rioting in the colony forced him to return, but by the time he arrived, the riots were already quelled. After apparently misappropriating £9,500 from the treasury of the colony, he returned to England, during this tumultuous time, Culpepers erratic behavior meant that he had to rely increasingly on his cousin and Virginia agent, Col. Nicholas Spencer. Spencer succeeded Culpeper as acting Governor upon Lord Culpepers departure from the colony, for many years, Lord Culpepers descendants allowed men in Virginia to manage the properties. The lands of Lord Fairfax were defined as that between the Rappahannock and Potomac rivers, and were called the Northern Neck. In 1746 a back line was surveyed and established between the headwaters of the Potomac and Rappahannock rivers, defining the west end of the grants. According to documents held by the Handley Regional Library of the Winchester–Frederick County Historical Society, Lord Fairfax was a lifelong bachelor, and became one of the more well-known persons of the late colonial era
8.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
9.
Southern California
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Southern California, often abbreviated as SoCal, is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises Californias 10 southernmost counties. The region is described as eight counties, based on demographics and economic ties, Imperial, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Santa Barbara. The more extensive 10-county definition, which includes Kern and San Luis Obispo counties, is used and is based on historical political divisions. Southern California is an economic center for the state of California. The 8-county and 10-county definitions are not used for the greater Southern California Megaregion, the megaregions area is more expansive, extending east into Las Vegas, Nevada and south across the Mexican border into Tijuana.5 million people. With over 22 million people, Southern California contains roughly 60 percent of Californias population, located east of Southern California is the Colorado Desert and the Colorado River at the border with Arizona. The Mojave Desert is located at the border with the state of Nevada while towards the south is the Mexico–United States border, within Southern California are two major cities, Los Angeles and San Diego, as well as three of the countrys largest metropolitan areas. With a population of 3,792,621, Los Angeles is the most populous city in California and the second most populous in the United States. South of Los Angeles and with a population of 1,307,402 is San Diego, the second most populous city in the state and the eighth most populous in the nation. The counties of Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, San Bernardino, and Riverside are the five most populous in the state, the motion picture, television, and music industry are centered in the Los Angeles area in Southern California. Hollywood, a district within Los Angeles, gives its name to the American motion picture industry, headquartered in Southern California are The Walt Disney Company, Sony Pictures, Universal, MGM, Paramount Pictures, 20th Century Fox, and Warner Brothers. Universal, Warner Brothers, and Sony also run major record companies, Southern California is also home to a large homegrown surf and skateboard culture. Companies such as Vans, Volcom, Quiksilver, No Fear, RVCA, some of the worlds biggest action sports events, including the X Games, Boost Mobile Pro, and the U. S. Open of Surfing, are all held in Southern California. Southern California is also important to the world of yachting, the annual Transpacific Yacht Race, or Transpac, from Los Angeles to Hawaii, is one of yachtings premier events. The San Diego Yacht Club held the Americas Cup, the most prestigious prize in yachting, from 1988 to 1995, Southern California is home to many sports franchises and sports networks such as Fox Sports Net. Many locals and tourists frequent the Southern California coast for its popular beaches, the desert city of Palm Springs is popular for its resort feel and nearby open spaces. Southern California is not a geographic designation and definitions of what constitutes Southern California vary. Geographically, Californias North-South midway point lies at exactly 37°958.23 latitude, around 11 miles south of San Jose, however, when the state is divided into two areas, the term Southern California usually refers to the 10 southernmost counties of the state
10.
Maryland
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The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
11.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
12.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
13.
Hispanic and Latino Americans
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Hispanic Americans and Latino Americans, are Americans who are descendants of the peoples of Spain, Portugal, or the Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking countries of Latin America. More generally, it includes all persons in the United States who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino, other U. S. government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term, including Brazilians and other Portuguese-speaking groups. The Census Bureau uses the terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably, origin can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the persons parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any race, as the only specifically designated category of ethnicity in the United States, Hispanics form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages. Most Hispanic Americans are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadoran, Dominican, Guatemalan, the predominant origin of regional Hispanic populations varies widely in different locations across the country. Hispanic Americans are the second fastest-growing ethnic group in the United States after Asian Americans, hispanic/Latinos overall are the second-largest ethnic group in the United States, after non-Hispanic Whites. Hispanics have lived within what is now the United States continuously since the founding of St. Augustine by the Spanish in 1565, after Native Americans, Hispanics are the oldest ethnic group to inhabit much of what is today the United States. Spain colonized large areas of what is today the American Southwest and West Coast, the terms Hispanic and Latino refer to an ethnicity, people of this group may be of any race. Hispanic people may share some commonalities in their language, culture, history, according to the Smithsonian Institution, the term Latino includes peoples with Portuguese roots, such as Brazilians, as well as those of Spanish-language origin. In the United States, many Hispanics and Latinos are of both European and Native American ancestry, others are wholly or predominately of European ancestry, or wholly or predominantly of Amerindian ancestry. Many Hispanics and Latinos from the Caribbean, as well as regions of Latin America where African slavery was widespread. The difference between the terms Hispanic and Latino is confusing to some, the U. S. Census Bureau equates the two terms and defines them as referring to anyone from Spain and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Americas. The term Latino has developed a number of definitions, one definition of Latino is a Latin male in the United States. This is the oldest and the definition used in the United States. This definition encompasses Spanish speakers from both Europe and the Americas, under this definition, immigrants from Spain and immigrants from Latin America are both Latino. This definition is consistent with the 21st-century usage by the U. S. Census Bureau and OMB, a later definition of Latino is as a condensed form of the term Latino-Americano, the Spanish word for Latin-American, or someone who comes from Latin America. Under this definition a Mexican American or Puerto Rican, for example, is both a Hispanic and a Latino, a Brazilian American is also a Latino by this definition, which includes those of Portuguese-speaking origin from Latin America. An immigrant from Spain, however, would be classified as Hispanic, while the U. S. Census Bureaus definition of Hispanic is limited to Spain and Spanish-speaking Latin America, other government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term
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Argentine Americans
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Argentine Americans are Americans whose full or partial origin is in Argentina. Prior to the 1970s, the Argentines that emigrated to the United States were classified in the category of Other Hispanics, therefore, early Argentines who settled in the United States arrived primarily in the 1960s, looking for greater economic possibilities. The majority of them held academic degrees, and many were medical doctors, however, immigrants in the late 1970s arrived fleeing the political persecution of the Dirty War. This new immigrant group had a level lower than earlier immigrants. The majority of Argentine immigrants are directed to areas, especially New York City. In the 1980s, that increased to just over 23 percent. Immigration to New York City was popular because of the existing Argentine and Italian communities, the 1990 U. S. Census recorded 92,563 Argentines, evidencing that nearly half of the Argentine immigrants arrived in the last two decades alone. After the nineties, Southern California and Florida became leading destinations for new immigrants from Argentina, the profile of the Argentine American population is generally similar to the overall U. S. populations. Among the key differences, however, is educational attainment, Argentine Americans exhibit a rate of 39. 5% of holders of bachelors, graduate, or professional degrees, contrasted with the 27. 5% of the overall U. S. population. The difference is marked among women,40. 2% for Argentine American females. Another major difference is that 69. 1% of Argentine Americans are immigrants, Argentine Americans had a median household income of $55,044. Again, this is higher than the figure, which was $50,740. The most noticeable Argentine American populations are in the areas of Florida, Texas, California, Illinois, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut. Minority have Amerindian ancestors, Chinese ancestors, Indian/Indo-Caribbean ancestors, only data for immigrant Argentine Americans are available
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Bolivian Americans
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A Bolivian American is an American of Bolivian descent. Bolivian Americans are identified as Indigenous, European, Afro Bolivian, additionally, there are Bolivian Americans of Japanese descent, albeit, in small numbers. Bolivians compose the third smallest Hispanic group in the United States, the highest concentration resides in the Washington Metropolitan Area, which accounts for 38% of the total Bolivian population in the US. Additional areas of concentration include the New York City borough of Queens, Miami-Dade County, Bolivian immigration into the United States occurred in two significant phases. The first phase occurred during and subsequent to the 1952 National Revolution, most of these immigrants consisted of middle- to upper-middle income occupational professionals or political dissidents, and identify with Bolivias White or Criollo society. The second notable phase of Bolivian immigration was a result of Bolivias fiscal policies in the 1970s which gave way to the hyperinflation throughout most of the 1980s, most of these immigrants consisted of lower-income Mestizo and Indigenous Bolivians obtaining work posts as service and manual laborers. Many Bolivians who emigrated to the United States came as tourists, however, many remained indefinitely in the country, setting with family and friends. This made it difficult to know the number of Bolivians living in the United States, between 1984 and 1993, only 4,574 Bolivians got U. S. citizenship. In this period about 457 were naturalized each year, Bolivians have settled throughout the United States, mainly in Washington D. C. Maryland, and Virginia, there are large groups of Bolivian immigrants in Texas, New York City, New Jersey, South Florida, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Chicago. The number of Bolivians in the U. S. in 2006 was estimated at 82,322, slater - singer/songwriter Alberto Torrico - member of the California Unemployment Insurance Appeals Board. Kori Udovički, politician Raquel Welch, actress, author Marcelo Claure, CEO of Sprint Wireless, and Brightstar Corporation Jacob Thalacker - local celebrity, public interest
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Brazilian Americans
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Brazilian Americans are Americans who are of full or partial Brazilian ancestry. There were an estimated 371,529 Brazilian Americans as of 2012, other U. S. Previously, Brazilians were not identified separately from other South Americans. Of approximately 234,761 South American emigres arrived in the United States between 1820 and 1960, at least some of them were Brazilian, the 1960 United States Census report recorded 27,885 Americans of Brazilian ancestry. From 1960 until the mid-1980s, between 1,500 and 2,300 Brazilian immigrants arrived in the United States each year, during the mid-1980s, economic crisis struck Brazil. As a result, between 1986 and 1990 approximately 1.4 million Brazilians emigrated to parts of the world. It was not until this time that Brazilian emigration reached significant levels, thus, between 1987 and 1991, an estimated 20,800 Brazilians arrived in the United States. A significant number of them,8,133 Brazilians, arrived in 1991, the 1990 U. S. Census Bureau recorded that there are about 60,000 Brazilians living in the United States. C. Los Angeles, Miami, Houston, and Phoenix. The 2000 U. S. Census showed that 34.5 percent of Brazilians had completed four or more years of college, second-and third-generation Brazilian Americans tend to have better jobs, they have been educated in the United States, speak English, and have citizenship. Naza is a Brazilian American Visual Artist, people who profess Spiritism make up 1. 3% of the countrys population, and those professing Afro-Brazilian religions make up 0. 3% of the countrys population. Brazilians began immigrating to the United States in large and increasing numbers in the 1980s as a result of worsening conditions in Brazil at that time. However, many of the Brazilians who have emigrated to the United States since this decade have been undocumented, more women have immigrated to the United States from Brazil than men, with the 1990 and 2000 U. S. Censuses showing there to be ten percent more female than male Brazilian Americans, the top three metropolitan areas by Brazilian population are New York City, Boston, and Miami. New York City is a point of entry for Brazilians entering the United States. West 46th Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues in Manhattan has been designated Little Brazil has historically been a center for Brazilians living in or visiting New York City. Another NYC neighborhood home to many Brazilian Americans is located in Astoria, newark, New Jersey is also home to many Brazilian and Portuguese-Americans, most prominently in the citys Ironbound district. Massachusetts, particularly the Boston metropolitan area, has a sizable Brazilian immigrant population, framingham has the highest percentage of Brazilians of any municipality in Massachusetts. Large populations also exist in Somerville, Everett, Barnstable, Lowell, South Floridas large Brazilian community is mostly centered between around the islands and northeastern section of Miami-Dade County with the exception of Doral
