1.
Charles Darwin
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Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, by the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. In modified form, Darwins scientific discovery is the theory of the life sciences. Darwins early interest in nature led him to neglect his education at the University of Edinburgh, instead. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science, puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and he was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwins work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature, in 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey. Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his familys home and he was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin. He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists, Erasmus Darwin on his fathers side, and Josiah Wedgwood on his mothers side, both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder and he found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, one day, Grant praised Lamarcks evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grants audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus journals, Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jamesons natural-history course, which covered geology - including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, as Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying, when his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paleys Evidences of Christianity. In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree. Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831, inspired with a burning zeal to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics
2.
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
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The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals is a book by Charles Darwin, published in 1872, concerning genetically determined aspects of behaviour. It was published thirteen years after On the Origin of Species and, alongside his 1871 book The Descent of Man, it is Darwins main consideration of human origins. In this book, Darwin seeks to trace the origins of human characteristics as the pursing of the lips in moments of concentration. Before Darwin, mental life had often been considered in terms of associationist psychology, the Expression of the Emotions is an important landmark in the history of book illustration. On the day of the coronation,28 June 1838, Darwin was in Edinburgh, a discussion of the significance of Darwins early notebooks can be found in Paul H. Barretts Metaphysics, Materialism and the Evolution of Mind – Early Writings of Charles Darwin. Mental qualities are determined by the size, form and constitution of the brain, to avoid stating how far I believe in Materialism, say only that emotions, instincts, degrees of talent, which are hereditary are so because brain of child resembles parent stock –. Little of this surfaced in On the Origin of Species in 1859, in the public management of his evolutionary theory, Darwin understood that its relevance to human emotional life could draw a hostile response. Darwin concluded work on The Descent of Man on 15 January 1871, two days later, he started on The Expression of the Emotions and, on 22 August 1872, he finished work on the proofs. This connection of mental states to the organization of movement is central to Darwins understanding of emotion. These aspects of Darwins personal relationships are discussed in John Bowlbys psychoanalytic biography of Darwin, Bells famous aphorism on the whole subject was, Expression is to the passions as language is to thought. Darwin had listened to a discussion about emotional expression at the Plinian Society in December 1826 when he was a student at Edinburgh University. Darwins response to Bells neurological theories is discussed by Lucy Hartley, Darwin corresponded intensively with James Crichton-Browne, the son of the phrenologist William A. F. Browne and the medical director of the Wakefield asylum. At the time, Crichton-Browne was preparing his extremely influential West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Reports, Darwin also drew on his personal experience of the symptoms of bereavement and studied the text of Henry Maudsleys 1870 Gulstonian lectures on Body and Mind. Darwin opens the book with three chapters on the principles of expression, introducing the rather awkward phrase associated serviceable habits. This is followed by a section on modes of emotional expression peculiar to particular species and he then moves on to the main argument with his characteristic approach of astonishingly widespread and detailed observations. Chapter 7 discusses low spirits, including anxiety, grief, dejection and despair, in Chapter 13, Darwin discusses complex emotional states including self-attention, shame, shyness, modesty and blushing. Throughout these chapters, Darwins concern was to show how human expressions link human movements with emotional states, and are genetically determined and derive from purposeful animal actions. This was one of the first books to be illustrated with photographs – with seven heliotype plates –, Darwin received dozens of photographs of psychiatric patients from James Crichton-Browne, but included in the book only one engraving based on these illustrations – sent on 6 June 1870
3.
Gothic fiction
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Gothic fiction, which is largely known by the subgenre of Gothic horror, is a genre or mode of literature and film that combines fiction and horror, death, and at times romance. Its origin is attributed to English author Horace Walpole, with his 1764 novel The Castle of Otranto, the effect of Gothic fiction feeds on a pleasing sort of terror, an extension of Romantic literary pleasures that were relatively new at the time of Walpoles novel. It originated in England in the half of the 18th century and had much success in the 19th, as witnessed by Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Another well known novel in this genre, dating from the late Victorian era, is Bram Stoker’s Dracula, the name Gothic refers to the -medieval buildings, emulating Gothic architecture, in which many of these stories take place. This extreme form of romanticism was very popular in England and Germany, the English Gothic novel also led to new novel types such as the German Schauerroman and the French Georgia. The novel usually regarded as the first Gothic novel is Horace Walpoles The Castle of Otranto, Horace Walpoles declared aim was to combine elements of the medieval romance, which he deemed too fanciful, and the modern novel, which he considered to be too confined to strict realism. Walpole published the first edition disguised as a romance from Italy discovered and republished by a fictitious translator. When Walpole admitted to his authorship in the edition, its originally favourable reception by literary reviewers changed into rejection. A romance with elements, and moreover void of didactical intention, was considered a setback. Walpoles forgery, together with the blend of history and fiction, contravened the principles of the Enlightenment and associated the Gothic novel with fake documentation. Clara Reeve, best known for her work The Old English Baron, set out to take Walpoles plot, the question now arose whether supernatural events that were not as evidently absurd as Walpoles would not lead the simpler minds to believe them possible. Ann Radcliffe developed the technique of the supernatural in which every seemingly supernatural intrusion is eventually traced back to natural causes. Among other elements, Ann Radcliffe introduced the figure of the Gothic villain. Radcliffes novels, above all The Mysteries of Udolpho, were best-sellers, however, along with most novels at the time, they were looked down upon by many well-educated people as sensationalist nonsense. Radcliffe also provided an aesthetic for the genre in an influential article On the Supernatural in Poetry, Romantic literary movements developed in continental Europe concurrent with the development of the Gothic novel. The roman noir appeared in France, by writers as François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil, Baculard dArnaud. In Germany, the Schauerroman gained traction with writers as Friedrich Schiller, with novels like The Ghost-Seer and these works were often more horrific and violent than the English Gothic novel. Matthew Gregory Lewiss lurid tale of debauchery, black magic
4.
