1.
Flower
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A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in plants that are floral. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs, Flowers may facilitate outcrossing or allow selfing. Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization, Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds, the essential parts of a flower can be considered in two parts, the vegetative part, consisting of petals and associated structures in the perianth, and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical flower consists of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk, each of these kinds of parts is arranged in a whorl on the receptacle. The four main whorls are as follows, Collectively the calyx, corolla, the next whorl toward the apex, composed of units called petals, which are typically thin, soft and colored to attract animals that help the process of pollination. Androecium, the whorl, consisting of units called stamens. Stamens consist of two parts, a called a filament, topped by an anther where pollen is produced by meiosis. Gynoecium, the innermost whorl of a flower, consisting of one or more units called carpels, the carpel or multiple fused carpels form a hollow structure called an ovary, which produces ovules internally. Ovules are megasporangia and they in turn produce megaspores by meiosis which develop into female gametophytes and these give rise to egg cells. The gynoecium of a flower is described using an alternative terminology wherein the structure one sees in the innermost whorl is called a pistil. A pistil may consist of a carpel or a number of carpels fused together. The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen, the supportive stalk, the style, becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma. The relationship to the gynoecium on the receptacle is described as hypogynous, perigynous, although the arrangement described above is considered typical, plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species, the four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions and/or look like what is typically another part, in some families, like Ranunculaceae, the petals are greatly reduced and in many species the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-like, the flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens
2.
Strobilus
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A strobilus is a structure present on many land plant species consisting of sporangia-bearing structures densely aggregated along a stem. Strobili are often called cones, but many botanists restrict the use of the cone to the woody seed strobili of conifers. Strobili are characterized by a central axis surrounded by spirally arranged or decussate structures that may be modified leaves or modified stems, leaves that bear sporangia are called sporophylls, while sporangia-bearing stems are called sporangiophores. Some members of both of the two classes of Lycopodiophyta produce strobili. In all cases, the organs of the strobilus are microphylls. In other lycophytes, ordinary foliage leaves can act as sporophylls, the single extant genus of Equisetophyta, Equisetum, produces strobili in which the lateral organs are sporangiophores. Developmental evidence and comparison with fossil members of the show that the sporangiophores are reduced stems. With the exception of flowering plants, seed plants produce ovules, strobili bearing microsporangia are called microsporangiate strobili or pollen cones, and those bearing ovules are megasporangiate strobili or seed cones. The lateral organs of seed strobili are megasporophylls that bear two to several marginal ovules, pollen strobili consist of microsporophylls, each of which may have dozens or hundreds of abaxial microsporangia. The single living member of the Ginkgophyta, Ginkgo biloba produces pollen strobili, pollen strobili of Pinophyta are similar to those of cycads and Ginkgoes in that they are composed of microsporophylls with microsporangia on the abaxial surface. Seed cones of many conifers are compound strobili, the central stem produces bracts and in the axil of each bract is a cone scale. Morphologically the cone scale is a reduced stem, ovules are produced on the adaxial surface of the cone scales. Gnetophyta consists of three genera, Ephedra, Gnetum and Welwitschia, all three are typically dioecious, although some Ephedra species exhibit monoecy. In contrast to the conifers, which have simple pollen strobili and compound seed strobili, the seed strobili of Ephedra and Gnetum are reduced, with Ephedra producing only two ovules per strobilus and Gnetum a single ovule. The flower of flowering plants is sometimes referred to as a bisexual strobilus, stamens include microsporangia within the anther, and ovules contain megasporangia. Magnolia has a particularly strobiloid flower with all parts arranged in a spiral, a number of flowering plants have inflorescences that resemble strobili, such as catkins, but are actually more complex in structure than strobili. It is likely that strobili evolved independently in most if not all these groups, the word strobilus is related to the ancient Greek strobilos = whirlwind. Gifford, E. M. & Foster, A. S. Comparative morphology of vascular plants, 3rd ed
3.
Humulus lupulus
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Humulus lupulus is a species of flowering plant in the Cannabaceae family, native to Europe, western Asia and North America. It is a dioecious, perennial, herbaceous climbing plant which sends up new shoots in early spring, strictly speaking it is a bine rather than a vine, using its own shoots to act as supports for new growth. H. lupulus is an ingredient in most beers, and as such is widely cultivated for use by the brewing industry, the fragrant flower cones, known as hops, impart bitterness and flavor, and also have preservative qualities. H. lupulus contains myrcene, humulene, xanthohumol, myrcenol, linalool, tannins, although Humulus has more of an uncertain origin, Lupulus comes from the Latin word for wolf, lupus. Humulus is thought to originate from the Low-German word humela, which means hop, H. lupulus can grow to be 10 meters tall and live for 20 years. It’s leaves are opposite and have 3-5 lobes, the staminate flowers do not have petals, while the pistillate flowers’ petals completely over the fruit. The cones found on plants are called “strobilil. ”The fruit of H. lupulus is an achene. Lupulin secreting glands are concentrated on the fruit, H. lupulus can cause dermatitis to some who handle them. It is thought that about 1 in 3000 people are affected by this, a pale, ornamental variety, Humulus lupulus Aureus, is cultivated for garden use. It is also known as golden hop, and holds the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit, H. lupulus is first mentioned in 768 CE when King Pepin donated hops to a monastery in Paris. Cultivation was first recorded in 859 CE, in documents from a monastery in Freising, hop leaf aphid Red spider mite Japanese Beetle Downy mildew Powdery mildew H. lupulus was voted the county flower of Kent in 2002 following a poll by the wild flora conservation charity Plantlife. H. lupulus contains xanthohumol, which is converted by large intestine bacteria into the phytoestrogen 8-prenylnaringenin, H. lupulus extract is antimicrobial, an activity which has been exploited in the manufacture of natural deodorant
4.
Beer
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Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
5.
Herbalism
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Herbalism is the study of botany and use of plants intended for medicinal purposes or for supplementing a diet. Plants have been the basis for medical treatments through much of human history, modern medicine recognizes herbalism as a form of alternative medicine, as the practice of herbalism is not strictly based on evidence gathered using the scientific method. Modern medicine makes use of many plant-derived compounds as the basis for evidence-based pharmaceutical drugs, the scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts. General practices include ancient methods of traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurveda, practitioners of herbalism or phytotherapy are referred to as herbalists or phytotherapists. Products used in herbalism may be called herbal medicines, botanicals, natural products, herbal remedies, herbal supplements. Archaeological evidence indicates that the use of plants dates back to the Paleolithic age. Written evidence of herbal remedies dates back over 5,000 years, to the Sumerians, a number of ancient cultures wrote about plants and their medical uses in books called herbals. In ancient Egypt, herbs are mentioned in Egyptian medical papyri, depicted in tomb illustrations, or on rare occasions found in medical jars containing trace amounts of herbs. Among the oldest, lengthiest, and most important medical papyri of ancient Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus dates from about 1550 BC, the earliest known Greek herbals come from Theophrastus of Eresos who in the 4th c. B. C. wrote in Greek Historia Plantarum, from Diocles of Carystus who wrote during the 3rd century B. C, only a few fragments of these works have survived intact, but from what remains scholars have noted a large amount of overlap with the Egyptian herbals. Seeds likely used for herbalism have been found in sites of Bronze Age China dating from the Shang Dynasty. Over a hundred of the 224 drugs mentioned in the Huangdi Neijing, herbs also commonly featured in the medicine of ancient India, where the principal treatment for diseases was diet. The World Health Organization estimates that 80 percent of the population of some Asian and African countries presently use herbal medicine for some aspect of health care. Pharmaceuticals are prohibitively expensive for most of the population, half of whom lived on less than $2 U. S. per day in 2002. In comparison, herbal medicines can be grown from seed or gathered from nature for little or no cost, many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have been derived from plants, at least 7,000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived from plants. In a 2010 global survey of the most common 1000 plant-derived compounds, preclinical studies were reported for about one-half of the plant products, while 12% of the plants, although available in the Western market, had no substantial studies of their properties. Strong evidence was found that 5 were toxic or allergenic, so that their use ought to be discouraged or forbidden, according to Cancer Research UK, there is currently no strong evidence from studies in people that herbal remedies can treat, prevent or cure cancer
6.
Herbaceous
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Herbaceous plants are plants that have no persistent woody stem above ground. Herbaceous plants may be annuals, biennials or perennials, annual herbaceous plants die completely at the end of the growing season or when they have flowered and fruited, and they then grow again from seed. Herbaceous perennial and biennial plants may have stems that die at the end of the growing season, but parts of the plant survive under or close to the ground from season to season. New growth develops from living tissues remaining on or under the ground, including roots, examples of herbaceous biennials include carrot, parsnip and common ragwort, herbaceous perennials include potato, peony, hosta, mint, most ferns and most grasses. Some relatively fast-growing herbaceous plants are pioneers, or early-successional species, others form the main vegetation of many stable habitats, occurring for example in the ground layer of forests, or in naturally open habitats such as meadow, salt marsh or desert. Some herbaceous plants can grow large, such as the Musa genus. The age of some herbaceous plants can be determined by analyzing annual growth rings in the secondary root xylem
7.
Perennial plant
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A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives for more than two years. The term is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is widely used to distinguish plants with little or no woody growth from trees and shrubs. Tomato vines, for example, live several years in their natural habitat but are grown as annuals in temperate regions because they dont survive the winter. There is also a class of evergreen, or non-herbaceous, perennials, an intermediate class of plants is known as subshrubs, which retain a vestigial woody structure in winter, e. g. Penstemon. The local climate may dictate whether plants are treated as shrubs or perennials, for instance, many varieties of Fuchsia are shrubs in warm regions, but in colder temperate climates may be cut to the ground every year as a result of winter frosts. The symbol for a plant, based on Species Plantarum by Linnaeus, is. Perennial plants can be short-lived or they can be long-lived, as are some plants like trees. They include an assortment of plant groups from ferns and liverworts to the highly diverse flowering plants like orchids. Plants that flower and fruit only once and then die are termed monocarpic or semelparous, however, most perennials are polycarpic, flowering over many seasons in their lifetime. Perennials typically grow structures that allow them to adapt to living one year to the next through a form of vegetative reproduction rather than seeding. These structures include bulbs, tubers, woody crowns, rhizomes plus others and they might have specialized stems or crowns that allow them to survive periods of dormancy over cold or dry seasons during the year. Many perennials have developed specialized features that allow them to extreme climatic. Some have adapted to hot and dry conditions or cold temperatures. Those plants tend to invest a lot of resource into their adaptations and often do not flower, Many perennials produce relatively large seeds, which can have an advantage, with larger seedlings produced after germination that can better compete with other plants. Some annuals produce many seeds per plant in one season, while some perennials are not under the same pressure to produce large numbers of seeds. In warmer and more favorable climates, perennials grow continuously, in seasonal climates, their growth is limited to the growing season. In some species, perennials retain their foliage all year round, other plants are deciduous perennials, for example, in temperate regions a perennial plant may grow and bloom during the warm part of the year, with the foliage dying back in the winter
8.