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Chilean Americans
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Chilean Americans are Americans who have full or partial origin from Chile. The Chilean population at the 2010 US Census was 126,810, in the United States, Chileans are the fourth smallest Hispanic group from South America and the fifth smallest overall amongst all Hispanic groups. Most Chileans migrating to the United States settle in metropolitan areas, in recent history, it is for economic or academic rather than political reasons that Chileans emigrate. Chileans and other South Americans have been present in the state of California since the 1850s gold rush, not all Chileans made it to the gold fields. Some remained in San Francisco, San Jose, Sacramento, and Stockton where they worked as bricklayers, bakers. Some with capital established themselves in various businesses, particularly the importation of flour, in the cities most tended to congregate and live in specific areas in the poorer sections of town. In the gold fields they lived in camp sites. In the summer of 1849 Chileans constituted the majority of the population of Sonora, Chileans frequently worked their mines as group efforts. When the placer gold ran out around Sonora the Chileans were amongst the first miners in California to extract gold from quartz, names of Chilean towns and places are often found in the names of streets in Northern California, Valparaiso, Santiago, and Calera. Many of San Franciscos streets carry names of residents of Chile, Atherton, Ellis, Lick, Larkin. Chilean women also left their names, Mina and Clementina, manuel Briseño, an early journalist in the mines was one of the founders of the San Diego Union. Juan Evangelista Reyes was a Sacramento pioneer as were the Luco brothers, luis Felipe Ramírez was one of the City Fathers in Marysville. The Leiva family owned at one time, much of the land in Marin County, in 1975, Chilean exiles of the Agusto Pinochet dictatorship established La Peña Cultural Center in Berkeley, California, which is to this day the largest Chilean cultural center in the United States. Chileans integrated quickly and like their Little Chiles, becoming part of the mainstream of the United States, Chilean Americans have achieved many skills as entrepreneurs, judges, congressmen, and others. Most Chilean immigration to the U. S. has occurred largely since the 1990s, for the most part, Chileans left as either political asylees and refugees during the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, or for economic reasons. Also, there have been others that have emigrated to seek higher education, since the 2010 Chile earthquake, many Chileans have pursued economic opportunities in the United States, with Paterson, New Jersey, representing an increasingly common destination. Many of the Pinochet-era immigrants were of middle or upper class origin, a significant proportion of them arrived with advanced educations and well-developed skills. They had contacts with other Chilean exiles and a sense of identity from their commitment to a democratic Chile
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Colombian Americans
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Colombian Americans are Americans who trace their full or partial nationality or heritage to Colombia. They are the largest South American ethnic group in the United States, the first Colombians immigrants who settled in the United States likely arrived in the 1800s. However, the Colombian presence in United States would not be known with certainty since the census did not specify the country of origin for South Americans until 1960. These immigrants did not maintain any relation with their countries, just until a few generations after. Most immigrants settled in Jackson Heights, a neighborhood in the borough of Queens in New York City. The growth of the Colombian American population was slow until 1940, most Colombians who arrived after the mid-1960s wanted to stay in the United States temporarily. Therefore, the number of Colombian illegal immigrants increased, from 250,000 to 350,000 people in the mid 1970s, despite a succession of immigration laws, the Colombian population in the United States continued to grow. New York remained the most popular destination, smaller communities formed in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Houston, Philadelphia, and Washington, D. C. and in the 1970s, North Side, Chicago. Since the 1980s, many Colombians have settled in Miami, initially they settled in Little Havana, the largest Cuban neighborhood, many of them engaged in the business of trade between Miami and Latin America. The area also attracted wealthy Colombians, who settled there to get medical care, send their children to school, and escape from social, economic, by 1987, Colombian Americans were one of the fastest growing Hispanic groups in Miami. By the early 1990s, many Colombian Americans left the metropolitan centers for the due to crime. This trend was started for the first time in the coastal towns of Connecticut. Despite the migration to areas, the largest communities remained in New York City, Miami. In 1990 and 1991,43,891 Colombians were admitted to the United States and they were for the first time the most populous group of illegal immigrants in the US from South America. Between 1992 and 1997, the intensity of the conflict in Colombia increased, so nearly 75,000 Colombians immigrated to the United States in this period, many of them going to California. After of World War I, many Colombians immigrated to United States in order to complete their education there, most of them settled in New York. After the civil war in 1948 and increased poverty in Colombia many Colombians also emigrated to United States during the 1950s, in the 1960s, the economic crisis prompted the emigration of many Colombians to the United States, obtaining U. S. citizenship Between 1960 and 1977. Since the 1980s, many Colombians American fled their cities to migrate to suburban areas in states like New Jersey and Connecticut
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Costa Rican Americans
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Costa Rican Americans are Americans of Costa Rican descent. The Costa Rican population at the 2010 Census was 126,418, Costa Ricans are the fourth smallest Hispanic group in the United States and the smallest Central American population. Costa Rican populations are prominent in the New York Metropolitan Area, additional areas with significant Costa Rican residents include New York City, Suffolk County, New York, and Fairfield County, Connecticut. There are also groups of Costa Ricans in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, South Florida metropolitan area. There have never been waves of migration from Costa Rica to the United States, the Immigration and Naturalization Service records indicate that very few Costa Ricans have actually tried to enter the country illegally. This is because, unlike other Hispanic groups, they have not been forced to emigrate to the U. S. for political oppression or extreme economic circumstances. Most Costa Ricans living in the United States have settled in the U. S. for any of the reasons, they have married American citizens. Since 1931 only 57,661 Costa Ricans have immigrated to the United States, hence, the number of Costa Rican emigrants has been increasing very slowly. This is a different from the pattern of emigration from most other Central American countries. The other two countries in this region that have a slow rate of emigration are Belize and Panama. Costa Ricans tend to blend in the English-speaking population or form working and friendly relationships with other Hispanics. If both parents speak Spanish, chances are that the children will be raised bilingually, however, if only one parent speaks Spanish, the children usually grow up speaking only English. Therefore, they usually acculturate and assimilate rapidly, most of Costa Ricans who live in the US live in California, Florida, Texas, and the New York City / New Jersey area. There is a significant Costa Rican American population in the Chicago, Illinois, the geographical preferences of Costa Ricans become evident in the statistics from the Immigration and Naturalization Service, as consistent with the findings of the 1990 census. Jardines - intelligence officer Rosa Mendes - professional wrestler Candice Michelle - professional wrestler, model, actress Alexander Salazar - prelate Harry Shum, Jr. com
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Cuban Americans
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Cuban Americans are Americans who trace their ancestry to Cuba. Cuban Americans are the third largest Latino group in the United States, many communities throughout the United States have significant Cuban American populations. Florida has the highest concentration of Cuban Americans in the US, standing out in part because of its proximity to Cuba, followed by California, New Jersey, New York and Texas. South Florida is followed by New York City, Tampa, Union County and North Hudson, New Jersey areas, particularly Union City, Elizabeth, with a population of 141,250, the New York metropolitan areas Cuban community is the largest outside of Florida. Nearly 70% of all Cuban Americans live in Florida, thousands of Cuban settlers also immigrated to Louisiana between 1778 and 1802 and Texas during the period of Spanish rule. Since 1820, the Cuban presence was more than 1,000 people. In 1870 the number of Cuban immigrants increased to almost 12,000, of which about 4,500 resided in New York City, about 3,000 in New Orleans, and 2,000 in Key West. The year 1869 marked the beginning of one of the most significant periods of emigration from Cuba to the United States, the exodus of hundreds of workers and businessmen was linked to the manufacture of tobacco. It was an exodus of skilled workers, precisely the class in the island that had succeeded in establishing a free labor sector amid a slave economy. The manufacture of snuff by the Cuban labor force, became the most important source of income for Key West between 1869 and 1900. Tampa was added to such efforts, with a migration of Cubans. However, the half of the 1890s marked the decline of the Cuban immigrant population. The War accentuated Cuban immigrant integration into American society, whose numbers were significant, in the mid- to late 19th century, several cigar manufacturers moved their operations to Key West to get away from growing disruptions as Cubans sought independence from Spanish colonial rule. The Cuban government had established a grammar school in Key West to help preserve Cuban culture. There, children learned folk songs and patriotic hymns such as La Bayamesa, in 1885, Vicente Martinez Ybor moved his cigar operations from Key West to the town of Tampa, Florida to escape labor strife. Ybor City was designed as a company town, and it quickly attracted thousands of Cuban workers from Key West. West Tampa, another new cigar manufacturing community, was founded nearby in 1892, both Ybor City and West Tampa were instrumental in Cubas eventual independence. After the Spanish–American War, some Cubans returned to their native land, several other small waves of Cuban emigration to the U. S. occurred in the early 20th century
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Dominican Americans
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Dominican Americans are Americans who have full or partial origin from the Dominican Republic. Although their emigration began in the century, thousands of Dominicans passed through the gates of Ellis Island in the 19th. The most recent movement of emigration to the United States began in the 1960s, in 2010, there were approximately 1.41 million people of Dominican descent in the US, including both native and foreign-born. Dominican Americans are the fifth-largest Hispanic group in the United States, the first recorded person of Dominican descent to migrate into what is now known as the United States, outside of New Spain, was sailor-turned-merchant Juan Rodriguez. He arrived on Manhattan in 1613 from his home in Santo Domingo and he also became the first Dominican, the first Latino and the first person with European and African ancestry to settle in what is present day New York City. Dominican emigration to the United States continued throughout the centuries, recent research from the CUNY Dominican Studies Institute has identified some 5,000 Dominican immigrants who were processed through Ellis Island between 1892 and 1924. With increased emigration, Dominican diaspora communities have sprouted in New York metro area, New Jersey, Boston metro area, Providence, South Florida, Dominican emigrant communities have similar settlement patterns to that of the Puerto Rican population. Almost half of all the Dominican Americans today arrived since the 1990s, there has been another surge of immigration in recent years as immigration from Mexico has declined, which allowed more backlogged Dominican applicants to obtain legal residence. Dominican Americans are the fifth-largest Hispanic or Latino American group, after Mexican Americans, Stateside Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans, as of 2010, the five largest concentrations of Dominican Americans are in New York, New Jersey, Florida, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. Rhode Island is the state where Dominicans are the largest Hispanic group. Dominicans are the most dominant Hispanic group in most of southeastern New England, Dominicans are also starting to be pretty dominant in many areas in North Jersey and the Lower Hudson Valley. The 2010 Census estimated the nationwide Dominican American population at 1,414,703, about 41% of Dominican Americans live in New York City alone. Many of New Yorks Dominicans live in the boroughs of the Bronx and Manhattan, there are also large populations in other parts of New York State, including Long Island and the Hudson Valley. S. There are smaller and growing Dominican populations in states like Maryland, Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, Ohio, Texas, however, in both cities, Dominicans make up only a plurality of the Hispanic population. Since 1980, the Census Bureau has asked US residents to classify their race separately from their Hispanic or Latino origin, in 2010,29. 6% of Dominican Americans responded that they were white, while 12. 9% considered themselves black. A majority of 57. 5% chose the category Other race, in New York City, Dominican entrepreneurs have carved out roles in several industries, especially the bodega and supermarket and taxi and black car industries. Over two dozen Dominican Americans are elected local or state legislators, mayors or other in New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Maryland, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. A1997 Dominican law, which took effect in 2004, allows Dominicans living abroad to retain their Dominican citizenship and voting rights even if they become citizens of another country
