1.
Doctorate
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There are a variety of doctoral degrees, with the most common being the Doctor of Philosophy, which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to the scientific disciplines. The term doctor derives from the Latin docere meaning to teach, the doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin at a university. Its roots can be traced to the church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the Catholic church, the Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access—at that time largely free of charge—of all able applicants. This right remained a bone of contention between the authorities and universities that were slowly distancing themselves from the Church. The right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach, according to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum of the Middle Ages included only theology, law, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century. The term philosophy does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning. In most of Europe, all fields were traditionally known as philosophy, the doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. D. University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild, the traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of Masters of Arts was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms master and doctor were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the masters degree, University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The use and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, for instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread, universities shift to research-oriented education increased the doctorates importance. Today, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward, the first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M. D. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine during the 19th century, the MD, as the standard qualifying degree in medicine, gave that profession the ability to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. The modern research degree, in the shape of the German-style Ph. D. was first awarded in the U. S. in 1861, in the UK, research doctorates initially took the form of higher doctorates, introduced from 1882 onwards. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada, following the MD, the next professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor, was established by Chicago University in 1902
2.
Jimmy Wales
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Jimmy Donal Jimbo Wales is an American Internet entrepreneur. He is the co-founder and promoter of the online non-profit encyclopedia Wikipedia, Wales was born in Huntsville, Alabama, where he attended Randolph School, a university-preparatory school. Later, he earned bachelors and masters degrees in Finance from Auburn University, in 1996, he and two partners founded Bomis, an adult web portal featuring entertainment and adult content. The company would provide the funding for the peer-reviewed free encyclopedia, Nupedia. He is historically cited as a co-founder of Wikipedia, though he has disputed the co- designation, Wales serves on the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees, the non-profit charitable organization that he helped establish to operate Wikipedia, holding its board-appointed community founder seat. In 2004, he co-founded Wikia, a wiki hosting service. His role in creating Wikipedia, which has become the worlds largest encyclopedia, Wales was born in Huntsville, Alabama, shortly before midnight on August 7,1966, however, his birth certificate lists his date of birth as the 8th. As a child, Wales was a reader with an acute intellectual curiosity. When he was three, his mother bought a World Book Encyclopedia from a door-to-door salesman, as he grew up and learned to read, it became an object of reverence. But Wales soon discovered that the World Book had shortcomings, no matter how much was in it, there were only four other children in Waless grade, so the school grouped together the first through fourth-grade students and the fifth through eighth-grade students. After eighth grade, Wales attended Randolph School, a school in Huntsville. Wales said that the school was expensive for his family, and you know, the very traditional approach to knowledge and learning and establishing that as a base for a good life. He received his bachelors degree in finance from Auburn University in 1986 and he began his Auburn education when he was 16 years old. Wales then entered the PhD finance program at the University of Alabama before leaving with a degree to enter the PhD finance program at Indiana University. At the University of Alabama, he played Internet fantasy games and he taught at both universities during his postgraduate studies but did not write the doctoral dissertation required for a PhD, something he ascribed to boredom. In 1994, Wales took a job with Chicago Options Associates, Wales has described himself as having been addicted to the Internet from an early stage and he wrote computer code during his leisure time. In 1996, he and two partners founded Bomis, a web portal featuring user-generated webrings and, for a time, Wales described it as a guy-oriented search engine with a market similar to that of Maxim magazine, the Bomis venture did not ultimately turn out to be successful. Though Bomis had struggled to make money, it provided Wales with the funding to pursue his greater passion, while moderating an online discussion group devoted to the philosophy of Objectivism in the early 1990s, Wales had encountered Larry Sanger, a skeptic of the philosophy
3.
Maastricht University
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Maastricht University is a public university in Maastricht, the Netherlands. Founded in 1976, the university is the second youngest of the 13 Dutch universities, in 2013, nearly 16,000 students studied at Maastricht University, 47% of whom were foreign students, with over 3,200 employees. About half of the programmes are fully offered in English. Most of the masters and doctoral programmes are in English, besides traditional programmes, Maastricht University also has an honours liberal arts college, University College Maastricht and a Maastricht Science Programme in the same liberal arts tradition. The satellite University College Venlo opened in 2015, Maastricht University was officially established in 1976. This academic institution would be vital to sustain the life of the city. About 50 students enrolled in the first academic year, by the end of 1975, the Dutch Parliament eventually passed the statute needed for the institution to acquire national educational funds and to be able to award academic degrees. Sjeng Tans became the universitys first president, soon after its establishment, the university gained political support to increase its funding and to expand into other academic fields. The Faculty of Law was created in 1981, followed by the Faculty of Economics in 1984, in 1994, the Faculty of Arts and Culture and one year later the Faculty of Psychology were established. The Faculty of Humanities and Sciences started in 2005, containing a variety of units, such as the Department of Knowledge Engineering. Together with the Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences Maastricht University currently has six faculties, the university was renamed Universiteit Maastricht in 1996 and added its English-language name in 2008. As of 2010, Maastricht University consists of six faculties offering 17 bachelor programmes,56 master programmes, at the central level, the university is governed by the Executive Board, consisting of a President, a Vice-President and a Rector. The Executive Board appoints faculty deans, other administrators and professors and has general management responsibilities and it is advised by the Supervisory Council that vets for instance the budget. Maastricht Universitys teaching and research programmes are carried out along the lines of faculties. Within faculties, teaching and research activities may be further decentralised through departments, schools, the names of organisational units, however, do not necessarily indicate their position within the university’s organisational hierarchy. In 2009, for example, the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration was renamed School of Business and Economics, the Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences was established in 2007 as a merger between the Faculty of Health Sciences and the Faculty of Medicine. The latter was the first faculty to be established at Maastricht University, in 1980 the Faculty of Health Sciences was founded. The broad range of disciplines it offered in healthcare sciences, made the faculty unique, not only in the Netherlands, the format allowed students to integrate their discipline and research work into all areas related to society, health and disease
4.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
5.
Academic degree
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An academic degree is a qualification awarded on successful completion of a course of study in higher education, normally at a college or university. These institutions commonly offer degrees at various levels, typically including bachelors, master’s and doctorates, often alongside other academic certificates, and professional degrees. The most common degree is the bachelors degree, although in some countries lower qualifications are titled degrees while in others a higher-level first degree is more usual. The degrees awarded by European universities—the bachelor’s degree, the licentiate, the degree. The doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach at a medieval university and its roots can be traced to the early church when the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the church required the applicant to pass a test, to take oath of allegiance. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, at the university, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of Master of Arts, originally the terms master and doctor were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master degree. The earliest doctoral degrees reflected the historical separation of all higher University study into three fields. Over time, the D. D. has gradually become less common outside theology, Studies outside theology, law, and medicine were then called philosophy, due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical observation. The degree title of Doctor of Philosophy is of a later time. Studies in what once was called philosophy are now classified as sciences and humanities, Master of Arts were eligible to enter study under the higher faculties of Law, Medicine or Theology, and earn first a bachelors and then master or doctors degrees in these subjects. Thus a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a qualified master – hence the English word graduate. The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied, scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as master, but those in theology, medicine, and law were known as doctor. As study in the arts or in grammar was a prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law. The practice of using the doctor for PhDs developed within German universities. The French terminology is tied closely to the meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat is conferred upon French students who have completed their secondary education
6.
University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
7.