West Country
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Some usages of the term include wider areas, while others are more specific, though with little consistency of definition. The West Country is mostly rural, with only a few sizeable towns, tourism and agriculture, especially dairy farming, play a significant role in the economy. The landscape is principally granite moorland in the west, and chalk and limestone downland, historically, tin mining and the fishery were sources of income and employment in the west of the area, but less so today, although the latter still contributes to the economy. The region is famous for its production of cider, clotted cream, and pasties. Apart from the Bristol Channel and English Channel, the West Countrys boundaries are not precisely defined, some definitions are roughly synonymous with the administrative South West Region, while others use it more specifically to refer to just the southwestern part. The term is used, for example, to refer to sports matches between such cities as Bristol and Bath or Gloucester and Bath. West Country Carnival events take place in Somerset, Devon, Wiltshire, ITV Westcountry is an ITV franchise covering Devon, Cornwall, the Isles of Scilly and areas of Somerset and Dorset. Local news and sport website This is the Westcountry, part of the Newsquest group, similarly covers Devon, Cornwall, the West Country Clothing District was an area that made woollen cloth, but only part of the region described above. It covered east Somerset and parts of the counties of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, the clothing district around Tiverton and Exeter in Devon and west Somerset tended to make different kinds of cloth and is best regarded as distinct. Scrumpy and Western music South West Peninsula Wessex West of England West Country English West Country derby
9.
Hildegard of Bingen
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Hildegard of Bingen, O. S. B. also known as Saint Hildegard and Sibyl of the Rhine, was a German Benedictine abbess, writer, composer, philosopher, Christian mystic, visionary, and polymath. She is considered to be the founder of scientific history in Germany. Hildegard was elected magistra by her fellow nuns in 1136, she founded the monasteries of Rupertsberg in 1150, One of her works as a composer, the Ordo Virtutum, is an early example of liturgical drama and arguably the oldest surviving morality play. She is also noted for the invention of a language known as Lingua Ignota. Although the history of her formal consideration is complicated, she has recognized as a saint by branches of the Roman Catholic Church for centuries. On 7 October 2012, Pope Benedict XVI named her a Doctor of the Church, Hildegard was born around the year 1098, although the exact date is uncertain. Her parents were Mechtild of Merxheim-Nahet and Hildebert of Bermersheim, a family of the lower nobility in the service of the Count Meginhard of Sponheim. Sickly from birth, Hildegard is traditionally considered their youngest and tenth child, in her Vita, Hildegard states that from a very young age she had experienced visions. The date of Hildegards enclosure at the monastery is the subject of debate and her Vita says she was professed with an older woman, Jutta, the daughter of Count Stephan II of Sponheim, at the age of eight. However, Juttas date of enclosure is known to have been in 1112 and their vows were received by Bishop Otto Bamberg on All Saints Day,1112. Some scholars speculate that Hildegard was placed in the care of Jutta at the age of eight, in any case, Hildegard and Jutta were enclosed together at the Disibodenberg, and formed the core of a growing community of women attached to the male monastery. Jutta was also a visionary and thus attracted many followers who came to visit her at the cloister, Hildegard tells us that Jutta taught her to read and write, but that she was unlearned and therefore incapable of teaching Hildegard sound biblical interpretation. The written record of the Life of Jutta indicates that Hildegard probably assisted her in reciting the psalms, working in the garden and other handiwork and this might have been a time when Hildegard learned how to play the ten-stringed psaltery. Volmar, a frequent visitor, may have taught Hildegard simple psalm notation, the time she studied music could have been the beginning of the compositions she would later create. Upon Juttas death in 1136, Hildegard was unanimously elected as magistra of the community by her fellow nuns, Abbot Kuno of Disibodenberg asked Hildegard to be Prioress, which would be under his authority. Hildegard, however, wanted more independence for herself and her nuns and this was to be a move towards poverty, from a stone complex that was well established to a temporary dwelling place. When the abbot declined Hildegards proposition, Hildegard went over his head and it was only when the Abbot himself could not move Hildegard that he decided to grant the nuns their own monastery. Hildegard and about twenty nuns thus moved to the St. Rupertsberg monastery in 1150, in 1165 Hildegard founded a second monastery for her nuns at Eibingen
10.
Gruit
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Gruit is an old-fashioned herb mixture used for bittering and flavoring beer, popular before the extensive use of hops. Gruit or grut ale may also refer to the beverage produced using gruit, Gruit was a combination of herbs, commonly including sweet gale, mugwort, yarrow, ground ivy, horehound, and heather. Gruit varied somewhat, each gruit producer including different herbs to produce unique flavors, other adjunct herbs included juniper berries, ginger, caraway seed, aniseed, nutmeg, cinnamon, and hops in variable proportions. Some traditional types of unhopped beer such as sahti in Finland, the exclusive use of gruit was gradually phased out in favor of the use of hops alone in a slow sweep across Europe occurring between the 11th century and the late 16th century. In 16th century Britain, a distinction was made between ale, which was unhopped, and beer, brought by Dutch merchants, which was hopped, currently, however, ale usually refers to beer produced through a top-fermentation process, not unhopped beer. The phasing out of gruit from brewing is linked to various factors, princes wanting to undermine the power of the Church therefore tended to promote brewing with hops rather than gruit, to try to cut off this revenue for the monastic orders who had a monopoly on it. However, the switch to hops started in Germany some four or five centuries before the Reformation and its later gradual enforcement in the 15th and early 16th centuries can in part be traced through legislation drafted by political rulers before the Reformation started. The use of hops also has the advantage, in perception or fact, spruce tips as a local food ingredient has a practical aspect as well, it is a plentiful resource in northern latitudes like Alaska, whereas hops must be imported from the lower 48 United States. Commercial examples include, Since 2013, craft brewers with an interest in making gruit ales have banded together to mark February 1 as International Gruit Day, the day is intended to raise awareness of and pay homage to the historical traditions of brewing with botanicals. The history of beer additives in Europe — A review, the Reformation had some help from hops. Gruit history, brewing and recipes at gruitale. com Gruit recipe from Patrick Kaeding Vanberg & DeWulf profile of Posca Rustica International Gruit Day
11.
Dandelion
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Taraxacum is a large genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae which consists of species commonly known as dandelion. They are native to Eurasia and North America, but the two species worldwide, T. officinale and T. erythrospermum, were imports from Europe that now propagate as wildflowers. Both species are edible in their entirety, the common name dandelion is given to members of the genus. Like other members of the Asteraceae family, they have small flowers collected together into a composite flower head. Each single flower in a head is called a floret, many Taraxacum species produce seeds asexually by apomixis, where the seeds are produced without pollination, resulting in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent plant. The species of Taraxacum are tap-rooted, perennial, herbaceous plants, the genus contains many species which usually reproduce by apomixis, resulting in many local populations and endemism. In the British Isles alone,234 microspecies are recognised in 9 loosely defined sections, in general, the leaves are 5–25 cm long or longer, simple, lobed, and form a basal rosette above the central taproot. The flower heads are yellow to orange coloured, and are open in the daytime, the heads are borne singly on a hollow stem that is usually leafless and rises 1–10 cm or more above the leaves. Stems and leaves exude a white, milky latex when broken, a rosette may produce several flowering stems at a time. The flower heads are 2–5 cm in diameter and consist entirely of ray florets, the flower heads mature into spherical seed heads called blowballs or clocks containing many single-seeded fruits called achenes. Each achene is attached to a pappus of hairs, which enable wind-aided dispersal over long distances. The flower head is surrounded by bracts in two series, the inner bracts are erect until the seeds mature, then flex downward to allow the seeds to disperse. The outer bracts are often reflexed downward, but remain appressed in plants of the sections Palustria and Spectabilia, some species drop the parachute from the achenes, the hair-like parachutes are called pappus, and they are modified sepals. Between the pappus and the achene is a called a beak. The beak breaks off from the achene quite easily, separating the seed from the parachute, a number of species of Taraxacum are seed-dispersed ruderals that rapidly colonize disturbed soil, especially the common dandelion, which has been introduced over much of the temperate world. After flowering is finished, the flower head dries out for a day or two. The dried petals and stamens drop off, the reflex. Many similar plants in the Asteraceae family with yellow flowers are known as false dandelions
12.
Burdock
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Arctium is a genus of biennial plants commonly known as burdock, family Asteraceae. Native to the Old World, several species have been introduced worldwide. Plants of the genus Arctium have dark green leaves that can grow up to 70 cm long and they are generally large, coarse and ovate, with the lower ones being heart-shaped. Arctium species generally flower from July through to October, Burdock flowers provide essential pollen and nectar for honeybees around August when clover is on the wane and before the goldenrod starts to bloom. The roots of burdock, among plants, are eaten by the larva of the ghost moth. The plant is used as a plant by other Lepidoptera including brown-tail, Coleophora paripennella, Coleophora peribenanderi. The prickly heads of plants are noted for easily catching on to fur. In England, some birdwatchers have reported that birds have become entangled in the leading to a slow death. Burdocks clinging properties, in addition to providing an excellent mechanism for seed dispersal, led to the invention of Hook. A large number of species have been placed in genus Arctium at one time or another, the precise limits between Arctium and Cousinia are hard to define, there is an exact correlation between their molecular phylogeny. The burdocks are sometimes confused with the cockleburs and rhubarb, the taproot of young burdock plants can be harvested and eaten as a root vegetable. While generally out of favour in modern European cuisine, it remains popular in Asia, Arctium lappa is known as niúbàng in Chinese, which was borrowed into Japanese as gobō, and is still eaten in both countries. In Korea burdock root is called u-eong and sold as tong u-eong, plants are cultivated for their slender roots, which can grow about one metre long and two centimetres across. Burdock root is very crisp and has a sweet, mild, immature flower stalks may also be harvested in late spring, before flowers appear, their taste resembles that of artichoke, to which the burdock is related. The stalks are thoroughly peeled, and either eaten raw, or boiled in salt water, leaves are also eaten in spring in Japan when a plant is young and leaves are soft. Some A. lappa cultivars are specialized for this purpose, a popular Japanese dish is kinpira gobō, julienned or shredded burdock root and carrot, braised with soy sauce, sugar, mirin and/or sake, and sesame oil. In the second half of the 20th century, burdock achieved international recognition for its use due to the increasing popularity of the macrobiotic diet. It contains an amount of dietary fiber, calcium, potassium, amino acids
13.