Horror fiction
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Horror is a genre of fiction which is intended to, or has the capacity to frighten, scare, disgust, or startle their readers or viewers by inducing feelings of horror and terror. Literary historian J. A. Cuddon has defined the horror story as a piece of fiction in prose of variable length, which shocks or even frightens the reader, or perhaps induces a feeling of repulsion or loathing. It creates an eerie and frightening atmosphere, Horror is frequently supernatural, though it can be non-supernatural. Often the central menace of a work of fiction can be interpreted as a metaphor for the larger fears of a society. The genre of horror has ancient origins with roots in folklore and religious traditions, focusing on death, the afterlife, evil, the demonic and these were manifested in stories of beings such as witches, vampires, werewolves and ghosts. 18th century Gothic horror drew on these sources with the seminal and controversial The Castle of Otranto by Horace Walpole and this marked the first incorporated elements of the supernatural instead of pure realism. In fact, the first edition was published disguised as a medieval romance from Italy discovered and republished by a fictitious translator. Once revealed as contemporary, many found it anachronistic, reactionary, or simply in poor taste — but it proved to be immediately popular. That first novel of Gothic horror inspired such works as Vathek by William Beckford, A Sicilian Romance, The Mysteries of Udolpho and The Italian by Ann Radcliffe and The Monk by Matthew Lewis. A significant amount of fiction of this era was written by women and marketed at a female audience. The Gothic tradition blossomed into the modern readers call horror literature in the 19th century. Each of these novels and novellas created an icon of horror seen in modern re-imaginings on the stage. The proliferation of periodicals, as early as the turn of the century. One writer who specialized in fiction for mainstream pulps such as All-Story Magazine was Tod Robbins, whose fiction dealt with themes of madness. Later, specialist publications emerged to give horror writers an outlet, including Weird Tales, influential horror writers of the early 20th century made inroads in these mediums. Early cinema was inspired by aspects of horror literature, and early horror cinema started a strong tradition of horror films. This imagery made these comics controversial, and as a consequence they were frequently censored, many modern novels claim an early description of the living dead in a precursor to the modern zombie tale, including Dennis Wheatleys Strange Conflict, H. P. Lovecraft stories such as Cool Air, In The Vault, richard Mathesons novel I Am Legend would also influence an entire genre of apocalyptic zombie fiction emblematic of the films of George A. Romero
5.
Ann Radcliffe
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Ann Radcliffe was an English author and pioneer of the Gothic novel. Her style is Romantic in its descriptions of landscapes and long travel scenes. It was her technique, the supernatural as the final revelation of inexplicable phenomena. Little is known of Ann Radcliffes life, christina Rossetti attempted to write a biography of her, but abandoned it for lack of information. According to Ruth Facer, Physically, she was said to be exquisitely proportioned – quite short, complexion beautiful as was her whole countenance, especially her eyes, eyebrows, Radcliffe was born Ann Ward in Holborn, London, on 9 July 1764. Her father was William Ward, a haberdasher, who moved to Bath to manage a china shop. Radcliffe occasionally lived with her Uncle, Thomas Bentley, in Chelsea, Bentley is best known for his partnership with his fellow Unitarian, Josiah Wedgewood, maker of the famous Wedgewood china. Sukey, Wedgewood’s daughter, also stayed in Chelsea and is Radcliffe’s only known childhood companion, sukey later married Dr Robert Darwin and had a son, Charles Darwin. Although mixing in some distinguished circles, Radcliffe seems to have made little impression in society and was described by Wedgewood as “Bentley’s shy niece”. In 1787, she married the Oxford graduate and journalist William Radcliffe, part-owner and he often came home late, and to occupy her time she began to write, and read her work to him when he returned. Theirs was a childless, but seemingly happy, marriage, Radcliffe called him her nearest relative and friend. The money she earned from her novels later allowed them to travel together, along with their dog, in her final years, Radcliffe retreated from public life and was rumoured to have become insane as a result of her writing. Ann died on the 7th February 1823 and was buried in a vault in the Chapel of Ease at St George’s in Hanover Square, Bayswater, London. ”There are few artefacts or manuscripts that give insight into Radcliffes personal life, but in 2014 a rare letter from Radcliffe to her mother-in-law was found in an archive at the British Library. Its tone suggests a relationship between the two, similar to the relationship of Ellena Rosalba and the Marchesa di Vivaldi in her novel The Italian. Radcliffes fiction is marked by supernatural events that are then provided with rational explanations. Throughout her work, traditional values are asserted, the rights of women are advocated. Radcliffe published six novels and a book of poetry, Radcliffe is considered one of the founders of Gothic literature. While there were others that preceded her, Radcliffe was the one that legitimised the genre, sir Walter Scott called her the founder of a class or school
6.
Sublime (philosophy)
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In aesthetics, the sublime is the quality of greatness, whether physical, moral, intellectual, metaphysical, aesthetic, spiritual, or artistic. The term especially refers to a greatness beyond all possibility of calculation, measurement, the first known study of the sublime is ascribed to Longinus, Peri Hupsous/Hypsous or On the Sublime. This is thought to have written in the 1st century AD though its origin. For Longinus, the sublime is an adjective that describes great, elevated, or lofty thought or language, as such, the sublime inspires awe and veneration, with greater persuasive powers. Longinus treatise is notable for referring not only to Greek authors such as Homer. This treatise was rediscovered in the 16th century, and its subsequent impact on aesthetics is usually attributed to its translation into French by Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux in 1674. Later the treatise was translated into English by John Pultney in 1680, Leonard Welsted in 1712, Shaftesbury had made the journey two years prior to Dennis but did not publish his comments until 1709 in the Moralists. Joseph Addison embarked on the Grand Tour in 1699 and commented in Remarks on Several Parts of Italy etc. that The Alps fill the mind with a kind of horror. The significance of Addisons concept of the sublime is that the three pleasures of the imagination that he identified, greatness, uncommonness, and beauty, arise from visible objects, Addisons notion of greatness was integral to the concept of the sublime. An art object could be beautiful but it could not rise to greatness and his work Pleasures of the Imagination, as well as Mark Akensides Pleasures of the Imagination, and Edward Youngs poem Night Thoughts, are generally considered the starting points for Burkes analysis. Edmund Burkes concept of the sublime was developed in A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime, Burke was the first philosopher to argue that the sublime and the beautiful are mutually exclusive. The dichotomy is not as simple as Dennis opposition, but antithetical to the degree as light. Beauty may be accentuated by light, but either intense light or darkness is sublime to the degree that it can obliterate the sight of an object, the imagination is moved to awe and instilled with a degree of horror by what is dark, uncertain, and confused. While the relationship of the sublime and the beautiful is one of mutual exclusivity, the sublime may inspire horror, but one receives pleasure in knowing that the perception is a fiction. Prior to Burke, the notion of the ugly, most notably related in the writings of Augustine of Hippo, had conceived it as lacking form. Beauty was, for St. Augustine, the consequence of the benevolence and goodness of Gods creation, the ugly, lacking any attributive value, was a formlessness in its absence of beauty. For Aristotle the function of art forms was to create pleasure, aristotles detailed analysis of this problem involves his study of tragic literature and its paradoxical nature to be shocking as well as having poetic value. Burkes treatise is notable for focusing on the physiological effects of the sublime, in particular the dual emotional quality of fear
7.
Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
8.
John Milton
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John Milton was an English poet, polemicist, man of letters, and civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell. He wrote at a time of flux and political upheaval. Miltons poetry and prose reflect deep personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self-determination, Samuel Johnson praised Paradise Lost as a poem which. The phases of Miltons life parallel the major historical and political divisions in Stuart Britain, the Restoration of 1660 deprived Milton, now completely blind, of his public platform, but this period saw him complete most of his major works of poetry. Miltons views developed from his extensive reading, as well as travel and experience. By the time of his death in 1674, Milton was impoverished and on the margins of English intellectual life, yet famous throughout Europe, John Milton was born in Bread Street, London on 9 December 1608, the son of composer John Milton and his wife Sarah Jeffrey. The senior John Milton moved to London around 1583 after being disinherited by his devout Catholic father Richard Milton for embracing Protestantism, in London, the senior John Milton married Sarah Jeffrey and found lasting financial success as a scrivener. He lived in and worked from a house on Bread Street, the elder Milton was noted for his skill as a musical composer, and this talent left his son with a lifelong appreciation for music and friendships with musicians such as Henry Lawes. Miltons fathers prosperity provided his eldest son with a tutor, Thomas Young. Research suggests that Youngs influence served as the introduction to religious radicalism. After Youngs tutorship, Milton attended St Pauls School in London, there he began the study of Latin and Greek, and the classical languages left an imprint on his poetry in English. Miltons first datable compositions are two psalms done at age 15 at Long Bennington, one contemporary source is the Brief Lives of John Aubrey, an uneven compilation including first-hand reports. In the work, Aubrey quotes Christopher, Miltons younger brother, When he was young, he studied hard and sat up very late. In 1625, Milton began attending Christs College, Cambridge and he graduated with a B. A. in 1629, and ranked fourth of 24 honours graduates that year in the University of Cambridge. Preparing to become an Anglican priest, Milton stayed on to obtain his Master of Arts degree on 3 July 1632, Milton was probably rusticated for quarrelling in his first year with his tutor, Bishop William Chappell. He was certainly at home in the Lent Term 1626, there he wrote his Elegia Prima, a first Latin elegy, to Charles Diodati, based on remarks of John Aubrey, Chappell whipt Milton. This story is now disputed, though certainly Milton disliked Chappell, historian Christopher Hill cautiously notes that Milton was apparently rusticated, and that the differences between Chappell and Milton may have been either religious or personal. It is also possible that, like Isaac Newton four decades later, Milton was sent home because of the plague, in 1626, Miltons tutor was Nathaniel Tovey
9.
Edmund Burke
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Burke criticized British treatment of the American colonies, including through its taxation policies. Burke is remembered for his support for Catholic emancipation, the impeachment of Warren Hastings from the East India Company, in the nineteenth century Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals. Subsequently, in the century, he became widely regarded as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism. Burke was born in Dublin, Ireland, Burke adhered to his fathers faith and remained a practising Anglican throughout his life, unlike his sister Juliana who was brought up as and remained a Roman Catholic. Although never denying his Irishness, Burke often described himself as an Englishman, according to the historian J. C. D. Clark, this was in an age before Celtic nationalism sought to make Irishness and Englishness incompatible. As a child he spent time away from the unhealthy air of Dublin with his mothers family in the Blackwater Valley in County Cork. He received his education at a Quaker school in Ballitore, County Kildare, some 67 kilometres from Dublin. He remained in correspondence with his schoolmate from there, Mary Leadbeater, in 1744, Burke started at Trinity College Dublin, a Protestant establishment, which up until 1793, did not permit Catholics to take degrees. The minutes of the meetings of Burkes Club remain in the collection of the Historical Society, Burke graduated from Trinity in 1748. Burkes father wanted him to read Law, and with this in mind he went to London in 1750, after eschewing the Law, he pursued a livelihood through writing. The late Lord Bolingbrokes Letters on the Study and Use of History was published in 1752 and this provoked Burke into writing his first published work, A Vindication of Natural Society, A View of the Miseries and Evils Arising to Mankind, appearing in Spring 1756. Burke imitated Bolingbrokes style and ideas in a reductio ad absurdum of his arguments for atheistic rationalism, Burke claimed that Bolingbrokes arguments against revealed religion could apply to all social and civil institutions as well. Lord Chesterfield and Bishop Warburton initially thought that the work was genuinely by Bolingbroke rather than a satire, all the reviews of the work were positive, with critics especially appreciative of Burkes quality of writing. Some reviewers failed to notice the ironic nature of the book, a minority of scholars have taken the position that, in fact, Burke did write the Vindication in earnest, later disowning it only for political reasons. It was his only purely philosophical work, and when asked by Sir Joshua Reynolds and French Laurence to expand it thirty years later and it was to be submitted for publication by Christmas 1758. G. M. Young did not value Burkes history and claimed that it was demonstrably a translation from the French. Lord Acton, on commenting on the story that Burke stopped his history because David Hume published his, Burke remained the chief editor of the publication until at least 1789 and there is no evidence that any other writer contributed to it before 1766. On 12 March 1757, Burke married Jane Mary Nugent, daughter of Dr Christopher Nugent and their son Richard was born on 9 February 1758, an elder son, Christopher, died in infancy
10.