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Ecuadorian Americans
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Ecuadorian Americans are Americans of full or partial Ecuadorian ancestry. Ecuadorian Americans can be Mestizo, White Spaniard, Afro-Ecuadorian, Indigenous, Mulato, some Ecuadorians are also of Lebanese, Sephardic and Japanese descent. Until the 1960s, very few Ecuadorians migrated to the United States, in the late 1960s, several waves of migration started. Most Ecuadorian immigration to the United States has occurred since the early 1970s and this emigration was because of several reasons, The first of them was that United States immigration law changed. Before 1965, national quotas on immigrants favored more European immigration than Latin American immigration, after 1965, changes in immigration law made it easier for Latin Americans and other foreign groups to emigrate to United States. In addition, the price of air travel lowered making immigration more accessible to Latin Americans and they were drawn to the U. S. for economic opportunities and political freedoms. Ecuadorian immigration peaked in the turmoil of 1996-97 and national banking crisis of 1998-99. Another factor in Ecuadorian emigration was the 1964 Ecuadorian land reform and this improved the lives of many Ecuadorian poor, but also had far-reaching and unpredictable consequences. Many new small landowners were forced to sell their land, many landowners abandoned their land and migrated to countries like Venezuela and the United States. Most immigrants who live in the United States send money home, many immigrants get American citizenship, others simply are legalized, while other groups live illegally, crossing the border from Mexico or entering by boat from Puerto Rico. Ecuadorian Americans come from every part of Ecuador, during the 1970s, most of the Ecuadorians came from the northern and central highlands, including the area around Quito. In the 1980s, many Ecuadorians came from the coast, in the 1990s, most of them came from the southern highlands, near the border with Peru. The majority of Ecuadorian immigrants emigrate into New York City and its surrounding suburbs, the 1990 census recorded that 60 percent of Ecuadorians living in the United States live in the New York City Metropolitan Area, while another 10% live in Miami. Queens Countys percentage of Ecuadorians is about 4. 7%, and it has the largest Ecuadorian community of any county in New York and in the United States, Ecuadorians are the largest South American Latino group in New York City as well as in the State of New York. Ecuadorians are the fourth largest Latino group in New York after Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, Ecuadorians also constitute Queens Countys largest Latino group. Another New York group of Ecuadorians live in the Bronx, in the Morris Heights, still other Ecuadorian neighborhoods are situated in Brooklyn, in New Jersey cities such as Newark and Jersey City, and in towns in Connecticut. S. State with the smallest Ecuadorian population was North Dakota with 55 Ecuadorians, first Licensed Latin American to import spirits into the United States. Zhumir Aguardiente from Ecuador was the first spirit product he imported to United States, violet Chachki - American drag queen, singer and actress born in Atlanta, Georgia
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Guatemalan Americans
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Guatemalan Americans are Americans of full or partial Guatemalan descent. The Guatemalan American population at the 2010 Census was 1,044,209, Guatemalans are the fifth largest Latino group in the United States and the second largest Central American population after Salvadorans. Half of the Guatemalan population is situated in two parts of the country, the Northeast and Southern California, Guatemalans have emigrated to the USA since the 1930s and 1940s. Along with other Central Americans they first arrived by way of Mexico and settled in areas like Chicago, Los Angeles, New Orleans, Houston, New York City. Guatemalan refugees became an important political and economic influence on seeking an end to the civil war, during the Guatemalan civil war, there was massive destruction of rural villages and farmlands. In the 1996 peace accords, there was an exchange of civilian land to favor the rise of corporate agribusinesses with the drop of prices of local agricultural products. This heavily affected farm workers and inhabitants of the countryside and they had to immigrate into the US through Mexican territory, Guatemalan Americans are a very culturally diverse group of people, included about 23 distinct ethnic groups, whose languages are different, although maintain unique cultural traditions. The groups are, in majority, Mayan, the Ladino are a different group that speak Spanish language and have the Spanish culture. So, Guatemalan Americans are a multicultural community and this reason is why the assimilation processes, traditional beliefs, and customs vary differently between groups. Immigrant Mayan American communities have preserved their ethnic customs, the Guatemalans of European descent often mixed with other U. S. Hispanic groups. However, it is unknown the transmission of cultural traditions Guatemalans of immigrants to their descendants by lack of studies, some Guatemalan traditions are the celebration of Quinceñeros, the formation of soccer leagues, and the Organization de las Fiestas de la Patronal. The difference with Guatemalans in the US from other Latinos is that a percentage of Guatemalans are Evangelical Protestants. Guatemala had seen a rise of Protestant and Evangelist churches in the late 20th century, according to the national census in 2006, Protestants constituted about 30% of the population in Guatemala, the majority are from rural indigenous communities. Guatemalan-Americans are a contributor to the rise of Hispanic Protestants in the USA during the 2000s, half of the Guatemalan population is situated in two parts of the country, the Northeast and Southern California. A combined population of 267,335 resides in Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, the Northeast megalopolis, extending from Northern Virginia to north of Boston is home to a population of 257,729 Guatemalans. Luis Beza – American trumpet player for third-wave ska band Suburban Legends, David Campos – Guatemalan-American attorney and member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors representing District 9. David Estrada – He is of Guatemalan descent, Francisco Goldman – American novelist, journalist, and Allen K. Smith Professor of Literature and Creative Writing. He is son of a Guatemalan Catholic mother and Jewish-American father, oscar Isaac – Guatemalan born American raised actor and singer
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Honduran Americans
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Honduran Americans are Americans of Honduran descent. Honduran Americans are a group of people who may descend from Spanish, Honduran Native, Garifuna, African, Palestinian and Chinese people, the Honduran population at the 2015 Census was 837,694. Hondurans are the eighth largest Hispanic group in the United States, all periods of conflict have led to minor waves of Honduran emigration to the United States. This was the case after the 1956 military coup, Hondurans immigrated to the United States in the 1960s, primarily to Miami, New York City, and Los Angeles. The main reason for Hondurans to leave their country was to escape poverty, many Honduran-Americans are migrant farm laborers who first established themselves in the largest U. S. cities, in which they had support networks from the Honduran-American communities. In the late 1980s and 1990s, most Honduran Americans lived in New York City, Los Angeles, in 2000, Hondurans grew to be the third largest immigrant from Central America. Honduran-Americans have actively participated in U. S. military service, a total of 13.7 percent of native Honduran-American males older than 16 years are in the military. In addition,769 Honduran-American non-citizen males serve in the military, usually, Honduran-Americans live in areas with high economic growth and demand for employment in construction, domestic services, and other industries. Many Honduran-Americans suffer discrimination, as other Hispanic groups do, Honduran-American girls tend to spend more years in school than Honduran-Americans boys, in part due to pressure by their families on boys to start working at age 12 or 14. A total of 1,091 Honduran-Americans have a degree,862 have other professional degrees. The majority of individuals are women. According to the 2010 United States Census there are 633,401 Hondurans living in the United States, by 2011, the number of Hondurans estimated to reside in the United States by the Census Bureaus American Community Survey was 702,000. In 2014, according to Pew Research, 60% of 573,000 Honduran immigrants in the U. S. are unauthorized and he was a Republican candidate for the United States Senate in 2004. Steve Van Buren - NFL Hall of Fame Running Back Bianca Del Rio - actor, comedian, costume designer, brandon Escobar - wrestler Roger Espinoza - footballer who currently plays for Sporting Kansas City in Major League Soccer. Miguel Estrada - an attorney who became embroiled in controversy following his 2001 nomination by President George W. Bush to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. He was the first Latino to be nominated to a position in the judicial branch. America Ferrera - film actress Michelle Fields - political journalist, Huffington Post contributor Henry Flores - professional American photographer who addresses modern pop culture and his background is Engineering and Information Technology. Brina Palencia - American voice actress, ADR director, and singer known for her work for Funimation Entertainment/OkraTron 5000
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Mexican Americans
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Mexican Americans are Americans of full or partial Mexican descent. As of July 2015, Mexican Americans made up 11. 1% of the United States population, as of July 2015, Mexican Americans comprised 63. 4% of all Hispanics and Latinos in the United States. The United States is home to the second-largest Mexican community in the world, second only to Mexico itself, canada is a distant third, with a small Mexican Canadian population of 96,055 as of 2011. Over 60% of all Mexican Americans reside in the states of California, in 2015, the United States admitted 157,227 Mexican immigrants, and as of November 2016,1.31 million Mexicans were on the waiting list to immigrate to the United States through legal means. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language as part of their overall Americanization. Mexican-American history spans more than 400 years and varies from region to region within the United States, in 1900, there were slightly more than 500,000 Hispanics of Mexican descent living in New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, California and Texas. Most were Mexican Americans of Spanish descent and other Hispanicized European settlers who settled in the Southwest during Spanish colonial times, as well as local and Mexican Indians. Approximately ten percent of the current Mexican-American population are descended from the colonial settlers. As early as 1813, some of the Tejanos who colonized Texas in the Spanish Colonial Period established a government in Texas that desired independence from Spanish-ruled Mexico, in those days, there was no concept of identity as Mexican. Many Mexicans were more loyal to their states/provinces than to their country as a whole and this was particularly true in frontier regions such as Zacatecas, Texas, Yucatán, Oaxaca, New Mexico, etc. As shown by the writings of colonial Tejanos such as Antonio Menchaca, Mexico encouraged immigration from the United States to settle east Texas and, by 1831, English-speaking settlers outnumbered Tejanos ten to one in the region. Both groups were settled mostly in the part of the territory. The Mexican government became concerned about the volume of Anglo-American immigration. Consistent with its abolition of slavery, the Mexican government banned slavery within the state and his story is complex because he joined the Anglo rebels and helped defeat the Mexican forces of Santa Anna. But later on, as Mayor of San Antonio, he, after receiving a series of death threats, Seguín relocated his family in Mexico, where he was coerced into military service and fought against the US in 1846–1848 Mexican–American War. As a Spanish colony, the territory of California also had an population of colonial settlers. In the mid-19th century, more settlers from the United States began to enter the territory, in California, Spanish settlement began in 1769 with the establishment of the Presidio and Catholic mission of San Diego. 20 more missions were established along the California coast by 1823, along with military Presidios, settlers in California tended to stay close to the coast and outside of the California interior
26.