Calendula
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Calendula, is a genus of about 15–20 species of annual and perennial herbaceous plants in the daisy family Asteraceae that are often known as marigolds. They are native to southwestern Asia, western Europe, Macaronesia, other plants are also known as marigolds, such as corn marigold, desert marigold, marsh marigold, and plants of the genus Tagetes. The genus name Calendula is a modern Latin diminutive of calendae, meaning little calendar, the common name marigold refers to the Virgin Mary. The most commonly cultivated and used member of the genus is the pot marigold, popular herbal and cosmetic products named calendula invariably derive from C. officinalis. Calendula species have been used traditionally as culinary and medicinal herbs, the petals are edible and can be used fresh in salads or dried and used to color cheese or as a replacement for saffron. A yellow dye has been extracted from the flowers, romans and Greeks used the golden calendula in many rituals and ceremonies, sometimes wearing crowns or garlands made from the flowers. One of its nicknames is Marys Gold, referring to the use in early Catholic events in some countries. Calendula flowers are sacred flowers in India and have used to decorate the statues of Hindu deities since early times. Calendula ointments are skin products used to minor cuts, burns. The flowers of C. officinalis contain flavonol glycosides, triterpene oligoglycosides, oleanane-type triterpene glycosides, saponins, Calendula oil is still used medicinally. The oil of C. officinalis is used as an anti-inflammatory, an agent. Plant pharmacological studies have suggested that Calendula extracts have antiviral, antigenotoxic, in herbalism, Calendula in suspension or in tincture is used topically for treating acne, reducing inflammation, controlling bleeding, and soothing irritated tissue. Limited evidence indicates Calendula cream or ointment is effective in treating radiation dermatitis, topical application of C. officinalis ointment has helped to prevent dermatitis and pain, thus reducing the incidence rate of skipped radiation treatments in randomized trials. Calendula has been used traditionally for abdominal cramps and constipation, an aqueous extract of C. officinalis obtained by a novel extraction method has demonstrated antitumor activity and immunomodulatory properties in vitro, as well as antitumor activity in mice. Calendula plants are known to cause allergic reactions, and should be avoided during pregnancy, Calendula species have been used in cooking for centuries. The flowers were a common ingredient in German soups and stews, the lovely golden petals were also used to add color to butter and cheese. The flowers are traditional ingredients in Mediterranean and Middle Eastern dishes, Calendula tea provides health benefits, as well as being delicious. The beautiful flowers were used as a source of dye for fabrics
14.
Common horehound
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Marrubium vulgare is a flowering plant in the mint family, native to Europe, northern Africa, and southwestern and central Asia. It is also naturalized in many places, including most of North and South America. It is a herbaceous perennial plant, and grows to 25–45 centimetres tall. The leaves are 2–5 cm long with a densely crinkled surface, the flowers are white, borne in clusters on the upper part of the main stem. The Oxford English Dictionary derives the word from two Old English forms, hoar and hune a word of unknown origin designating a class of herbs or plants, the second element was altered by folk etymology. The Roman agricultural writer Columella lists it as a remedy for expelling worms in farm animals in his important first-century work On Agriculture, several modern scientific studies have been conducted on the usefulness of horehound. It is also used in beverages, such as beer, steeped as tea. Horehound was introduced to southern Australia in the 19th century as a medicinal herb and it became a weed of native grasslands and pastures where it was introduced with settlers’ livestock, and was first declared under noxious weeds legislation. It now appears to have reached its full potential distribution and it occupies disturbed or overgrazed ground, and is favoured by grazing because it is highly unpalatable to livestock. It may persist in native vegetation that has been grazed, Marrubium vulgare is also used as a natural grasshopper repellent in agriculture. According to John Gower in Book 7 of the Confessio Amantis, Gower uses the older name, Alhaiot. ISBN 0-207-14228-9 Parsons, W. & Cuthbertson, E. Noxious Weeds of Australia, ISBN 0-643-06514-8 Jepson Manual Treatment Media related to Marrubium vulgare at Wikimedia Commons
15.
Ground ivy
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Glechoma hederacea is an aromatic, perennial, evergreen creeper of the mint family Lamiaceae. It is commonly known as ground-ivy, gill-over-the-ground, creeping charlie, alehoof, tunhoof, catsfoot, field balm and it is also sometimes known as creeping jenny, but that name more commonly refers to Lysimachia nummularia. It has numerous uses, and is used as a salad green in many countries. European settlers carried it around the world, and it has become an introduced and naturalized plant in a wide variety of localities. Glechoma hederacea is native to Europe and southwestern Asia but has been introduced to North America and is now common in most regions other than the Rocky Mountains. It can be identified by its round to reniform, crenate opposed leaves 2–3 cm diameter and it is a variable species, its size being influenced by environmental conditions, from 5 cm up to 50 cm tall. In addition, mallow and other creeping plants sometimes confused with ground ivy do not spread from nodes on stems, in addition, ground ivy emits a distinctive odor when damaged, being a member of the mint family. It usually flowers in the spring, Glechoma thrives in moist shaded areas, but also tolerates sun very well. It is a plant in grasslands and wooded areas or wasteland. It also thrives in lawns and around buildings since it survives mowing and it spreads by stolons or by seed. Part of the reason for its spread is this rhizomatous method of reproduction. It will form dense mats which can take over areas of lawn, a number of wild bees fly upon this plant, including Anthophora furcata, Anthidum manicatum, Anthophora plumipes, Anthophora quadrimaculata, Osmia aurulenta, Osmia caerulentes, and Osmia uncinata. The plant is also galled by several insects, including Rondaniola bursaria, despite its name, it is not a true Ivy and is in fact a Eurasian import of Mint. Glechoma hederecea is gynodiecious, with genets being either female or hermaphrodite, the females depend upon pollen from hermaphrodites for pollination. Female flowers tend to be smaller than hermaphrodite flowers, there is disagreement among biologists as to whether hermaphrodite flowers can pollinate themselves. The plant spends the winter as either a small ramet or a small rosette and it produces flowers between April and July, the flowers are visited by many types of insects, and can be characterized by a generalized pollination syndrome. The seeds germinate a few days after contact with moisture, although they can be stored dry, dry storage for a period up to a month is thought to improve the germination rate. The plant can reproduce clonally, with the stems bending down to the earth
16.
Calluna
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Calluna vulgaris is the sole species in the genus Calluna in the flowering plant family Ericaceae. It is the dominant plant in most heathland and moorland in Europe and it is tolerant of grazing and regenerates following occasional burning, and is often managed in nature reserves and grouse moors by sheep or cattle grazing, and also by light burning. The specific epithet vulgaris is Latin for common, Calluna is differentiated from Erica by its corolla and calyx each being in four parts instead of five. Calluna has small scale-leaves borne in opposite and decussate pairs, whereas those of Erica are generally larger and in whorls of 3-4, the flowers emerge in late summer, in wild plants these are normally mauve, but white-flowered plants also occur occasionally. They are terminal in racemes with sepal-like bracts at the base with a superior ovary, unlike Erica, Calluna sometimes sports double flowers. Calluna is sometimes referred to as Summer heather to distinguish it from winter or spring flowering species of Erica, Calluna is native to Europe, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and the Azores. It has been introduced many other places worldwide with suitable climates, including North America, Australia, New Zealand. Despised until the 19th century for its associations with the most rugged rural poverty and it is a very popular ornamental plant in gardens and for landscaping, in lime-free areas where it will thrive, but has defeated many a gardener on less acid soil. There are many named cultivars, selected for variation in colour and for different foliage colour. Different cultivars have flower colours ranging from white, through pink and a range of purples. The flowering season with different cultivars extends from late July to November in the northern hemisphere, the flowers may turn brown but still remain on the plants over winter, and this can lead to interesting decorative effects. Cultivars with ornamental foliage are usually selected for reddish and golden leaf colour, a few forms can be silvery grey. Many of the ornamental foliage forms change colour with the onset of winter weather, some forms are grown for distinctive young spring foliage. Cultivars include ‘Beoley Crimson’, ‘Boskoop’, ‘Cuprea’, Firefly, ‘Long White’, willow Grouse and Red Grouse feed on the young shoots and seeds of this plant. Both adult and larva of the Heather Beetle Lochmaea suturalis feed on it, the larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species also feed on the plant, notably the small emperor moth Saturnia pavonia. Formerly heather was used to dye wool yellow and to tan leather, with malt, heather is an ingredient in gruit, a mixture of flavourings used in the brewing of heather-beer during the Middle Ages before the use of hops. The use of heather in the brewing of modern heather beer is carefully regulated, by law, the heather must be cleaned carefully before brewing, as the undersides of the leaves may contain a dusting of an ergot-like fungus, which is a hallucinogenic intoxicant. From time immemorial heather has been used for making besoms, a practice recorded in Buy Broom Buzzems a song written by William Purvis from Newcastle-upon-Tyne
17.
Charlemagne
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Charlemagne or Charles the Great, numbered Charles I, was the King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774 and Emperor of the Romans from 800. He united much of Europe during the early Middle Ages and he was the first recognised emperor in western Europe since the fall of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state which Charlemagne founded was called the Carolingian Empire, Charlemagne was the oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon. He became king in 768 following his fathers death, initially as co-ruler with his brother Carloman I, carlomans sudden death in 771 in unexplained circumstances left Charlemagne as the undisputed ruler of the Frankish Kingdom. He continued his fathers policy towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy and he campaigned against the Saxons to his east, Christianising them upon penalty of death and leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden. Charlemagne reached the height of his power in 800 when he was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day at Old St. Peters Basilica. Charlemagne has been called the Father of Europe, as he united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire and his rule spurred the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of energetic cultural and intellectual activity within the Western Church. All Holy Roman Emperors considered their kingdoms to be descendants of Charlemagnes empire, up to the last Emperor Francis II and these and other machinations led to the eventual split of Rome and Constantinople in the Great Schism of 1054. Charlemagne died in 814, having ruled as emperor for thirteen years and he was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen in what is today Germany. He married at least four times and had three sons, but only his son Louis the Pious survived to succeed him. By the 6th century, the western Germanic Franks had been Christianised, Francia, ruled by the Merovingians, was the most powerful of the kingdoms that succeeded the Western Roman Empire. Following the Battle of Tertry the Merovingians declined into powerlessness, for which they have dubbed the rois fainéants. Almost all government powers were exercised by their chief officer, the mayor of the palace, in 687, Pepin of Herstal, mayor of the palace of Austrasia, ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his victory at Tertry. He became the governor of the entire Frankish kingdom. Pepin was the grandson of two important figures of the Austrasian Kingdom, Saint Arnulf of Metz and Pepin of Landen, Pepin of Herstal was eventually succeeded by his illegitimate son Charles, later known as Charles Martel. After 737, Charles governed the Franks in lieu of a king, Charles was succeeded in 741 by his sons Carloman and Pepin the Short, the father of Charlemagne. In 743, the brothers placed Childeric III on the throne to curb separatism in the periphery and he was the last Merovingian king. Carloman resigned office in 746, preferring to enter the church as a monk, Pepin brought the question of the kingship before Pope Zachary, asking whether it was logical for a king to have no royal power
18.