Horror film
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Horror film is a film genre that seeks to elicit a negative emotional reaction from viewers by playing on their fears. Inspired by literature from authors like Edgar Allan Poe, Bram Stoker, the macabre and the supernatural are frequent themes. Horror may also overlap with the fantasy, supernatural fiction and thriller genres, Horror films often deal with viewers nightmares, fears, revulsions and terror of the unknown. Plots within the genre often involve the intrusion of an evil force, event. Another of his projects was 1898s La Caverne maudite. Japan made early forays into the genre with Bake Jizo and Shinin no Sosei. The era featured a slew of literary adaptations, with the works of Poe and Dante, in 1908, Selig Polyscope Company produced Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. In 1910, Edison Studios produced the first filmed version of Frankenstein, the macabre nature of the source materials used made the films synonymous with the horror film genre. Before and during the Weimar Republic era, German Expressionist filmmakers would significantly influence later productions, the first vampire-themed movie, Nosferatu, was made during this period, though it was an unauthorized adaptation of Bram Stokers Dracula. Other European countries also, contributed to the genre during this period, though the word horror to describe the film genre would not be used until the 1930s, earlier American productions often relied on horror themes. Some notable examples include The Hunchback of Notre Dame, The Phantom of the Opera, The Cat and the Canary, The Unknown, and The Man Who Laughs. Many of these films were considered dark melodramas because of their stock characters and emotion-heavy plots that focused on romance, violence, suspense. The trend of inserting an element of macabre into American pre-horror melodramas continued into the 1920s, directors known for relying on macabre in their films during the 1920s were Maurice Tourneur, Rex Ingram, and Tod Browning. Ingrams The Magician contains one of the first examples of a mad doctor and is said to have had a influence on James Whales version of Frankenstein. The Unholy Three is an example of Brownings use of macabre and unique style of morbidity, he remade the film in 1930 as a talkie, during the early period of talking pictures, Universal Pictures began a successful Gothic horror film series. Tod Brownings Dracula was quickly followed by James Whales Frankenstein and The Old Dark House, some of these films blended science fiction with Gothic horror, such as Whales The Invisible Man and featured a mad scientist, mirroring earlier German films. Frankenstein was the first in a series of remakes which lasted for years, the Mummy introduced Egyptology as a theme, Make-up artist Jack Pierce was responsible for the iconic image of the monster, and others in the series. Universals horror cycle continued into the 1940s with B-movies including The Wolf Man, the once controversial Freaks, based on the short story Spurs, was made by MGM, though the studio disowned the completed film, and it remained banned, in the UK, for thirty years
11.
Danse Macabre (book)
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Danse Macabre is a 1981 non-fiction book by Stephen King, about horror fiction in print, radio, film and comics, and the influence of contemporary societal fears and anxieties on the genre. It was republished on February 23,2010 with a new essay entitled Whats Scary. Danse Macabre examines the influences on Kings own writing. Danse Macabre explores the history of the genre as far back as the Victorian era, King peppers his book with informal academic insight, discussing archetypes, important authors, common narrative devices, the psychology of terror, and his key theory of Dionysian horror. Stephen Kings novel The Stand was translated to Spanish language as La Danza de la Muerte, similarly, his 1978 collection of short stories Night Shift was released in France as Danse Macabre in 1980. To avoid confusion, the actual Danse Macabre essay was given the title Anatomie de lHorreur when it was released in France 14 years later, in 1995. In the introduction, King credits Bill Thompson, the editor of his first five published novels, Bill called me and said, Why dont you do a book about the entire horror phenomenon as you see it. Books, movies, radio, TV, the whole thing, well do it together, if you want. The concept intrigued and frightened me at the same time, Thompson ultimately convinced King that if he wrote such a genre survey, he would no longer have to answer tedious, repetitive interview questions on the topic. Danse Macabre was originally published in hardcover by Everest House on April 20,1981, along with the trade hardcover, Everest House also published a limited edition of the book, signed by Stephen King, limited to 250 numbered copies and 15 lettered copies. The limited edition did not have a dust jacket, and instead was housed in a slipcase, later, Berkley Books published a mass market paperback edition of the book on December 1,1983. A new introduction was added to edition, entitled Forenote to the Paperback Edition. Among other things, King discusses the fact that he asked Dennis Etchison to comb the errors in the original edition, in the books original Forenote, readers were also asked to send in any errors to be corrected, and those were incorporated as well. The backbone of the text is Kings college teaching notes from several college courses he taught in the 1970s, however, Danse Macabre has a casual, non-linear writing style and expresses a desire to avoid academic bullshit. King uses this legend to illustrate his contention that horror in general offers no characterization, no theme, no particular artifice, in the following chapter, he creates a template for descriptions of his macabre subject. Entitled “Tales of the Tarot, the chapter has nothing to do with the tarot card deck. In light of the sexually repressed Victorian Era publication of Dracula, King does not mistake Mr. Hyde for a traditional werewolf, but rather sees the character as the origin of the modern archetype that was later defined by werewolves. The evil-werewolf archetype, argues King, stems from the base, the chapter An Annoying Autobiographical Pause begins with Kings explanation for why he included the section, I cannot divorce myself from a field in which I am mortally involved
12.
Stephen King
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Stephen Edwin King is an American author of horror, supernatural fiction, suspense, science fiction, and fantasy. His books have more than 350 million copies, many of which have been adapted into feature films, miniseries, television shows. King has published 54 novels, including seven under the pen name Richard Bachman and he has written nearly 200 short stories, most of which have been collected in book collections. Many of his stories are set in his state of Maine. His novella Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption was the basis for the movie The Shawshank Redemption which is regarded as one of the greatest films of all time. King has received Bram Stoker Awards, World Fantasy Awards, and his novella The Way Station was a Nebula Award novelette nominee. In 2003, the National Book Foundation awarded him the Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters and his short story The Man in the Black Suit received the O. Henry Award. In 2015, King was awarded with a National Medal of Arts from the United States National Endowment for the Arts for his contributions to literature, King was born September 21,1947, in Portland, Maine. His father, Donald Edwin King, was born circa 1913 in Peru, Indiana, when Donald was born, his surname was Pollock, but as an adult, he used the surname King. Kings mother, Nellie Ruth, was born in Scarborough, Maine, Donald and Nellie were married July 23,1939, in Cumberland County, Maine. The family moved to De Pere, Wisconsin, Fort Wayne, Indiana, when King was 11, the family returned to Durham, Maine, where his mother cared for her parents until their deaths. She then became a caregiver in a residential facility for the mentally challenged. King was raised Methodist and remains religious as an adult, as a child, King apparently witnessed one of his friends being struck and killed by a train, though he has no memory of the event. His family told him that leaving home to play with the boy, King returned, speechless. Only later did the family learn of the friends death, some commentators have suggested that this event may have psychologically inspired some of Kings darker works, but King makes no mention of it in his memoir On Writing. King related in detail his primary inspiration for writing fiction in his non-fiction Danse Macabre. King compares his uncles successfully dowsing for water using the bough of a branch with the sudden realization of what he wanted to do for a living. King told Barnes & Noble Studios during a 2009 interview, I knew that Id found home when I read that book, King attended Durham Elementary School and graduated from Lisbon Falls High School, in Lisbon Falls, Maine
13.