Matriculation
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Matriculation is the formal process of entering a university, or of becoming eligible to enter by fulfilling certain academic requirements such as a matriculation examination. The matriculation exam was the prerequisite for entry into universities, Matriculation has generally been replaced with a Higher School Certificate or a completion certificate such as the Victorian Certificate of Education. In Bangladesh, the shortened term Matric refers to the Secondary School Examination taken at year 10, in Brazilian Portuguese, the word matrícula refers to the act of enrolling in an educational course, whether it be elementary, high school, college or post-graduate education. In Canada, the term is used by some universities to refer to orientation events, however some universities, including University of Kings College. The ceremony at Kings is quite similar to the ceremonies held in universities such as Oxford or Cambridge. In Ontario during the era with grade 13, satisfactory completion of grade 12 was considered junior matriculation, satisfactory completion of grade 13 was senior matriculation. In Nova Scotia, at the present time, Junior matriculation is grade 11, at Charles University in Prague, the oldest and most prestigious university in the Czech Republic, matriculation is held at the Great Hall. The ceremony is attended by students commencing their studies and it is intended as a demonstration of the adoption of students duties and obtaining of students rights. The ceremony itself involves students taking the Matriculation Oath of the University and symbolically touching the Faculty mace, other Czech universities hold ceremonies similar to the one just described. In Denmark, the University of Copenhagen holds a ceremony each year. The ceremony is held in the Hall of Ceremony in the building of the University. The ceremony begins with a procession with the rector and the deans in academic dress, the ceremony continues with the rector listing the different faculties, after which the different student, shouts when their respective faculty is mentioned. In Finland, Matriculation is the examination taken at the end of Secondary education to qualify for entry into University, the test also constitutes the high schools final exam, in other words it is a high school graduation exam. Since 1919, the test has been arranged by a national body, before that, the administration of the test was the responsibility of the University of Helsinki. The German term Immatrikulation describes the process of enrolling at university as a student. This can happen for winter semester and, depending on the degree program and it does not involve a ceremony. A prerequisite for matriculation is generally the Abitur, which is the matriculation examination in Germany, for regular universities. Both Abitur and Fachhochschulreife are school leaving certificates which students receive after passing their examinations at some types of German secondary schools
8.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
9.
Comprehensive examination
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Unlike final examinations, comprehensive examinations are not linked to any particular course, but rather test knowledge across one or more general fields of study. Graduate-level comprehensive examinations are also known as preliminary examinations, general examinations, qualifying examinations. If these examinations are held orally, they may be known colloquially as orals. D, at the graduate level, the purpose of the comprehensive exam is to ensure the student is familiar enough with her area of research to make original contributions. There is no definition for what such exams entail, with some universities having almost no exam. The comprehensive examination system is used primarily in US and Canadian higher education, other countries use alternative forms of evaluating Ph. D. candidates, in the United Kingdom, for example, students typically must first enroll in an M. Phil. Program and are admitted to doctoral study only upon successfully defending their research proposal. Some colleges or universities in the United States require undergraduate students to pass examinations in order to receive their degree. Anselm College, Shimer College, Whitman College, North South University and University of Dallas, many degree programs require students to pass comprehensive examinations within colleges or universities that dont otherwise require them. The same is true for many schools and colleges within larger universities and these include Texas A&M-Commerce Honors College, The University of Virginias Politics Honors Program, and the University of Alabama at Birminghams Mass Communications program. This may also be the case for a Masters degree earned on the way to the completion of a doctoral program. In such cases, students take an oral exam and/or field exam in order to both earn a Masters in their field and advance to the status of doctoral or PhD candidate. Typically, one exam will question the student on theory while the other will show competency or expertise in their chosen subfield within their program. This also allows students enrolled in the program who do not wish to continue to the completion of a degree to leave early. In most doctoral programs, students must take a series of cumulative examinations on the subject of their study in the first year or two of the PhD program. These cumulative exams are given on a pass/fail basis and a graduate student who seeks to continue in the PhD program must pass a minimum number of these cumulative exams. After this minimum number of exams is passed, this degree requirement is considered to be met. In some fields, such as history, the student must pass the comprehensive examinations before submitting a dissertation proposal, typically, comprehensive exams consist of either a written or an oral exam, but some programs require both. In others, an exam is taken, and depending on the grade
10.
Master's degree
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A masters degree normally requires previous study at the bachelors level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. The original meaning of the degree was thus that someone who had been admitted to the rank of master in one university should be admitted to the same rank in other universities. This gradually became formalised as the licentia docendi, initially, the Bachelor of Arts was awarded for the study of the trivium and the Master of Arts for the study of the quadrivium. The nineteenth century saw an expansion in the variety of masters degrees offered. By 1861 this had been adopted throughout Scotland as well as by Cambridge and Durham in England, when the Philadelphia College of Surgeons was established in 1870, it too conferred the Master of Surgery, the same as that in Europe. In the United States, the first masters degrees were awarded at Harvard University soon after its foundation, at Harvard the 1700 regulations required that candidates for the masters degree had to pass a public examination, but by 1835 this was awarded Oxbridge-style 3 years after the BA. In Scotland, Edinburgh maintained separate BA and MA degrees until the mid nineteenth century, in Scotland all the statutes of the Universities which enforced conditions on the grant of degrees were a dead letter. Probably the most important masters degree introduced in the 19th century was the Master of Science, at the University of Michigan this was introduced in two forms in 1858, in course, first awarded in 1859, and on examination, first awarded in 1862. The in course MS was last awarded in 1876, in Britain, however, the degree took a while longer to arrive. The same two degrees, again omitting the masters, were awarded at Edinburgh, despite the MA being the undergraduate degree for Arts in Scotland. In 1862, a Royal Commission suggested that Durham should award masters degrees in theology and science and this scheme would appear to have then been quietly dropped, with Oxford going on to award BAs and MAs in science. The Master of Science degree was introduced in Britain in 1878 at Durham. At the Victoria University both the MA and MSc followed the lead of Durhams MA in requiring an examination for those with an ordinary bachelors degree. The Bologna declaration in 1999 started the Bologna Process, leading to the creation of the European Higher Education Area, as the process continued, descriptors were introduced for all three levels in 2004, and ECTS credit guidelines were developed. This led to questions as to the status of the masters degrees. In 1903, the London Daily News criticised the practice of Oxford and Cambridge, calling their MAs the most stupendous of academic frauds, in 1900, Dartmouth College introduced the Master of Commercial Science, first awarded in 1902. This was the first masters degree in business, the forerunner of the modern MBA, the idea quickly crossed the Atlantic, with Manchester establishing a Faculty of Commerce, awarding Bachelor and Master of Commerce degrees, in 1903. Over the first half of the century the masters degrees for honours graduates vanished as honours degrees became the standard undergraduate qualification in the UK
11.
Theodore Hesburgh
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Theodore Martin Hesburgh, CSC was an American priest of the Congregation of Holy Cross. He served as president of the University of Notre Dame for 35 years, tIAA–CREFs Hesburgh Award is named after him. Theodore Hesburgh was born in Syracuse, New York to Anne Murphy Hesburgh and Theodore Bernard Hesburgh and had one brother and he had wished to become a priest since early childhood. He enrolled at Notre Dame in 1934, but after three years he was relocated to Rome and in 1939 he earned a bachelor of degree from the Gregorian University. Because he was sent to Rome, Hesburgh never finished his Notre Dame degree and he studied in Rome until he was forced to leave due to the outbreak of World War II. In 1943 he was ordained a priest in the Congregation of Holy Cross at Notre Dames Sacred Heart Church and he graduated from The Catholic University of America in 1945, having earned a Doctorate in Sacred Theology, and taught Religion at Notre Dame. In 1948 he was named head of the Department of Theology, in 1949 Notre Dame president Rev. John J. Cavanaugh, C. S. C. Appointed him executive vice-president and Hesburgh served in that position for three years, Hesburgh served as Notre Dames President for 35 years, the longest tenure to date. He supervised dramatic growth, as well as a transition to coeducation in 1972, enrollment nearly doubled from 4,979 to 9,600, faculty more than doubled 389 to 950, and degrees awarded annually doubled from 1,212 to 2,500. In 1967 he turned governance of the University over to a two-tiered, mixed board of lay and religious trustees, according to Rick Perlstein in Nixonland, Hesburgh was considered by George McGovern as his running mate in the 1972 presidential election. Hesburgh was a key figure in anti-Vietnam War student activism, after discovering a student plot to burn the Notre Dame campus ROTC building in 1969, Hesburgh issued a letter to the student body outlining the Universitys stance. The letter was reprinted by the New York Times and Washington Post. At the request of President Richard Nixon, Hesburgh advised Vice President Spiro Agnew regarding controlling violence on college campuses, Hesburgh generally disagreed with American policy in Vietnam and favored accelerated withdrawal of the troops. In 1953 he created the Distinguished Professors Program to attract top scholars to Notre Dame, in 1954 he was appointed by President Eisenhower to the National Science Board. He was a contributor to the 1958 analysis of the U. S. education system, The Pursuit of Excellence, in 1964 he was awarded the Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest honor, by President Johnson. The same year he joined hands with Martin Luther King Jr. in support for civil rights during a rally in Chicago, from 1977 to 1982 Hesburgh was chairman of the Rockefeller Foundation. In 1968 he was appointed by Pope Paul VI as head of the Vatican representatives attending the 20th anniversary of the United Nations’ human rights declaration in Tehran, Iran. In 1972 he organized the establishment of the Tantur Institute for Ecumenical Studies in Jerusalem, in 1974 Paul VI appointed him as a member of the Holy See’s U. N. delegation
12.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
13.