Pepin III
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Pepin the Short was the King of the Franks from 751 until his death. He was the first of the Carolingians to become king, the younger son of the Frankish prince Charles Martel and his wife Rotrude, Pepins upbringing was distinguished by the ecclesiastical education he had received from the monks of St. Denis. Succeeding his father as the Mayor of the Palace in 741, Pepin ruled in Neustria, Burgundy, and Provence, while his brother Carloman established himself in Austrasia, Alemannia and Thuringia. The brothers were active in suppressing revolts led by the Bavarians, Aquitanians, Saxons, in 743, they ended the Frankish interregnum by choosing Childeric III, who was to be the last Merovingian monarch, as figurehead king of the Franks. After Carloman, who was a pious man, retired to religious life in 747. He suppressed a revolt led by his half-brother Grifo, and succeeded in becoming the master of all Francia. Giving up pretense, Pepin then forced Childeric into a monastery and had himself proclaimed king of the Franks with support of Pope Zachary in 751. The decision was not supported by all members of the Carolingian family and Pepin had to put down a revolt led by Carlomans son, Drogo, as King, Pepin embarked on an ambitious program to expand his power. He reformed the legislation of the Franks and continued the reforms of Boniface. Pepin also intervened in favour of the Papacy of Stephen II against the Lombards in Italy and he was able to secure several cities, which he then gave to the Pope as part of the Donation of Pepin. This formed the basis for the Papal States in the Middle Ages. The Byzantines, keen to make good relations with the power of the Frankish empire. Pepin was, however, troubled by the revolts of the Saxons. He campaigned tirelessly in Germany, but the final subjugation of tribes was left to his successors. Pepin died in 768 and was succeeded by his sons Charlemagne, although unquestionably one of the most powerful and successful rulers of his time, Pepins reign is largely overshadowed by that of his more famous son. Pepins father Charles Martel died in 741, Grifo, Charless son by his second wife, Swanahild, demanded a share in the inheritance, but he was imprisoned in a monastery by his two half-brothers. In the Frankish realm the unity of the kingdom was connected with the person of the king. So Carloman, to secure this unity, raised the Merovingian Childeric to the throne, then in 747 Carloman either resolved to or was pressured into entering a monastery
19.
Antibiotics
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Antibiotics, also called antibacterials, are a type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, a limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the cold or influenza. Drugs which inhibit viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals rather than antibiotics, sometimes the term antibiotic is used to refer to any substance used against microbes, synonymous with antimicrobial. Some sources distinguish between antibacterial and antibiotic, antibacterials are used in soaps and disinfectants, while antibiotics are used as medicine, Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century, and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. However, their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse, especially in raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. All classes of antibiotics in use today were first discovered prior to the mid 1980s, substances with antibiotic properties had been used for various purposes since ancient times. Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore, mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials, more recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics. In 1874, physician Sir William Roberts noted that cultures of the mold Penicillium glaucum that is used in the making of types of blue cheese did not display bacterial contamination. In 1876, physicist John Tyndall also contributed to this field, Louis Pasteur conducted research showing that Bacillus anthracis would not grow in the presence of the related mold Penicillium notatum. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and molds engage in a battle for survival. Duchesne observed that E. coli was eliminated by the fungus Penicillium glaucum when they were grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he inoculated animals with lethal doses of typhoid bacilli together with Penicillium glaucum. Unfortunately Duchesnes army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research, Duchesne died of tuberculosis, a disease now treated by antibiotics. In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming identified penicillin, a molecule produced by molds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria when he noticed the spores of a mold, Penicillium chrysogenum
20.
Malt
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Malt is germinated cereal grains that have been dried in a process known as malting. The grains are made to germinate by soaking in water, and are then halted from germinating further by drying with hot air and it also develops other enzymes, such as proteases, which break down the proteins in the grain into forms that can be used by yeast. Depending on when the process is stopped one gets a preferred starch enzyme ratio. Malt also contains amounts of other sugars, such as sucrose and fructose. Further conversion to fermentable sugars is achieved during the mashing process, Malted grain that has been ground into a coarse meal is known as sweet meal. Various cereals are malted, though barley is the most common, a high-protein form of malted barley is often a label-listed ingredient in blended flours typically used in the manufacture of yeast breads and other baked goods. Malted grains have probably been used as an ingredient of beer since ancient times, for example in Egypt, Sumeria and China. In Persian countries a sweet paste made entirely from germinated wheat is called Samanū in Iran, Samanak, or Sümölök, a plate or bowl of Samanu is a traditional component of the Haft sin table symbolising affluence. Traditionally, women take a party for it during the night. In Tajikistan and Afghanistan they sing, Samanak dar Jūsh u mā Kafcha zanēm - Dīgarān dar Khwāb u mā Dafcha zanēm, in modern times, making samanu can be a family gathering. It originally comes from the Great Persian Empire, Mämmi, or Easter Porridge, is a traditional Finnish Lenten food. Cooked from rye malt and -flour, mämmi has a resemblance to Samanū. Today, this product is available in shops from February until Easter, a survey in 2013 showed that almost no one cooks mämmi at home in modern-day Finland. The cereal is spread out on the floor in a layer of 8 to 12 cm depth. The malting process starts with drying the grains to a content below 14%. When ready, the grain is immersed or steeped in water two or three times two or three days to allow the grain to absorb moisture and to start to sprout. When the grain has a content of around 46%, it is transferred to the malting or germination floor. The grain at this point is called green malt, the green malt is then dried and pre-toasted in an oven to the desired colour and specification
21.
Bitterness (taste)
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Taste, gustatory perception, or gustation is one of the five traditional senses that belongs to the gustatory system. Taste is the sensation produced when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, Taste, along with smell and trigeminal nerve stimulation, determines flavors of food or other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds and other areas including the surface of the tongue. The tongue is covered with thousands of small bumps called papillae, within each papilla are hundreds of taste buds. The exception to this is the filiform papillae that do not contain taste buds, there are between 2000 and 5000 taste buds that are located on the back and front of the tongue. Others are located on the roof, sides and back of the mouth, each taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste receptor cells. The sensation of taste includes five established basic tastes, sweetness, sourness, saltiness, bitterness, scientific experiments have proven that these five tastes exist and are distinct from one another. Taste buds are able to differentiate among different tastes through detecting interaction with different molecules or ions, Sweet, umami, and bitter tastes are triggered by the binding of molecules to G protein-coupled receptors on the cell membranes of taste buds. Saltiness and sourness are perceived when alkali metal or hydrogen ions enter taste buds, temperature, detected by thermoreceptors, and coolness and hotness, through chemesthesis. As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons. Among humans, taste perception begins to fade around 50 years of age because of loss of tongue papillae, Taste in the gustatory system allows humans to distinguish between safe and harmful food, and to gauge foods’ nutritional value. Digestive enzymes in saliva begin to dissolve food into base chemicals that are washed over the papillae, the tongue is covered with thousands of small bumps called papillae, which are visible to the naked eye. Within each papilla are hundreds of taste buds, the exception to this are the filiform papillae that do not contain taste buds. There are between 2000 and 5000 taste buds that are located on the back and front of the tongue, others are located on the roof, sides and back of the mouth, and in the throat. Each taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste receptor cells, bitter foods are generally found unpleasant, while sour, salty, sweet, and meaty tasting foods generally provide a pleasurable sensation. The five specific tastes received by taste receptors are saltiness, sweetness, bitterness, sourness, and umami, as of the early twentieth century, physiologists and psychologists believed there were four basic tastes, sweetness, sourness, saltiness, and bitterness. At that time umami was not identified but now a number of authorities recognize it as the fifth taste. One study found that salt and sour taste mechanisms detect, in different ways, the presence of sodium chloride in the mouth, however
22.
Pepin the Short
–
Pepin the Short was the King of the Franks from 751 until his death. He was the first of the Carolingians to become king, the younger son of the Frankish prince Charles Martel and his wife Rotrude, Pepins upbringing was distinguished by the ecclesiastical education he had received from the monks of St. Denis. Succeeding his father as the Mayor of the Palace in 741, Pepin ruled in Neustria, Burgundy, and Provence, while his brother Carloman established himself in Austrasia, Alemannia and Thuringia. The brothers were active in suppressing revolts led by the Bavarians, Aquitanians, Saxons, in 743, they ended the Frankish interregnum by choosing Childeric III, who was to be the last Merovingian monarch, as figurehead king of the Franks. After Carloman, who was a pious man, retired to religious life in 747. He suppressed a revolt led by his half-brother Grifo, and succeeded in becoming the master of all Francia. Giving up pretense, Pepin then forced Childeric into a monastery and had himself proclaimed king of the Franks with support of Pope Zachary in 751. The decision was not supported by all members of the Carolingian family and Pepin had to put down a revolt led by Carlomans son, Drogo, as King, Pepin embarked on an ambitious program to expand his power. He reformed the legislation of the Franks and continued the reforms of Boniface. Pepin also intervened in favour of the Papacy of Stephen II against the Lombards in Italy and he was able to secure several cities, which he then gave to the Pope as part of the Donation of Pepin. This formed the basis for the Papal States in the Middle Ages. The Byzantines, keen to make good relations with the power of the Frankish empire. Pepin was, however, troubled by the revolts of the Saxons. He campaigned tirelessly in Germany, but the final subjugation of tribes was left to his successors. Pepin died in 768 and was succeeded by his sons Charlemagne, although unquestionably one of the most powerful and successful rulers of his time, Pepins reign is largely overshadowed by that of his more famous son. Pepins father Charles Martel died in 741, Grifo, Charless son by his second wife, Swanahild, demanded a share in the inheritance, but he was imprisoned in a monastery by his two half-brothers. In the Frankish realm the unity of the kingdom was connected with the person of the king. So Carloman, to secure this unity, raised the Merovingian Childeric to the throne, then in 747 Carloman either resolved to or was pressured into entering a monastery
23.