Fantastic art
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Fantastic art is a broad and loosely defined art genre. It is not restricted to a school of artists, geographical location or historical period. Fantasy has been a part of art since its beginnings. In French, the genre is called le fantastique, in English it is referred to as visionary art. It has had a deep and circular interaction with fantasy literature, the subject matter of Fantastic Art may resemble the product of hallucinations, and Fantastic artist Richard Dadd spent much of his life in mental institutions. Salvador Dalí famously said, the difference between me and a madman is that I am not mad. Some recent Fantastic Art draws on the experience, or purported experience. The term Fantasy Art is closely related, and is applied primarily to recent art inspired by, or illustrating, the term has acquired some pejorative overtones. Fantastic art has traditionally been confined to painting and illustration. Fantastic art explores fantasy, imagination, the state, the grotesque, visions. Genres which may also be considered as Fantastic Art include the Symbolism of the Victorian era, religious art also depicts supernatural or miraculous subjects in a naturalistic way, but is not generally regarded as Fantastic Art. Many artists have produced works which fit the definition of fantastic art, others again such as René Magritte are usually classed as Surrealists but use fantastic elements in their work. It is therefore impossible to give an exhaustive list of fantastic artists and this led to a movement of science fiction and fantasy artists prior to and during the Great Depression, as anthologised by Vincent Di Fate, himself a prolific SF and space artist. In the United States in the 1930s, a group of Wisconsin artists inspired by the Surrealist movement of Europe created their own brand of fantastic art. They included Madison, Wisconsin-based artists Marshall Glasier, Dudley Huppler and John Wilde, Karl Priebe of Milwaukee and their art combined macabre humor, mystery and irony which was in direct and pointed contradiction to the American Regionalism then in vogue. Major imagists include Roger Brown, Gladys Nilsson, Jim Nutt, Ed Paschke, non-European art may contain fantastic elements, although it is not necessarily easy to separate them from religious elements involving supernatural beings and miraculous events. Sculptor Bunleua Sulilat is a notable contemporary Asian Fantastic artist, dream art Outsider art Society for the Art of Imagination Surrealism Vienna School of Fantastic Realism Gruyères Castle Coleman, A. D. Fantastic illustration and design in Britain, 1850-1930, day, Holliday T. & Sturges, Hollister
14.
Fear
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Fear in human beings may occur in response to a specific stimulus occurring in the present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to body or life. The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat, in humans and animals, fear is modulated by the process of cognition and learning. Thus fear is judged as rational or appropriate and irrational or inappropriate, an irrational fear is called a phobia. Watson, Robert Plutchik, and Paul Ekman have suggested there is only a small set of basic or innate emotions. This hypothesized set includes such emotions as acute stress reaction, anger, angst, anxiety, fright, horror, joy, panic, and sadness. Fear is closely related to, but should be distinguished from, the emotion anxiety, the fear response serves survival by generating appropriate behavioral responses, so it has been preserved throughout evolution. Many physiological changes in the body are associated with fear, summarized as the fight-or-flight response and this primitive mechanism may help an organism survive by either running away or fighting the danger. With the series of changes, the consciousness realizes an emotion of fear. People develop specific fears as a result of learning and this has been studied in psychology as fear conditioning, beginning with John B. Watsons Little Albert experiment in 1920, which was inspired after observing a child with a fear of dogs. In this study, an 11-month-old boy was conditioned to fear a white rat in the laboratory, the fear became generalized to include other white, furry objects, such as a rabbit, dog, and even a ball of cotton. Fear can be learned by experiencing or watching a frightening traumatic accident, for example, if a child falls into a well and struggles to get out, he or she may develop a fear of wells, heights, enclosed spaces, or water. There are studies looking at areas of the brain that are affected in relation to fear, when looking at these areas, it was proposed that a person learns to fear regardless of whether they themselves have experienced trauma, or if they have observed the fear in others. In a study completed by Andreas Olsson, Katherine I and this suggests that fear can develop in both conditions, not just simply from personal history. Fear is affected by cultural and historical context, for example, in the early 20th century, many Americans feared polio, a disease that can lead to paralysis. There are consistent cross-cultural differences in how people respond to fear, display rules affect how likely people are to show the facial expression of fear and other emotions. Although many fears are learned, the capacity to fear is part of human nature, many studies have found that certain fears are much more common than others. These fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory and this phenomenon is known as preparedness
15.
Monster literature
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Monster literature is a genre of literature that combines good and evil and intends to evoke a sensation of horror and terror in its readers by presenting the evil side in the form of a monster. The themes and concepts of Monster Literature are rooted in 18th century Gothic literature, the earliest examples of Gothic literature can be traced all the way back to English author Horace Walpoles novel The Castle of Otranto. However, monster literature first emerged in the 19th century with the release of Mary Shelleys Frankenstein, Gothic literature includes elements of horror and terror as well as a victim who is helpless against his enemy or victimizer. This victimizer usually possesses some form of power or advantage over the victim. In Monster literature, the victimizer is portrayed in the form of a monster that torments the protagonists, in addition, Gothic inspired Monster literature evokes extreme emotions of sorrow, desolation, and isolation. Shortly after, Frankenstein regrets his creation and deserts it, the monster, endowed with superhuman strength and speed, torments Victor and his closest friends and family. The monster incites fear in Dr. Frankenstein as well as in the minds of villagers in the surrounding towns, soon Utterson finds that one of his clients, Dr. Jekyll, has written his will, giving all of his property to this strange man. It is revealed that Jekyll and Hyde are in one and the same. Hyde torments the town, while Jekyll apologizes and humbles his friends for Hydes sake, stevensons novel invites hatred towards Hyde and shock upon the discovery of Jekylls dual personality. In Bram Stokers Dracula, Jonathan Harker travels to Count Draculas castle, Dracula inquires about buying a house in England, but soon Jonathan finds himself Draculas prisoner. Harker escapes, but Dracula, recognized as a vampire, soon ventures away from his castle, Dracula is endowed with the power to turn into a bat, command wolves, and have incredible strength among other traits. However, Dracula and other vampires in the novel are weakened during the day and are repulsed by garlic, Dracula bites one of Johnathans closest friends, Lucy Westenra, so Dr. Van Helsing calls upon various strong men to donate their blood to help cure her illness. Lucy dies from the sickness, but returns one night and begins tormenting people in the town, soon, the doctors realize they must kill Lucy by driving a stake into her heart and cut off her head, for she has turned into a vampire. The vampires actions mystify and torment the humans throughout the novel, causing grief, in Richard Mathesons I Am Legend, Robert Neville is the last human alive on Earth. These infected beings, like vampires, only appear at night, Neville frequently reminisces about his most gut wrenching experiences, such as killing his own dog after she became infected. The reader is constantly sympathizing with Neville, as he is portrayed as helpless and isolated, the reader feels an overwhelming sensation of hopelessness, sadness, and sympathy for Neville. Modern Monster literature written after World War II differs from earlier works in that modern pieces take on more technical explanations for supernatural occurrences, for example, in I Am Legend, Robert Neville notes to himself that Dracula was a hodgepodge of superstitions and soap-opera clichés. He disowns prior beliefs about vampires including that they can transform into bats and these preconceived notions along with others regarding characteristics of vampires, have no scientifically proven data and therefore serve no credence in Nevilles mind
16.