Nicaraguan Americans
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A Nicaraguan American is an American of Nicaraguan descent. The Nicaraguan American population at the 2010 Census was 348,202, Nicaraguans are the eleventh largest Hispanic group in the United States and the fourth largest Central American population. More than two-thirds of the Nicaraguan population in the US resides in California or Florida, in California, Nicaraguans are more dominant in the Greater Los Angeles Area and San Francisco Bay Area. Large populations also reside in the Inland Empire and the cities of Sacramento, San Diego, in Florida, 90% of Nicaraguans reside in the Miami Metropolitan Area. Miami-Dade County is home to 30% of Nicaraguans residing in the US, Nicaraguans have immigrated to the United States in small groups since the early 1900s, but their presence was especially felt over the last three decades of the 20th century. The Nicaraguan community is concentrated in three major urban areas, Metropolitan Miami, Greater Los Angeles, and San Francisco Bay Area. A more affluent group of Nicaraguan Americans reside in the New York metropolitan area, the earliest documents of immigration from Nicaragua to the United States was combined in total with those of other Central American countries. However, according to the U. S. Census Bureau some 7,500 Nicaraguans legally immigrated from 1967 to 1976, an estimated 28,620 Nicaraguans were living in the U. S. in 1970, 90% of which self-reported as white on the 1970 census. Most Nicaraguan immigrants during the late 1960s were women, there were only 60 male Nicaraguan immigrants for every 100 female immigrants during this period, over 62 percent of the total documented immigration from 1979 to 1988 occurred after 1984. In 1998 more than two million Nicaraguans were left due to hurricane Mitch, as a result many Nicaraguans received permanent residence or temporary protected status in the late 1990s. According to the 1990 U. S. Census 168,659 of the total 202,658 documented Nicaraguans in the U. S. were born in Nicaragua, in 1992 approximately 10–12% of the Nicaraguan population had emigrated. These emigrants tended to be disproportionately of working age, better educated, in addition, emigrants were more likely to come from larger premigration households and higher income households. The Sandinista revolution that started in the mid-1970s and the Contra war that brought the first large waves of Nicaraguan refugees into the U. S. As a result of the reforms under the FSLNs rule. They consisted mainly of large landholders, industrialists, and managers of North American enterprises, many Nicaraguan upper-class exiles had economic roots in the United States and in Miami before the upheaval. This phase of upper-class arrivals included exiled dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle and his family, another major wave of Nicaraguans to the United States, consisting primarily of bluecollar workers, peaked in the dramatic exodus of early 1989. Again, their motivation for migration was escape from political and economic torment in their homeland. By the late 1980s, the war, Hurricane Joan in 1988, many of these Nicaraguan immigrants settled in poor and deteriorated sections of Miami, where struggling Cubans who came during the Mariel boatlift exodus of 1980 had previously lived
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Panamanian Americans
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A Panamanian American are Americans of Panamanian descent. The Panamanian population at the 2010 Census was 165,456, Panamanians are the sixth smallest Hispanic group in the United States and the second smallest Central American population. The largest population of Panamanians reside in Brooklyn and South Florida, since 1820, more than one million immigrants from Central and South America migrated to the United States. Until 1960, the U. S. Census Bureau did not produce statistics that separated the Panamanian immigrants, the Panamanian Americans increased slowly in the United States. Since the 1830s, only 44 arrivals were recorded in this country, after World War II the flow of immigrants from Panama remained small even though there were no immigration restrictions on the people from the Western Hemisphere. However, the Panamanian immigration increased dramatically after the 1965 Immigration Act and its increase immigration was such that by 1970, Panamanians were able to be one of the largest of the Central American groups in the United States. Most Panamanians that came were nonwhites and most were women, the number of immigrant males per 100 females was very low in the 1960s, falling to 51 for Panama. Many of the immigrants worked of in service, domestic, or low-paid, white-collar workers who immigrated to earn money to, in return. Since 1962 the percentage of employed newcomers who are domestic servants has remained high, the entry of homemakers and children after 1968 was eased by the immigration preference system favoring family reunions. They had already approximated 86,000 people of Panamanian ancestry living in the United States, although many of the first Panamanian immigrants managed to get or to hold jobs, the second generation of Panamanian Americans placed more emphasis on vocational training and college education. Most newcomers are domestic, very few are agricultural or industrial laborers, in the last two decades many Panamanians have embraced professional careers, and become white collar workers. Subsequent generations have progressed further in their educational and professional pursuits. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Panamanians congregated mainly in urban areas, most Panamanian immigrants are set in New England, or on the Gulf Coast, or Pacific Coast, or in middle Atlantic or Great Lakes areas. While, New York City contains the largest urban population of Panamanians, also there an important number of Panamanians settled in Florida and California. In contrast to other Hispanic nationalities, Panamanians are heavily concentrated in Army base cities, cities home to Navy and Air Force bases also lay claim to a concentration of Panamanians. These include San Antonio, Hampton Roads, Jacksonville, San Diego, more than other Hispanic groups, a significant percentage of Panamanian Americans are black, with the remaining being of mixed race. Although most Panamanian Americans speak Spanish, the group tends to identify more with English speaking West Indian groups rather than with other Hispanic groups. As a result, Panamanians are one of the least visible Hispanic nationalities in the US
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Paraguayan Americans
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A Paraguayan American are Americans of Paraguayan descent. The Paraguayan population at the 2010 Census was 20,023, Paraguayans are the smallest Hispanic group in the United States. The Paraguayan population is concentrated mainly in Queens, NY, Westchester County, NY, additional areas of concentration include Miami-Dade County and Montgomery County, MD. The highest concentration of Paraguayans in the US reside in Somerset County and it is estimated that the first Paraguayans arrived to the United States between the years of 1841 and 1850. At that time, Paraguayans were not coming directly to the United States from Paraguay, but through others countries such as Brazil, Argentina, the Paraguayan residents in the U. S. were included in the early records in the group of other South Americans. During those years,3,579 other immigrants arrived, in the 1960s, one-fourth of all Paraguayans were registered as living in countries outside Paraguay, with a majority in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. In 1979, close to 11,000 Paraguayans immigrated to the United States, in 1982,4000 Paraguayans immigrated to the United States. The reasons of migration were varied, but many immigrants were people that wanted educational opportunities to get professional knowledge, skills. Additionally, some of the immigrants arrived for political reasons or to escape civil riots, the women exceeded in number to the male immigrants slightly, and more than half of its immigrants lacked occupation. Many Paraguayan immigrants were also adopted by American families. More than a thousand Paraguayan infants were adopted in this country, of these,254 were adopted in 1989,405 in 1993 and 351 in 1995. Others have agricultural jobs in California and Kansas, the latter state has partnered with Paraguay in an exchange program through a non-profit volunteer organization called Partners of the Americas. Both Kansas and Paraguay are land-locked, grow cattle and wheat, also a small number of Paraguayan American professionals who immigrated in search of better job and pay. It should be noted that of the 80 Paraguayan Americans who became U. S. citizens in 1984, in fact, most of these immigrants arrived eight to ten years earlier. Between 1987 and 1996, naturalization figures for Paraguayans in the United States increased slightly, thus, in 1996,420 Paraguayans became American citizens. In 1990,5,144 Paraguayan Americans spoke Spanish or Guarani and they have grown within the Hispanic community in the United States. In accordance with the 1990 U. S, of the 5,415 Paraguayan Americans in the U. S. population,1,830 only are enrolled in school. The large populations of Paraguayan Americans are in New York City, Miami, Paraguayan Americans also have population importance in Dallas and Atlanta
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Peruvian Americans
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Peruvian Americans are Americans of Peruvian descent. Among Peruvian Americans there are those of White, mestizo, Amerindian, and Afro-Peruvian descent, as well as others, including British, Italian, French, German, a significant number are of pure or mixed Chinese and/or Japanese heritage. Peruvians have emigrated mainly due to turmoil and economic hardships the country had faced during the 1980s. Peruvian Americans are a relatively recent ethnic group, as most of them have moved to the United States since 1990, according to the U. S. Census Bureau,594,418 U. S. residents identify themselves as being of Peruvian origin. Small but significant waves of immigration occurred in San Francisco during the gold rush, however, the majority of Peruvians that have emigrated to the United States have arrived since the 90s. Peruvians typically emigrate due to economic reasons, to escape poverty, significant demographics of Peruvians are found in Northern New Jersey, the New York City Metropolitan Area, Miami, the Washington, D. C. The most popular dishes of Peruvian food in the U. S. include cebiche, papa a la huancaina, Peruvian cuisine is often recognized for being one of the most diverse and appreciated of the worlds cuisines, with influences including European, Native American, and African. Since there is a sizable Chinese and Japanese minority in Peru, there are Chifas, or Asian style Peruvian restaurants that serve typical Chinese or Japanese food with a Peruvian culinary influence. Inca Kola, a soda that originated in Peru, is sold in many heavily concentrated Latino areas, the Peruvian American Coalition in Passaic, New Jersey functions as an activist organization on behalf of the overall welfare of Peruvian Americans. The annual Peruvian Independence Day Parade is held in Paterson. S, state with the smallest Peruvian population was North Dakota with 78 Peruvians. Her mother is Puerto Rican, and her father is from Peru and he is a Peruvian born, but American raised. S. Soccer forward Lorenzo OBrien - writer-producer Carlos Bustamante biologist Julio C, canani - Peruvian trainer in American Thoroughbred horse racing who has won three Breeders Cup races. Kenny Florian - mixed martial artist Gabriela Lena Frank - American pianist and he is of Spanish and Peruvian descent. Santillan - Peruvian- American Actor and Currency Trader, also has many doubles in the DC metro area. Wenceslaus Sarmiento - also known as W. A. Sarmiento, carmen Giménez Smith - American poet, writer, and editor. Tony Succar - Peruvian born American musician, composer, arranger and producer, david Utrilla - The 31st member of the Utah Corps of Consuls Jose Valdivia, Jr. - jockey in American Thoroughbred horse racing. Carlos De Valdez - Peruvian film actor who appeared in around forty American films and he spend the last years of his life in United States. Boris Vallejo - Peruvian-born American painter, alberto Vargas - Peruvian painter of pin-up girls. peruanosenusa. net http, //www. peruvian-americans. tv http, //www. peruvianamericans. com http, //www. peruvianamerican. com http, //www. curito. com
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Puerto Ricans in the United States