Norwich
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Norwich is a city on the River Wensum in East Anglia and lies about 100 miles north-east of London. It is the administrative centre for East Anglia and county town of Norfolk. During the 11th century, Norwich was the largest city in England after London and it remained the capital of the most populous English county until the Industrial Revolution. The urban area of Norwich had a population of 213,166 according to the 2011 Census, the parliamentary seats cross over into adjacent local-government districts. A total of 132,512 people live in the City of Norwich, Norwich is the fourth most densely populated local-government district in the East of England, with 3,480 people per square kilometre. In May 2012, Norwich was designated Englands first UNESCO City of Literature, the capital of the Iceni tribe was a settlement located near to the village of Caistor St. Edmund on the River Tas approximately 8 kilometres to the south of modern-day Norwich. Following an uprising led by Boudica around AD60 the Caistor area became the Roman capital of East Anglia named Venta Icenorum, literally the market place of the Iceni. According to a rhyme, the demise of Venta Icenorum led to the development of Norwich, Caistor was a city when Norwich was none. There are two suggested models of development for Norwich, the ancient city was a thriving centre for trade and commerce in East Anglia in 1004 AD when it was raided and burnt by Swein Forkbeard the Viking king of Denmark. Mercian coins and shards of pottery from the Rhineland dating from the 8th century suggest that trade was happening long before this. Between 924 and 939, Norwich became fully established as a town, the word Norvic appears on coins across Europe minted during this period, in the reign of King Athelstan. The Vikings were a cultural influence in Norwich for 40–50 years at the end of the 9th century. At the time of the Norman Conquest the city was one of the largest in England, the Domesday Book states that it had approximately 25 churches and a population of between 5, 000–10,000. It also records the site of an Anglo-Saxon church in Tombland, the site of the Saxon market place and the later Norman cathedral. Norwich continued to be a centre for trade, the River Wensum being a convenient export route to the River Yare and Great Yarmouth. Quern stones and other artefacts from Scandinavia and the Rhineland have been found during excavations in Norwich city centre and these date from the 11th century onwards. Norwich Castle was founded soon after the Norman Conquest, the Domesday Book records that 98 Saxon homes were demolished to make way for the castle. In 1096, Herbert de Losinga, Bishop of Thetford, began construction of Norwich Cathedral, the chief building material for the Cathedral was limestone, imported from Caen in Normandy
24.
Ale
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Ale is a type of beer brewed using a warm fermentation method, resulting in a sweet, full-bodied and fruity taste. Historically, the referred to a drink brewed without hops. As with most beers, ale typically has an agent to balance the sweetness of the malt. Ale was originally bittered with gruit, a mixture of herbs or spices boiled in the wort before fermentation, later, hops replaced gruit as the bittering agent. Small beer would have been consumed daily by almost everyone, including children, in the medieval world, the lower cost for proprietors combined with the lower taxes levied on small beer led to the selling of beer labeled strong beer that had actually been diluted with small beer. In medieval times, ale may have been safer to drink than most water, however, the alcohol, hops, and some ingredients in gruit used to preserve some ales may have contributed to their lower load of pathogens, when compared to water. However, ale was largely due to the hours of boiling required in production. Brewing ale in the Middle Ages was a local industry primarily pursued by women, brewsters, or alewives, would brew in the home for both domestic consumption and small scale commercial sale. Brewsters provided a supplemental income for families, however, only in select few cases. The word ale is related to the Old English alu or ealu and it is believed to stem from Proto-Indo-European root *alu-, through Proto-Germanic *aluth-. Ale is typically fermented at temperatures between 15 and 24 °C. Brown ales tend to be lightly hopped, and fairly mildly flavoured, often with a nutty taste. In the south of England they are brown, around 3-3. 5% alcohol and quite sweet, in the north they are red-brown,4. 5-5%. English brown ales first appeared in the early 1900s, with Manns Brown Ale and Newcastle Brown Ale as the best-known examples. The style became popular with homebrewers in North America in the early 1980s, Petes Wicked Ale is an example, similar to the English original, Pale ale was a term used for beers made from malt dried with coke. Coke had been first used for roasting malt in 1642, by 1784 advertisements were appearing in the Calcutta Gazette for light and excellent pale ale. By 1830 onward the expressions bitter and pale ale were synonymous, breweries would tend to designate beers as pale ale, though customers would commonly refer to the same beers as bitter. It is thought that customers used the term bitter to differentiate these pale ales from other less noticeably hopped beers such as porter and these beers would normally spoil during transportation. To avoid the spoilage, hops were added extra as a natural preservative and this beer was the first of a style of export ale that became known as India Pale Ale or IPA
25.
Import duty
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A tariff is a tax on imports or exports. In other languages and very occasionally in English, tariff or its equivalent may also be used to any list of prices. A customs duty or due is the tax levied on the import or export of goods in international trade. In economic sense, a duty is also a kind of consumption tax, a duty levied on goods being imported is referred to as an import duty. Similarly, a duty levied on exports is called an export duty, a tariff, which is actually a list of commodities along with the leviable rate of customs duty, is popularly referred to as a customs duty. This is no longer the case, Customs duty is calculated on the determination of the assessable value in case of those items for which the duty is levied ad valorem. This is often the transaction value unless a customs officer determines assessable value in accordance with the Harmonized System, However, for certain items like petroleum and alcohol, customs duty is realized at a specific rate applied to the volume of the import or export consignments. For the purpose of assessment of duty, products are given an identification code that has come to be known as the Harmonized System code. This code was developed by the World Customs Organization based in Brussels, a Harmonized System code may be from four to ten digits. For example,17.03 is the HS code for molasses from the extraction or refining of sugar, However, within 17.03, the number 17.03.90 stands for Molasses. Introduction of Harmonized System code in 1990s has largely replaced the Standard International Trade Classification, in drawing up the national tariff, the revenue departments often specifies the rate of customs duty with reference to the HS code of the product. A Customs authority in each country is responsible for collecting taxes on the import into or export of goods out of the country, Evasion of customs duties takes place mainly in two ways. In one, the trader under-declares the value so that the value is lower than actual. In a similar vein, a trader can evade customs duty by understatement of quantity or volume of the product of trade, a trader may also evade duty by misrepresenting traded goods, categorizing goods as items which attract lower customs duties. The Evasion of customs duty may take place with or without the collaboration of customs officials, Evasion of customs duty does not necessarily constitute smuggling. Many countries allow a traveler to bring goods into the country duty-free and these goods may be bought at ports and airports or sometimes within one country without attracting the usual government taxes and then brought into another country duty-free. Some countries impose allowances which limit the number or value of items that one person can bring into the country. These restrictions often apply to tobacco, wine, spirits, cosmetics, gifts, often foreign diplomats and UN officials are entitled to duty-free goods
26.
Kent
–
Kent /ˈkɛnt/ is a county in South East England and one of the home counties. It borders Greater London to the north west, Surrey to the west and East Sussex to the south west, the county also shares borders with Essex via the Dartford Crossing and the French department of Pas-de-Calais through the Channel Tunnel. France can be clearly in fine weather from Folkestone and the White Cliffs of Dover. Hills in the form of the North Downs and the Greensand Ridge span the length of the county, because of its relative abundance of fruit-growing and hop gardens, Kent is known as The Garden of England. The title was defended in 2006 when a survey of counties by the UKTV Style Gardens channel put Kent in fifth place, behind North Yorkshire, Devon. Haulage, logistics, and tourism are industries, major industries in north-west Kent include aggregate building materials, printing. Coal mining has played its part in Kents industrial heritage. Large parts of Kent are within the London commuter belt and its transport connections to the capital. Twenty-eight per cent of the county forms part of two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the North Downs and The High Weald, the area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era, as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe. The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era, There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Roman era occupation, as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley. The modern name of Kent is derived from the Brythonic word Cantus meaning rim or border and this describes the eastern part of the current county area as a border land or coastal district. Julius Caesar had described the area as Cantium, or home of the Cantiaci in 51 BC, the extreme west of the modern county was by the time of Roman Britain occupied by Iron Age tribes, known as the Regnenses. East Kent became a kingdom of the Jutes during the 5th century and was known as Cantia from about 730, the early medieval inhabitants of the county were known as the Cantwara, or Kent people. These people regarded the city of Canterbury as their capital, in 597, Pope Gregory I appointed the religious missionary as the first Archbishop of Canterbury. In the previous year, Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity, the Diocese of Canterbury became Britains first Episcopal See with first cathedral and has since remained Englands centre of Christianity. The second designated English cathedral was in Kent at Rochester Cathedral, in the 11th century, the people of Kent adopted the motto Invicta, meaning undefeated. This naming followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy, the Kent peoples continued resistance against the Normans led to Kents designation as a semi-autonomous county palatine in 1067. Under the nominal rule of Williams half-brother Odo of Bayeux, the county was granted powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales
27.
Dutch people
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The Dutch, occasionally referred to as Netherlanders—a term that is cognate to the Dutch word for Dutch people, Nederlanders—are a Germanic ethnic group native to the Netherlands. They share a culture and speak the Dutch language. The high degree of urbanization characteristic of Dutch society was attained at an early date. During the Republic the first series of large scale Dutch migrations outside of Europe took place, despite the small size of the Netherlands, the Dutch left behind a legacy in excess of their mere numbers. The traditional art and culture of the Dutch encompasses various forms of music, dances, architectural styles and clothing. Internationally, Dutch painters such as Rembrandt, Vermeer and Van Gogh are held in high regard, the dominant religion of the Dutch is Christianity, although in modern times the majority is no longer religious. Significant percentages of the Dutch are adherents of humanism, agnosticism, atheism or individual spirituality, as with all ethnic groups the ethnogenesis of the Dutch has been a lengthy and complex process. The text below hence focuses on the history of the Dutch ethnic group, for Dutch national history, for Dutch colonial history, see the article on the Dutch Empire. Following the end of the period in the West around 500, with large federations settling the decaying Roman Empire. In the Low Countries, this began when the Franks, themselves a union of multiple smaller tribes. Eventually, in 358, the Salian Franks, one of the three main subdivisions among the Frankish alliance settled the areas Southern lands as foederati, Roman allies in charge of border defense. On a political level, the Frankish warlords abandoned tribalism and founded a number of kingdoms, however, the population make-up of the Frankish Empire, or even early Frankish kingdoms such as Neustria and Austrasia, was not dominated by Franks. Though the Frankish leaders controlled most of Western Europe, the Franks themselves were confined to the Northwestern part of the Empire, the current Dutch-French language border has remained virtually identical ever since, and could be seen as marking the furthest pale of gallicization among the Franks. The medieval cities of the Low Countries, which experienced major growth during the 11th and 12th century, were instrumental in breaking down the already relatively loose local form of feudalism, as they became increasingly powerful, they used their economical strength to influence the politics of their nobility. While the cities were of political importance, they also formed catalysts for medieval Dutch culture. The various city guilds as well as the necessity of water boards in the Dutch delta and it is also around this time, that ethnonyms such as Diets and Nederlands emerge. This process marked a new episode in the development of the Dutch ethnic group, as now political unity started to emerge, consolidating the strengthened cultural, despite their linguistic and cultural unity, and economic similarities, there was still little sense of political unity among the Dutch people. However, the centralist policies of Burgundy in the 14th and 15th centuries, at first violently opposed by the cities of the Low Countries, had a profound impact and changed this
28.
