1.
Reading Company
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The Reading Company operated an important railroad in southeast Pennsylvania and neighboring states from 1924-1976. Commonly called the Reading Railroad, it was a successor to the Philadelphia, until the decline in anthracite loadings in the Coal Region after World War II, it was one of the most prosperous corporations in the United States. Competition with the highway system and short hauls compounded the companys problems. Its railroad operations were merged into Conrail in 1976, but the corporation lasted into 2000, the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad was one of the first railroads in the United States. Along with the Little Schuylkill, a railroad in the Schuylkill River Valley. Primarily, the P&R was constructed to haul coal from the mines in northeastern Pennsylvanias Coal Region to Philadelphia. The P&R mainline had the distinction of being, upon its 1843 completion, the P&R became profitable almost immediately. In 1871, the Reading established a subsidiary called the Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company, the heavy investment in coal paid off quickly. By 1871, the Reading was the largest company in the world, with $170,000,000 in gross value, in 1879, the Reading gained control of the North Pennsylvania Railroad and gained access to the burgeoning steel industry in the Lehigh Valley. Instead of broadening its rail network, the Reading invested its vast wealth in anthracite and this led to financial trouble in the 1870s. In 1890, Reading president Archibald A. McLeod saw that more riches could be earned by expanding its rail network, McLeod went about trying to control neighboring railroads in 1891. He was able to control of the Lehigh Valley Railroad, Central Railroad of New Jersey. The Reading almost achieved its goal of becoming a road, but the deal was scuttled by J. P. Morgan and other rail barons. The Reading was relegated to a railroad for the rest of its history. The Philadelphia and Reading Rail Road was chartered April 4,1833, the portion from Reading to Norristown opened July 16,1838, the full line December 9,1839. An extension northwest from Reading to Mount Carbon, also on the Schuylkill River, opened on January 13,1842, at Mount Carbon, it connected with the earlier Mount Carbon Railroad, continuing through Pottsville to several mines, and would eventually be extended to Williamsport. On May 17 of 1842, a branch from West Falls to Port Richmond on the Delaware River north of downtown Philadelphia opened. Port Richmond later became a large coal terminal
2.
Iron ore
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Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow. The iron itself is found in the form of magnetite, hematite, goethite, limonite or siderite. Ores containing very high quantities of hematite or magnetite are known as ore or direct shipping ore. Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig iron, indeed, it has been argued that iron ore is more integral to the global economy than any other commodity, except perhaps oil. Metallic iron is virtually unknown on the surface of the Earth except as iron-nickel alloys from meteorites, although iron is the fourth most abundant element in the Earths crust, comprising about 5%, the vast majority is bound in silicate or more rarely carbonate minerals. Prior to the revolution, most iron was obtained from widely available goethite or bog ore, for example during the American Revolution. Prehistoric societies used laterite as a source of iron ore, historically, much of the iron ore utilized by industrialized societies has been mined from predominantly hematite deposits with grades of around 70% Fe. These deposits are referred to as direct shipping ores or natural ores. Iron-ore mining methods vary by the type of ore being mined, there are four main types of iron-ore deposits worked currently, depending on the mineralogy and geology of the ore deposits. These are magnetite, titanomagnetite, massive hematite and pisolitic ironstone deposits, banded iron formations are sedimentary rocks containing more than 15% iron composed predominantly of thinly bedded iron minerals and silica. Banded iron formations occur exclusively in Precambrian rocks, and are weakly to intensely metamorphosed. Banded iron formations may contain iron in carbonates or silicates, banded iron formations are known as taconite within North America. The mining involves moving tremendous amounts of ore and waste, the waste comes in two forms, non-ore bedrock in the mine, and unwanted minerals which are an intrinsic part of the ore rock itself. The mullock is mined and piled in dumps, and the gangue is separated during the beneficiation process and is removed as tailings. Taconite tailings are mostly the mineral quartz, which is chemically inert and this material is stored in large, regulated water settling ponds. The typical magnetite iron-ore concentrate has less than 0. 1% phosphorus, 3–7% silica, currently magnetite iron ore is mined in Minnesota and Michigan in the U. S. Direct-shipping iron-ore deposits are exploited on all continents except Antarctica, with the largest intensity in South America
3.
Mineral wagon
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A mineral wagon or coal truck is a small open-topped railway goods wagon used in the United Kingdom and elsewhere to carry coal, ores and other mine products. When the railways originated in the United Kingdom, the initial rules, hence the railway companies provided the track and locomotives, whilst the transporter for bulk goods provided both the goods and the carrying vehicle. The result was a proliferation of private owner wagons, and growth in wagon makers, but with few rules except that demanded by the railway companies, wagons were mostly specified by agreement between the wagon manufacturer and the transporting customer. The original goods wagons - with many based on farm carts. The wagons had no driver operated train brakes, but were equipped with independent hand-operated brakes, the railway companies had no control over the maintenance or design of private owner wagons but were legally obliged to operate them. To combat these issues the Railway Clearing House introduced minimum standards for private owner wagons in 1887, Wagons that complied with the standards carried a plate saying RCH. The result was a cheap sturdy wagon, and one damaged was easily repaired. Those from Roberts had sloping sides, and both companies a combination of riveted or welded construction, the basic wagon had numerous variants. On creation of British Rail in 1948 - which took control of all railway assets, officially termed MCO/MCV 16t Mineral Wagons, they were all given a B prefix in their 5-figure numbering. Overhauled by their manufacturers, they were subsequently given numbers in the B19xxxx-series. All were withdrawn by the end of the 1960s, the basic BR-commissioned variant stayed true to the MoT original specification, except they had linked Moreton brakes, using either welded, or riveted body construction. The most common variant was an opening flap above both of the side doors. Known as a London Traders flap, there are conflicting ideas about its function, BR through various large orders eventually brought the total number of wagons to over 300,000. This included a late-1950s order towards the end of their construction, re-bodying occurred throughout the wagons service with BR, until the end of their service in the late 1970s. This mainly resulted in a replacement steel body, often of a simpler design, but in 1975 under lot number 3863,394 former Palbrick wagons which were originally built on an extended 10 feet chassis were re-bodied, and then renumbered B596000 - B596393. BR eventually developed a 21 long tons version, which was a 16T wagon with extended wheel base, under TOPS, the remaining wagons were allocated codes MCO and MCV for those with clasp brakes, and from 1981 code MXV for those with push brakes. In BR days there were unfitted mineral trains run at express speed, locally known as the Annesley Cutters or Windcutters. These trains have been recreated on the preserved Great Central Railway, whilst there were many equivalent empty wagon trains run by the Midland/ LMS/ BR LM Region, they were never run at express speeds, nor did they attract any nickname such as Windcutters
4.
Kambarka Engineering Works
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Kambarka Engineering Works - Full name, Open Joint Stock Company «Kambarka Engineering Works». A rolling stock manufacturer, located in the city of Kambarka, construction of an iron work started in 1761 and opened in 1767. The foundry produced up to 60,000 tons of iron per year, in 1950 the company shifted its focus towards railway technology. Produced for, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Argentina, Vietnam, Cambodia, Cuba, Mali, Nicaragua, Uzbekistan, Guinea-Bissau
5.
Track ballast
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Track ballast forms the trackbed upon which railroad ties are laid. It is packed between, below, and around the ties and it is used to bear the load from the railroad ties, to facilitate drainage of water, and also to keep down vegetation that might interfere with the track structure. This also serves to hold the track in place as the roll by. It is typically made of crushed stone, although ballast has sometimes consisted of other, less suitable materials, the term ballast comes from a nautical term for the stones used to stabilize a ship. The appropriate thickness of a layer of track ballast depends on the size and spacing of the ties, the amount of traffic on the line, and various other factors. Track ballast should never be laid down less than 150 mm thick, an insufficient depth of ballast causes overloading of the underlying soil, and in unfavourable conditions overloading the soil causes the track to sink, usually unevenly. Ballast less than 300 mm thick can lead to vibrations that damage nearby structures, however, increasing the depth beyond 300 mm adds no extra benefit in reducing vibration. In turn, track ballast typically rests on a layer of crushed stones. The sub-ballast layer gives a solid support for the top ballast, sometimes an elastic mat is placed on the layer of sub-ballast and beneath the ballast, thereby significantly reducing vibration. The ballast shoulder always should be at least 150 mm wide, the shape of the ballast is also important. Stones must be cut, with sharp edges, so that they properly interlock and grip the ties in order to fully secure them against movement. In order to let the stones fully settle and interlock, speed limits are often lowered on sections of track for a period of time after new ballast has been laid. If ballast is badly fouled, the clogging will reduce its ability to drain properly, therefore, keeping the ballast clean is essential. Bioremediation can be used to clean ballast and it is not always necessary to replace the ballast if it is fouled, nor must all the ballast be removed if it is to be cleaned. Removing and cleaning the ballast from the shoulder is often sufficient, such machines can clean up to two kilometres of ballast in an hour. In such cases, it is necessary to replace the ballast altogether, the dump and jack method cannot of course be used through tunnels, under overbridges, and where there are platforms. Where the track is laid over a swamp, such as the Hexham swamp in Australia, the ballast continuously sinks, after 150 years of topping up, there appears to be 10 m of sunken ballast under the tracks. Chat Moss in the United Kingdom is similar, regular inspection of the ballast shoulder is important, as noted earlier, the lateral stability of the track depends upon the shoulder
6.