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Puerto Ricans, either born in the island or in the states, are American citizens. At 10 percent of the Latino population in the United States, Puerto Ricans are the second largest Latino group nationwide, and comprise 1. 5% of the entire population of the United States. Although the 2010 Census counted the number of Puerto Ricans living in the United States at 4.6 million, more recent estimates show the Puerto Rican population to be over 5 million, as of 2012. The portmanteau Nuyorican refers to Puerto Ricans and their descendants in the New York City metropolitan area, important Puerto Rican institutions have emerged from this long history. ASPIRA was established in New York City in 1961 and is now one of the largest national Latino nonprofit organizations in the United States, the government of Puerto Rico has a long history of involvement with the stateside Puerto Rican community. In July 1930, Puerto Ricos Department of Labor established an employment service in New York City. The Migration Division, also part of Puerto Rico’s Department of Labor, was created in 1948, the strength of stateside Puerto Rican identity is fueled by a number of factors. Since 1898, Puerto Rico has been under the control of the United States, even during Spanish rule, Puerto Ricans settled in the US. However, it was not until the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898 that a significant influx of Puerto Rican workers to the US began, with its 1898 victory, the United States acquired Puerto Rico from Spain and has retained sovereignty since. The 1917 Jones–Shafroth Act made all Puerto Ricans US citizens, freeing them from immigration barriers, the massive migration of Puerto Ricans to the mainland United States was largest in the early and late 20th century, prior to its resurgence in the early 21st century. U. S. political and economic interventions in Puerto Rico created the conditions for emigration, by concentrating wealth in the hands of US corporations, policymakers promoted colonization plans and contract labour programs to reduce the population. US employers, often with government support, recruited Puerto Ricans as a source of labour to the United States. Puerto Ricans migrated in search of jobs, first to New York City, and later to other cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia. New York City neighborhoods such as East Harlem in Upper Manhattan, the South Bronx, between the 1950s and the 1980s, large numbers of Puerto Ricans migrated to New York, especially to Brooklyn, the Bronx, Spanish Harlem and Loisaida neighborhoods of Manhattan. Labor recruitment was the basis of this particular community, in 1960, the number of stateside Puerto Ricans living in New York City as a whole was 88%, with most living in East Harlem. They helped others settle, find work, and build communities by relying on social networks containing friends, there are significant Puerto Rican communities in all five boroughs. The Puerto Rican population in East Harlem and New York City as a whole remains the poorest among all migrant groups in US cities, as of 1973, about 46. 2% of the Puerto Rican migrants in East Harlem were living below the federal poverty line. The struggle for legal work and affordable housing remains fairly low, New York Citys Puerto Rican community contributed to the creation of hip hop music, and to many forms of Latin music including Boogaloo, Salsa, Latin House, and Freestyle
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Salvadoran Americans
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Salvadoran Americans are Americans of full or partial Salvadoran descent. As of 2010, there are 1,648,968 Salvadoran Americans in the United States, recent estimates put the Salvadoran population as high as 2 million, as of 2013. Salvadorans are the largest group of Central Americans of the Central American Isthmus community in the U. S, among the Hispanic groups, Salvadorans are also the largest group of Spanish speakers in the United States who use voseo. Salvadoran is the accepted and used term for naming people of Salvadoran ancestry, however both Salvadorian and Salvadorean are equally the most widely used terms in daily life by English speaking Salvadoran citizens living in the U. S and other English speaking countries. Salvadorian and Salvadorean in their spelling and pronunciation can be seen in most restaurant and other El Salvador related signs in the U. S. This is because the sounds ia and ea, in Salvadorian and Salvadorean sound more closely to the ñ sound in the Spanish term Salvadoreño. The first Salvadorians that came to the United States before the war began arrived mostly to San Francisco, where they worked as shipyard employees in the early twentieth century. These were mostly working class Salvadorans, as Salvadorans from the middle and upper classes came to the U. S. for education or residence in the early 1900s, usually in the East Coast. Salvadorans that came during this period were economic migrants, as El Salvador was affected by economic turmoil during the Great Depression. In the 1960s and early 1970s, most of the immigrants were women, documented Salvadorans in the United States 1930-1970 While Salvadoran migration to the U. S. Many Salvadoran refugees came to the city of Los Angeles, where today holds the largest population of Salvadorans in the country, a large population of Salvadorans also arrived in Washington D. C, where by 1989, an estimated 150,000 Salvadorans reside in the nation’s capital. It is important to note that many Salvadorans came undocumented and applied for asylum and/or work permits in order to legalize their situation. This massive migration to the U. S. was a result of the violence as much as it was the deteriorating economic conditions in El Salvador. Young men, escaping the country from being drafted to the military or the guerilla and they numbered over 1,000 individuals and many of them are temporary exiles, who planned to go back after the war ends. By the end of 1989, more than 250,000 Salvadorans migrated to the U. S. Unofficially, El Salvadors exiled population is already changing life at home through its influence and its dollars and will undoubtedly play an important role in its future history. Salvadoran American immigration has changed the face of foreign affairs in the United States, the flood of refugees from a U. S. -supported government forced a national rethinking of foreign policy priorities. This in turn transformed the nature of American support for the Salvadoran government, Salvadoran Americans are at the center of an ongoing national debate about U. S. responsibility toward the worlds refugees and the future of immigration in general. The exodus of Salvadorans was a result of economic and political problems
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Spanish Americans
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Spanish Americans is a term with multiple meanings. The term can also extend to mean those who share a language and culture rooted in Spain, Spanish Americans are the longest-established European-American group with a continuous presence in Florida since 1565 and are the eighth-largest Hispanic group in the United States of America. Throughout the colonial times, there were a number of settlements of Spanish populations in the present–day United States of America with governments answerable to Madrid. The first settlement was at St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565, followed by others in New Mexico, California, Arizona, Texas, and Louisiana. In 1598, San Juan de los Caballeros was established, near present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico, by Juan de Oñate, Spanish immigrants also established settlements in San Diego, California, San Antonio, Texas and Tucson, Arizona. By the mid-1600s the Spanish in America numbered more than 400,000 and these Spanish settlers expanded European influence in the New World. The Canary Islanders settled in areas surrounding New Orleans in Louisiana from 1778 to 1783 and in San Antonio de Bejar, San Antonio, Texas. The earliest known Spanish settlements in the then northern Mexico were the result of the forces that later led the English to come to North America. Exploration had been fueled in part by imperial hopes for the discovery of wealthy civilizations, in addition, like those aboard the Mayflower, most Spaniards came to the New World seeking land to farm, or occasionally, as historians have recently established, freedom from religious persecution. A smaller percentage of new Spanish settlers were descendants of Spanish Jewish converts, basques stood out in the exploration of the Americas, both as soldiers and members of the crews that sailed for the Spanish. Prominent in the service and colonial administration, they were accustomed to overseas travel. The Spanish presence in the United States declined sharply between 1930 and 1940 from a total of 110,000 to 85,000, many immigrants moved either back to Spain or to another country. Beginning with the Fascist revolt against the Second Spanish Republic in 1936, at the time of the Fascist takeover, a small but prominent group of liberal intellectuals fled to the United States. After the civil war the country endured 20 years of autarky, as a result, in the mid-1960s,44,000 Spaniards immigrated to the United States. In the 1970s, when Franco abandoned Spains autarkic economic system, prosperity began to emerge in Spain, in the 1980s, as Europe enjoyed an economic boom, Spanish immigrants to the United States dropped to only 15,000. The 1990 U. S. census recorded 76,000 foreign-born Spaniards in the country, many of the Hispanic and Latino Americans bring their Spanish-speaking culture into the country. However, some Spanish Americans are descendants of settlers in the southwestern states, especially New Mexico. Spanish-Americans in the United States are found in large concentrations in five states from 1940 through the early twenty-first century
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Uruguayan Americans
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Uruguayan Americans are Americans of Uruguayan ancestry or birth. The American Community Survey of 2006 estimated the Uruguayan American population to number 50,538, similar to neighboring country Argentina, Uruguay took in many immigrants from Europe beginning in the late 19th century and lasting until the mid 20th century. As it stands, approximately 93% of Uruguays population is of European descent with Italians, Spaniards, French, because of this, many Uruguayan Americans identify both with their nationality and their familys country of origin. The history of Uruguayan emigration to the United States is very recent, before 1960, the Uruguayan living conditions were favorable, with many job opportunities, good education and a good healthcare system. The few Uruguayans that left the country migrated to other Hispanic countries such as Argentina, for this reason the Uruguayan emigration to the United States was low during that period. Moreover, Uruguay was ruled by a military regime for approximately a decade since 1973. All this led to a major Uruguayan emigration, which included numbers of well-educated professionals. This migration, also, contributed to a security crisis, as the population aged. This grew the burden on the financial resources. Of the Uruguayan immigrants from 1963 to 1975,17.7 percent of them were aged 14 years or younger, while 68 percent of them were between the ages of 15 and 39, only 14.3 percent were over 40 years old. The continued unemployment problem of the late 1980s developed yet another impetus for the youth of Uruguay to seek employment, some of them went to the United States, but the majority of Uruguayan emigrants continued to migrate to Argentina. Most Uruguayans find it easy to adapt to life in cities in the United States. Uruguayans in general have an exposure that makes English not an obstacle for adaptation in American society. In addition, the value that is given to higher education has led many Uruguayan students to migrate to the United States to continue their University studies there. According to the 2010 census on the Uruguayan descent population in the U. S. there are about 56,884 people of that origin, the majority of Uruguayans that migrated to the United States arrived in the 1960s and 1970s. It is estimated that, between 1963 and 1975,180,000 Uruguayans left the country, later on, between 1973 and 1985, during the period of oppressive military control,150,000 Uruguayans left Uruguay. And, in 1989, only 16,000 of these citizens had returned to their native country, when these two figures are added together, the migration figure stands at approximately one-tenth of the population of Uruguay. Most Uruguayan immigrants established themselves in New York City, New Jersey, two other remarkable centers for Uruguayan American population are Washington, D. C. and Florida
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Venezuelan Americans