Oast house
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An oast, oast house or hop kiln is a building designed for kilning hops as part of the brewing process. They can be found in most hop-growing areas and are good examples of vernacular architecture. Many redundant oasts have been converted into houses, the names oast and oast house are used interchangeably in Kent and East Sussex. In Surrey, Hampshire, Hereford and Worcester they are always called hop kilns and they consist of a rectangular one or two storey building and one or more kilns in which the hops were spread out to be dried by hot air rising from a wood or charcoal-fired below. The drying floors were thin and perforated to permit the heat to pass through, the freshly picked hops from the fields were raked in to dry and then raked out to cool before being bagged up and sent to the brewery. The Kentish dialect word kell was sometimes used for kilns and sometimes to mean the oast itself, the word oast itself also means kiln. The earliest surviving oast house is at Golford, Cranbrook near Tunbridge Wells and it dates from sometime in the 17th Century and closely mirrors the first documentary evidence on oasts soon after their introduction of hops into England in the mid 16th century. Early oast houses were simply adapted barns but, by the 18th Century, at first these were square but around 1800 roundel kilns were developed in the belief that they were more efficient. Square kilns remained more popular in Hereford and Worcester and came back into fashion in the south east in the later 19th Century, in the 1930s, the cowls were replaced by louvred openings as electric fans and diesel oil ovens were employed. Hops are today dried industrially and the many oast houses on farms have now converted into dwellings. One of the best preserved oast house complexes is at The Hop Farm Country Park at Beltring, the purpose of an oast is to dry hops. This is achieved by the use of a flow of heated air through the kiln, hops were picked in the hop gardens by gangs of pickers, who worked on a piece work basis and earned a fixed rate per bushel. The green hops were put into large hessian sacks called pokes and these would be taken to the oast and brought into the stowage at first floor level. Some oasts had a man-powered hoist for this purpose, consisting of a pulley of some 5 feet diameter on an axle to which a rope or chain was attached. The green hops when freshly picked had a content of some 80%. The green hops were spread out in the kilns, the floors were generally of 1 1⁄4-inch square battens nailed at right angles across the joists, placed so that there was a similar gap between each batten, and covered with a horsehair cloth. The hops would be spread some 12 inches deep, the doors closed. When the hops were judged to be dried, the furnace would be extinguished and the removed from the kiln using a scuppet
29.
Aberdeen
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Nicknames include the Granite City, the Grey City and the Silver City with the Golden Sands. During the mid-18th to mid-20th centuries, Aberdeens buildings incorporated locally quarried grey granite, since the discovery of North Sea oil in the 1970s, other nicknames have been the Oil Capital of the World or the Energy Capital of the World. The area around Aberdeen has been settled since at least 8,000 years ago, the city has a long, sandy coastline and a marine climate, the latter resulting in chilly summers and mild winters. Aberdeen received Royal Burgh status from David I of Scotland, transforming the city economically, the traditional industries of fishing, paper-making, shipbuilding, and textiles have been overtaken by the oil industry and Aberdeens seaport. Aberdeen Heliport is one of the busiest commercial heliports in the world, in 2015, Mercer named Aberdeen the 57th most liveable city in the world, as well as the fourth most liveable city in Britain. In 2012, HSBC named Aberdeen as a business hub and one of eight super cities spearheading the UKs economy. The Aberdeen area has seen human settlement for at least 8,000 years. The city began as two separate burghs, Old Aberdeen at the mouth of the river Don, and New Aberdeen, a fishing and trading settlement, the earliest charter was granted by William the Lion in 1179 and confirmed the corporate rights granted by David I. In 1319, the Great Charter of Robert the Bruce transformed Aberdeen into a property-owning, granted with it was the nearby Forest of Stocket, whose income formed the basis for the citys Common Good Fund which still benefits Aberdonians. The city was burned by Edward III of England in 1336, but was rebuilt and extended, the city was strongly fortified to prevent attacks by neighbouring lords, but the gates were removed by 1770. During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms of 1644–1647 the city was plundered by both sides, in 1644, it was taken and ransacked by Royalist troops after the Battle of Aberdeen and two years later it was stormed by a Royalist force under the command of Marquis of Huntly. In 1647 an outbreak of plague killed a quarter of the population. In the 18th century, a new Town Hall was built and the first social services appeared with the Infirmary at Woolmanhill in 1742 and the Lunatic Asylum in 1779. The council began major road improvements at the end of the 18th century with the main thoroughfares of George Street, King Street, gas street lighting arrived in 1824 and an enhanced water supply appeared in 1830 when water was pumped from the Dee to a reservoir in Union Place. An underground sewer system replaced open sewers in 1865, the city was incorporated in 1891. Although Old Aberdeen has a history and still holds its ancient charter. It is an part of the city, as is Woodside. Old Aberdeen is the location of Aberdon, the first settlement of Aberdeen
30.
James VI and I
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James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, in 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known after him as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England from 1603, only returning to Scotland once in 1617 and he was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonization of the Americas began, at 57 years and 246 days, Jamess reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. James himself was a scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie, The True Law of Free Monarchies. He sponsored the translation of the Bible that would later be named after him, Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed the wisest fool in Christendom, an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise Jamess reputation and treat him as a serious, James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, Marys rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and he was baptised Charles James or James Charles on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France, Elizabeth I of England, Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as a pocky priest, spit in the childs mouth, as was then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, Jamess father, Darnley, was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for Rizzios death. James inherited his fathers titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross, Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle and she was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent. The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought in the security of Stirling Castle
31.
Prohibition in the United States
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Prohibition in the United States was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages that remained in place from 1920 to 1933. One result was that many communities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries introduced alcohol prohibition, Prohibition supporters, called drys, presented it as a victory for public morals and health. Promoted by the dry crusaders, a movement was led by rural Protestants and social Progressives in the Prohibition, Democratic and it gained a national grass roots base through the Womans Christian Temperance Union. After 1900 it was coordinated by the Anti-Saloon League, Prohibition was mandated in state after state, then finally nationwide under the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920. Enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act, set down the rules for enforcing the ban, for example, religious uses of wine were allowed. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol were not made illegal under federal law, in the 1920s the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Opposition mobilized nationwide, and Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, some states continued statewide prohibition, marking one of the last stages of the Progressive Era. Anti-prohibitionists, known as wets, criticized the ban as an intrusion of mainly rural Protestant ideals on a central aspect of urban, immigrant. Some researchers contend that its failure is attributable more to a changing historical context than to characteristics of the law itself. Criticism remains that Prohibition led to unintended consequences such as the growth of urban crime organizations, as an experiment it lost supporters every year, and lost tax revenue that governments needed when the Great Depression began in 1929. The U. S. Senate proposed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 18,1917, upon being approved by a 36th state on January 16,1919, the amendment was ratified as a part of the Constitution. The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30,1919, with July 1,1919, on October 28,1919, Congress passed the Volstead Act, the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President Woodrow Wilsons veto. The act established the definition of intoxicating liquors as well as penalties for producing them. Although the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the government lacked resources to enforce it. By the terms of the amendment, the country went dry one year later, by 1925, in New York City alone, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs. While Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, it stimulated the proliferation of rampant underground, organized, many were astonished and disenchanted with the rise of spectacular gangland crimes, when prohibition was supposed to reduce crime. Prohibition lost its advocates one by one, while the wet opposition talked of personal liberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime. On March 22,1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen–Harrison Act, legalizing beer with a content of 3. 2%
32.
Washington (state)
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It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State or the State of Washington to distinguish it from Washington, Washington is the 18th largest state with an area of 71,362 square miles, and the 13th most populous state with over 7 million people. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the states highest elevation at almost 14,411 feet and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States. Washington is a leading lumber producer and its rugged surface is rich in stands of Douglas fir, hemlock, ponderosa pine, white pine, spruce, larch, and cedar. Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft and missiles, shipbuilding and other equipment, lumber, food processing, metals and metal products, chemicals. Washington has over 1,000 dams, including the Grand Coulee Dam, built for a variety of purposes including irrigation, power, flood control, Washington was named after President George Washington by an act of the United States Congress during the creation of Washington Territory in 1853. Washington is the only U. S. state named after a president, confusion over the state of Washington and the city of Washington, D. C. led to renaming proposals during the statehood process for Washington in 1889, which failed to garner support. Washington, D. C. s own statehood movement in the 21st century includes a proposal to use the name State of Washington, Douglass Commonwealth, which would conflict with the current state of Washington. To distinguish it from the capital, Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington state, or, in more formal contexts. Residents of Washington and the Pacific Northwest simply refer to the state as Washington, Washington is the northwestern-most state of the contiguous United States. Washington is bordered by Oregon to the south, with the Columbia River forming the western part, to the west of Washington lies the Pacific Ocean. The high mountains of the Cascade Range run north-south, bisecting the state, from the Cascade Mountains westward, Western Washington has a mostly marine west coast climate, with mild temperatures and wet winters, autumns and springs, and relatively dry summers. The Cascade Range contains several volcanoes, which reach altitudes significantly higher than the rest of the mountains, from the north to the south, these major volcanoes are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams. Mount Rainier, the tallest mountain in the state, is 50 miles south of the city of Seattle and it is also covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the contiguous 48 states. Western Washington also is home of the Olympic Mountains, far west on the Olympic Peninsula and these deep forests, such as the Hoh Rainforest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental United States. Eastern Washington – the part of the state east of the Cascades – has a dry climate. It includes large areas of steppe and a few truly arid deserts lying in the rain shadow of the Cascades. Farther east, the climate becomes less arid, with annual rainfall increasing as one goes east to 21.2 inches in Pullman, the Okanogan Highlands and the rugged Kettle River Range and Selkirk Mountains cover much of the northeastern quadrant of the state
33.