Pittsburg, Texas
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Pittsburg is a city located in Camp County, Texas. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 4,497. It is the county seat of Camp County and it is best known as the former home of the giant poultry producer Pilgrims and the home of racing legend Carroll Shelby. Pittsburg is also the birthplace of Cavenders Boot City and it is also the hometown of Tennessee Titan Kendall Wright. In 1902, it was the site of a flight attempt by the Ezekiel Air Ship Mfg Co. The city is named after the family of William Harrison Pitts, in 1996, the town changed its name to Cowboys for a few weeks in support of the Dallas Cowboys, who faced the Pittsburgh Steelers that year in Super Bowl XXX. Pittsburg is located at 32°5949 North, 94°585 West, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.3 square miles, all land. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen climate classification system, Pittsburg has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the census of 2000, there are 4,347 people,1,593 households,150 rental apartments,1,056 families residing in the city,25 Protestant churches, the population density is 1,301.9 people per square mile. There are 1,779 housing units at a density of 532.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city is 54. 50% White,27. 97% African American,0. 30% Native American,0. 16% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,15. 76% from other races, and 1. 27% from two or more races. 23. 86% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race,29. 9% of all households are made up of individuals and 15. 7% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.63 and the family size is 3.24. In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 30. 0% under the age of 18,9. 5% from 18 to 24,25. 5% from 25 to 44,17. 9% from 45 to 64, the median age is 32 years. For every 100 females there are 87.5 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 79.3 males. The median income for a household in the city is $24,789, males have a median income of $28,750 versus $20,042 for females. The per capita income for the city is $14,882,27. 7% of the population and 23. 8% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the population,38. 8% of those under the age of 18 and 14. 1% of those 65
7.
Indian Railways
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Indian Railways is a state-owned railway company, responsible for rail transport in India. It is owned and operated by the Government of India through the Ministry of Railways. It is fourth largest railway network in the world comprising 119,630 kilometres of track and 92,081 km of running track over a route of 68,525 km with 7,216 stations at the end of 2015-16. In 2015-16, IR carried 8.107 billion passengers annually or more than 22 million passengers a day and 1.101 billion tons of freight annually, Railways were first introduced to India in the year 1853 from Bombay to Thane. In 1951 the systems were nationalised as one unit, the Indian Railways, IR operates both long distance and suburban rail systems on a multi-gauge network of broad, metre and narrow gauges. It also owns locomotive and coach production facilities at places in India, with assigned codes identifying their gauge, kind of power. Its operations cover twenty six states and three union territories across India, and also has connectivity to Bangladesh and Pakistan. Indian Railways is the eighth biggest employer and had 1.331 million employees at the end of 2015-16. In 2015–2016 Indian Railways had revenues of ₹1.683 trillion which consists of ₹1.069 trillion freight earnings and it had operating ratio of 90. 5% in 2015-16. As on the end of 2015-16, IRs rolling stock comprises over 251,256 Freight Wagons,70,241 Passenger Coaches and 11,122 Locomotives, Indian Railways run on average 13,313 passenger trains daily in 2015-16. Mail or Express trains, most common type, run at speed of 50.9 km/hr on Broad Gauge and 34.2 km/hr on Meter Gauge. The trains have a 5 digit numbering system, as of at the end of 2015-16, of the total 68,525 km route length,28,327 km was electrified and 28,371 km was Double or Multiple line route. Since 1960, almost all electrified sections on IR use 25,000 volts AC traction through overhead catenary delivery, the history of railway transport in India began in the mid-nineteenth century. The core of the pressure for building railways In India came from London, in 1848, there was not a single kilometre of railway line in India. The countrys first railway, built by the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, opened in 1853, the East Indian Railway Company was established 1 June 1845 in London by a deed of settlement with a capital of £4,000,000, largely raised in London. The Great Southern India Railway Co. was founded in Britain in 1853, Construction of track in Madras Presidency began in 1859 and the 80-mile link from Trichinopoly to Negapatam was opened in 1861. The Carnatic Railway founded in 1864, opened a Madras-Arakkonam-Kancheepuram line in 1865, the Great Southern India Railway Company was subsequently merged with the Carnatic Railway Company in 1874 to form the South Indian Railway Company. A British engineer, Robert Maitland Brereton, was responsible for the expansion of the railways from 1857 onwards, the Allahabad-Jabalpur branch line of the East Indian Railway had been opened in June 1867
8.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
9.
Railroad car
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A railroad car or railcar, railway wagon or railway carriage, also called a train car or train wagon, is a vehicle used for the carrying of cargo or passengers on a rail transport system. Such cars, when coupled together and hauled by one or more locomotives, alternatively, some passenger cars are self-propelled in which case they may be either single railcars or make up multiple units. The term car is used by itself in American English when a rail context is implicit. Indian English sometimes uses bogie in the manner, though the term has other meanings in other variants of English. In American English, railcar is a term for a railway vehicle, in other countries railcar refers specifically to a self-propelled, powered. Tables may be provided between seats facing one another, alternatively, seats facing in the same direction may have access to a fold-down ledge on the back of the seat in front. If the aisle is located between seats, seat rows may face the direction, or be grouped, with twin rows facing each other. In some vehicles intended for services, seats are positioned with their backs to the side walls. This gives a wide accessway and allows room for standing passengers at peak times, if the aisle is at the side, the car is usually divided into small compartments. These usually contain six seats, although sometimes in second class they contain eight, modern cars usually have either air-conditioning or windows that can be opened, or sometimes both. Various types of onboard train toilet facilities may also be provided, other types of passenger car exist, especially for long journeys, such as the dining car, parlor car, disco car, and in rare cases theater and movie theater car. In some cases another type of car is converted to one of these for an event. Observation cars were built for the rear of many trains to allow the passengers to view the scenery. Sleeping cars outfitted with small bedrooms allow passengers to sleep through their night-time trips, long-distance trains often require baggage cars for the passengers luggage. In European practice it used to be common for day coaches to be formed of compartments seating 6 or 8 passengers, in the UK, Corridor coaches fell into disfavor in the 1960s and 1970s partially because open coaches are considered more secure by women traveling alone. Another distinction is between single- and double deck train cars, an example of a double decker is the Amtrak superliner. A trainset is a semi-permanently arranged formation of cars, rather than one created ad hoc out of cars are available. These are only broken up and reshuffled on shed, trains are then built of one or more of these sets coupled together as needed for the capacity of that train
10.
Bulk cargo
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Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. It refers to material in liquid or granular, particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as petroleum/crude oil, grain, coal. This cargo is usually dropped or poured, with a spout or shovel bucket, into a bulk carrier ships hold, railroad car/railway wagon, smaller quantities can be boxed and palletised. Bulk cargo is classified as liquid or dry, the Baltic Exchange is based in London and provides a range of indices benchmarking the cost of moving bulk commodities, dry and wet, along popular routes around the seas. Some of these indices are used to settle Freight Futures. The most famous of the Baltic indices is the Baltic Dry Indices and this is a derived function of the Baltic Capesize index, Baltic Panamax index, Baltic Supramax index and the Baltic Handysize index. The BDI has been used as a bellwether for the economy as it can be interpreted as an indicator of an increase or decrease in the amount of raw commodities countries are importing/exporting. Bauxite Bulk minerals Cements Chemicals Coals and cokes Agricultural products such as dry edibles Grains Iron, Bulk Cargoes, A Guide to Good Practice. UK, The North of England P&I Association, stability and Trim for the Ships Officer. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations
11.
Coal
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Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
12.
Ore
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An ore is a type of rock that contains sufficient minerals with important elements including metals that can be economically extracted from the rock. The ores are extracted from the earth through mining, they are refined to extract the valuable element. The grade or concentration of an ore mineral, or metal, as well as its form of occurrence, will directly affect the costs associated with mining the ore. The cost of extraction must thus be weighed against the value contained in the rock to determine what ore can be processed. Metal ores are generally oxides, sulfides, silicates, or native metals that are not commonly concentrated in the Earths crust, the ores must be processed to extract the metals of interest from the waste rock and from the ore minerals. Ore bodies are formed by a variety of geological processes, the process of ore formation is called ore genesis. An ore deposit is an accumulation of ore and this is distinct from a mineral resource as defined by the mineral resource classification criteria. An ore deposit is one occurrence of a particular ore type, Ore deposits are classified according to various criteria developed via the study of economic geology, or ore genesis. Stratiform arkose-hosted and shale-hosted copper, typified by the Zambian copperbelt and this identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work. This is because the distribution of ores is unequal and dislocated from locations of peak demand. Other, lesser, commodities do not have international clearing houses and benchmark prices and this generally makes determining the price of ores of this nature opaque and difficult. Such metals include lithium, niobium-tantalum, bismuth, antimony and rare earths, most of these commodities are also dominated by one or two major suppliers with >60% of the worlds reserves. The London Metal Exchange aims to add uranium to its list of metals on warrant, the World Bank reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the USA and Japan. Economic geology Mineral resource classification Ore genesis Petrology Froth Flotation Extractive metallurgy DILL, the “chessboard” classification scheme of mineral deposits, Mineralogy and geology from aluminum to zirconium, Earth-Science Reviews, Volume 100, Issue 1-4, June 2010, Pages 1-420
13.
Cereal
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A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grains are grown in quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from plant families, such as buckwheat, quinoa. In their natural form, cereals are a source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils. When refined by the removal of the bran and germ, the endosperm is mostly carbohydrate. In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, in developed nations, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial. The word cereal is derived from Ceres, the Roman goddess of harvest, agriculture allowed for the support of an increased population, leading to larger societies and eventually the development of cities. It also created the need for organization of political power, as decisions had to be made regarding labor and harvest allocation and access rights to water. Agriculture bred immobility, as populations settled down for long periods of time, early Neolithic villages show evidence of the development of processing grain. The Levant is the ancient home of the ancestors of wheat, barley and peas, there is evidence of the cultivation of figs in the Jordan Valley as long as 11,300 years ago, and cereal production in Syria approximately 9,000 years ago. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using man-made floods, fiber crops were domesticated as early as food crops, with China domesticating hemp, cotton being developed independently in Africa and South America, and Western Asia domesticating flax. The first cereal grains were domesticated by early primitive humans, about 8,000 years ago, they were domesticated by ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so-called Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture, around the same time, millets and rices were starting to become domesticated in East Asia. Sorghum and millets were also being domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, while each individual species has its own peculiarities, the cultivation of all cereal crops is similar. Most are annual plants, consequently one planting yields one harvest, wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, and spelt are the cool-season cereals. These are hardy plants grow well in moderate weather and cease to grow in hot weather. The warm-season cereals are tender and prefer hot weather, barley and rye are the hardiest cereals, able to overwinter in the subarctic and Siberia. Many cool-season cereals are grown in the tropics, however, some are only grown in cooler highlands, where it may be possible to grow multiple crops per year
14.