Nightmare
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A nightmare, also called a bad dream, is an unpleasant dream that can cause a strong emotional response from the mind, typically fear but also despair, anxiety and great sadness. The dream may contain situations of discomfort, psychological or physical terror or panic, sufferers often awaken in a state of distress and may be unable to return to sleep for a small period. Nightmares can have physical causes such as sleeping in an uncomfortable or awkward position, having a fever, or psychological causes such as stress, anxiety, and as a side effect of various drugs. Eating before going to sleep, which triggers an increase in the bodys metabolism, recurrent nightmares may require medical help, as they can interfere with sleeping patterns and cause insomnia. The word nightmare is derived from the Old English mare, a demon or goblin who torments others with frightening dreams. Subsequently, the prefix night- was added to stress the dream aspect, the word nightmare is cognate with the older Dutch term nachtmerrie and German Nachtmahr. Fearfulness in waking life is correlated with the incidence of nightmares, studies of dreams have estimated that about 75% of the time, the emotions evoked by dreams are negative. However, it is worth noting that people are likely to remember unpleasant dreams. One definition of nightmare is a dream which causes one to wake up in the middle of the cycle and experience a negative emotion. This type of event occurs on average once per month and they are not common in children under five, but they are more common in young children, most common in teenagers, and common in adults. Scientific research shows that nightmares may have many causes, in a study focusing on children, researchers were able to conclude that nightmares directly correlate with the stress in the childrens lives. Another study researching the causes of nightmares focuses on suffering from sleep apnea. The study was conducted to prove whether or not nightmares may be caused by sleep apnea, the hypothesis, however, was proven wrong and the results actually showed that healthy people have more nightmares than the sleep apnea patients. A study involving a group of undergraduate students analyzes the effects of nightmares on the quality of sleep. This means that, like insomniacs, people who suffer from nightmares do not get as much rest as those who do not suffer from chronic nightmares, therefore, they experience a lesser quality of sleep than others. This is thought to be from frequent nocturnal awakenings and fear of falling or going back to sleep, freud and Jung seemed to have shared a belief that people frequently distressed by nightmares could be re-experiencing some stressful event from the past. Both perspectives on dreams suggest that therapy can provide relief from the dilemma of the nightmare experience, halliday, grouped treatment techniques into four classes. Reoccurring post-traumatic stress disorder nightmares in which real traumas are re-experienced respond well to a technique called imagery rehearsal, Research has found that this technique not only reduces the occurrence of nightmares and insomnia, but also improves other daytime PTSD symptoms
17.
Emotion
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Emotion, generally speaking, is any relatively brief conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a high degree of pleasure or displeasure. Scientific discourse has drifted to other meanings and there is no consensus on a definition, Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation. In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion and those acting primarily on the emotions they are feeling may seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. For example, the realization of our believing that we are in a dangerous situation, other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition. According to some theories, they are states of feeling that result in physical and psychological changes that influence our behavior, the physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system with various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions. Emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency, extroverted people are more likely to be social and express their emotions, while introverted people are more likely to be more socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions. Emotion is often the force behind motivation, positive or negative. Nor is the emotion an entity that causes these components, Emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior. More recently, emotion is said to consist of all the components, the different components of emotion are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline. In psychology and philosophy, emotion typically includes a subjective, conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, a similar multicomponential description of emotion is found in sociology. For example, Peggy Thoits described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels, expressive body actions, the numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of emotions have only fostered more intense research on this topic. Current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development of materials that stimulate, in addition PET scans and fMRI scans help study the affective processes in the brain. Emotions can be defined as a positive or negative experience that is associated with a pattern of physiological activity. Emotions produce different physiological, behavioral and cognitive changes, the original role of emotions was to motivate adaptive behaviors that in the past would have contributed to the survival of humans. Emotions are responses to significant internal and external events, the word emotion dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means to stir up. The term emotion was introduced into academic discussion to replace passion, according to one dictionary, the earliest precursors of the word likely dates back to the very origins of language. The modern word emotion is heterogeneous In some uses of the word, on the other hand, emotion can be used to refer to states that are mild and to states that are not directed at anything. One line of research looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language
18.
Contrasting and categorization of emotions
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The contrasting and categorization of emotions describes how emotions are thought to relate to each other. Various recent proposals of such groupings are described in the following sections, the following table, based on a wide review of current theories, identifies and contrasts the fundamental emotions according to a set of definite criteria. The combination of these attributes distinguish the emotions from sensations, feelings, the emotion annotation and representation language proposed by the Human-Machine Interaction Network on Emotion classifies 48 emotions. A tree-structured list of emotions was described in Shaver et al. in 1980, Robert Plutchik constructed a wheel-like diagram of emotions visualising eight basic emotions, Joy, Trust, Fear, Surprise, Sadness, Disgust, Anger and Anticipation. The wheel combines the ideas of circles representing emotions and a color wheel, similar emotions in the wheel are adjacent. The wheel was inspired by Plutchiks Ten Postulates, a list of theorems which include some of the emotions listed below, the wheel is one of the most influential emotional theories today, although it has been frequently criticised for its lack of a longer list of emotions. Plutchik also theorized twenty-four Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary dyads, due to the nature of the wheel, the emotions are arranged in pairs according to behavioural and evolutionary mechanisms. Weaker emotions lay among the circles and stronger emotions bloom in the middle. It contrasted Anger, Anticipation, Joy, and Trust as positive emotions, and Fear, Surprise, Sadness and Disgust as negative
19.