Lionel Woodville
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Lionel Woodville was a Bishop of Salisbury in England. Woodville was a son of Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers and Jacquetta of Luxembourg, his siblings included Elizabeth Woodville. In the late 1470s, Woodville became the first person in recorded history to receive an honorary degree and he was Chancellor of the University of Oxford from 1479–1483. After a number of more minor positions, Woodville was elected Dean of Exeter in November 1478, and held the position until 1482. He was nominated to Salisbury on 7 January 1482 and consecrated on 21 April 1482, Woodville died about 23 June 1484. Greenway, D. E. Porter, S. Roy, fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1300–1541, volume 9 Profile at catholic-hierarchy. org
14.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
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Bishop of Salisbury
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The Bishop of Salisbury is the ordinary of the Church of Englands Diocese of Salisbury in the Province of Canterbury. The diocese covers much of the counties of Wiltshire and Dorset, the see is in the City of Salisbury where the bishops seat is located at the Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The current bishop is Nick Holtam, the 78th Bishop of Salisbury, the Diocese of Sherborne was the origin of the present diocese, St Aldhelm was its first bishop. Ramsburys diocese was created from the territory of the bishop of Winchester in 909. The Anglo-Saxon Diocese of Sherborne was established by Saint Aldhelm in about 705 and comprised the counties of Devon, Somerset, Dorset, in 1058, the Sherborne chapter elected Herman of Ramsbury as their own bishop. Following the Norman conquest, the 1075 Council of London united his two sees as a diocese and translated them to the then-larger settlement around the royal castle at Salisbury. With papal approval, this was removed to New Sarum in the 1220s. Herman of Wilton, bishop of both Ramsbury and then Sherborne, obtained approval from Edward the Confessor to transfer his seat to Malmesbury, but this plan was blocked by local monks and Earl Godwin. Instead, following the Norman conquest, the 1075 Council of London named him bishop of Sarisberie, disputes between Bishops Herbert and Richard Poore and the sheriffs of Wiltshire led to the removal of the see in the 1220s to a new site in the plain. This was chartered as the city of New Sarum by King Henry III in 1227, the diocese, like the city it administers, is now known as Salisbury. The archdeaconry around Salisbury, however, retains the name of Sarum, reforms within the Church of England led to the annexation of Dorset from the abolished diocese of Bristol in 1836, Berkshire, however, was removed the same year and given to Oxford. In 1925 and 1974, new bishops were appointed to assist the Bishop of Salisbury. Until 2009 the bishops operated under an episcopal area scheme established in 1981, with each bishop having a formal geographical area of responsibility. The Bishop of Ramsbury had oversight of the parishes in Wiltshire. This scheme was replaced to reflect the increased working across the diocese by all three bishops. The two suffragans may now legally function anywhere in the diocese, and the Bishop of Salisbury may delegate any of his functions to them
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University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
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James VI and I
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James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, in 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known after him as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England from 1603, only returning to Scotland once in 1617 and he was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonization of the Americas began, at 57 years and 246 days, Jamess reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. James himself was a scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie, The True Law of Free Monarchies. He sponsored the translation of the Bible that would later be named after him, Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed the wisest fool in Christendom, an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise Jamess reputation and treat him as a serious, James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, Marys rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and he was baptised Charles James or James Charles on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France, Elizabeth I of England, Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as a pocky priest, spit in the childs mouth, as was then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, Jamess father, Darnley, was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for Rizzios death. James inherited his fathers titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross, Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle and she was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent. The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought in the security of Stirling Castle
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Earl
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An earl /ɜːrl/ is a member of the nobility. The title is Anglo-Saxon in origin, akin to the Scandinavian form jarl, in Scandinavia, it became obsolete in the Middle Ages and was replaced by duke. In later medieval Britain, it became the equivalent of the continental count, however, earlier in Scandinavia, jarl could also mean a sovereign prince. For example, the rulers of several of the petty kingdoms of Norway had the title of jarl, alternative names for the rank equivalent to Earl/Count in the nobility structure are used in other countries, such as the hakushaku of the post-restoration Japanese Imperial era. In modern Britain, an earl is a member of the peerage, ranking below a marquess, a feminine form of earl never developed, instead, countess is used. The term earl has been compared to the name of the Heruli, proto-Norse eril, or the later Old Norse jarl, came to signify the rank of a leader. The Norman-derived equivalent count was not introduced following the Norman conquest of England though countess was and is used for the female title. In the other languages of Britain and Ireland, the term is translated as, Welsh iarll, Irish and Scottish Gaelic iarla, Scots yarl or yerl, Cornish yurl. An earl has the title Earl of when the title originates from a placename, in either case, he is referred to as Lord, and his wife as Lady. A countess who holds an earldom in her own right also uses Lady, younger sons are styled The Honourable, and daughters, The Lady. In the peerage of Scotland, when there are no courtesy titles involved, the heir to an earldom, and indeed any level of peerage, is styled Master of, and successive sons as younger of. In Anglo-Saxon England, earls had authority over their own regions and right of judgment in provincial courts and they collected fines and taxes and in return received a third penny, one-third of the money they collected. In wartime they led the kings armies, some shires were grouped together into larger units known as earldoms, headed by an ealdorman or earl. Under Edward the Confessor earldoms like Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia, Earls originally functioned essentially as royal governors. Though the title of Earl was nominally equal to the duke, unlike them. After the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror tried to rule England using the traditional system, shires became the largest secular subdivision in England and earldoms disappeared. The Normans did create new earls like those of Herefordshire, Shropshire and their power and regional jurisdiction was limited to that of the Norman counts. There was no longer any administrative layer larger than the shire, Earls no longer aided in tax collection or made decisions in country courts and their numbers were small
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Baron
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Baron is a title of honour, often hereditary. The word baron comes from the Old French baron, from a Late Latin baro man, servant, soldier, cornutus in the first century already reports a word barones which he took to be of Gaulish origin. During the Ancien Régime, French baronies were very much like Scottish ones, feudal landholders were entitled to style themselves baron if they were nobles, a roturier could only be a seigneur de la baronnie. These baronies could be sold freely until 1789 when feudal law was abolished. The title of baron was assumed as a titre de courtoisie by many nobles, emperor Napoléon created a new empire nobility, in which baron was the second lowest title. The titles followed a line of descent and could not be purchased. In 1815, King Louis XVIII created a new system based on the British model. Baron-peer was the lowest title, but the heirs to pre-1789 barons could remain barons, as could the elder sons of viscount-peers and this peerage system was abolished in 1848. The wife of a Freiherr is called a Freifrau or sometimes Baronin, families which had always held this status were called Uradel, and were heraldically entitled to a three pointed coronet. Families which had been ennobled at a point in time had seven points on their coronet. These families held their fief in vassalage from a suzerain, the holder of an allodial barony was thus called a Free Lord, or Freiherr. Subsequently, sovereigns in Germany conferred the title of Freiherr as a rank in the nobility, today, as of 1919 on, there is no legal privilege associated with hereditary titles in Germany. In modern, republican Germany, Freiherr and Baron remain heritable only as part of the legal surname, as opposed to this, hereditary titles have been banned completely in Austria. Still, in countries, honorary styles like His/her Highness, Serenity, etc. persists in social use as a form of utmost courtesy. As a result, German barons have been more numerous than those of countries where primogeniture with respect to title inheritance prevails as France. In Italy, barone was the lowest rank of feudal nobility except for that of signore or vassallo, the title of baron was most generally introduced into southern Italy by the Normans during the 11th century. Whereas originally a barony might consist of two or more manors, by 1700 we see what were formerly single manors erected into baronies, counties or even marquisates. Since the early 1800s, when feudalism was abolished in the various Italian states, the untitled younger son of a baron is a nobile dei baroni and in informal usage might be called a baron, while certain baronies devolve to heirs male general
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Convocation