Gondola (rail)
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In US railroad terminology, a gondola is an open-topped rail vehicle used for transporting loose bulk materials. Because of their low side walls gondolas are also suitable for the carriage of such high-density cargos as steel plates or coils, or of bulky items such as prefabricated sections of rail track. Before the opening of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad and the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia, since timber was an abundant resource, flat boats, called gondolas, were constructed to navigate the black diamonds down river to markets around Washington, DC. There, both the boat and cargo were sold and the boatmen returned home by foot, the railroad cars first employed in the haulage of coal were thus named after these shallow-draft boats called gondola cars. Early gondola cars typically had low sides and their contents had to be shoveled out by hand, and they took a long time to unload. In 1905, the Ralston Steel Car Company patented a flat bottom gondola with lever operated chutes that allowed the gondola to be unloaded automatically from the bottom, the chutes would direct the contents of the gondola to the sides. This coincided with the switch from wood to steel freight cars, an open railroad car with a tipping trough, often found in mines. Known in the UK as a tippler or chaldron wagon and in the US as a mine car, the first railway bulk-cargo gondolas, indeed the first freight wagons, were the chaldron cars of the early coal-carrying plateways. These were relatively short in length and tall in proportion, with a body that widened upwards. Once locomotive haulage began, the unstable and top-heavy nature of design became a problem with increasing speeds. The chaldron shape survived in a few cases, such as low-speed working around a large factory sites including steelworks, in the second half of the 20th century, coal haulage shifted from open hopper cars to high-sided gondolas. Using a gondola, the railroads are able to haul a larger amount of coal per car since gondolas do not include the equipment needed for unloading. However, since cars do not have hatches for unloading the products shipped in them. The term bathtub refers to the shape of the car, double Stack Intermodal Cars-Freight Origins of name in railroad use In Australia these wagons are called open wagons. Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway #72312 — photos and short history of an example of a steel, four-axle, solid bottom, fixed end. Guide to Railcarsdead link] Rail car manufacturing Flexiwaggon
15.
Covered hopper
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A covered hopper is a railroad freight car designed for carrying dry bulk loads, varying from grain to products such as sand and clay. The cover protects the loads from the weather - dry cement would be hard to unload if mixed with water in transit. However, they are unsuitable for such as fruit or meat - these are transported in refrigerator cars. Similar to a hopper car, covered hoppers tend to contain two to four separated bays. Each of these can be loaded and emptied individually, with access at the top to load the materials, covered hoppers in North American service have been built by most of the freight car manufacturers of the 20th century. Originally, boxcars were used for the transport of bulk materials, not having been specifically designed for this, it was very hard to use any form of bulk material handling to load or unload them. Also, an amount of product was liable to be lost, either during loading or unloading, or in transit - since the cars had to be boarded up, rather than using the doors. Hoppers with bays are used for different purposes, two-bay hoppers are used for the most dense loads, therefore, by trading off cubic capacity, two-bay hoppers are able to transport these heavy loads. As technology has advanced, some of the heavier loads formerly assigned to two-bay hoppers have been assigned to larger, large unit trains of various grain crops are a common sight in North America, reaching up to 125 cars long. These predominantly haul grain from the farming areas of the Great Plains to various markets. These trains may originate from a grain elevator, or may be marshaled in a yard from various locals. The destinations tend to be large flour mills or ports, or they may be split up, the empty cars may return as a whole train, or may be sent back in smaller quantities on manifest trains. These trains are used primarily for hauling products such as corn, wheat and barley
16.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
17.
Fertilizer
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A fertilizer or fertiliser is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants and this goal is met in two ways, the traditional one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilizers act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and aeration and this article, like many on fertilizers, emphasises the nutritional aspect. The nutrients required for plant life are classified according to the elements. Instead compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers, the macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0. 15% to 6. 0% on a dry matter basis. Plants are made up of four elements, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide, although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA, to be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a fixed form. Only some bacteria and their host plants can fix atmospheric nitrogen by converting it to ammonia, phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids. Micronutrients are consumed in quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts-per-million, ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM. These elements are present at the active sites of enzymes that carry out the plants metabolism. Because these elements enable catalysts their impact far exceeds their weight percentage, Fertilizers are classified in several ways. They are classified according to whether they provide a single nutrient, multinutrient fertilizers provide two or more nutrients, for example N and P. Fertilizers are also sometimes classified as inorganic versus organic. Inorganic fertilizers exclude carbon-containing materials except ureas, organic fertilizers are usually plant- or animal-derived matter. Inorganic are sometimes called synthetic fertilizers since various chemical treatments are required for their manufacture, the main nitrogen-based straight fertilizer is ammonia or its solutions. Ammonium nitrate is widely used. Urea is another source of nitrogen, having the advantage that it is solid and non-explosive, unlike ammonia and ammonium nitrate. A few percent of the fertilizer market has been met by calcium ammonium nitrate
18.
Taconite
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Taconite is a variety of iron formation, an iron-bearing sedimentary rock, in which the iron minerals are interlayered with quartz, chert, or carbonate. Newton Horace Winchell, the Minnesota State Geologist, coined the term during his investigations of the Precambrian Biwabik Iron Formation of northeastern Minnesota. He noted the rock had a resemblance to iron-bearing rocks from the Taconic Mountains of New York state. The iron content of taconite, commonly present as finely dispersed magnetite, is generally 25% to 30%, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the United States was mining such an abundance of iron ore of high quality that taconite was considered an uneconomic waste product. By the end of World War II, however, much of the iron ore in the United States had been exhausted. Taconite became valued as a new source of the metal, as a last step, it is rolled into pellets about one centimeter in diameter that contain approximately 65% iron. The pellets are fired at a very high temperatures to harden them and this is to ensure that the blast furnace charge remains porous enough to allow heated gas to pass through and react with the pelletized ore. Firing the pellet oxidizes the magnetite to hematite, a reaction that reduces the cost of pelletizing the concentrate. E. W. Davis of the University of Minnesota Mines Experiment Station is credited with developing the pelletizing process. Since the commercial development of process in the Lake Superior region in the 1950s. Major producers of iron ore pellets from taconite in North America include Iron Ore Company of Canada, Cliffs Natural Resources and these processed taconite-ore pellets are also referred to as taconite. Because this is the form that is transported by rail and ship, and cargo of these is often discussed. The Mesabi Iron Range region of the American state of Minnesota is a production area. The taconite iron ore pellets are hauled by railroad to the ports of Silver Bay, Two Harbors, the docks at Escanaba, Michigan, on Lake Michigan, also ship taconite from the Marquette iron range in Michigan, and occasionally ore from Minnesota is hauled by rail there. Marquette, Michigan also has a dock which also loads bulk freighters with ore from the Marquette iron range. The ore is shipped by lake freighters to locations on the lower Great Lakes. Many steelmaking centers are located near Lake Erie, due to increased international demand, taconite is shipped to Mexico and China. The cargo of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald, which sank in Lake Superior on November 10,1975, beginning in 1955, the crushed waste rock from processing taconite of the Reserve Mining Company in Minnesota were discharged in a slurry into Lake Superior
19.
Duluth, Missabe and Iron Range Railway
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Control of the railway was acquired on May 10,2004, by the Canadian National Railway when it purchased the assets of Great Lakes Transportation. The DM&IR was formed by the merger in 1937 of the Duluth, Missabe and Northern Railway, the following year, the Duluth and Iron Range Rail Road and Interstate Transfer Railway were added. All of these had been leased by the DM&N since 1930, the D&IR was formed in 1874 by Charlemagne Tower to haul iron ore from the Minnesota Iron Co. in Tower, Minnesota, to the new Lake Superior port of Two Harbors, Minnesota. On July 31,1884, the D&IR carried its first ore shipment from the Soudan Mine, in 1887, the D&IR was acquired by Illinois Steel, which itself became part of the new United States Steel Corporation in 1901. After high-grade Mesabi iron ore was discovered near Mountain Iron, Minnesota by the Seven Iron Men, the D&IR was asked to build a line to serve this area. So in 1891, the Merritts incorporated the DM&N, which shipped its first load of ore to Superior. The following year, the Merritts expanded the DM&N by laying track to Duluth, Minnesota, but this expansion left the Merritts on shaky financial ground, and in 1894, John D. Rockefeller gained control of the railway. In 1901, Rockefeller sold the DM&N to USS, from 1901 to 1938, the two railways were owned by USS and operated separately. Total ore hauled by the two railroads peaked in 1929 at 27.8 million tons and dropped to 1.5 million tons in 1932, by July 1938, the two railways merged to form the DM&IR. The two operating divisions, the Missabe and the Iron Range, were based upon the predecessor roads, the first eight of DM&IRs class M 2-8-8-4 Yellowstone locomotives were delivered by Baldwin Locomotive Works in spring 1941. As well as the Yellowstones, the DM&IR had heavy 2-8-8-2 articulateds, 2-8-2 Mikados, 2-10-2 Santa Fes, ore movement was nearly 45 million tons in 1942 and the War Production Board allowed the Missabe to order ten more Yellowstones, delivered in 1943. The 2-8-8-4s were slowly retired in the half of the 50s. After World War II, the DM&IR hauled increasing tonnage to the ore docks along Lake Superior and that year the first diesel locomotives, EMD SW9s, arrived on the railway. In 1954, a set of Baldwin DR-4-4-1500 Sharknose diesels arrived from the Elgin, Joliet and Eastern, dieselization continued with the purchase of several EMD SD9 road switchers the following year, while the last revenue steam run occurred in 1961. Passenger service on the Missabe division ended in 1957 and completely ceased system-wide in 1961, as the supply of high-quality iron ore dwindled, mines and pits were closing across Minnesotas iron ranges. The DM&IRs ore docks in Two Harbors closed in 1963 and did not reopen until 1966, the Missabe Road was saved by the passage on November 3,1963, of the Taconite Amendment to the Minnesota State Constitution. The passage of the amendment accelerated the creation of the mining industry in Northern Minnesota. The Eveleth Taconite Company was formed in 1964 and on April 8,1966, the taconite era on the Missabe had begun
20.
Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
21.
Iron Range
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Iron Range refers collectively or individually to a number of elongated iron-ore mining districts around Lake Superior in the United States and Canada. Despite the word range, the ranges are not mountain chains. These cherty iron ore deposits are Precambrian in age for the Vermilion Range, while middle Precambrian in age for the Mesabi, similarly, the Gogebic Range in Wisconsin and the Marquette Iron Range and Menominee Range in Michigan. Natural ores and concentrates were produced from 1848 until the mid 1950s, the far eastern area, containing the Duluth Complex along the shore of Lake Superior, and the far northern area, along the Canada–US border, of the region are not associated with iron ore mining. Due to its shape, the area is referred to as the Arrowhead region of the state. The area consists of seven counties, Aitkin, Carlton, Cook, Itasca, Koochiching, Lake, geologically, the iron ranges in Minnesota belong to the Animikie Group. The geologic history of the formations containing iron are typical of banded iron formations worldwide, prior to the 19th century, Native American groups mined native copper on the Keweenaw Peninsula. William Austin Burt discovered iron ore in the Marquette Range near Negaunee, Iron ore was quickly discovered on the Menominee Range in 1867, on the Gogebic Range in 1884, on the Vermilion Range in 1885, the Mesabi Range in 1890, and the Cuyuna Range in 1903. Underground mines developed to remove the ore of most ranges. However, iron mining operations on the Mesabi and Cuyuna Ranges took place in open pit mines where steam shovels. Large-scale commercial production of magnetite taconite ore on the Mesabi Range started in 1956 at the Peter Mitchell Mine near Babbitt, the Iron Range contains several smaller cities. Some of the more significant communities in the include, Aitkin is located on the eastern edge of the Cuyuna Range. Aitkin was the birthplace of stage and film actor Warren William, aurora is located on the Eastern Mesabi Range. The former St. James, Meadow, Miller and Stephens mines lie within the city limits, Babbitt Biwabik Bovey is located along U. S. Highway 169 between Coleraine and Taconite. Bovey was the birthplace of NHL goaltender Adam Hauser, San Francisco politician Richard Hongisto, Buhl is located along U. S. Highway 169 between Chisholm and Virginia. Buhl is known for its water and claims The Finest Water in America on its water tower. Chisholm is the center of the Mesabi Range, home of the Chisholm Bluestreaks. It is the home of Minnesota Discovery Center, the Minnesota Museum of Mining, archibald Moonlight Graham, subject of the motion picture Field of Dreams settled in Chisholm
22.
Rotary car dumper
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A rotary car dumper or wagon tippler is a mechanism used for unloading certain railroad cars such as hopper cars, gondolas or lorries. It holds the car to a section of track and rotates the track. Used with gondola cars, it is making open hopper cars obsolete, alternatives to the rotary dump cars are bottom dump cars with bottom doors, and back end hoes which unload gondola cars. The former has the disadvantage that any imperfection in the seals of the doors allows material to spill onto the track
23.
Coke Express
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Coke Express trains are unit trains operated by CSX Transportation. They carry coke for steel making, power generation and other various uses and these cars consist of a mixture of standard and high-topped open-top hopper cars, most of which are owned by CSX. Many of the hi-capacity hoppers built for CSX are painted with large letters that read COKE EXPRESS, hence the nickname given to CSX coke trains
24.
Coke (fuel)
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Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a high carbon content, usually made from coal. It is the carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash. Cokes made from coal are grey, hard, and porous, while coke can be formed naturally, the commonly used form is man-made. The form known as coke, or pet coke, is derived from oil refinery coker units or other cracking processes. Coke is used in preparation of producer gas which is a mixture of carbon monoxide, producer gas is produced by passing air over red-hot coke. Coke is also used to water gas. Historical sources dating to the 4th century describe the production of coke in ancient China, the Chinese first used coke for heating and cooking no later than the ninth century. By the first decades of the century, Chinese ironworkers in the Yellow River valley began to fuel their furnaces with coke. In 1589 a patent was granted to Thomas Proctor and William Peterson for making iron and steel and melting lead with earth-coal, sea-coal, turf, the patent contains a distinct allusion to the preparation of coal by cooking. In 1590 a patent was granted to the Dean of York to purify pit-coal, in 1620 a patent was granted to a company composed of William St. John, Robert Follensbee and other knights, mentioning the use of coke in smelting ores and manufacturing metals. In 1627 a patent was granted to Sir John Hacket and Octavius de Strada for a method of rendering sea-coal and pit-coal as useful as charcoal for burning in houses, without offense by smell or smoke. In 1603 Hugh Plat suggested that coal might be charred in an analogous to the way charcoal is produced from wood. In 1709 Abraham Darby I established a coke-fired blast furnace to produce cast iron, cokes superior crushing strength allowed blast furnaces to become taller and larger. The ensuing availability of iron was one of the factors leading to the Industrial Revolution. Before this time, iron-making used large quantities of charcoal, produced by burning wood, in the late 18th century, brick beehive ovens were developed, which allowed more control over the burning process. In 1768 John Wilkinson built a more practical oven for converting coal into coke, with greater skill in the firing, covering and quenching of the heaps, yields were increased from about 33 per cent to 65 per cent by the middle of the 19th century. The Scottish iron industry expanded rapidly in the second quarter of the 19th century. In 1802 a battery of beehives was set up near Sheffield, by 1870, there were 14,000 beehive ovens in operation on the West Durham coalfields, capable of producing 4.2 million tons of coke
25.
Geoffrey Chaucer
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Geoffrey Chaucer, known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages. He was the first poet to be buried in Poets Corner of Westminster Abbey, among his many works are The Book of the Duchess, The House of Fame, The Legend of Good Women and Troilus and Criseyde. He is best known today for The Canterbury Tales, Chaucers work was crucial in legitimizing the literary use of the Middle English vernacular at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were French and Latin. Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London sometime around 1343, though the precise date and his father and grandfather were both London vintners, several previous generations had been merchants in Ipswich. In 1324 John Chaucer, Geoffreys father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the boy to her daughter in an attempt to keep property in Ipswich. The aunt was imprisoned and the fine levied suggests that the family was financially secure. In the City Hustings Roll 110,5, Ric II, dated June 1380, Geoffrey Chaucer refers to himself as me Galfridum Chaucer, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie. He also worked as a courtier, a diplomat, and a civil servant, as well as working for the king from 1389 to 1391 as Clerk of the Kings Works. In 1359, in the stages of the Hundred Years War, Edward III invaded France and Chaucer travelled with Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, Elizabeths husband. In 1360, he was captured during the siege of Rheims, Edward paid £16 for his ransom, a considerable sum, and Chaucer was released. After this, Chaucers life is uncertain, but he seems to have travelled in France, Spain, around 1366, Chaucer married Philippa Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to Edward IIIs queen, Philippa of Hainault, and a sister of Katherine Swynford and it is uncertain how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but three or four are most commonly cited. His son, Thomas Chaucer, had a career, as chief butler to four kings, envoy to France. Thomass daughter, Alice, married the Duke of Suffolk, thomass great-grandson, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, was the heir to the throne designated by Richard III before he was deposed. Geoffreys other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun at Barking Abbey, Agnes, an attendant at Henry IVs coronation, Chaucers Treatise on the Astrolabe was written for Lewis. According to tradition, Chaucer studied law in the Inner Temple at this time and he became a member of the royal court of Edward III as a valet de chambre, yeoman, or esquire on 20 June 1367, a position which could entail a wide variety of tasks. His wife also received a pension for court employment and he travelled abroad many times, at least some of them in his role as a valet. In 1368, he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante Visconti, daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti, two other literary stars of the era were in attendance, Jean Froissart and Petrarch
26.
Flour
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Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains or roots and used to make many different foods. While wheat is the most common base for flour, maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times, rye flour is a constituent of bread in central Europe. The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower, both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning blossom, and a figurative meaning the finest. The phrase fleur de farine meant the finest part of the meal, since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse, the earliest archaeological evidence for wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones to make flour dates to 6000 BC. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills, in 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London. In the 1930s, some began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s, an important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life, the reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled, the fatty acids oxidize, depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for a production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside, heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again. Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels, today, stone-ground usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. These terms are now applied broadly to uses of water. More recently, the Unifine mill, a mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Home users have begun grinding their own flour from organic wheat berries on a variety of electric flour mills, the grinding process is not much different from grinding coffee but the mills are larger. This provides fresh flour with the benefits of wheat germ and fiber without spoilage, Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of used in cooking include all-purpose flour, self-rising flour
27.