Adoration
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Adoration is respect, reverence, strong admiration or devotion in a certain person, place, or thing. The term comes from the Latin adōrātiō, meaning to give homage or worship to someone or something, the devotee had his head covered, and after the act turned himself round from left to right. Sometimes he kissed the feet or knees of the images of the gods themselves, by a natural transition the homage, at first paid to divine beings alone, came to be paid to monarchs. In Eastern countries, adoration has been performed in a still more lowly. The Persian method, introduced by Cyrus the Great, was to kiss the knee and fall on the face at the feet, striking the earth with the forehead. This striking of the earth with the forehead, usually a number of times, was a form of adoration sometimes paid to Eastern potentates. The Jews kissed in homage, as did other groups mentioned in the Old Testament. Thus in 1 Kings 19,18, God is made to say, Yet I have left me seven thousand in Israel, all the knees which have not bowed unto Baal, and every mouth which hath not kissed him. And in Psalms 2,12, Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, in Western Europe, the ceremony of kissing the sovereigns hand, and some other acts which are performed while kneeling, may be described as forms of adoration. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that Adoration is the acknowledgement of God as God, creator and savior, Adoration is homage of the spirit to the King of glory, respectful silence in the presence of the ever greater God. Adoration is prompted by the Holy Spirit, in the strict sense, adoration is an act of religion offered to God in acknowledgment of His supreme perfection and dominion, and of the creatures dependence upon Him. The rational creature, looking up to God, whom reason and revelation show to be perfect, cannot in right. In Luke 4, 7-8, Jesus tells the tempter, Scripture has it, You shall do homage to the Lord your God, Him alone shall you adore. The worship called forth by God, and given exclusively to Him as God, is designated by the Greek name latreia, which is usually translated Adoration. The primary and fundamental element in adoration is an act of mind and will, the mind perceiving that Gods perfection is infinite. Adoration is a submission of self to God expressed interiorly as well as exteriorly by ones actions. It is an act of mind and will where the mind humbly admits that Gods perfection is infinite. An acknowledge of Gods right as God to be Lord of ones life, thomas Aquinas says, Adoration is primarily an interior reverence for God expressing itself secondarily in bodily signs of humility, bending our knee and prostrating ourselves
20.
Affection
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Affection, attraction, infatuation, or fondness is a disposition or state of mind or body that is often associated with a feeling or type of love. It has given rise to a number of branches of philosophy and psychology concerning emotion, disease, influence, Affection is popularly used to denote a feeling or type of love, amounting to more than goodwill or friendship. Writers on ethics generally use the word to refer to states of feeling. Some contrast it with passion as being free from the sensual element. Even a very simple demonstration of affection can have a variety of emotional reactions, from embarrassment to disgust to pleasure. It also has a different physical effect on the giver and the receiver, more specifically, the word has been restricted to emotional states, the object of which is a living thing such as a human or animal. Affection is compared with passion, from the Greek pathos, as such it appears in the writings of French philosopher René Descartes, Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza, and most of the writings of early British ethicists. However, on grounds, it is generally and usefully distinguished from passion. In this narrower sense the word has played a part in ethical systems. For a consideration of these and similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in which the affections are regarded as voluntary, see H. Sidgwick, Affection can be communicated by words, gestures, or touches. Affectionate behavior may have evolved from parental nurturing behavior due to its associations with hormonal rewards, such affection has been shown to influence brain development in infants. Expressions of affection can be if they pose implied threats to ones well being. If welcomed, affectionate behavior may be associated with health benefits. It has been proposed that positive sentiment increases the propensity of people to interact, Affection can be displayed in different manners in different cultural societies. Some individuals such as alexithymics may have difficulty or even an inability to feel or express affection, spinifex Press, ISBN 187675608X,9781876756086 Elizabeth Sibthorpe Pinchard.2012. Family Affection, A Tale for Youth, publisher- Hardpress Publishing,2012 ISBN1290006709,9781290006705 Joshua Hordern. Political Affections, Civic Participation and Moral Theology, communicating Affection, Interpersonal Behavior and Social Context. Dominance & affection, The making of pets, ISBN0300032226 International Journal of Infant Observation and Its Applications
21.
Amusement
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Current studies have not yet reached consensus on the exact purpose of amusement, though theories have been advanced in the fields of psychology, psychiatry and sociology. In addition, the mechanism that causes a given element to be perceived as more or less amusing than another. Questionable Amusements and Worthy Substitutes by J. M. Judy Brockton Art Center, american Pastimes, Brockton Art Center, Fuller Memorial, Brockton, Massachusetts, Jan. Curator catalogue, research assistant, Richard Campbell, Brockton Art Center, Fuller Memorial, Bedford, Mass. Printed by W. E. Andrews Co.1976
22.
Anger
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Anger or wrath is an intense emotional response. It is an emotion that involves a strong uncomfortable and emotional response to a perceived provocation, Anger can occur when a person feels their personal boundaries are being or going to be violated. Some have a tendency to react to anger through retaliation as a way of coping. William DeFoore, an anger-management writer, described anger as a pressure cooker, Anger is an emotional reaction that impacts the body. A person experiencing anger will also experience physical conditions, such as increased rate, elevated blood pressure. Some view anger as an emotion which triggers part of the fight or flight brain response, Anger is used as a protective mechanism to cover up fear, hurt or sadness. The English term originally comes from the anger of Old Norse language. Anger can have physical and mental consequences. The external expression of anger can be found in facial expressions, body language, physiological responses, animals, for example, make loud sounds, attempt to look physically larger, bare their teeth, and stare. The behaviors associated with anger are designed to warn aggressors to stop their threatening behavior, rarely does a physical altercation occur without the prior expression of anger by at least one of the participants. Modern psychologists view anger as a primary, natural, and mature emotion experienced by all humans at times. Anger is seen as a mechanism to show a person that something is wrong. Anger can mobilize psychological resources for corrective action, uncontrolled anger can, however, negatively affect personal or social well-being and impact negatively on those around them. It is equally challenging to be around a person and the impact can also cause psychological/emotional trauma if not dealt with. While many philosophers and writers have warned against the spontaneous and uncontrolled fits of anger, displays of anger can be used as a manipulation strategy for social influence. Three types of anger are recognized by psychologists, Hasty and sudden anger is connected to the impulse for self-preservation and it is shared by human and other animals, and it occurs when the animal is tormented or trapped. This form of anger is episodic, settled and deliberate anger is a reaction to perceived deliberate harm or unfair treatment by others. This form of anger is episodic, dispositional anger is related more to character traits than to instincts or cognitions
23.