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A convocation is a group of people formally assembled for a special purpose, mostly ecclesiastical or academic. Their origins date back to the end of the century when Theodore of Tarsus reorganized the structures of the English Church. With the recognition of York as a province in 733. By the fifteenth century, each convocation was divided into an upper house, in 1921, the number of proctors of the diocesan clergy was increased to make them a majority in the lower houses. The Convocation of York was a small part of the Church in England. The legislative powers of the convocations varied considerably over the centuries, under Henry VIII and his successor Edward VI between 1534 and 1553 the Convocations were used as a source of clerical opinion but ecclesiastical legislation was secured by statute from Parliament. Business was resumed in 1701 and by the time Queen Anne died in 1714 draft canons, the resumption of proper business was brought about by the political changes which had taken place some twenty years earlier. The formal address to the Queen was debated for six hours, the driving force behind the campaign to achieve this was the London banker, Henry Hoare, who dedicated himself to the task. The legal basis of the resistance was the claim that convocation could only discuss such business as was specified by the Crown. In 1851, Canterbury received a petition, in 1853 it appointed committees, sumner was convinced of the value of Convocation and those bishops who had opposed the revival were taking part positively in its debates. Musgrave maintained his opposition until his death in 1860—he even locked the room where it was due to meet—and the Northern Convocation remained inactive until his successor took office, the Convocations have always been exclusively clerical assemblies. However, in 1885 the Convocations agreed to the establishment of parallel Houses of Laity elected by the lay members of the diocesan conferences and these were not part of Convocation, they had no constitutional status and were merely advisory. At the beginning of the century, both Convocations together with their respective houses of laity began to meet as a Representative Council which however had no legal authority or position. This was superseded in 1920 by the Church Assembly which was given the right to propose measures to Parliament by the Enabling Act of 1919. In some universities, the term refers specifically to the entirety of the alumni of a college which functions as one of the universitys representative bodies. Due to its size, the Convocation will elect a standing committee. The convocation also, however, can hold meetings, at which any alumnus can attend. The equivalent of the Convocation in the Scottish university system is the General Council, women were admitted to Convocation from 1913
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Graduation
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Graduation is getting a diploma or academic degree or the ceremony that is sometimes associated with it, in which students become graduates. Before the graduation, candidates are referred to as graduands, the date of graduation is often called graduation day. The graduation ceremony itself is also called commencement, convocation or invocation, in the United States and Canada, the term is additionally increasingly being used to refer to the advancement from a primary or secondary school level. When ceremonies are associated, they include a procession of the academic staff and candidates. At the college and university level the faculty will usually wear academic dress at the ceremonies, as will the trustees. After degree completion, graduates can be referred to by their graduating year, in some places, graduation parties to celebrate graduation from school, college or university are popular. In a recent 2014 nationwide survey in the United States, $985 was the amount spent on graduation parties. When a student graduates without attending the ceremony, then it is called graduation in absentia, the procedures and traditions surrounding academic graduation ceremonies differ around the world. In a graduation ceremony the students dress up in special graduation caps, Graduation traditions are varied across universities observing different cultures. Most universities across Sweden are research-oriented and may present its students with bachelors, masters, universities across the country are based through the Higher Education Ordinance. A large number of candidates continue their education onto secondary and upper secondary education, most of the national programs provide Swedish, English, Math and Science among majors. In Zimbabwe, graduation ceremonies are associated with the guest of honor who most of is the ceremonial head of the institution. At state universities the President of Zimbabwe officiates as chancellor and guest of honor, every graduate of a state university in Zimbabwe can claim to have shaken the Presidents hand. The person most associated with graduation at those institutions is President Robert Gabriel Mugabe, at other State Institutions of higher learning the vice Presidents or any other Senior Government officials may preside. Ceremonies for graduating students date from the first universities in Europe in the 12th century, at that time Latin was the language of scholarship. A universitas was a guild of masters with licence to teach, degree and graduate come from gradus, meaning step. The first step was admission to a bachelors degree, the second step was the masters step, giving the graduate admission to the universitas and license to teach. The typical dress for graduation are gowns and hoods or hats adapted from the dress of university staff in the Middle Ages
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Committee
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A committee is a body of one or more persons that is subordinate to a deliberative assembly. Usually, the assembly sends matters into a committee as a way to them more fully than would be possible if the assembly itself were considering them. Committees may have different functions and the type of work that each committee does would depend on the type of organization, a deliberative assembly may form a committee consisting of one or more persons to assist with the work of the assembly. For larger organizations, much work is done in committees and they may have the advantage of widening viewpoints and sharing out responsibilities. They can also be appointed with experts to recommend actions in matters that require specialized knowledge or technical judgment, a governance committee is formed as a separate committee to review the performance of the board and board policy as well as nominate candidates for the board. Coordination and administration A large body may have smaller committees with more specialized functions, examples are an audit committee, an elections committee, a finance committee, a fundraising committee, and a program committee. Large conventions or academic conferences are organized by a coordinating committee drawn from the membership of the organization. Research and recommendations Committees may be formed to do research and make recommendations on a potential or planned project or change, discipline A committee on discipline may be used to handle disciplinary procedures on members of the organization. However, this could be considered a dilatory tactic, generally, committees are required to report to their parent body. Committees do not usually have the power to act unless the body that created it gives it such power. When a committee is formed, a chairman is designated for the committee, sometimes a vice-chairman is also appointed. It is common for the chairman to organize its meetings. The chairman is responsible for running meetings, duties include keeping the discussion on the appropriate subject, recognizing members to speak, and confirming what the committee has decided. Using Roberts Rules of Order Newly Revised, committees may follow informal procedures, the level of formality depends on the size and type of committee, in which sometimes larger committees considering crucial issues may require more formal processes. Minutes are a record of the decisions at meetings and they can be taken by a person designated as the secretary. For most organizations, committees are not required to keep formal minutes, however, some bodies require that committees take minutes, especially if the committees are public ones subject to open meeting laws. Committees may meet on a basis, such as weekly or more often. The frequency of the meetings depend on the work of the committee, when the committee completes its work, it provides the results in a report to its parent body
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Academic dress
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It is also known as academical dress, academicals, and, in the United States, as academic regalia. Contemporarily, it is seen only at graduation ceremonies, but formerly academic dress was. Today the ensembles are distinctive in some way to each institution, and generally consists of a gown with a separate hood, Academic dress is also worn by members of certain learned societies and institutions as official dress. Some older universities, particularly Oxford and Cambridge, have a set of dress to be worn under the gown. In the Commonwealth, gowns are worn open, while in the United States it has become common for gowns to close at the front, as did the original roba. In either case, the American Council of Education allows for the comfort of the wearer, and concedes that lighter materials be used in tropical climates, in addition, it acknowledges cotton poplin, broadcloth, rayon, or silk as appropriate. The materials used for academic dress vary and range from the economical to the very expensive. For some doctoral graduates commencement will be the time they wear academic regalia. These rented gowns are made of inexpensive polyester or other man-made synthetic fibre. In Britain, rented gowns are almost always polyester while Russell cord, undergraduate gowns are usually made from cotton or cotton and polyester mix and are relatively inexpensive to encourage students to own them. People who choose to buy their dress may opt for finer fabrics, such as poplin, grosgrain, Percale, cotton, wool, cassimere, broadcloth, Russell cord or corded/ribbed material. For silk, there are a range of types including artificial silk/rayon, Ottoman, taffeta, satin, alpaca, true silk, pure Ottoman silk is rarely used except for official gowns as it is very expensive. Some gowns may be trimmed with lace, cords, buttons or other forms of decoration. In the past, fur has been used to line certain hoods which range from rabbit to ermine, in the past, sheepskin was widely used. Most now use imitation fur instead, mainly because of cost, some robemakers will use fur if the customer requests and pays for it, as some feel that the quality and feel of artificial fur has yet to match that of real fur. Doctors robes usually use wool flannel, panama, superfine cloth and they tend to be the most expensive because they must be dyed in a specific colour and/or be trimmed in coloured silks. Many doctoral gowns have a special undress version so adding to the cost of a full set, a full set may cost about $360 for cheap materials to as much as $5800 for high quality materials. Usually, ex-hire gowns are available for purchase at cheaper prices though the quality may be lower, many institutions whose dress includes gowns of varying lengths prescribe the appropriate length of each gown with reference to parts of the wearers body