Autorack
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An autorack, also known as an auto carrier, is a specialized piece of railroad rolling stock used to transport automobiles and light trucks, generally from factories to automotive distributors. Amtrak also uses them on its Auto Train route, which carries passengers, in the early 20th century, when automobiles were still new technology, their production levels were low enough that they could be shipped in sufficient quantities in boxcars. Two to four automobiles would usually fit into one boxcar, but as the automobile industry grew in size, railroads found that they needed to modify the boxcars for more efficient loading. Some modifications included longer boxcars, larger sliding double doors located near one end of the boxcar. These modifications helped, but the demand for new automobiles outpaced the railroads abilities to build, the concept was not perfected and therefore failed to gain acceptance. In the 1940s and 1950s, some railroads experimented with automobile-loading assemblies that would lift one or more automobiles above others within a boxcar, by this time, in the United States, most circuses still traveled by rail. The circus solution to loading vehicles was to use a string of flatcars and this type of vehicle loading became known as circus style due to its frequent use by circuses. In the 1950s, most railroads took the cue from circuses, but, loading even up to six automobiles onto one flat car left a large amount of space above the vehicles that was unused. The natural solution was to take the temporary assemblies that were used to stack and load vehicles within boxcars, the assemblies, also called racks, created two levels on which automobiles could be loaded. To complete the flatcar, foldaway bridges were added to the ends of the decks to allow the vehicles to be driven the entire length of a train for loading. Such flatcars eliminated the need for specialized equipment to load and unload boxcar racks, all they needed now was a ramp at the right height. In the mid-1950s, in Germany, Volkswagen Beetle production was increasing beyond the capacity of highway trucks, Volkswagen engineers worked with German railroads to design a railroad car that was basically an extra long version of a vehicle hauling trailer. The design they came up with was able to carry 10 vehicles on one car, vWs two-level flatcar design effectively became the first autorack, entering service circa 1954. Two prototype units were constructed and mounted on conventional 53 ft flat cars for field testing, NYC500085 carried a semi-streamlined rack, while UP5800 had a more utilitarian rack mounted. Neither design went into commercial production, in late 1957, Canadian National introduced an innovative group of bi-level auto carriers. These CN cars were similar to conventional boxcars, except they had a second floor and they were huge by the standards of the time, the cars were 75 ft long and could carry eight vehicles. These cars were a big success and helped lead to the development of todays enclosed auto racks, eight to ten autos could be carried per flat car in this manner. By 1960 several U. S. railroads were handling new automobiles in this way, including the CB&Q, C&NW, CRIP, D&H, D&RGW, ERIE/EL, GN, KCS, L&N, MILW, MKT, MP/TP, NP, SL-SF, SP, SSW, WAB and UP
28.
Boxcar
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A boxcar is a North American railroad car that is enclosed and generally used to carry freight. The boxcar, while not the simplest freight car design, is probably the most versatile, boxcars have side doors of varying size and operation, and some include end doors and adjustable bulkheads to load very large items. Similar covered freight cars outside North America are covered wagons and, depending on the region, are called goods van, louvre van. Boxcars can carry most kinds of freight, originally they were hand-loaded, but in more recent years mechanical assistance such as forklifts have been used to load and empty them faster. Their generalized design is still slower to load and unload than specialized designs of car, the other cause for this decline is the dramatic shift of waterborne cargo transport to container shipping. Even loose loads such as coal, grain and ore can be carried in a boxcar with boards over the door openings. Later grain transport would use metal reinforced cardboard which was nailed over the door and this was more common in earlier days, it was susceptible to losing much loading during the journey, and damaged the boxcar. It was also impossible to load and unload. Grain can also be transported in boxcars designed specifically for purpose, specialized equipment. However grain is transported in covered hopper cars. Livestock can be transported in a boxcar, but there is insufficient ventilation in warm weather, specially-built stock cars or converted boxcars are preferable. Insulated boxcars are used for types of perishable loads that do not require the precise temperature control provided by a refrigerator car. Circuses used boxcars to transport their workers, supplies, and animals to get from town to town, box cars were used for bulk commodities such as coal, particularly in the Midwestern United States in the early 20th century. This use was widespread that several companies developed competing box-car loaders to automate coal loading. By 1905,350 to 400 such machines were in use, historically automobiles were carried in boxcars, but during the 1960s specially built autoracks took over, these carried more cars in the same space and were easier to load and unload. The automotive parts business, however, has always been a big user of the boxcar, special boxcars carry newsprint paper and other damage-sensitive cargo. While not holding the dominant position in the world of rail borne freight that they had before World War II, the most common boxcars are 50-6 to 60-9 in length, 9-4 to 9-6 wide, and 10-10 to 11 high. A hi-roof boxcar is 13 in height, corresponding exterior dimensions would be 55-5 to 67-11 in length, and 10-6 to 10-8 in width
29.
British Railway Milk Tank Wagon
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Milk tank wagons were a common sight on railways in the United Kingdom from the early 1930s to the late 1960s. Often, the milk was delivered direct from the farmer to the railway station in milk churns. Under the milk churn system, the steel churn had been owned either by the farmer or the dairy, the first designs were introduced by the GWR and the LMS in 1927, followed a year later by the LNER. The GWR later trialled the idea, and some tanks were redeployed to the Western Region of British Railways on nationalisation in 1948, the initial milk tank wagon designs were based on a 12-foot two axle railway wagon chassis. All designs unlike typical goods wagons used vacuum braking, due to their high-speed deployment, the various designs that railway companies used followed a common pattern, but even at this early stage differences appeared making them easy to spot. While GWR designs used flat-strip metal as bracing, LMS and SR designs used rounded steel bracing, SR designs had additional V-shaped support bracing either end, and had additional wooden packing behind each of the buffers. LMS designs had a catwalk around the filling dome, early tank design had no baffles, meaning that the milk self-churned during the journey, and made the wagon highly unstable. The last of the design were withdrawn pre-World War II, while three-axle designs continued in production under British Railways into the early 1950s. Later, limited production twin-tank designs were introduced, all based on triple-axle chassis, more common on the GWR, they were also used by the SR for transport of dairy products from the Channel Islands that came in via Southampton Docks. Twin-tanks allowed the collection from smaller dairies of both premium gold-top, as well as other silver-top products. In total, across all four companies, some 600 three-axle milk tank wagons were produced. Each railway company applied its own logo and number to the chassis, while each dairy applied its own separate colouring, fleet number and labelling to the carried milk tank. The wagons as out-shopped from various works were highly decorated - often to show both cleanliness, good hygiene, and as a travelling advertising board. Early designs had an amount of labelling, mentioning insulation, hygienic glass lining. The resultant wagons were very clean by both the dairies, and the handling railway companies. After the Milk Marketing Board was created in 1933, in 1942 during World War II they took control of all milk transport. Only when the wagons needed a repaint, did the MMB apply a standard branded design of silver-grey with MMB MILK embossed in 4 feet high black letters externally, some of the last MMB designs used a blue tank colour with white lettering. Hence, many of the private owner wagons designs survived well into British Railways ownership, in a now faded
30.
Coil car
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Coil cars are a specialized type of rolling stock designed for the transport of coils of sheet metal, particularly steel. They are considered a subtype of the car, though they bear little resemblance to a typical gondola. Prior to the invention of this type, coils of steel were carried on end or in cradles in open or covered gondolas. Load shifting, damage, and awkward loading and unloading were all problems, and since so much sheet steel is transported and these cars started to appear in the 1960s. Early examples include the Pennsylvania Railroad G40 and G41 class cars, the body of a coil car consists of a trough or series of troughs. Most commonly these run lengthwise, but there are transverse variants as well, the coils are set on their sides in the trough, and stops may be applied across the trough to keep the coils from shifting. The cars are equipped with hoods to cover the load, some cars use a single hood, but more commonly a pair of hoods is provided. Each hood has a point at its center, and often has brackets on the top at the corners in order to allow the hoods to be stacked when not in use. The hoods are largely interchangeable and it is common to see a car with mismatched hoods, wagon with opening roof CN187186 without hoods, showing how car is loaded
31.
Intermodal container
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These containers are known under a number of names, such as simply container, cargo or freight container, ISO container, shipping, sea or ocean container, container van or box, sea or c can. The common heights are 8 feet 6 inches and 9 feet 6 inches – the latter are known as High Cube or Hi-Cube containers, in 2012 there were about 20.5 million intermodal containers in the world of varying types to suit different cargoes. Containers have largely supplanted the traditional break bulk cargo – in 2010 containers accounted for 60% of the seaborne trade. The predominant alternative methods of transport carry bulk cargo – whether gaseous, liquid or solid – e. g. by bulk carrier or tank ship, for air freight, the more light-weight IATA-defined unit load device is used. By the 1830s, railways on several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in the United Kingdom was one of these. Simple rectangular timber boxes, four to a truck, they were used to convey coal from the Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, early versions of standardized containers were used in Europe before World War II. Construction of these containers had a frame with wooden walls, floor, roof. American containers at this time were not standardized, and these early containers were not yet stackable – neither in the U. S. nor Europe, in November 1932, the first container terminal in the world was opened by the Pennsylvania Rail Road Company in Enola, PA. A system was selected for Western Europe, based on the Netherlands system for goods and waste transportation called Laadkisten. This system used roller containers for transport by rail, truck and ship, in various configurations up to 5,500 kg capacity and this became the first post World War II European railway standard of the International Union of Railways – UIC-590, known as pa-Behälter. It was implemented in the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, West Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, the use of standardized steel shipping containers began during the late 1940s and early 1950s, when commercial shipping operators and the US military started developing such units. In 1948 the U. S. Army Transportation Corps developed the Transporter, a rigid, corrugated steel container, able to carry 9,000 pounds. It was 8 ft 6 in long,6 ft 3 in wide, and 6 ft 10 in high, with doors on one end, was mounted on skids. After proving successful in Korea, the Transporter was developed into the Container Express box system in late 1952, cONEXes could be stacked three high, and protected their contents from the elements. By 1965 the US military used some 100,000 Conex boxes, making this the first worldwide application of intermodal containers. From 1949 onwards, engineer Keith Tantlinger repeatedly contributed to the development of containers, as well as their handling, steel castings on the top corners provided lifting and securing points. In 1955 trucking magnate Malcom McLean bought Pan-Atlantic Steamship Company, to form a container shipping enterprise, the first containers were supplied by Brown, where McLean met Keith Tantlinger, and hired him as vice-president of engineering and research. Under the supervision of Tantlinger, a new 35 ft x 8 ft x 8 ft 6 in Sea-Land container was developed, each container had a frame with eight corner castings that could withstand stacking loads
32.