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Venezuelan Americans are Americans who trace their heritage, or part of their heritage, to the nation of Venezuela. Venezuelan Americans are one of 20 Latin American groups in the United States and this includes influences from Spanish, Portuguese, Italians, Germans, and the French, along with influences from African and indigenous Amerindian elements. Venezuelan Spanish is the spoken form of the Spanish language. Until the 20th century, there was no record of the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to the United States. From 1910 to 1930, it is estimated that over 4,000 South Americans each year emigrated to the United States, however, there are not many specific figures that indicate the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to this country. Many Venezuelans settled in the United States with hopes of receiving a better education and they are frequently joined by relatives. In recent years, more Venezuelans opposing the economic and political policies of president Hugo Chávez are migrating to the U. S, the largest concentration of Venezuelans in the United States is in South Florida, especially the suburbs of Doral and Weston. Other main states with Venezuelan American populations are, according to the 1990 census, New York, California, Texas, New Jersey, Massachusetts and Maryland. Some of the areas with a highly populated Venezuelan community include Miami, Houston, New York City, Los Angeles. State with the smallest Venezuelan population was South Dakota with 25 Venezuelans, some 70 percent of Venezuelan immigrants are a mixture of European, Amerindian, and African ancestry. The rest are 21 percent white,8 percent black and 1 percent is Amerindian, most Venezuelan Americans are descendants of Spanish, Italians, Portuguese, Germans, French, and Chinese. The Venezuelan American population is highly educated, thus, they teach the language to their children. Venezuelan Americans work in a variety of professions, however, most of them are inclined to banking and the petroleum industry. Thus, they often have an expertise in these professions. Venezuelan Americans also work in highlighted positions of television, publishing, also, many Venezuelan Americans are becoming politicians, working both local politics as in government. In addition, also is growing the number of Venezuelan Americans that work in government service on the federal level, now, the Venezuelan Americans are involved in all the aspect of the American politics. Venezuelan Americans still maintain strong relations with their country of origin, which can easily be seen in business, family, Venezuelan Americans often report on the social and current events in Venezuela and first-generation immigrants visit there frequently. It is also common for Venezuelans to visit their relatives in the United States
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History of Mexican Americans
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Large-scale new migration augmented their numbers during the 1910s, as Mexico was torn by a high-casualty civil war. Until the 1960s, most lived within a few hundred miles of the border, more recently, Mexican Americans have diffused throughout the U. S. especially in the Midwest and Southeast, with the largest numbers in California and Texas. In the past hundred years Mexican-Americans have campaigned for voting rights, stood against educational, employment, at the same time many Mexican-Americans have struggled with defining and maintaining their communitys identity. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language as part of their overall Americanization. When Mexico took over control from Spain in the early 1820s, when Texas seemed too independent, Mexicos President Santa Anna led an army to massacre the villagers and destroy the American settlements. After initial victories and massacres at The Alamo and Goliad, Santa Anna was decisively defeated by the Texans, who declared independence. The Tejanos in Texas joined the revolution and supported the new Republic of Texas, The Hispanics in New Mexico and California were localistic and did not identify with the regime in Mexico City. Only when large numbers of Americans arrived did they develop a sense of lo mexicano, that is of being Mexican, American entrepreneurs often cultivated alliances and partnerships with the Mexican propertied elites in the states of Texas and California, and the territories of New Mexico and Arizona. The Latino culture of the rest of the Southwest, especially New Mexico and southern Texas, beginning in the 1820s, immigrants from the U. S. and Europe settled in Texas, then part of Mexico. Anglo and Hispanic Texas joined to fight Mexico in 1836, defeating an invading army, the Texas Republic included Tejanos as leading citizens, but Mexico refused to recognize its legal existence. The US annexed Texas in 1845, leading to the Mexican–American War of 1846–48, while there were some Americans who considered the war with Mexico illegal and immoral, others considered it part of Manifest Destiny—the American destiny to pursue the war. This policy claimed that it was the United States right to expand westward across North America, the Americans won easily and the war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In the Treaty Mexico gave up more than 500,000 square miles of territory, which today comprises Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. The United States in 1853 purchased the Gadsden Purchase, a strip of land in southern New Mexico, the vast majority of Hispanic populations chose to stay and become full US citizens. By and large, the Hispanic populations of these supported the new government. After the Santa Fe Ring succeeded in dispossessing thousands of landholders in New Mexico, some Hispanics, of whom Joaquín Murieta was a legendary example and Tiburcio Vásquez a real one, responded by resorting to banditry. During the Gold Rush, there was an immigration of Mexican miners to California, about 20,000 Tejanos lived in South Texas in the 1850s. The social structure has been analyzed by historian Randolph Campbell, South Texans of Hispanic descent lived in a three-tiered society during the antebellum years, at the top stood the landed elite, the owners of huge ranches, many of which originated as haciendas in the Spanish colonial period
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Casta
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A casta was a hierarchical system of race classification created by Spanish elites in Hispanic America during the eighteenth century. The process of mixing ancestries in the union of people of different races was known as mestizaje. Created by Hispanic elites, the sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas, was based on the principle that people varied largely due to their birth, color, race, the system of castas was more than socio-racial classification. It had an effect on every aspect of life, including economics, both the Spanish colonial state and the Church required more tax and tribute payments from those of lower socio-racial categories. The whiter the heritage a person could claim, the higher in status they could claim, conversely, Casta paintings were a new, secular art form primarily produced in eighteenth-century Mexico. A notable exception to the nature of the genre is Luis de Menas 1750 painting of Virgin of Guadalupe with castas. Casta is an Iberian word, meaning lineage, breed or race and it is derived from the older Latin word castus, chaste, implying that the lineage has been kept pure. Casta gave rise to the English word caste during the Early Modern Period, the idea of purity of blood, limpieza de sangre, developed in Christian Spain to denote those without the taint of Jewish or Muslim heritage. It was directly linked to religion and notions of legitimacy, lineage and it was institutionalized during the Inquisition. The Inquisition only allowed those Spaniards who could not to have Jewish and Moorish blood to emigrate to Latin America. Several spectacular autos de fe in New Spain in the mid-seventeenth century featured the public punishment of those convicted of being Judaizers. In Spanish America, the idea of purity of blood was in a complex fashion linked to ideas of race, Spaniards had become obsessed with lineage, following the expulsion of Moors and Jews, and forced conversion of those who chose to remain. Evidence of lack of purity of blood had consequences for marriage, eligibility for office, entrance into the priesthood, having to produce genealogical records to prove ones pure ancestry gave rise to a trade in the creation of false genealogies. When the concept of purity of blood was transferred overseas, it retained the concerns about tainted ancestry of Jews or Muslims in a family line. During the early decades, the Spanish in the New World had unions and marriages with indigenous women. In the late century, some investigations of ancestry classified as stains any connection with Black Africans. The idea that any hint of Blacks in a lineage was a stain continued to the end of the colonial period and it was illustrated in eighteenth-century paintings of racial hierarchy, known as casta paintings. Indians in Central Mexico were affected by ideas of purity of blood from the other side, Crown decrees on purity of blood were affirmed by indigenous communities, which barred Indians from holding office who had any non-Indians in their lineage
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Castizo
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Castizo is a Spanish word with a general meaning of pure, genuine or representative of its race. From this meaning it evolved other meanings, such as typical of an area and it was used for one of the colonial Spanish race categories, the castas. In Latin America Castizo is used to describe the individuals with an admixture of 75% European, during this era, various other terms were also used. The word cuarterón usually denotes someone whose racial origin is three-quarters White and one-quarter Black, under the colonial caste system, the offspring of a Spaniard and a Castiza was classified as a criollo, thus the offspring regained his or her purity of blood. For castizos whose residual quarter of Amerindian ancestry was not apparent at all, many simply consolidated themselves within the criollos, some countries, however, have recently reintroduced voluntary and anonymous declarations of race in recent population censuses for statistical purposes, with no legal consequence to the individual. A person who formerly would have deemed a castizo would today simply identify as mestizo or White. The word castizo itself has lost all racial meaning, today they are scattered in almost all Latin America but many focus on specific countries or regions of the same. ARGENTINA, Since most of European immigrants arrived in Argentina during the century were men, many of these mixed with mestizo women. They in turn, mixed with Europeans over and over again, recent studies show that nearly 60% of Argentinas population has at least one ancestor of Native American or African origin, and that the average Argentinian is about 74% European and 23% Amerindian. CHILE, It might be the country with the highest percentage of castizos of America and they are located mainly in the central valleys of the country, in cities such as Santiago, Valparaíso, Viña del Mar, Rancagua and Talca. They also constitute an important percentage in Northern and Southern Chile, in Chile whites and castizos together represent the countrys largest ethnic group. COSTA RICA, It could also be the country with the highest percentage of castizos of America due to continued European immigration, castizos are located in almost all the national territory. MEXICO, Castiza population in Mexico is located mainly in north and these areas have a similar castiza and white population to Costa Rica or Chile. PERU, Peruvian castizos are concentrated in the departments of Lima, Cajamarca, Arequipa, La Libertad, Lambayeque and Piura, GUATEMALA, Most Guatemalan castizos inhabit the eastern region of the country such as the departments of Zacapa, Chiquimila, and Jalapa. Castizo is used in Madrid for costumes, music, speech typical of the Madrid populace about the end of the 19th century, a person dressed in Castizo fashion can be called manolo/manola and chulapo/chulapa. Many zarzuelas are set in a Castizo environment, like La verbena de la Paloma, items associated with Castizo culture are the street swivel piano, barquillos, Schottisch music and Manila shawls. Casticismo is a tendency among Spanish and Latin American intellectuals to reject foreign loanwords, an example is deporte, a word recovered from Medieval Castilian meaning pastime, that successfully replaced the Anglicism sport, which has the same Latin origin as the Spanish word. Its closely related to costumbrismo in literature, White Latin American Peninsulares Mestizo Cholo Casta
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Cholo