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Academic dress of the University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge has a long tradition of academic dress, which it traditionally refers to as academical dress. Almost every degree which is awarded by the University has its own distinct gown in addition to having its own hood, undergraduates wear college gowns which have subtle differences enabling the wearers college to be determined. Academic dress is quite often in Cambridge on formal, and sometimes informal, occasions. Black gowns are worn at formal events, while on special days full academical dress is worn, consisting of gown, hood. The Universitys officials also have ancient forms of dress, unique to the University. Most undergraduates buy or borrow a gown in their first week at Cambridge for the purpose of matriculation and it is more common to buy a gown, especially at the more traditional colleges, as the number of occasions on which it is worn quickly repays the investment. Gowns are often recycled between generations, as new students in turn need to upgrade their gowns at the start of the year. In most colleges, gowns are worn to Formal Hall and to Chapel, the extent to which these rules apply vary greatly from college to college, some dispensing with academic attire even for formal hall. On special occasions, fuller academic dress is used, including hoods, gowns are always worn with a hood to graduation ceremonies at the Senate House, and the University sets out strict rules regarding which gown and hood a graduating student should wear, and with what. Hoods may also be worn when attending chapel with Choir Dress or a surplice, when wearing full academic dress, a person wears the gown, hood and headdress of the highest degree he or she has already received from the University of Cambridge. A graduand wears the full Cambridge academic dress of the highest status degree that they already hold. Graduands who do not already hold a Cambridge degree wear the gown appropriate to their status in the University, undergraduates, who do not yet hold a degree, wear their undergraduate gown, with the hood of the degree that they are about to receive. Thus, for example, an undergraduate graduating to a BA degree wears an undergraduate gown and a BA hood. A holder of a BA from Cambridge graduating to a PhD wears both a BA hood and gown, whereas a graduate of university graduating to a PhD wears a BA or MA status gown. In the case of Medical students completing their clinical years graduands wear the gown and this is due to the fact the B. Chir degree is conferred in absentia as soon as the list of people passing the Final M. B examination is posted outside Senate House. This was to prevent the necessity for a graduation ceremony. As such it is common practice for students to hire the B. Chir academic dress, rather than purchase it, Medical students graduate at the end of the third year with a Cambridge BA, and for this ceremony are treated as any other students graduating with a BA. The gowns in use at Cambridge, like those used throughout the UK
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Academic dress of the University of St Andrews
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Academic dress at the University of St Andrews is an important part of university life. The University of St Andrews was founded between 1410 and 1413, being the oldest of the ancient universities of Scotland and the third oldest university in the English-speaking world, academic dress is compulsory at official ceremonial occasions, such as graduation and the installations of Rector and Chancellor. Gowns are also worn by University Ambassadors when conducting tours of the University grounds for students and by the collegiate chapel choirs of St Salvator. Chancellors Assessor, Black silk gown with long closed sleeves, each ornamented with two gold frogs worn with a black velvet cap with a black tassel. Rectors Assessor, Purple-blue silk gown with open sleeves and a maroon velvet collar worn with a black velvet trencher cap with a black tassel. Principal, Purple corded silk gown with sleeves, faced with purple velvet worn with a black velvet trencher trimmed with silver lace. Vice Principal, Black corded silk gown with sleeves, faced with purple velvet worn with a black velvet trencher trimmed with silver lace. It is traditional, for students in the United College of St Salvator and St Leonard, for first-years to wear the gown high on the shoulders and for second years to wear it lower on the shoulders. Third year students wear it off the shoulder if in the Faculty of Science or Medicine. Fourth year students wear it off both shoulders, as a general rule, it is considered bad luck to hook the fastenings on the undergraduate gown, or to wash it. They are black cloth with coloured tassels, blue for Bejants, crimson for Semi-Bejants, yellow for Tertians, folklore dictates only women students wear trenchers. Graduates wore the gown of the highest degree conferred upon them with or without the appropriate hood, however, a new St Leonards College gown has been introduced which is black and faced with burgundy so as to better integrate postgraduates into the gown tradition at St Andrews. Gowns and caps appropriate to a degree or official position within the university are worn according to the rules set down by the Senatus Academicus. Ordinary Graduands wear a black stuff or silk gown cut in the Cambridge M. A. style with the crescent-cut sleeves facing backwards, carry the hood proper to the degree to be conferred. Honorary Graduands wear undress, a black, silk, full-sleeved cassock with buttons and cincture of the faculty colour. They can wear either a black cloth mortar board with a tassel or in the case doctors receiving honorary degrees. Doctors in full-dress wear a gown, similar to the Cambridge Mus. D. pattern, of the colour of the appropriate degree hood, graduates wear the gown and hood appropriate to their highest degree and carry a black cloth square cap
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Cassock
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The white or black cassock, or soutane, is an item of Christian clerical clothing used by the clergy of Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Reformed churches, among others. Ankle-length garment is the meaning of the corresponding Latin term. It is related to habit traditionally worn by nuns, monks, the cassock derives historically from the tunic that in ancient Rome was worn underneath the toga and the chiton that was worn beneath the himation in ancient Greece. In religious services, it has traditionally been worn underneath vestments, the word cassock comes from Middle French casaque, meaning a long coat. In turn, the old French word may come ultimately from Turkish quzzak, the name was originally specially applied to the dress worn by soldiers and horsemen, and later to the long garment worn in civil life by both men and women. As an ecclesiastical term the word came into use somewhat late, being mentioned in canon 74 of 1604. The word soutane is a French-derived word, coming from Italian sottana, derived in turn from Latin subtana, the cassock comes in a number of styles or cuts, though no particular symbolism attaches to these. A Roman cassock often has a series of buttons down the front – sometimes thirty-three, in some English-speaking countries these buttons may be merely ornamental, with a concealed fly-front buttoning, known as a Chesterfield front, used to fasten the garment. A French cassock also has buttons sewn to the sleeves after the manner of a suit, an Ambrosian cassock has a series of only five buttons under the neck, with a sash on the waist. A Jesuit cassock, in lieu of buttons, has a fly fastened with hooks at the collar and is bound at the waist with a cincture knotted on the right side. The ordinary Roman cassock worn by Roman Catholic clerics is black except in tropical countries, the 1969 Instruction on the dress of prelates stated that for all of them, even cardinals, the dress for ordinary use may be a simple black cassock without coloured trim. A band cincture or sash, known also as a fascia, the Instruction on the dress of prelates specifies that the two ends that hang down by the side have silk fringes, abolishing the sash with tassels. The Pope wears a white watered-silk fascia, sometimes with his coat of arms on the ends, cardinals have the additional distinction of having both choir cassock sleeves and the fascia made of scarlet watered-silk. The cut of the cassock is still a Roman-cut or French-cut Roman cassock. In the past, a cardinals cassock was made entirely of watered silk and this train was abolished by the motu proprio Valde solliciti of Pope Pius XII with effect from 1 January 1953. An elbow-length shoulder cape, open in front, is worn with the cassock. It is known as a pellegrina and it is distinct from the mozzetta, which is buttoned in front and is worn over a rochet. The general rule of the Roman Catholic Church is that the pellegrina may be worn with the cassock by cardinals, others too have made the same distinction between the simar and the cassock, but many scholars disagree with Nainfas distinction
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Archbishop of Canterbury
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The current archbishop is Justin Welby. His enthronement took place at Canterbury Cathedral on 21 March 2013, Welby is the 105th in a line which goes back more than 1400 years to Augustine of Canterbury, the Apostle to the English, sent from Rome in the year 597. From the time of Augustine in the 6th until the 16th century, during the English Reformation the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. In the Middle Ages there was variation in the methods of nomination of the Archbishop of Canterbury. At various times the choice was made by the canons of Canterbury Cathedral, today the archbishop fills four main roles, He is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury, which covers the eastern parts of the County of Kent. Founded in 597, it is the oldest see in the English church and he is the metropolitan archbishop of the Province of Canterbury, which covers the southern two-thirds of England. He is the primate and chief religious figure of the Church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury plays a part in national ceremonies such as coronations, due to his high public profile. As spiritual leader of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop, although without legal authority outside England, is recognised by convention as primus inter pares of all Anglican primates worldwide, since 1867 he has convened more or less decennial meetings of worldwide Anglican bishops, the Lambeth Conferences. In the last two of these functions he has an important ecumenical and interfaith role, speaking on behalf of Anglicans in England, the archbishops main residence is Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. He also has lodgings in the Old Palace, Canterbury, located beside Canterbury Cathedral, as holder of one of the five great sees, the Archbishop of Canterbury is ex officio one of the Lords Spiritual of the House of Lords. He is one of the men in England and the highest ranking non-royal in the United Kingdoms order of precedence. Since Henry VIII broke with Rome, the Archbishops of Canterbury have been selected by the English monarch, today the choice is made in the name of the monarch by the prime minister, from a shortlist of two selected by an ad-hoc committee called the Crown Nominations Commission. Since the 20th century, the appointment of Archbishops of Canterbury conventionally alternates between more moderate Anglo-Catholics and Evangelicals, the current archbishop, Justin Welby, the 105th Archbishop of Canterbury, was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 4 February 2013. As archbishop he signs himself as + Justin Cantuar and his predecessor, Rowan Williams, 104th Archbishop of Canterbury, was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 27 February 2003. Immediately prior to his appointment to Canterbury, Williams was the Bishop of Monmouth, on 18 March 2012, Williams announced he would be stepping down as Archbishop of Canterbury at the end of 2012 to become Master of Magdalene College, Cambridge. In addition to his office, the archbishop also holds a number of positions, for example, he is Joint President of the Council of Christians. Some positions he formally holds ex officio and others virtually so, geoffrey Fisher, 99th Archbishop of Canterbury, was the first since 1397 to visit Rome, where he held private talks with Pope John XXIII in 1960
28.