Powdery mildew
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Powdery mildew is a fungal disease that affects a wide range of plants. Powdery mildew diseases are caused by different species of fungi in the order Erysiphales. Erysiphe cichoracearum was formerly reported to be the causal organism throughout most of the world. Powdery mildew is one of the plant diseases to identify. Infected plants display white powdery spots on the leaves and stems, the lower leaves are the most affected, but the mildew can appear on any above-ground part of the plant. As the disease progresses, the spots get larger and denser as large numbers of spores are formed. Powdery mildew grows well in environments with high humidity and moderate temperatures, in an agricultural setting, the pathogen can be controlled using chemical methods, genetic resistance, and careful farming methods. It is important to be aware of powdery mildew and its management as the disease can significantly reduce crop yields. Greenhouses provide an ideal moist, temperate environment for the spread of the disease, Powdery mildew fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. Sexual reproduction is via chasmothecia, a type of ascocarp, within each ascocarp are several asci. Over time, ascospores mature and are released to new infections. Conditions necessary for spore maturation differ among species, wooly aphids and other sucking insects are often vectors of transmission for powdery mildew, and other infectious diseases. Typically wooly aphids in sub temperate climates precede and are an indicator of various infections, aphids penetrate plant surfaces where they often reside and provide a host of potential inoculants through physical, digestive or fecal secretions. Aphids are often an indicator of other potential plant problems, in an agricultural setting, the pathogen can be controlled using chemical methods, genetic resistance, and careful farming methods. Chemical control is possible with such as triadimefon and propiconazole. Another chemical treatment involves treating with a solution or calcium silicate slag. Silicon helps the plant cells defend against fungal attack by degrading haustoria and by producing callose, with silicon treatment, epidermal cells are less susceptible to powdery mildew of wheat. Potassium bicarbonate is a fungicide against powdery mildew and apple scab
34.
Downy mildew
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Downy mildew refers to any of several types of oomycete microbes that are obligate parasites of plants. Downy mildews exclusively belong to Peronosporaceae, in commercial agriculture, they are a particular problem for growers of crucifers, grapes and vegetables that grow on vines. The prime example is Peronospora farinosa featured in NCBI-Taxonomy and HYP3 and this pathogen does not produce survival structures in the northern states of the United States, and overwinters as live mildew colonies in Gulf Coast states. It progresses northward with cucurbit production each spring, yield loss associated with downy mildew is most likely related to soft rots that occur after plant canopies collapse and sunburn occurs on fruit. Cucurbit downy mildew only affects leaves of cucurbit plants, initial symptoms include large, angular or blocky, yellow areas visible on the upper surface. As lesions mature, they rapidly and turn brown. The under surface of infected leaves appears watersoaked, upon closer inspection, a purple-brown mold becomes apparent. Small spores shaped like footballs can be observed among the mold with a 10x hand lens, in disease-favorable conditions, downy mildew will spread rapidly, destroying leaf tissue without affecting stems or petioles. Because the downy mildew pathogen does not overwinter in midwestern fields, crop rotations, the pathogen tends to become established in late summer. Therefore, planting early season varieties may reduce the already minor threat posed by downy mildew. Fungicides applied specifically for downy mildew control may be unnecessary, broad spectrum protectant fungicides such as chlorothalonil, mancozeb, and fixed copper are at least somewhat effective in protecting against downy mildew infection. Systemic fungicides are labeled for use against cucurbit downy mildew, but are recommended only after diagnosis of disease has been confirmed. One way to control downy mildew is to eliminate moisture and humidity around the impacted plants, watering from below, such as with a drip system, and improve air circulation through selective pruning. In enclosed environments, like in the house or in a greenhouse, Downy mildew of basil caused by Peronospora belbahrii has been a huge problem for both commercial producers and home growers. The disease was first reported in Italy in 2004, was reported in the U. S. in 2007 and 2008 and has steadily increasing in prevalence, distribution. Cucurbitaceae downy mildew is specific to cucurbits, the disease is one of the most significant diseases of cucurbits worldwide. Plasmopara viticola is the agent of grapevine downy mildew. Hop Downy Mildew is specific to hops, the disease is the single most devastating disease in Western United States hopyards, since the microbe thrives in moist climates
35.
Potato
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The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial nightshade Solanum tuberosum. The word potato may refer either to the plant itself or to the edible tuber, in the Andes, where the species is indigenous, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species. Potatoes were introduced to Europe in the half of the 16th century by the Spanish. It is the worlds fourth-largest food crop, following maize, wheat, the green leaves and green skins of tubers exposed to the light are toxic. Wild potato species can be throughout the Americas from the United States to southern Chile. Following centuries of breeding, there are now over a thousand different types of potatoes. However, the importance of the potato is variable and changing rapidly. As of 2007 China led the world in production, and nearly a third of the worlds potatoes were harvested in China. The English word potato comes from Spanish patata, the Spanish Royal Academy says the Spanish word is a compound of the Taíno batata and the Quechua papa. The 16th-century English herbalist John Gerard used the terms bastard potatoes and Virginia potatoes for this species, potatoes are occasionally referred to as Irish potatoes or white potatoes in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes. The name spud for a small potato comes from the digging of soil prior to the planting of potatoes, the word spud traces back to the 16th century. It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools, around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself. It was Mario Peis 1949 The Story of Language that can be blamed for the false origin. Pei writes, the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago, some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the words in this title gave rise to spud. Like most other pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false, Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 cm high, depending on variety, with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens, in general, the tubers of varieties with white flowers have white skins, while those of varieties with colored flowers tend to have pinkish skins. Potatoes are mostly cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties
36.
Maritime Provinces
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The Maritimes, also called the Maritime provinces or the Canadian Maritimes, is a region of Eastern Canada consisting of three provinces, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. The Maritimes had a population of 1,813,606 in 2016, the Maritimes, along with a fourth province – Canadas easternmost province, Newfoundland and Labrador – make up Atlantic Canada. Located along the Atlantic coast, various aquatic sub-basins are located in the Maritimes, such as the Gulf of Maine, the region is located northeast of New England, southeast of Quebecs Gaspé Peninsula, and southwest of the island of Newfoundland. All three provinces are entirely south of the southernmost extremity of Western Canada, and are the provinces of Canada without large. The Mikmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy people are indigenous to the Maritimes, while Acadian, the word maritime is an adjective that simply means of the sea, thus any land associated with the sea can be considered a maritime state or province. Nonetheless, the term Maritimes has historically been applied to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. The Middle Period, starting 6,000 years ago, and this is also when what is called the Laurentian tradition started among Archaic Indians, existing First Nations peoples of the time. Evidence of Archaic Indian burial mounds and other ceremonial sites existing in the Saint John River valley has been uncovered, the primarily agrarian Maliseet Nation settled throughout the Saint John River and Allagash River valleys of present-day New Brunswick and Maine. The Passamaquoddy Nation inhabited the coastal regions of the present-day Bay of Fundy. The Maritimes were the area in Canada to be settled by Europeans. Both Giovanni Caboto and Giovanni da Verrazzano are reported to have sailed in or near Maritime waters during their voyages of discovery for England, several Portuguese explorers/cartographers have also documented various parts of the Maritimes, namely Diogo Homem. However, it was French explorer Jacques Cartier who made the first detailed reconnaissance of the region for a European power, and in so doing, claimed the region for the King of France. Champlain went on to fame as the founder of New Frances province of Canada which comprises much of the present-day lower St. Lawrence River valley in the province of Quebec. Most Acadian fishing activities were overshadowed by the comparatively enormous seasonal European fishing fleets based out of Newfoundland which took advantage of proximity to the Grand Banks. In 1613, Virginian raiders captured Port-Royal, and in 1621 Acadia was ceded to Scotlands Sir William Alexander who renamed it Nova Scotia. By 1632, Acadia was returned from Scotland to France under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, colonial administration by France throughout the history of Acadia was contemptuous at best. Frances priorities were in settling and strengthening its claim on New France and the exploration and settlement of interior North America, over 74 years there were six colonial wars, which involved continuous warfare between New England and Acadia. Throughout these wars, New England was allied with the Iroquois Confederacy, in the first war, King Williams War, natives from the Maritime region participated in numerous attacks with the French on the Acadia/ New England border in southern Maine
37.
Boron
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Boron is a chemical element with symbol B and atomic number 5. Produced entirely by cosmic ray spallation and supernovae and not by stellar nucleosynthesis, it is an element in the Solar system. Boron is concentrated on Earth by the water-solubility of its more common naturally occurring compounds and these are mined industrially as evaporites, such as borax and kernite. The largest known deposits are in Turkey, the largest producer of boron minerals. Elemental boron is a metalloid that is found in small amounts in meteoroids, industrially, very pure boron is produced with difficulty because of refractory contamination by carbon or other elements. Several allotropes of boron exist, amorphous boron is a powder, crystalline boron is silvery to black, extremely hard. The primary use of boron is as boron filaments with applications similar to carbon fibers in some high-strength materials. Boron is primarily used in chemical compounds, about half of all consumption globally, boron is used as an additive in glass fibers of boron-containing fiberglass for insulation and structural materials. The next leading use is in polymers and ceramics in high-strength, lightweight structural, borosilicate glass is desired for its greater strength and thermal shock resistance than ordinary soda lime glass. Boron compounds are used as fertilizers in agriculture and in sodium perborate bleaches, a small amount of boron is used as a dopant in semiconductors, and reagent intermediates in the synthesis of organic fine chemicals. A few boron-containing organic pharmaceuticals are used or are in study, natural boron is composed of two stable isotopes, one of which has a number of uses as a neutron-capturing agent. In biology, borates have low toxicity in mammals, but are toxic to arthropods and are used as insecticides. Boric acid is mildly antimicrobial, and several natural boron-containing organic antibiotics are known, small amounts of boron compounds play a strengthening role in the cell walls of all plants, making boron a necessary plant nutrient. Boron is involved in the metabolism of calcium in both plants and animals and it is considered an essential nutrient for humans, and boron deficiency is implicated in osteoporosis. The word boron was coined from borax, the mineral from which it was isolated, by analogy with carbon, marco Polo brought some glazes back to Italy in the 13th century. Agricola, around 1600, reports the use of borax as a flux in metallurgy, in 1777, boric acid was recognized in the hot springs near Florence, Italy, and became known as sal sedativum, with primarily medical uses. The rare mineral is called sassolite, which is found at Sasso, Sasso was the main source of European borax from 1827 to 1872, when American sources replaced it. Boron compounds were relatively rarely used until the late 1800s when Francis Marion Smiths Pacific Coast Borax Company first popularized and produced them in volume at low cost
38.