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Its use has migrated from the initial negative ethnic designation as originated by Hispanic criollos in the 16th century. In sociological literature, it is one of castas, and refers to Mexican American gangsters, the precise usage of cholo has varied widely in different times and places. In modern American usage, it most often applies to the low-rider sub-culture manner of dress, the terms use is first recorded in a Peruvian book published in 1609 and 1616, the Comentarios Reales de los Incas by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. He writes The child of a Black male and an Indian female, or of an Indian male and Black female, they call mulato, the children of these they call cholo. Cholo is a word from the Windward Islands, it means dog, not of the variety, but of very disreputable origin. In Colonial Mexico, the terms cholo and coyote co-existed, indicating mixed Mestizo, other terms were used to denote other ratios of smaller or greater Spanish-to-Amerindian ancestry. During the War of the Pacific Peruvians were contemptuously referred to as cholos by Chilean officers, an article in the Los Angeles Express of April 2,1907, headlined Cleaning Up the Filthy Cholo Courts Has Begun in Earnest, uses the terms cholos and Mexicans interchangeably. In 1571, Fray Alonso de Molina, in his Nahuatl vocabulary, defined the word xolo as slave, servant, or waiter. The Porrúa Dictionary defines cholo, as used in the Americas, as a civilized Native American or a half-breed or mestizo of a European father and Native American mother. The word has historically been used along the borderland as a term to mean lower class Mexican migrants. Despite, or because of, its history of denigrating semantics. During the 1930s and 40s, Cholos and Chicanos were known as pachucos and were associated with the zoot suit, the press at the time accused the Cholos in the US of gang membership and petty criminality, leading to the Zoot Suit Riots. Continuing until the early 1970s, the typical cholo and chicano hairstyle was a variant of the pompadour, piled high on the head, Cholos are known for starching and pressing their pants and shirts, and often wear military-style webbed belts. Cholos in the 1990s and 2000s frequently have their hair buzzed very short, though some continue to have the more traditional slicked-back hair, footwear originally included Stacy Adams dress shoes, and biscuits. Modern cholos tend to wear shoes, such as Converse, Nike Cortez, Vans, Fila, Adidas Stan Smith, slip-on house shoes. Popular Cholo brands include Dickies, Ben Davis, Joker, Lowrider, in South Texas, cholos are sometimes referred to as chucs or chukes. This term is short for pachucos, tejano cholos typically make heavy use of starch on their pants but so do traditional Tejanos. This designation may also be associated with black ink tattoos, commonly involving calligraphy, a cholo might also stereotypically own a lowrider
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Criollo people
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Although Criollos were legally Spaniards, in practice, they ranked below the Iberian-born Peninsulares. Nevertheless, they had preeminence over all the populations, Amerindians, enslaved Africans. According to the Casta system, a criollo could have up to 1/8 Amerindian ancestry without losing social place, in the 18th and early 19th centuries, changes in the Spanish Empires policies towards its colonies led to tensions between Criollos and Peninsulares. Criollos were the supporters of the Spanish American wars of independence. The word criollo and its Portuguese cognate crioulo are believed to come from the Spanish/Portuguese verb criar, in Spanish colonies, an español criollo was an ethnic Spaniard who had been born in the colonies, as opposed to an español peninsular born in Spain. Whites in colonial Brazil, born in the Iberian Peninsula, were known as mazombos, limpieza de sangre or cleanness of blood was a legal concept in use since the Spanish Reconquista, and introduced to the Spanish colonies in the Americas. The English word creole was a loan from French créole, which in turn is believed to come from Spanish criollo or Portuguese crioulo, such cases might include the offspring of a Castizo parent and one Peninsular or Criollo parent. This one-eighth rule, also in theory, did not apply to African admixture, in reality, officials assigned various racial categories to mix-raced people depending on their social status, what they were told or due to testimony from friends and neighbors. To preserve the Spanish Crowns power in the colonies, the Spanish colonial society was based on a caste system. The highest-ranking castes were the españoles, Spaniards by birth or descent, people of mixed ancestry were classified in other castes — such as castizos, mestizos, cholos, mulatos, indios, zambos, and enslaved Africans, called blacks. Poole argues that the Virgin Mary, especially as Our Lady of Guadalupe and they used the story to legitimize their own social position and infuse it with an almost messianic sense of mission and identity. Until 1760, the Spanish colonies were ruled under laws designed by the Spanish Habsburgs and that situation changed by the Bourbon Reforms during the reign of Charles III. Spain needed to extract increasing wealth from its colonies to support the European, the Crown expanded the privileges of the Peninsulares, who took over many administrative offices which had been filled by Criollos. At the same time, reforms by the Catholic Church reduced the roles and privileges of the ranks of the clergy. By the 19th century, this policy of the Spanish Crown. With increasing support of the castes, they engaged Spain in a fight for independence. The former Spanish Empire in the Americas separated into a number of independent republics, the word criollo retains its original meaning in most Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas. In some countries, however, the word criollo has over time come to have additional meanings, for instance, comida criolla in Spanish-speaking countries refers to local cuisine, not cuisine of the criollos
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Mestizo
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The term was used as an ethnic/racial category in the casta system that was in use during the Spanish Empires control of their New World colonies. Mestizos are usually considered to be mixed Spaniards by the crown of Spain, the term mestizaje - taking as its root mestizo or mixed - is the Spanish word for miscegenation, the general process of mixing ancestries. To avoid confusion with the usage of the term mestizo. In colonial Venezuela, pardo was more commonly used instead of mestizo, pardo means being mixed without specifying which mixture, it was used to describe anyone born in the Americas whose ancestry was a mixture of European, Amerindian, and Black African. In colonial Brazil most of the population was mestiço in the original Iberian definition of the word. In the Philippines, which was a colony of Spain, the term came to refer to a Filipino with any foreign ancestry especially whites. In Canada, the Métis people is a community composed of those who possess combined European, in Saint Barthélemy, the term mestizo refers to people of mixed European and East Asian ancestry. The Spanish word mestizo is from Latin mixticius, meaning mixed and its usage has been documented as early as 1275, to refer to the offspring of an Egyptian and a Jew. This term was first documented in English in 1582 and it is related to the particular racial identity of historical non-white Amerindian-descended Hispanic and Latino American communities in an American context. In English-speaking Canada, Canadian Métis, as a loanword from French, refers to persons of mixed French, in the United States, Métis Americans and Mestizo Americans are two distinct racial and ethno-racial identities, as reflected in the use of French and Spanish loanwords, respectively. The latter was listed as a mestizo de sangley in birth records of the 19th century, with sangley as a reference to the Hokkiense word for business. Mestizo, mestiço, métis, mestís, Mischling, meticcio, mestiezen, mestee, in the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish developed an extremely vast complex system of racial hierarchy, which was used for social control and which also determined a persons standing in society. There were three categories of race during the initial period of colonization of the Americas by the Spanish, White Spaniard, Amerindian. During the Spanish colonial era, a myriad of terms were created to differentiate these racial mixtures, by the end of the colonial period in 1821, over one hundred sub-categories of possible variations of mixture existed, but official church and civil records were maintained with few categories. Church baptismal and marriage registers and civil records used the terms español, castizo, mestizo, mulato, and indio. As time went on, a system of hierarchy, the sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas developed where society was divided based on race, wealth. Mestizo – a person of mixed White European and Amerindian ancestry, in theory, and as depicted in eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings, español status could also be attained by people of mixed origin who consistently had intermarried with Europeans. Such cases might include the offspring of a parent and one Peninsular or criollo parent
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Mulatto
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Mulatto is a term used to refer to persons born of one white parent and one black parent or to persons born of a mulatto parent or parents. In English, the term is generally confined to historical contexts. English speakers of mixed white and black ancestry seldom choose to identify themselves as mulatto. Some residents of Latin America, Spain America, the Caribbean, in Latin America, most mulattoes have descended from multi-ethnic relationships dating to the slavery period, rather than from recent ethnic mixing. This is especially true in Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Haiti, Cape Verde, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. The etymology of the term is believed to derive from the Spanish and Portuguese mulato, which comes from mula, meaning mule, the hybrid offspring of a horse. Some dictionaries and scholarly works trace the origins to the Arabic term muwallad. Muwallad literally means born, begotten, produced, generated, brought up, with the implication of being born and raised among Arabs, Muwallad is derived from the root word WaLaD, and colloquial Arabic pronunciation can vary greatly. Walad means, descendant, offspring, scion, child, son, boy, young animal, in al-Andalus, Muwallad referred to the offspring of non-Arab/Muslim people who adopted the Islamic religion and manners. Notable examples of this include the famous Muslim scholar Ibn Hazm. Thus, in context, the term Muwalad has a meaning close to the adopted. According to the source, the term does not denote being of mixed-race but rather being of foreign-blood. In English, printed usage of mulatto dates to at least the 16th century and this earliest usage regarded black and white as discrete species, with the mulatto constituting a third separate species. According to Julio Izquierdo Labrado, the 19th-century linguist Leopoldo Eguilaz y Yanguas, as well as some Arabic sources muwallad is the origin of mulato. The Real Academia Española casts doubt on the muwallad theory, Scholars such as Werner Sollors cast doubt on the mule etymology for mulatto. In the 18th and 19th centuries, racialists such as Edward Long and they projected this belief back onto the etymology of the word mulatto. Sollers points out that this etymology is anachronistic, The Mulatto sterility hypothesis that has much to do with the rejection of the term by some writers is only half as old as the word Mulatto. Of São Tomé and Príncipes 193,413 inhabitants, the largest segment is classified as mestiço. or mixed race, 71% of the population of Cape Verde is also classified as such
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Zambo
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Zambo and cafuzo are racial terms used in the Spanish and Portuguese Empires and occasionally today to identify individuals in the Americas who are of mixed African and Amerindian ancestry. Historically, the cross between African slaves and Amerindians was referred to as a zambaggoa, then zambo, then sambo. In the United States, the word sambo is thought to refer to the cross between a black slave and a white person. The meaning of the term however is contested in North America. The word most likely originated from one of the Romance languages, or Latin, under the casta system of Spanish colonial America, the term originally applied to the children of one African and one Amerindian parent, or the children of two zambo parents. During this period, many other terms denoted individuals of African-Amerindian ancestry in ratios smaller or greater than the 50,50 of zambos, today, zambo refers to all people with significant amounts of both African and Amerindian ancestry, though it is frequently considered pejorative. The term zambo was not formally used in Spanish writing until the seventeenth century, African slaves began mixing with indigenous people from the beginning of their importation into Hispaniola in the early sixteenth century. In the eighteenth century, the Spanish began producing systematic racial classifications, some famous zambo groups were created by runaway or rebel Africans who mixed with or took over indigenous communities. They united with the indigenous Miskito people, and by the eighteenth century came to dominate the kingdom. Their alliance with and protection of English merchants and settlers in the area helped England found the colony of British Honduras, officially, zambos represent small minorities in the northwestern South American countries Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana and Ecuador. A small but noticeable number of resulting from recent unions of Amerindian women to Afro-Ecuadorian men are not uncommon in major coastal cities of Ecuador. In Central America, there are two indigenous-African mixed groups, the Miskito and the garifunas, the Garifuna originated from the combination of Africans who were either shipwrecked or fled from neighboring islands to St. Vincent, in the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1797 they were deported by the English for their role in supporting France during the French Revolutionary Wars to the island of Roatan off the coast of Honduras, from there they spread up and down the coast of Central America, communities being found from Nicaragua to Belize. In Mexico, where zambos were sometimes known as lobos, they form a sizeable minority, according to the 2015 Intercensus Estimate,896,829 people identified as both Afro-Mexican and Indigenous Mexican. The great majority of the countrys Afro-descended population has been absorbed into the mestizo population. Culturally, Mexican lobos followed more Amerindian traditions rather than African influences and this acculturation also took place in Bolivia, where the Afro-Bolivian community absorbed and retained many aspects of Amerindian cultural influences, such as dress and use of the Aymara language. These communities of Afro-Bolivians reside in the Yungas region of the Bolivian department of La Paz