Covered goods wagon
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A covered goods wagon or van is a railway goods wagon which is designed for the transportation of moisture-susceptible goods and therefore fully enclosed by sides and a fixed roof. They are often referred to simply as covered wagons, and this is the used by the International Union of Railways. Since the introduction of the classification for goods wagons by the UIC in the 1960s a distinction has been drawn between ordinary and special covered wagons. Other types of wagon, such as refrigerated vans and goods wagons with opening roofs, are related to covered wagons from a design point of view. Similar freight cars in North America are boxcars, covered goods wagons for transporting part-load or parcel goods are almost as old as the railway itself. Since then however the wagon and flat wagon have become more common. By contrast the covered goods wagon still forms the majority of two-axled wagons in countries like Germany, during the 1950s the International Union of Railways developed a standard design for covered goods wagons. This has 8 ventilation hatches and is suitable for the transportation of cattle. Since then, European railways have procured covered wagons which at least match the dimensions of this standard. For example, there are wagons with different axle bases or a different number of ventilation hatches, the body is of a mainly wood and steel compound construction. Refrigerated vans were developed, based on the long, twin-axled types. The following table contains details of the UIC ordinary covered wagon according to Behrends because this is the available source with systematic specifications. Other sources may differ in some respects from this, in particular the door height has not been clarified beyond doubt and it is also unclear to what extent the present-day, twin-axled, sliding wall wagons were standardised. The UICs ordinary covered wagon class has rigid, fixed walls with sliding doors on each side, the upper third of the side walls has closable openings of various types. These may be designed as ventilation openings, loading hatches or combined ventilation, today, Class G wagons have been largely superseded by other classes. The transportation of goods that are susceptible to the weather in boxes, sacks. One disadvantage they have is that the side door does not facilitate rapid loading and unloading of large unit loads. The demand for G wagons fell with the use of intermodal freight transport
33.
Milk car
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Milk cars are a specialized type of railroad car intended to transport raw milk from collection points near dairy farms to a processing creamery. Some milk cars were intended for loading with multiple cans of milk, milk cars were often equipped with high-speed passenger trucks, passenger-type buffer plates, and train signal and steam lines seldom found on conventional refrigerator cars. Milk has long been a food of agricultural societies. Fresh milk sours quickly if kept warm, railways were used as early as 1840 to rapidly transport fresh milk from farms to cities. Early milk transport was in covered, tin-plated steel cans containing about 10 U. S. gallons, passenger trains typically offered the fastest service, so milk cans might have first been loaded into baggage cars. A farmer would adjust his herd milking schedule to have the milk cans filled shortly before scheduled arrival of the train. Once the handling advantages of a car were recognized, milk cars were built with insulation to reduce warming during transit. A few milk cars were built or retrofitted with mechanical refrigeration following World War II, increased availability of motor vehicles after World War I encouraged bulk transport of milk to minimize inefficient handling, washing and redistribution of milk cans. A standard 46.5 US quarts milk can weighed 27 pounds, farmers needed two sets of milk cans so one might be filled while the other was at the dairy. Early milk cans had been soldered from three pieces, but they were replaced by rolled and molded single-piece cans, which avoided uncleaned cracks in the solder joints. Milk tank cars were first made of glass-lined steel, and later of stainless steel and these tanks were often enclosed for insulation within a car body resembling a boxcar. Milk was shipped from Wisconsin to Florida as a test, caspar Pfaudler invented a method of lining cast iron tanks with glass while working with the brewing industry. The first glass-lined tanks were built by the Dickson Manufacturing Company in 1887, the Boston and Maine Railroad was using a milk car with glass-lined steel tanks in 1910. Pfaudler designed what became a milk car with two 3, 000-US-gallon tanks inside a closed car. Earlier cars featured a roof to replace damaged tanks. Stirring also helped maintain a uniform temperature throughout the tank, large cities in the eastern United States encouraged nearby rural areas to specialize in production of milk, but milk cars were transporting milk up to 300 mi by 1900. Railroads connecting these areas to cities scheduled daily milk trains to pick up loaded milk cars from collection points along their route. These trains sometimes carried a car and a passenger car
34.
Refrigerator car
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A refrigerator car is a refrigerated boxcar, a piece of railroad rolling stock designed to carry perishable freight at specific temperatures. Refrigerator cars differ from simple insulated boxcars and ventilated boxcars, neither of which are fitted with cooling apparatus, reefers can be ice-cooled, come equipped with any one of a variety of mechanical refrigeration systems, or utilize carbon dioxide as a cooling agent. Milk cars may or may not include a system, but are equipped with high-speed trucks. After the end of the American Civil War, Chicago, Illinois emerged as a railway center for the distribution of livestock raised on the Great Plains to Eastern markets. Driving cattle across the plains also caused tremendous loss, with some animals dying in transit. Costly inefficiencies were inherent in transporting live animals by rail, particularly the fact that about sixty percent of the mass is inedible. The death of animals weakened by the long drive further increased the shipping cost. Meat sought a way to ship dressed meats from his Chicago packing plant to eastern markets, during the mid-19th century, attempts were made to ship agricultural products by rail. The first refrigerated boxcar entered service in June 1851, on the Northern Railroad and this icebox on wheels was a limited success since it was only functional in cold weather. That same year, the Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain Railroad began shipping butter to Boston in purpose-built freight cars, the first consignment of dressed beef left the Chicago stock yards in 1857 in ordinary boxcars retrofitted with bins filled with ice. Placing meat directly against ice resulted in discoloration and affected the taste, the method proved too limited to be practical. Detroits William Davis patented a refrigerator car that employed metal racks to suspend the carcasses above a frozen mixture of ice and salt. In 1868, he sold the design to George H. Hammond, a Detroit meat packer, the load had the tendency of swinging to one side when the car entered a curve at high speed, and use of the units was discontinued after several derailments. The meat was packed tightly at the bottom of the car to keep the center of gravity low, in 1880 the Peninsular Car Company delivered the first of these units to Swift, and the Swift Refrigerator Line was created. Within a year, the Lines roster had risen to nearly 200 units, competing firms such as Armour and Company quickly followed suit. By 1920, the SRL owned and operated 7,000 of the rail cars. The General American Transportation Corporation would assume ownership of the line in 1930, in the 1870s, the lack of a practical means to refrigerate peaches limited the markets open to Samuel Rumph, a Georgia peach grower. In 1875, he invented a railcar and crates that allowed him to grow peaches on a very large scale
35.
Refrigerated van
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A refrigerated van is a railway goods wagon with cooling equipment. Today they are designated by the International Union of Railways as Class I, the first wagons were cooled with ice that had been cut in winter from special pools or lakes. It was Gustavus Swift who succeed in the winter of 1877 for the first time in developing an efficient cooling system for railway wagons for Chicago businesses and it circulated air through the ice and then through the entire wagon in order to cool it down. This system was the basis of the success of the Union Stock Yard, the cooled wagons made it possible for the first time to transport the meat of slaughtered animals to the whole of the USA. Later, manufactured ice was used, but this gave way to other means of cooling. With the increasing reliability of combustion engines, engine-powered refrigerator vans emerged, there are even vans whose cooling is achieved by the evaporation of liquid gas. Compared with machine-cooled vans, ice-cooled wagons have the disadvantage of uneven temperature control, on the other hand, machine-cooled wagons are expensive to maintain and operate, but can be set to the desired temperature and maintained at that temperature throughout the entire journey. They are also suited to transporting goods at deep-freeze temperatures of around −30 °C, whereas evaporators. These wagons can only operate at temperatures between 0 and +20 °C, where a constant internal temperature is desired, in Asia, Chinese and Kazakh railways are experimenting with using refrigerated rail cars to transport sensitive consumer electronic goods manufactured in China to European markets. The products are transported in climate-controlled rail cars from factory towns in the interior of China to Almaty, Kazakhstan, the use of insulate climate-controlled cars makes it possible for these kinds of goods to be transported by rail even in winter, which had not been done previously. In long-distance trains in the former Eastern Block countries, refrigerator trains were used that comprised a refrigeration plant wagon, most food is transported by road nowadays due to the shorter journey times. The stock of refrigerated vans owned by railway companies has shrunk considerably. Most refrigerated vans in Europe today are operated by Interfrigo and these wagons are easy to tell apart externally, white vans are normal refrigerated wagons, blue ones with white stripes along the side are machine-cooled refrigerator vans. Almost all refrigerated vans currently in service are built to UIC standard classes, the two-axled wagons have the same overall dimensions as the covered goods wagons of classes Gbs or Hbfs. 1) Refrigerated and insulated vans / Refrigerated vans with cooling equipment Refrigerator car Information on the Intercontainer/Interfrigo wagons Refrigerated van from Waggonau Dessau
36.