Pope
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The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
29.
Act Concerning Peter's Pence and Dispensations
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The Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533, also known as the Act Concerning Peters Pence and Dispensations, is an Act of the Parliament of England. It was passed by the English Reformation Parliament in the part of 1534 and outlawed the payment of Peters Pence. The Act remained partly in force in Great Britain at the end of 2010 and it is under section III of this Act, that the Archbishop of Canterbury can award a Lambeth degree as an academic degree. Peters Pence was originally a tribute of one penny from each householder owning a land of a certain value to the Pope and had been collected in England since the reign of King Alfred. In the twelfth century it was fixed at a sum of £200 for the whole realm. The Act abolished Peters Pence and all payments to Rome. The fees which might have charged for the dispensations were set and required the Royal Assent, confirmed by the Great Seal of the Realm. When the Bill came to the Upper House some clauses were added in the second, the Bill was passed on the 20 March after the fourth reading and after the Commons assented to the new clauses immediately. On the final day of the session, however, one more clause was added, Lehmberg puts forth the idea that Henry VIII still wanted some leverage in bargaining with the Pope after the French King recently attempted to reconcile Henry with Pope Clement VII. The final clause was never used as the French mission did not succeed and it also claims that the authority of the Kings imperial crown is diminished by the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions of the Pope. The preamble was repealed by section 1 of, and Part II of the Schedule to and this section was repealed by section 1 of, and Part II of the Schedule to, the Statute Law Act 1969. This section was repealed by section 1 of, and Part II of the Schedule to and this section does not apply in relation to any faculty granted to a public notary. The words at the end of this section were repealed by section 4 of the Statute Law Revision Act 1948, as to this section, see section 5 of the Public Notaries Act 1843. In this section any reference to the Lord Chancellor or Lord Keeper of the Great Seal is to be read as a reference to the Chancellor of the High Court, the Chancellor of the High Court may nominate another judge of that court to exercise his functions under this section. This section was repealed by section 1 of, and Part II of the Schedule to and this section was repealed by section 13 of, and Part I of Schedule 4 to, the Criminal Law Act 1967. This section was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1948 and this section was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1948. This section was repealed by section 1 of, and Part II of the Schedule to and this section was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1948. This section was repealed by section 1 of, and Part II of the Schedule to, the repeal by the Statute Law Act 1969 of section 2 of the Act of Supremacy does not affect the continued operation, so far as unrepealed, of the Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533
30.
Henry VIII of England
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Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII, Henry is best known for his six marriages and, in particular, his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England. Besides asserting the supremacy over the Church of England, he greatly expanded royal power during his reign. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent, and he achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich and his contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated, and accomplished king, and he has been described as one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne. He was an author and composer, as he aged, Henry became severely obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547. He is frequently characterised in his life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI, born 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Of the young Henrys six siblings, only three – Arthur, Prince of Wales, Margaret, and Mary – survived infancy and he was baptised by Richard Fox, the Bishop of Exeter, at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three, and was inducted into the Order of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony he was created Duke of York, in May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter. Henry was given an education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin and French. Not much is known about his early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, as Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine. In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15 of sweating sickness, Arthurs death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry. After a little debate, Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall in October 1502, Henry VII gave the boy few tasks. Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public, as a result, the young Henry would later ascend the throne untrained in the exacting art of kingship
31.
Ezra Stiles
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Ezra Stiles was an American academic and educator, a Congregationalist minister, theologian and author. He was seventh president of Yale College, and one of the founders of Brown University, born the son of the Rev. Isaac Stiles in North Haven, Connecticut, and Kezia Taylor, the daughter of poet Edward Taylor. Ezra Stiles graduated from Yale in 1746 and he studied theology and was ordained in 1749, tutoring at Yale from that year until 1755. He resigned from the ministry in 1753 to study law and practice at New Haven, historians Helen A. Lane and Marion B. Walkden report that he was the first minister of the Dighton Community Church in Massachusetts and they state, Ezra Stiles, first settled minister of the church, was later made president of Yale College. Driven out by the British in 1777, he arrived in Dighton with his family, among them was William Ellery, singer of the Declaration of Independence. Ezra as minister of the finished church at Lower Four Corners was paid about three hundred dollars, house, and wood. While minister of the Dighton Church, Ezra Stiles received on July 13th a copy of the Declaration of Independence to be read to the congregation and it was brought to him by Mr. Channing, father of the famous preachers. Among Rev. Stiles’ many friends were Benjamin Franklin, Robert J. Payne, General Stark, John Adams, President Langdon of Harvard, and many leaders of the Revolutionary War period. In 1784, Stiles was elected a member of the Society of the Cincinnati of Connecticut, one of the first so honored. Trinity Church, the Anglican Church in Newport, Rhode Island, asked him to become its minister, instead, in 1755, he became pastor of the Second Congregational Church, also in Newport, where he also served as Librarian of the Redwood Library and Athenaeum. He kept a diary of his life and distinguished acquaintances in Newport. Newports Ezra Stiles House is on the National Historic Register, around the same time, he wrote a joint letter with fellow Newport minister Samuel Hopkins condemning the great inhumanity and cruelty of slavery in the United States. Stiles struck up a friendship with Rabbi Haim Isaac Carigal during the latters six-month residence in Newport in 1773. Stiles records note 28 meetings to discuss a variety of topics from Kabbalah to the politics of the Holy Land. Stiles improved his knowledge of Hebrew, to the point where he. Stiles knowledge of Hebrew also enabled him to large portions of the Hebrew Old Testament into English. Stiles believed, as did many Christian scholars of the time, when British troops arrived in Newport in late 1776, Stiles left
32.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
33.