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Chicano Movement
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Socially, the Chicano Movement addressed negative ethnic stereotypes of Mexicans in mass media and the American consciousness. While most people of Mexican descent still refused to call themselves Chicanos, Chicanos did this through the creation of works of literary and visual art that validated the Mexican American ethnicity and culture practices. The term Chicanos was originally used as a label for the sons. Some prefer to spell the word Chicano as Xicano and this new generation of Mexican Americans were singled out by people on both sides of the border in whose view these Mexican Americans were not American, yet they were not Mexican, either. In the 1960s Chicano was accepted as a symbol of self-determination, the Chicano Movement also addressed discrimination in public and private institutions. Early in the century, Mexican Americans formed organizations to protect themselves from discrimination. One of those organizations, the League of United Latin American Citizens, was formed in 1929, the Chicano Movement had been fermenting since the end of the U. S. –Mexican War in 1848, when the current U. S–Mexican border took form. Since that time, many Chicanos and Chicanas have campaigned against discrimination, racism, the Chicano Movement that culminated in the early 1970s took inspiration from heroes and heroines from their indigenous, Mexican and American past. The movement gained momentum after World War II when groups such as the American G. I, Forum, which was formed by returning Mexican American veterans, joined in the efforts by other civil rights organizations. After the Longoria incident, the AGIF quickly expanded throughout Texas and by the 1950s, there were several leaders throughout the Chicano Movement. In New Mexico there was Reies López Tijerina who worked on the land grant movement and he fought to regain control of what he considered ancestral lands. He became involved in civil rights causes within six years and also became a cosponsor of the Poor Peoples March on Washington in 1967. In Texas, war veteran Dr. Hector P. Garcia founded the American GI Forum and was appointed to the United States Commission on Civil Rights. In Denver, Rodolfo Corky Gonzáles helped define the meaning of being a Chicano through his poem Yo Soy Joaquin, in California, César Chávez and the farm workers turned to the struggle of urban youth, and created political awareness and participated in La Raza Unida Party. The most prominent civil rights organization in the Mexican-American community is the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund, founded in 1968. Although modeled after the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, MALDEF has also taken on many of the functions of organizations, including political advocacy. This led Chicana women to form the Comisión Femenil Mexicana Nacional, in 1975, it became involved in the case Madrigal v. Quilligan, obtaining a moratorium on the compulsory sterilization of women and adoption of bilingual consent forms. These steps were necessary because many Hispanic women who did not understand English well were being sterilized in the United States at the time, sVREPs mission is to empower Latinos and other minorities by increasing their participation in the American democratic process
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Congressional Hispanic Caucus
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The Congressional Hispanic Caucus is an organization of 30 Democratic members of the United States Congress of Hispanic descent. The Caucus is dedicated to voicing and advancing, through the process, issues affecting Hispanics and Latinos in the United States. The CHC was founded in December 1976 as a service organization of the United States House of Representatives. Today, the CHC is organized as a Congressional Member organization, the Congressional Hispanic Caucus aims to address national and international issues and the impact these policies have on the Hispanic community. The function of the Caucus is to serve as a forum for the Hispanic, in addition to covering legislative action, the CHC also monitors Executive and Judicial issues. CHC legislative priorities cover all areas that have a impact on the Hispanic or Latino community. In order to best address these issues, members work in smaller task forces that draw on their expertise. The CHC is currently composed entirely of Democrats, although it had been an organization since its founding. The Republican members left in the late 1990s over policy differences and, in 2003, formed their own group, the Congressional Hispanic Caucus was organized in 1976 by five Hispanic Congressmen, Herman Badillo, Baltasar Corrada del Río, Kika de la Garza, Henry B. It was staffed by Raquel Marquez Frankel, who had grown up in Silver City and Albuquerque, New Mexico, and had become, in 1947, the first Latina to attend the University of New Mexico School of Law. Rep. Baca has denied this charge, but two other CHC members, Linda Sánchez and Hilda Solis, expressed support for Loretta Sanchez. In the case of Solis, Baca called her a kiss-up to Speaker Nancy Pelosi, a year prior to the whore incident, The CHCs Political action committee gave $3,000 to Joe Bacas childrens campaigns for state offices in California. Although Baca recused himself from the decision to make the contributions, six members of the caucus criticized the decision, saying that CHCs PAC should support only federal candidates. Consequently, on November 15,2006, when Joe Baca was elected chair of the CHC, Solis, on Monday, April 2,2007, Congresswoman Linda Sánchez closed her offices in honor of César Estrada Chávez Day, a state holiday in California. CHC chair Baca made the comment on Sánchezs decision to close the office I believe the best way to observe César Estrada Chávez Day is not by taking the day off from work or school. She specifically stated that her decision was not based on personal animus directed at Baca, on June 30,2013, Congressman Filemon Vela, Jr. The Congressional Hispanic Caucus has received support over the years from Mexican billionaire, Ricardo Pliego, ramirez has appeared at functions for the Congressional Hispanic Caucus. Nydia Velázquez In October 1981, the House Committee on House Administration drafted new regulations stipulating that fundraising activities were to be moved off all government premises, Congressional caucus Congressional Hispanic Conference 1977 Womens National Conference, Minority-Latino-Women Congressional Hispanic Caucus Website Congressional Hispanic Caucus Institute
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Congressional Hispanic Conference
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The Congressional Hispanic Conference is a Republican Party-controlled caucus in the United States Congress. Currently with 13 members, the CHC was formed in 2003, with the goal of promoting policy outcomes of importance to Americans of Hispanic or Latino. These priorities included support of the following, then-President George W, the impetus behind the Conferences creation was the debate surrounding the nomination of conservative lawyer Miguel Estrada to the DC Circuit Court of Appeals. The Congressional Hispanic Conference should not be confused with the older Congressional Hispanic Caucus, on March 17,2003, Diaz-Balart revealed the formation of the Conference in an open letter published in the Wall Street Journal. S. The group was announced at a press conference two days later. They were soon joined by two more Portuguese American congressmen, Richard Pombo of California and Patrick Toomey of Pennsylvania, like their Democratic counterpart, the Conference allows members from the Senate. Mel Martinez, the first Cuban-American US Senator, joined the group shortly after his election in 2004, additionally, the Conference is open to non-Hispanic associate members who represent districts with significant Hispanic populations or generally support its goals with regards to public policy. In 2003, Conference members also formed the Congressional Hispanic Leadership Institute as an equivalent to the Democratic CHC-affiliated CHCI, in the 2006 and 2008 elections, the Conference suffered the loss of nearly half of their members to electoral defeat, attempts at higher office or resignations. Past chair Luis Fortuño left Congress after being elected Governor of Puerto Rico
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League of United Latin American Citizens
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The League of United Latin American Citizens is the oldest surviving Latino civil rights organization in the U. S. It was established on February 17,1929, in Corpus Christi, Texas, LULAC was a consolidation of smaller, like-minded civil rights groups already in existence. With a goal of achieving assimilation, the organization initially admitted only United States citizens as members, the organization has a national headquarters, active councils in many states, and a professional staff. LULAC follows an ideology which emerged among cholos groups around the time of the Great Depression in the United States. In response to sentiment, the federal government deported an estimated 500,000 Mexican nationals. Benjamin Marquez asserts, This demographic shift favored the rise of a more assimilated political leadership, but as LULAC has been interested in assimilation to the US, it admitted as members only those ethnic Mexicans who were United States citizens. LULAC promoted the adaptation of its members into the dominant European-American culture. The organization claimed that discrimination was caused by racism, not by the economic or political systems, LULAC promoted capitalism and individualism, its leaders believed that, through hard work and assimilation into American culture, Mexican Americans could improve their socio-economic standing. LULAC emphasized American patriotism as a path to assimilation and it asserted that Mexican Americans should disavow any allegiance to Mexico, remain permanently in the United States, and commit fully to democratic ideals. The leagues official song is America, its language is English. Its constitution is modeled on the United States Constitution, because of LULAC’s assimilation ideology and its advancement of the interests of Mexican-American citizens, it advocated restrictions on immigration. LULACs central means of achieving equal status with European Americans was dependent on promoting the image of Mexican residents as conforming to the norms of the United States. The League recognized that most of the dominant society did not distinguish among the cultures and attitudes of immigrants, citizens, and naturalized persons of Mexican descent. New immigrants from Mexico resisted the assimilation strategy, as they had ties to their native culture, limited English proficiency. Some Mexican Americans knew that they would be lumped together with the recent immigrants and be perceived as un-American, backward, and poor and it fully supported education of its members and adoption of fluent English. Through formal education, Mexican Americans would learn how to function in American institutions, socialize with European-American children, with respect to organizational structure, the League of Latin American Citizens was similar to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Du Bois and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, though the two civil rights groups may have possessed some institutional similarities, LULAC tried to establish distance from the African American civil rights struggle. As LULAC believed that blacks were more oppressed than Latinos, its members thought that forces would not strengthen its own struggle for equality