Roadrailer
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In railroad terminology a Roadrailer or RoadRailer is a highway trailer, or semi-trailer, that is specially equipped for use in railroad intermodal service. The advantage of using roadrailers is their ability to be used directly behind other freight equipment without the use of trailer flatcars, roadrailers first appeared on American railroads in the 1950s. The trailers were built with integrated railroad wheelsets that could be lowered into position when the trailer was pulled behind a train. More modern roadrailers do not include integrated railroad wheels, but ride on regular trucks that do double-duty, each regular truck is equipped with ONE fifth wheel at one end and a connector plate at the other end. The connector plate slides into a receptacle on the rear of the trailer in front and is secured with a steel pin. At the head of a Road Railer train there is a truck equipped with one fifth wheel. Each semi-trailer has one king pin at each end, because the truck is significantly lighter than a rail flatcar or well-car, roadrailer freight trains are much lighter and therefore are more energy efficient than traditional intermodal trains. RoadRailers were built by the Bi-Modal Corporations in the early 1980s located in West Chester Pennsylvania, the trailers were built by the Budd Corporation locally with the integration of the wheelsets and railroad braking system done at the nearby Bi-Modal factory. This was a modern up-date of C&Os Railvan used in the 1950s, the railroad wheelsets attached to the aft portion of the trailer were lowed pneumatically by activating a simple valve controller on the left rear of the trailer. To transfer from highway mode to rail mode the driver would position the trailer over tracks inlaid into a paved rail yard. First the operator would activate the valve to remove the air from the airbags that supported the trailer in the highway mode, in the fully lowered or squat position, hooks which held the railwheel set up above the road surface released. Then the operator would move the valve to inflate the two large airbags used for rail mode and these rail air bags were similar to those used in passenger rail cars at this time. After being fully transferred, the trailer would be fully level, throughout the early 1980s various railroads experimented with the RoadRailer concept to determine if the equipment would be durable enough to endure railroad use. The positive attributes of the RoadRailer were its exceptionally smooth ride, light weight, since no flatcars were involved, no crane systems were needed to transfer the trailers between modes. Another note was that a RoadRailer train did not have a car which at the time was still required for freight trains. A box was designed with a strobe light, and equipment for monitoring air pressure through the brake line was designed to be installed in the unused coupler of the last car. Later, as cabooses were phased out, railroads moved to their current use of a strobe to mark the end of the train. In 1982, Conrail operated a route between Buffalo, Rochester, and Highbridge, New York, called the Empire State Xpress, the concept was to offer customers rapid freight service that would be competitive with traditional over-the-road service
37.
Stock car (rail)
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In railroad terminology, a stock car, cattle car or cattle wagon is a type of rolling stock used for carrying livestock to market. Specialized types of cars have been built to haul live fish and shellfish and circus animals such as camels. Until the 1880s, when the Mather Stock Car Company and others introduced more humane stock cars, improved technology and faster shipping times have greatly reduced losses. Rail cars have used to transport livestock since the 1830s. The first shipments in the United States were made via the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in general purpose, thereafter, and until 1860, the majority of shipments were made in conventional boxcars that had been fitted with open-structured iron-barred doors for ventilation. Some railroads constructed combination cars that could be utilized for carrying both live animals as well as conventional freight loads, driving cattle across the plains led to tremendous weight loss, and a number of animals were typically lost along the way. The suffering of animals in transit as a result of hunger, thirst, increased train speeds reduced overall transit times, though not enough to offset the deleterious conditions the animals were forced to endure. Some of the railroad companies attempted to alleviate the problems by adding passenger cars to the trains that hauled early stock cars. The New Jersey Railroad and Transportation Company followed this practice as early as 1839, and these early passenger accommodations were the predecessors of the later drovers caboose designs that were used until the mid-20th century. Railroad operating rules for livestock and handlers that rode the trains were limited, as the handlers were private contractors or employees of the shippers. A1948 rulebook for the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, for example, wishes of attendants regarding care of livestock should be ascertained and assistance rendered in caring for such shipments. In absence of instructions, hog shipments should be watered as necessary. Particular attention must be given to stock unaccompanied by attendants, most railroads resisted the call for as long as possible from shippers for improvements to cars specifically designed to carry livestock. The railroads generally preferred to use standard boxcars because that type of car proved more versatile in the number of different types of loads it could carry. When the railroads and cattle industry failed to act quickly enough to correct these perceived deficiencies, claims were made that the meat of neglected animals was unfit for human consumption. In 1869, Illinois passed the first laws to limit the time on board. However, double-deck stock cars had been experimented with as early as the 1830s on the Liverpool, other states such as Ohio and Massachusetts soon followed with similar legislation, though effective federal laws were not enacted until the passing of the Federal Meat Inspection Act of 1906. The first patented stock car designs that actually saw use on American railroads were created by Zadok Street, streets designs were first used in 1870 on shipments between Chicago and New York City
38.
Tank car
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A tank car is a type of railroad car or rolling stock designed to transport liquid and gaseous commodities. 1869, Wrought iron tanks, with an capacity of 3,500 US gal per car. 1888, Tank-car manufacturers sell units directly to the oil companies,1903, Tank-car companies develop construction safety standards. More than 10,000 tank cars are in operation,1915, A classification system is developed by the tank-car industry to ensure the correct match of car type to product being shipped. Some 50,000 tank cars are in use,1920, Welding replaces riveting in tank-car construction, enhancing the safety of cars. 1930,140,000 tank cars transport some 103 commodities, 1940s, Virtually every tank car is engaged in oil transport in support of the war effort. 1950, Pipelines and tank trucks begin to compete for liquid transport business,1963, The Union Tank Car Company introduces the Whale Belly tank car. Many variants exist due to the variety of liquids and gases transported. Tank cars can be pressurized or non-pressurized, insulated or non-insulated, non-pressurized cars have various fittings on the top and may have fittings on the bottom. Some of the top fittings are covered by a protective housing, pressurized cars have a pressure plate, with all fittings, and a cylindrical protective housing at the top. Loading and unloading are done through the protective housing, Tank cars are specialized pieces of equipment. As an example, the interior of the car may be lined with a material, such as glass, care is taken to ensure that tank contents are compatible with tank construction. As a result of this specialization, tank cars have generally been one-way cars, other cars, like boxcars, can easily be reloaded with other goods for the return trip. Combinations of the two types were attempted, such as boxcars with fluid tanks slung beneath the floors, while the car could certainly carry a load in both directions, the limited tank size made this unsuccessful. A large percentage of cars are owned by companies serviced by railroads instead of the railroads themselves. This can be verified by examining the marks on the cars. These marks invariably end in X, meaning that the owner is not a common carrier, within the rail industry, tank cars are grouped by their type and not by the cargo carried. Food-service tank cars may be lined with steel, glass
39.
Wagon with opening roof
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The wagon with opening roof is a type of railway goods wagon that is, nowadays, defined and standardised by the International Union of Railways as Class T. They are a category of rail vehicle, predominantly used for the transport of hygroscopic bulk commodities such as cement, plaster, lime, potash. To date, there are four different types of wagon with an opening roof and its disadvantage was that the bars to which the lids were attached meant they could only be opened individually. In 1951 the sliding-roof wagon was built, whereby half the area could be opened up. This was achieved by sliding one half of the roof over the other. In 1958 came the swing-roof wagon which enabled the loading area to be opened up by swinging the roof out on the longer side of the wagon. Its disadvantage is that, in variants, the opened roof does not fit within the loading gauge. The latest development is the rolling roof wagon that entered service in 1973 and its plastic rolling roof can be completely rolled up at one end enabling the entire wagon to be loaded from above. The overall design and use of wagons is however governed far more by the configuration of their wagon floors. These features, which are coded by index letters, form the basis of this articles structure. The classic lidded wagon for the transport of bulk goods was only procured by railway authorities in relatively small batches in comparison with other types of goods wagon. They were used by on standard, as well as narrow gauge and their design was based closely on that of contemporary open wagons. They were loaded from above and unloaded, like covered wagons, because unloading involved a lot of manual work, alternatives were already being sought by the 1920s. In the 1950s the self-discharging wagon with roof completely ousted the lidded wagon from its field of operations. The last large batch of lidded wagons was procured by the East German Deutsche Reichsbahn in 1958, sliding-roof wagons were developed for the DB in the 1950s. From a design perspective they were initially just a development of the classic lidded wagon, however, they were no longer intended for bulk goods, but for awkward, moisture-sensitive part-load goods. The latter could be loaded and unloaded vertically by crane, the sliding roof enabling half the length of the wagon floor to be available at one time. Soon the small side doors were replaced by large, sliding sides, for example, the wagons could be loaded at a port directly from the ship by crane, at their destination they could then be unloaded through the side doors
40.
Chaldron
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A chaldron was an English measure of dry volume, mostly used for coal, the word itself is an obsolete spelling of cauldron. The chaldron was used as the measure for coal from the 13th century, measuring by volume being much more practical than weighing low-value and it was not standardized, and there were many different regional chaldrons, the two most important being the Newcastle and London chaldrons. The Newcastle chaldron was used to all coal shipped from Northumberland and Durham. Many attempts have been made to calculate the weight of a Newcastle chaldron as used in medieval and early modern times. A London chaldron, on the hand, was defined as 36 bushels heaped up, each bushel to contain a Winchester bushel and 1 imperial quart. This approximated a weight in coal of around 28 long hundredweight or 3,140 lb or 1,420 kg, the chaldron was the legal limit for horse-drawn coal wagons travelling by road as it was considered that heavier loads would cause too much damage to the roadways. Railways had standard chauldron wagons which were about 10 ft and around 6 ft 3 in high, the value of a chaldron of coal depended on the size of the lumps of coal and also their water content. Unscrupulous merchants would purchase their coal in lumps as large as possible then sell them in smaller sizes and this was abolished by the Weights and Measures Act of 1835, which legislated that from January 1836 coal was only to be sold by weight. Chalder Notes Sources This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chambers, Ephraim. Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, james and John Knapton, et al
41.
Class U special wagon
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The International Union of Railways groups all special classes of railway goods wagon into Class U in its goods wagon classification system. These are, Bulk goods wagons for transporting powders, etc, between 1964 and 1979 bulk goods wagons for liquid and gaseous materials were included in Class U before being reclassified in 1980 as Class Z. The powder wagon is a form of bulk goods wagon designed to transport goods in powder form. These wagons are pneumatically unloaded, usually by using compressed air, for goods that might react with oxygen in the compressed air, nitrogen is used instead. These wagons are used for commodities, such as cement, that are so fine-grained they cannot be poured, or at least do not pour very well. Under the UIC system they are given the category letter U, the do not normally have their own compressors but must be unloaded using external equipment. This group has a variety of different types of wagon that range from the two-axle well wagon to the 36-axle Schnabel wagon. The current designation for all well wagons is Ui, which can be supplemented as necessary by the letters a, aa, k. The load limits on low-loading wagons are not indicated by letters, the former German wagon classes were St and SSt. In 1998 the Deutsche Bahn had a total of 180 well wagons of 43 different types and they are used to move very large and heavy goods that would exceed the loading gauge on flat wagons. Such loads typically include, combine harvesters, generators or narrow gauge vehicles, the largest low-loading wagons are designed as Schnabel wagons, made from two completely separate sections. Each section rests on multiple-axle bogies or groups of bogies, the two sections each support a beak-shaped carrying arm which, in turn, supports one side of a low-loading platform or is directly fixed to the outsize load to be transported. In the latter case the load becomes temporarily part of the vehicle itself, the wagons have hydraulic equipment with which the load can be raised or lowered in order to manoeuvre it past obstacles. There are about 30 examples of Schnabel wagon in Europe, North America, typical loads for these vehicles are large boilers for power stations, turbine components or power station transformers. Due to their weight and outsize dimensions these goods are not usually transported in normal goods trains. Whenever transportation restrictions arise with a wagon and its due to its weight and size, it is designated as an abnormal load. When the vehicle is unladen the two carrying arms are joined directly to one another, the wagon can travel in goods trains at normal speeds. The Class Uaai low-loading wagon with special equipment is marketed Europe-wide exclusively by the heavy load department, Heavy Cargo + Service, a range of funnel-shaped self-discharging wagons is also classed as special wagons
42.