Yale College
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Yale College is the undergraduate liberal arts college of Yale University. Founded in 1701, it is the school of the university. Originally established to train Congregationalist ministers, the college began teaching humanities, at the same time, students began organizing extracurricular organizations, first literary societies, and later publications, sports teams, and singing groups. By the mid-19th century, it was the largest college in the United States, in 1847, it was joined by another undergraduate degree-granting school at Yale, the Sheffield Scientific School, which was absorbed into the college in the mid-20th century. The most distinctive feature of life is the schools system of residential colleges, established in 1932. All undergraduates live in these colleges after their year, when most live on the schools Old Campus. The Collegiate School was founded in 1701 by a charter drawn by ten congregationalist ministers led by James Pierpont, originally situated in Abraham Piersons home in Killingworth, Connecticut, the college moved to New Haven in 1718 and was renamed for Elihu Yale, an early benefactor. Founded as a school to train ministers, original curriculum included only coursework in theology, later in the century, William Graham Sumner, the first professor of sociology in the United States, introduced studies in the social sciences. The relaxation of curriculum came in tandem with expansion in the extracurriculum, participation and leadership in these groups was an important social signifier and a route to induction into prestigious senior societies. Thus extracurricular participation became central to student life and social advancement, by 1870, Yale was the largest undergraduate institution in the country. Two additional colleges were built by 1940, and two more in the 1960s, for most of its history, study at Yale was almost exclusively restricted to white Protestant men, often the children of alumni. Documented exceptions to this paradigm include Hawaiian native Henry ʻŌpūkahaʻia, who became a student of Yale President Timothy Dwight in 1809, pennington, who was allowed to audit theology courses in 1837. Moses Simons, a descendent of a slave-holding South Carolinian family, has suggested to be the first Jew to graduate from Yale. Though his maternal ancestry is disputed, he may have also been the first person of African American descent to graduate from any American college. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified. Enrollment at Yale only became competitive in the early 20th century, as late as the 1950s, tests and demographic questionnaires for admission to the college worked to exclude non-Christian men, especially Jews, as well as non-white men. By the mid-1960s these processes were becoming more meritocratic, focusing on recruitment of a racially, economically and geographically diverse student body and this meritocratic transition encouraged the university to establish the first need-blind admissions policy in the United States. After several decades of debate about coeducation, Yale College admitted its first class of women in 1969, in recent years, the college has focused on international recruitment, quadrupling the fraction of international students admitted between 1993 and 2013
34.
Postnominal
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An individual may use several different sets of post-nominal letters, but in some contexts it may be customary to limit the number of sets to one or just a few. The order in which post-nominals are listed after a name is based on rules of precedence, post-nominal letters are one of the main types of name suffix. In contrast, pre-nominal letters precede the name rather than following it, active duty services personnel do not use any post-nominals other than, if applicable, Staff Corps affiliation followed by a comma and then their branch of service. Names are bracketed by the appropriate pre-nominal and post-nominal, e. g. LCDR John Q. Public, MC, USN. in the listing, Bt/Bart or Esq, Note that in the UK, Esq. may be used to refer to any gentleman in place of the pre-nominal Mr, British Orders and decorations, Appointments, i. e. In addition, British citizens who have received honours from Commonwealth countries with permission from the Queen are usually allowed to use the postnominals of that honour, Loughborough University gives a very similar ordering, but with Appointments replacing item 3 and Higher Education awards replacing items 4–6. This restores the Appointments section from the civil list omitted by Oxford and Nottingham, Nottingham Trent University gives essentially the same ordering as Oxford and Nottingham, but without specifying the order in which degrees should be given. Nottingham Trent, Oxford and Loughborough recommend degree abbreviations be given in mixed case without stops between the letters, as does Cambridge, imperial College London, however, uses all small caps for post-nominals. Where all degrees are shown, as in university calendars, most universities will give these in ascending order, degrees at the same level are ordered alphabetically by awarding institution and multiple degrees from the same institution are grouped, with position determined by the lowest degree in the grouping. Certificates and diplomas are listed after degrees, the examples given do not include institution names. The word Zirkel became a synonym in the late Middle Ages representing the group of close brothers. An example was Schillers use of the sentence Schließt then heilgen Zirkel dichter in the version of the Ode to the Joy. In general, however, it is normal to only list those relevant to the circumstance, the Gregg Reference Manual recommends placing periods between the letters of post-nominals, however The Chicago Manual of Style recommends writing degrees without periods. If post-nominals are given, the name should be used. In the UK, it is usual to list only doctorates, degrees in medicine, in particular, when a person has letters indicating Crown honours or decorations, only the principal degree would normally be given. The University of Oxford Style Guide advises writers, Remember that you do not need to list all awards, degrees, memberships etc held by an individual – only those items relevant to your writing. In an academic context, or in lists, all degrees may be listed in ascending order of academic status. The Oxford style is to list qualifications by their starting with bachelors degrees, then masters degrees
35.
Bracket
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A bracket is a tall punctuation mark typically used in matched pairs within text, to set apart or interject other text. The matched pair may be described as opening and closing, or left, forms include round, square, curly, and angle brackets, and various other pairs of symbols. Chevrons were the earliest type of bracket to appear in written English, desiderius Erasmus coined the term lunula to refer to the rounded parentheses, recalling the shape of the crescent moon. Some of the names are regional or contextual. Sometimes referred to as angle brackets, in cases as HTML markup. Occasionally known as broken brackets or brokets, ⸤ ⸥, ｢ ｣ – corner brackets ⟦ ⟧ – double square brackets, white square brackets Guillemets, ‹ › and « », are sometimes referred to as chevrons or angle brackets. The characters ‹ › and « », known as guillemets or angular quote brackets, are actually quotation mark glyphs used in several European languages, which one of each pair is the opening quote mark and which is the closing quote varies between languages. In English, typographers generally prefer to not set brackets in italics, however, in other languages like German, if brackets enclose text in italics, they are usually set in italics too. Parentheses /pəˈrɛnθᵻsiːz/ contain material that serves to clarify or is aside from the main point, a milder effect may be obtained by using a pair of commas as the delimiter, though if the sentence contains commas for other purposes, visual confusion may result. In American usage, parentheses are considered separate from other brackets. Parentheses may be used in writing to add supplementary information. They can also indicate shorthand for either singular or plural for nouns and it can also be used for gender neutral language, especially in languages with grammatical gender, e. g. he agreed with his physician. Parenthetical phrases have been used extensively in informal writing and stream of consciousness literature, examples include the southern American author William Faulkner as well as poet E. E. Cummings. Parentheses have historically been used where the dash is used in alternatives, such as parenthesis) is used to indicate an interval from a to c that is inclusive of a. That is, [5, 12) would be the set of all numbers between 5 and 12, including 5 but not 12. The numbers may come as close as they like to 12, including 11.999 and so forth, in some European countries, the notation [5, 12[ is also used for this. The endpoint adjoining the bracket is known as closed, whereas the endpoint adjoining the parenthesis is known as open, if both types of brackets are the same, the entire interval may be referred to as closed or open as appropriate. Whenever +∞ or −∞ is used as an endpoint, it is considered open
36.
Auckland University of Technology
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Auckland University of Technology is a university in New Zealand. It was formed on 1 January 2000 when the Auckland Institute of Technology was granted university status and its primary campus is on Wellesley Street in Aucklands Central business district. AUT has three campuses, North Shore, South, and the Millennium Institute of Sport and Health. AUT enrolled 28,314 students in 2014, including 2,606 international students from 85 countries, 87% of students were enrolled in a bachelors degree or higher qualification. AUT’s student population is diverse with students having a range of backgrounds including New Zealand European, Asian, Maori. Students also represent an age range with 37% of students being over 25. AUT University employed 2,063 full-time equivalent staff in 2011, data suggests that 91% of AUTs graduates obtain employment or progress to further study within six months of graduating. In the 2016 QS World University Ranking, AUT was ranked as 441–450, AUT was founded as Auckland Technical School in 1895, offering evening classes only. Daytime classes began in 1906 and its name was changed to Auckland Technical College, in 1913 it was renamed Seddon Memorial Technical College. For three years they co-existed on the site, but by 1964 the secondary school had moved to a new site in Western Springs. In 1989 ATI became Auckland Institute of Technology, and the current name was adopted when university status was granted in 2000, the first chancellor of AUT was Sir Paul Reeves. AUT has three campuses, City, South and North and one institute, Millennium. City and North Shore campuses both offer neighbouring student accommodation, AUT runs a shuttle bus between campuses. The university is halfway through its $245 million building programme on both the Wellesley and North Shore campuses, since 2000, new engineering, design, library, and business buildings have been constructed. A recent building project completion is the $98 million WG precinct at Wellesley campus, named after the former Chancellor of the university, the Sir Paul Reeves Building hosts the School of Communication Studies. The new building was opened by Prime Minister John Key on March the 22nd,2013. The City campus spreads over several sites in the heart of central Auckland, the largest site is situated on Wellesley Street and is home to most of the academic units and central administration, including the Vice-Chancellors Office and research centres. The Faculties of Business, Economics and Law, Design and Creative Technologies, Culture and Society, the Central Library holds over 245,000 books and journals on four floors
37.