Yakima River Valley
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The Yakima River is a tributary of the Columbia River in south central and eastern Washington state, named for the indigenous Yakama people. The length of the river from headwaters to mouth is 214 miles and it is the longest river entirely in Washington state. The river rises in the Cascade Range at an elevation of 2,449 feet at Keechelus Dam on Keechelus Lake near Snoqualmie Pass, near Easton. The river flows through town, skirts Ellensburg, passes the city of Yakima, and continues southeast to Richland. About 9 million years ago, the Yakima River flowed south from near Vantage to the Tri-Cities, and then turned west straight for the ocean through Badger Canyon west of Kennewick. Badger Canyon was once a waterway of the Yakima River, this pre-existing channel led the Yakima River to make tribute to the Columbia river at the current location of the city of Kennewick. Beginning nearly 15,000 years ago the Columbia Plateau was transformed by the successive Missoula glacial outburst floods, much of the flood water made way down the Columbia river Channel where a choke-point known as Wallula Gap caused the restriction of flow. Floodwaters began ponding near the Tri-Cities resulting in the back-flooding of the Columbias tributary valleys, Badger Canyon was an entry point for back-flooding of the Yakima Valley, successive floods left behind thick deposits of sediments in Badger Canyon and the Valley beyond. During the last ice age, the Missoula Floods further altered the landscape of the area, the West Fork of Amon Creek now utilizes Badger Canyon. The first western explorers to visit the river were Lewis and Clark on or about October 17,1805 and they stopped briefly at the confluence of the Yakima and the Columbia, although they did not proceed upriver. The river was known to local Native Americans as Tap Teel. The Yakima River is used for rafting, kayaking, and fishing, especially around the Ellensburg area, the Yakima River is ranked between Class I and Class II rapids, depending on the circumstances and season. In the Tri-Cities, the delta where the Yakima meets the Columbia has several hiking trails, the Yakima River Basin consists of approximately 6,150 square miles located in south central Washington state. It is bounded by the Cascade Mountains on the west, the Wenatchee Mountains on the north, Rattlesnake Mountain and the Rattlesnake Hills on the east, and the Horse Heaven Hills to the south. The basin encompasses areas designated by the Washington Department of Ecology as the Upper Yakima Water Resource Inventory Areas 38 and 39, the dividing line between these northern and southern sections is the confluence of the Naches and Yakima Rivers. The Yakima River provides irrigation for the dry but fertile land in the valley, agricultural land totals 1,000 square miles, including irrigated pastures, orchards, grapes, hops, and field crops. A significant portion of Washington apples and cherries are grown in the valley, since the late 20th century, the wine industry has grown rapidly in the area. It is the location of the Yakima Valley AVA, a designated American Viticultural Area, major landowners in the valley include federal and state agencies and the Yakama Indian Nation
39.
Willamette Valley
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The Willamette Valley is a 150-mile long valley in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It forms the cultural and political heart of Oregon, and is home to approximately 70 percent of its population including its three largest cities, Portland, Eugene and Salem, the state capital. The valleys numerous waterways, particularly the Willamette River, are vital to the economy of Oregon, as they continuously deposit highly fertile alluvial soils across its broad, flat plain. A massively productive agricultural area, the valley was widely publicized in the 1820s as a land of flowing milk. Throughout the 19th century it was the destination of choice for the wagon trains of emigrants who made the perilous journey along the Oregon Trail. Today the valley is considered synonymous with Oregon Wine Country, as it contains more than 19,000 acres of vineyards. When floodwaters met log-and-ice jams at Kalama in southwest Washington, the caused an backup that filled the entire Willamette Valley to a depth of 300 to 400 feet above current sea level. Some geologists suggest that the Willamette Valley flooded in this multiple times during the last ice age. Elevations for other cities in the valley are Newberg,175 feet, Oregon City,138 feet, McMinnville,157 feet, Salem,154 feet, Corvallis,235 feet, and Eugene,430 feet. One of the most prominent of these is the Bellevue Erratic and it is also believed that the Willamette Meteorite was rafted by flood and ice to the location near West Linn where it was found in 1902. The valley may be defined as the broad plain of the Willamette, bounded on the west by the Oregon Coast Range. It is bounded on the south by the Calapooya Mountains, which separate the headwaters of the Willamette from the Umpqua River valley about 25 miles south of Hidden Valley, interstate 5 runs the length of the valley, linking its major communities. Because of differing cultural and political interests, the Portland metropolitan area, cities in the valley include, from south to north, Cottage Grove, Eugene, Corvallis, Albany, Dallas, Salem, McMinnville, Oregon City, Hillsboro, Portland, and St. Helens. Parts of the counties, from south to north, lie within the valley, Douglas, Lane, Linn, Benton, Polk, Marion, Clackamas, Yamhill, Washington, Multnomah. Sometimes the area around Albany and Corvallis and surrounding Benton and Linn counties is referred to locally as the Mid-Valley, Marion, Polk, and other counties are sometimes included in the definition of the Mid-Valley. The climate of the Willamette Valley is oceanic with Mediterranean features and this climate is characterized by very dry and mostly cloudless summers, ranging from warm to occasionally very hot, followed by cool, rainy, and consistently cloudy winters. The precipitation pattern is distinctly Mediterranean, with little to no rainfall occurring during the summer months, temperatures are predictable throughout the year, with daytime highs frequently reaching the low to mid 80s in the summer and the mid 40s in the winter. Lengthy stretches of 90 °F degree days occur every summer, occasionally reaching 100 °F, temperatures of 5 °F or lower occur only about once every 25 years
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Parma, Idaho
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Parma is a city in Canyon County, Idaho, United States. The population was 1,983 at the 2010 census, up from 1,771 in 2000 and it is part of the Boise City–Nampa, Idaho Metropolitan Statistical Area. The city was named after Parma, Italy, Parma is located at 43°47′10″N 116°56′34″W, at an elevation of 2,231 feet above sea level. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 1.11 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,983 people,710 households, the population density was 1,802.7 inhabitants per square mile. There were 779 housing units at a density of 708.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 75. 4% White,0. 4% African American,1. 2% Native American,0. 7% Asian,20. 0% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 31. 0% of the population. 24. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.31. The median age in the city was 34.9 years. 30. 1% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24,24. 1% were from 25 to 44,24. 2% were from 45 to 64, and 13. 8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50. 6% male and 49. 4% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,771 people,617 households, and 454 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,919.5 people per square mile, in the 2010 census there were 1,983 There were 676 housing units at an average density of 732.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 83. 91% White,0. 17% African American,0. 85% Native American,0. 96% Asian,9. 66% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 27. 10% of the population. 23. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.85 and the average family size was 3.41. In the city, the population was out with 31. 4% under the age of 18,7. 8% from 18 to 24,26. 9% from 25 to 44,19. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 33 years, for every 100 females there were 97.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.7 males, the median income for a household in the city was $31,964, and the median income for a family was $36,336. Males had an income of $26,167 versus $18,636 for females
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Wilder, Idaho
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Wilder is a city in Canyon County, Idaho, United States. The population was 1,533 at the 2010 census, Wilder is part of the Boise City–Nampa, Idaho Metropolitan Statistical Area. Wilder was established in 1919, and was named for Marshall P. Wilder, Wilder is located at 43°40′35″N 116°54′36″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 0.74 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,533 people,453 households, the population density was 2,100.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 501 housing units at a density of 686.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 44. 6% White,0. 2% African American,1. 8% Native American,0. 4% Asian,51. 1% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 75. 9% of the population. 18. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 3.38 and the average family size was 3.89. The median age in the city was 27 years. 37. 6% of residents were under the age of 18,9. 4% were between the ages of 18 and 24,25. 6% were from 25 to 44,18. 2% were from 45 to 64, and 9. 1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48. 7% male and 51. 3% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,462 people,389 households, and 315 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,885.7 people per square mile, there were 421 housing units at an average density of 1,118.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 33. 99% White,0. 21% African American,0. 14% Native American,0. 27% Asian,0. 07% Pacific Islander,62. 93% from other races, and 2. 39% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 76. 40% of the population,17. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.76 and the family size was 4.30. In the city, the population was out with 39. 2% under the age of 18,13. 3% from 18 to 24,25. 2% from 25 to 44,15. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 24 years, for every 100 females there were 99.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.7 males, the median income for a household in the city was $21,731, and the median income for a family was $25,625
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Greenleaf, Idaho
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Greenleaf is a city in Canyon County, Idaho, United States. The population was 846 at the 2010 census, Greenleaf is part of the Boise-Nampa metropolitan area. The town was settled by Quakers in the early 1900s and is named after Quaker poet, Greenleaf is located at 43°40′16″N 116°48′59″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 0.73 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 846 people,299 households, the population density was 1,158.9 inhabitants per square mile. There were 316 housing units at a density of 432.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 87. 1% White,0. 4% African American,0. 5% Native American,0. 4% Asian,9. 6% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 19. 4% of the population. 19. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.83 and the average family size was 3.26. The median age in the city was 39.6 years. 28. 4% of residents were under the age of 18,8. 2% were between the ages of 18 and 24,20. 5% were from 25 to 44,30. 7% were from 45 to 64, and 12. 2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46. 9% male and 53. 1% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 862 people,277 households, and 219 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,190.1 people per square mile, there were 284 housing units at an average density of 392.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 74. 59% White,0. 46% African American,0. 81% Native American,0. 81% Asian,0. 23% Pacific Islander,22. 39% from other races, and 0. 70% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 23. 32% of the population,19. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.11 and the family size was 3.57. In the city, the population was out with 35. 7% under the age of 18,7. 9% from 18 to 24,27. 5% from 25 to 44,20. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 31 years, for every 100 females there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.9 males, the median income for a household in the city was $37,375, and the median income for a family was $45,313
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Notus, Idaho
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Notus is a city in Canyon County, Idaho, United States. The population was 531 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Boise City–Nampa, Idaho Metropolitan Statistical Area. Notus is located at 43°43′34″N 116°48′7″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.39 square miles, of which,0.38 square miles is land and 0.01 square miles is water. As of the census of 2010, there were 531 people,182 households, the population density was 1,397.4 inhabitants per square mile. There were 198 housing units at a density of 521.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 73. 3% White,0. 2% African American,2. 4% Native American,0. 4% Asian,18. 5% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 29. 8% of the population. 18. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.92 and the average family size was 3.34. The median age in the city was 35.5 years. 31. 1% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24, 25% were from 25 to 44,25. 4% were from 45 to 64, and 11. 7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47. 1% male and 52. 9% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 458 people,147 households, and 113 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,160.7 people per square mile, there were 156 housing units at an average density of 395.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 86. 90% White,1. 31% Native American,0. 66% Asian,8. 73% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 22. 05% of the population. 18. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 5. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 3.12 and the average family size was 3.58. In the city, the population was out with 33. 4% under the age of 18,7. 6% from 18 to 24,27. 7% from 25 to 44,20. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 31 years, for every 100 females there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.0 males, the median income for a household in the city was $32,813, and the median income for a family was $43,750. Males had an income of $25,000 versus $21,250 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,801, about 10. 4% of families and 13. 3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11. 2% of those under age 18 and 28. 3% of those age 65 or over
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