Conflat
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Conflat is a United Kingdom railway term for a short wheelbase container wagon. British Railways used several types of wagon. Conflat is the code within the Great Western Railways coding of railway wagons for a container wagon. The wagons were removed from service when more modern containers came into use, model Railway Site featuring some detail on Conflats
43.
Well car
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A well car, also known as a double-stack car or stack car, is a type of railroad car specially designed to carry intermodal containers used in intermodal freight transport. The well is a section which sits close to the rails between the wheel trucks of the car, allowing a container to be carried lower than on a traditional flatcar. This makes it possible to carry a stack of two containers per unit on railway lines wherever the loading gauge assures sufficient clearance, the top container is secured to the bottom container either by a bulkhead built into the car, or through the use of inter-box connectors. Four IBCs are needed per wellcar, advantages to using well cars include increased stability due to the lower center of gravity of the load, lower tare weight, and in the case of articulated units, reduced slack action. Double-stack cars are most common in North America where intermodal traffic is heavy and electrification is less widespread, southern Pacific Railroad, along with Malcom McLean, came up with the idea of the first double-stack intermodal car in 1977. SP then designed the first car with ACF Industries that same year and that same year, the first all double stack train left Los Angeles for South Kearny, New Jersey, under the name of Stacktrain rail service. Along the way the train transferred from the UP to CNW, each unit of a double-stack car is constructed with a single well, but are often constructed with multiple units of three to five units, connected by articulated connectors. Articulated connectors are supported by the centerplate of a single truck, also, in a number of cases, multiple single-well cars are connected by drawbars and share a single reporting mark. On both types of cars, the units are typically distinguished by letters, with the unit on one end being the A unit. Middle units are labeled starting with C, and going up to E for five-unit cars starting from the A unit, double-stack cars come in a number of sizes, related to the standard sizes of the containers they are designed to carry. Well lengths of 40 ft,48 ft and 53 ft are most common, a number of 45 ft wells and 56 ft wells also exist. On 40,45,48, or 53 cars, larger containers are placed on top of smaller containers that fit in the available wells to efficiently use all available space. All wells are also capable of carrying two 20 ft ISO containers in the bottom position, some double-stack cars have been also equipped with hitches which allow them to carry semi-trailers as well as containers. These are known as all-purpose well cars, foreign intermodal trains carry 20s, 40s, 45s and 53 foot containers to and from coastal container ports to import or export intercontinentally. Domestic intermodal trains carry 53 foot containers plus trailer-on-flatcar and they travel throughout North America, econo Stack well cars are a variation of conventional well cars and their main purpose is to give the double stacked containers more support. The down side to them is they do not allow 53 containers to be stacked on top, australia - double stack trains operate between Perth, Adelaide, Darwin and Parkes, NSW6.5 m clearances. China - using double stacked container trains under 25 kV AC overhead lines, india - Mundra Port operates double stack diesel trains on 1,676 mm gauge using flat wagons. Experiments for double stacking under 25 kV AC overhead lines have begun because of given by Japan
44.
Flatcar
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A flatcar is a piece of railroad or railway rolling stock that consists of an open, flat deck mounted on a pair of trucks or bogies, one at each end containing four or six wheels. Occasionally, flat cars designed to carry heavy or extra large loads are mounted on a pair of bogeys under each end. The deck of the car can be wood or steel, flatcars designed for carrying machinery have sliding chain assemblies recessed in the deck. Flatcars are used for loads that are too large or cumbersome to load in enclosed cars such as boxcars and they are also often used to transport intermodal containers or trailers as part of intermodal freight transport shipping. Aircraft parts were hauled via conventional freight cars beginning in World War II, the Sky Box consists of a two-piece metal shell that is placed atop a standard flatcar to support and protect wing and tail assemblies and fuselage sections in transit. Boeing 737 aircraft have been shipped throughout the United States on special trains, bulkhead flatcars are designed with sturdy end-walls to prevent loads from shifting past the ends of the car. Loads typically carried are pipe, steel slabs, utility poles and lumber, though lumber, bulkheads are typically lightweight when empty. An empty bulkhead on a train puts it at a speed restriction to go no more than 50 MPH, since bulkheads are lightweight when empty, hunting can occur when the car is above 50 MPH. Hunting is the movement of the trucks on a freight car or a locomotive. If the wheels hunt against the rails for a period of time and they must be loaded symmetrically, with half of the payload on one side of the centerbeam and half on the other to avoid tipping over. Heavy capacity flatcars are designed to carry more than 100 short tons. Loads typically handled include electrical equipment and large industrial production machinery. A circus train is a method of conveyance for circus troupes. Some companies, such as CSX Transportation, have former wood-carrying flatcars rebuilt into platforms which mount remote control equipment for use in operating locomotives, such platforms are fitted with appropriate headlights, horns, and air brake appliances to operate in the leading position on a cut of cars. COFC cars are typically 89 feet long and carry four 20-foot intermodal containers or two 40-foot /45-foot shipping containers, with the rise of intermodal freight transport-specific cars, and given the age of most of these flats, numbers will decline over the next several years. Indeed, when the first well cars appeared, allowing double stacking, the few new build container flats are identifiable by their lack of decking, welded steel frame, and standard 89-foot length. One variant is the 50-foot car, these are actually re-built old boxcars, common reporting marks are FEC, CP, SOO and KTTX. The ATTX cars, which feature no spark grips and sides, are built for hauling dangerous goods, a TOFC car once again, is usually an 89 ft car
45.
Flat wagon
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Flat wagons, as classified by the International Union of Railways, are railway goods wagons that have a flat, usually full-length, deck and little or no superstructure. By contrast, open wagons have high side and end walls and covered goods wagons have a fixed roof, flat wagons are often designed for the transportation of goods that are not weather-sensitive. Some flat wagons are able to be covered completely by tarpaulins or hoods and are suitable for the transport of weather-sensitive goods. Unlike a goods wagon with opening roof, the area of a flat is entirely open. Gravel, sand and other goods are transported on flat wagons with side panels. Flat wagons are classified by the UIC into, Ordinary goods wagons with category letters K, O and R, within both types of flat wagon, there are variants with separate axles as well as bogie wagons. In addition numerous other terms are used to classify flat wagons according to their purpose, attempts by the International Union of Railways to standardise flat wagons go back to the 1950s. These efforts led to the establishment of characteristics for so-called standard wagons, since the end of 1977, flat wagons that partially conform to these guidelines are identified by the designation UIC. Flat beds that comply fully with the leaflets, and are therefore true UIC standard wagons, are given the designation UIS St. The Class K flats were originally one of the largest families of goods wagons, not least in Germany, the bulk of their work has since been taken over by special flat wagons. By 1998, DB only had 10,000 of this type left. The majority of ordinary two-axle flat beds built since the 1950s were those with folding sides and short swivelling stanchions of UIC type 1 with, at least in Germany, in recent years new K wagons have been developed. These have fixed ends and a cover and are therefore also suitable for hygroscopic goods. Their designation is Kils, based on the UIC classification of goods wagons, as a rule, L wagons do not have stanchions. The UIC has standardised three types of L wagon, the Class Lgss being based heavily on the Class Ks, The standard mixed open flat wagon group has folding sides, stanchions, most types have short, removable, swivelling stanchions. They are especially suited to the transport of long steel elements, building materials, machines, in the 1990s, the DB purchased Class R wagons with long, sturdy, light metal stanchions and high end walls for the increasing amount of log transport required. In 1998, the DB had about 17,000 R wagons in service, the UIC has specified two standard R wagons, both of which are very common e. g. in Germany. In the mid-1970s there was a switchover to newly built wagons with foldable sides and this is the largest group of flat wagons both in terms of variety and numbers
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Minecart
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The minecart or mine cart is a type of rolling stock found on a mine railway, used for moving ore and materials procured in the process of traditional mining. Shaped like large, rectangular buckets, minecarts ride on metal tracks and were pushed or pulled by men. These were also used to pull trains transporting miners to the workfaces, minecarts range in size and usage, and are usually made of steel for hauling ore. Throughout the world, there are different titles for such carts, in South Africa, for instance, a minecart is referred to as a cocopan. In Great Britain, restored mine carts containing floral displays can commonly be seen on village greens and outside pubs in former mining areas such as Northumberland. Mine carts were an important source of transportation of ore. In Wales, UK, minecarts are known as drams, in the U. S. and elsewhere the term skip is used. Minecarts were very important in the history of technology because they evolved into railroad cars, minecarts have been depicted as a type of thrill ride, for instance Indiana Jones uses one in an escape scene. A minecart is also featured in Hoodwinked, minecarts and tracks can be crafted by the player in Minecraft and used for transportation. They are also found in abandoned mineshafts that generate naturally as a part of the procedural generation. Mine car Corf Media related to Mining carts at Wikimedia Commons
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