Open University
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The Open University is a public distance learning and research university, and one of the biggest universities in the UK for undergraduate education. The majority of the OUs undergraduate students are based throughout the United Kingdom and principally study off-campus, the OU was established in 1969 and the first students enrolled in January 1971. The University administration is based at Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, in Buckinghamshire and it also has offices and regional examination centres in many other European countries. The university awards undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, as well as qualifications such as diplomas. Since it was founded, more than 1.5 million students have studied its courses and it was rated top university in England and Wales for student satisfaction in the 2005,2006 and 2012 United Kingdom government national student satisfaction survey, and second in the 2007 survey. The Open University was founded by the Labour government under Prime Minister Harold Wilson, Wilson was a strong advocate, using the vision of Michael Young. Wilson envisioned The Open University as a marker in the Labour Partys commitment to modernising British society. He believed that it would build a more competitive economy while also promoting greater equality of opportunity. By the time the actual, much higher costs became apparent, the majority of staff are part-time Associate Lecturers and, as of the 2009–10 academic year, almost 8,000 work for the OU. Salaries are the OUs main cost - over £275 million for the 2009–2010 academic year, in 2010 the OU became one of the Sunday Times′ Best Places to Work in the Public Sector. Open University Employees Credit Union Limited is a savings and loans co-operative established by the University for staff in 1994, a member of the Association of British Credit Unions Limited, it is authorised by the Prudential Regulation Authority and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority and the PRA. Ultimately, like the banks and building societies, members’ savings are protected against business failure by the Financial Services Compensation Scheme, in 1982 the OU announced the establishment of a business school supported by the Foundation for Management Education and the British Institute of Management. In 1983 the Open University Business School was founded with 1,600 students enrolled onto the first two courses – The Effective Manager and Personnel Selection and Interviewing, the Open University Business school is accredited by the international accrediting bodies AACSB, AMBA, amd EQUIS. It is the only triple-accredited business school that specialises in flexible learning, the OU uses a variety of methods for teaching, including written and audio materials, the Internet, disc-based software and television programmes on DVD. Course-based television broadcasts by the BBC, which started on 3 January 1971, materials comprise originally authored work by in-house and external academic contributors, and from third-party materials licensed for use by OU students. For most modules, students are supported by tutors who provide feedback on their work and are available to them at face-to-face tutorials, by telephone. Some modules have mandatory day schools and these are day-long sessions which a student must attend in order to pass the module. Nevertheless, it is possible to be excused on the basis of ill-health, over the past ten years the university has adopted a policy of separating residential modules from distance-full-time taught modules
38.
Doctor of Law
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Doctor of Law or Doctor of Laws is a degree in law. The application of the term varies from country to country, and includes such as the Doctor of Juridical Science, Doctor juris, Doctor of Philosophy, Juris Doctor. In Argentina the Doctor of Laws or Doctor of Juridical Sciences is the highest academic qualification in the field of Jurisprudence, to obtain the doctoral degree the applicant must have previously achieved, at least the undergraduate degree of Attorney. In some of the countrys most important universities there is a title known as livre docência. However, this title is not a degree in the strict sense, because livre docência nowadays is an internal title. The doctoral degree is awarded upon the completion and the defense of a thesis prepared by the doctoral candidate under the supervision of a tutor. The thesis must be examined by a board of five professors, holders of the title of doctor or of a livre docência, two of the members of the board must be professors from another institution. In most Brazilian Law Schools, the candidates are required to earn a minimum number of credits. Unlike the rules of other countries, the Brazilian norms governing the grant of doctoral titles do not require the publication of the thesis as a precondition for the award of the degree, nevertheless, copies of the thesis must be delivered to the institutions library. Usually, doctoral thesis are published by specialized editors after the grant of the doctoral title, if one obtains a doctoral title in a foreign country, one cannot enjoy the academic privileges of the title in Brazil unless the title be first validated by a Brazilian University. Admission to doctoral courses is almost universally reserved to holders of a masters degree, there are, however, a few universities that allow direct admission to the doctoral course without previous completion of the Masters course in exceptional circumstances. Thus, in cases, a bachelor of Laws, can be admitted directly to a doctoral course. Usually, one is allowed three years time to complete a Master of Laws degree, and four years time to complete the doctoral course. On the other hand, in the cases in which a bachelor of Laws is allowed to pursue a direct doctorate. Unlike the Master of Laws dissertation, the Doctoral Thesys must contain a contribution to the field of Law under study. In Canada, there are several academic law-related doctorates, the Doctor of Laws, Doctor of Juridical Science or Doctor of Legal Science, Doctor of Civil Law, the Doctor of Jurisprudence is the professional doctorate degree that is usually required for admissions to post-graduate studies in law. The first law degree was known until recently as the Bachelor of Laws, after the first law degree, one may pursue a second, the Masters of Laws and after that, the Doctor of Law, at some Canadian universities. Of the universities in Canada that offer earned academic doctorates in law, four offer LL. Ds, four offer Ph. Ds, the differences largely reflect the divide between Canadas two legal systems
39.
Doctor of Letters
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Doctor of Letters is an academic degree, a higher doctorate which, in some countries, may be considered to be beyond the Ph. D. and equal to the Doctor of Science. It is awarded in many countries by universities and learned bodies in recognition of achievement in the humanities, original contribution to the arts or scholarship. When awarded without an application by the conferee, it is awarded as an honorary degree, the Litt. D. degree is awarded to candidates whose record of published work and research shows conspicuous ability and originality and constitutes a distinguished and sustained achievement. University committee and board approval is required, and candidates must provide documented mastery of an area or field. The degree may also be awarded honoris causa to such individuals as the university or the body in question deems worthy of this highest academic award. At the University of Oxford, the degree was established in 1900 as part of the development of research degrees that began with the introduction of the B. Litt. and B. Sc. degrees in 1895. Up until that point, Oxford had focused on teaching, with the doctorates, such as those in divinity. Degree, Oxford eventually created its doctor of philosophy degree in 1915, deliberately using a distinctive English, rather than a Latin, title, the D. Phil. became an accelerated, supervised, lower-status degree to the D. Litt. When it was established in 1900, the Oxford doctor of letters, the length of the required number of terms changed over the years, depending on the prior Oxford degree that a candidate held, and the requirements became more specific. By 2015, The Oxford University Examination Regulations called for a faculty board at Oxford to appoint judges to consider the evidence submitted by any candidate, between 1923 and 2016, Oxford awarded 219 D. Litt. Degrees, of which 196 were awarded to men and 23 to women, among the six higher doctoral degrees at Oxford, the D. Litt. Comprised 27. 5% of the doctorates awarded during this 93-year period. As of June 2016, the Oxford D. Litt. has been suspended, in the United States, the degree is often an honorary degree conferred on those who have contributed to the humanities or society. There is, however, at least one earned D. Litt, programme at Drew University, where the degree requires 36 graduate credit hours post-Masters and a successfully prepared and defended nine-credit doctoral dissertation. In France the doctorat is awarded with a speciality, but there is no official list of these, candidates for a doctorat in literature are awarded a Doctorat ès lettres, abbreviated Dr ès l. There is a degree, the Habilitation à diriger des recherches. In literature, the candidates must also present a new and unpublished work, the habilitation allows to apply for a position of professor in French universities. Before the 1950s, the now-abolished Doctorat dÉtat degree was called Doctorat ès lettres
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