Anguish
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Anguish is a term used in philosophy, often as a translation from the Latin for angst. It is a paramount feature of existentialist philosophy, in which anguish is often understood as the experience of an utterly free being in a world with zero absolutes, kierkegaard views anguish as the same as suffering. Everyone wants to find the truth but it takes anguish and suffering to appropriate the truth, kierkegaard put it this way in 1847 and 1850. In the teachings of Sartre, anguish is seen when an utterly captured being realizes the unpredictability of his or her action, for example, when walking along a cliff, you would feel anguish to know that you have the freedom to throw yourself down to your imminent death. The dictionary definition of anguish at Wiktionary
24.
Annoyance
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Annoyance is an unpleasant mental state that is characterized by such effects as irritation and distraction from ones conscious thinking. It can lead to such as frustration and anger. The property of being easily annoyed is called irritability, various reasons exist for why one finds particular stimuli annoying. Measurement of annoyance is highly subjective, as an attempt at measurement, psychological studies on annoyance often rely on their subjects own ratings of levels of annoyance on a scale. Any kind of stimuli can cause annoyance, such as getting poked in the side or listening to a song repeatedly, many stimuli that one is at first neutral to, or even finds pleasant, can turn into annoyances from repeated continued exposure. It also found one was more likely to blame the party who was causing the annoyance in the study, rather than ones self. Psychological warfare can involve creating annoyances to distract and wear down the resistance of the target, agitation Distraction Frustration Pet peeve Social alienation This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Annoy
25.
Arousal
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Arousal is the physiological and psychological state of being awoken or of sense organs stimulated to a point of perception. The arousal system involves many different neural systems, when these systems are in action, the receiving neural areas become sensitive and responsive to incoming signals, producing alertness and cortical activity. Arousal is important in regulating consciousness, attention, alertness, and it is a crucial for motivating certain behaviours, such as mobility, the pursuit of nutrition, the fight-or-flight response and sexual activity. It is also important in emotion and has included in theories such as the James-Lange theory of emotion. According to Hans Eysenck, differences in baseline arousal level lead people to be extraverts or introverts, the Yerkes-Dodson law states that an optimal level of arousal for performance exists, and too little or too much arousal can adversely affect task performance. One interpretation of the Yerkes-Dodson Law is the Easterbrook cue-utilisation hypothesis, Easterbrook states that an increase of arousal decreases the number of cues that can be used. The arousal system involves many different neural systems, when stimulated, these systems produce cortical activity and alertness. The noradrenergic system is a bundle of axons that originate in the locus coeruleus and ascends up into the neocortex, limbic system, most of the neurons are projected to the posterior cortex which is important with sensory information, and alertness. The activation of the locus coeruleus and release of norepinephrine causes wakefulness, the neurons that project into the basal forebrain impact cholinergic neurons that results in a flood of acetylcholine into the cerebral cortex. The acetylcholinergic system has its neurons located in the pons and in the basal forebrain, stimulation of these neurons result in cortical activity, shown from EEG records, and alertness. All of the other four neurotransmitters play a role in activating the acetylcholine neurons, another arousal system, the dopaminergic system, releases dopamine produced by the substantia nigra. The neurons arise in the ventral tegmental area in the midbrain, and projects to the nucleus accumbens, the forebrain, limbic system. The limbic system is important for control of mood, and the nucleus accumbens signal excitement, the path terminating in the prefrontal cortex is important in regulating motor movements, especially reward oriented movements. The serotonergic system has almost all of its serotonergic neurons originating in the raphe nuclei and this system projects to the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex. Stimulation of these axons and release of serotonin causes cortical arousal and impacts locomotion, the neurons of the histamergenic system are in the tuberomammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus. These neurons send pathways to the cortex, thalamus, and the basal forebrain. All of these systems are linked and show similar redundancy, the pathways described are ascending pathways, but there also arousal pathways that descend. One example is the preoptic area, which release GABA reuptake inhibitors
26.
Interpersonal attraction
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Interpersonal attraction is the attraction between people which leads to friendships and to platonic or romantic relationships. Interpersonal attraction, the process, is distinct from perceptions of physical attractiveness, the study of interpersonal attraction is a major area of research in social psychology. Interpersonal attraction is related to how much one likes, dislikes or hates someone and it can be viewed as a force acting between two people that tends to draw them together and resist their separation. When measuring interpersonal attraction, one must refer to the qualities of the attracted as well as the qualities of the attractor to achieve predictive accuracy and it is suggested that to determine attraction, both the personalities and the situation must be taken into account. Repulsion is also a factor in the process of interpersonal attraction, Interpersonal attraction is most frequently measured using the Interpersonal Attraction Judgment Scale developed by Donn Byrne. It is a scale in which a subject rates another person on such as intelligence, knowledge of current events, morality, adjustment. The second factor included variables such as voting for, admiration and respect for, another widely used measurement technique scales verbal responses expressed as subjective ratings or judgments of the person of interest. Many factors leading to interpersonal attraction have been studied, all of which involve social reinforcement, the most frequently studied are physical attractiveness, propinquity, familiarity, similarity, complementarity, reciprocal liking, and reinforcement. This effect is similar to the mere exposure effect in that the more a person is exposed to a stimulus. Familiarity can also occur without physical exposure, recent studies show that relationships formed over the Internet resemble those developed face-to-face, in terms of quality and depth. As mentioned above, the exposure effect, also known as the familiarity principle, states that the more we are exposed to something. This applies equally to both objects and people, a clear illustration of this principle can be seen in a study by Moreland and Beach. The researchers had four women of similar appearance attend a college course over the course of a semester such that each woman attended a different number of sessions. Students then rated the women for perceived familiarity, attractiveness, results indicated a strong effect of exposure on attraction that was mediated by the effect of exposure on familiarity. However, exposure does not always increase attraction, the notion of birds of a feather flock together points out that similarity is a crucial determinant of interpersonal attraction. Studies about attraction indicate that people are attracted to lookalikes in physical and social appearance. This similarity is in the broadest sense, similarity in bone-structure, characteristics, life goals, the more these points match, the happier people are in a relationship. The lookalike effect plays the role of self-affirmation, a basic principle of interpersonal attraction is the rule of similarity, similarity is attractive — an underlying principle that applies to both friendships and romantic relationships
27.
Awe
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Awe is an emotion comparable to wonder but less joyous. On Robert Plutchiks wheel of emotions awe is modeled as a combination of surprise, the observers were in awe of the destructive power of the new weapon. In general, awe is directed at objects considered to be powerful than the subject, such as the Great Pyramid of Giza. Awe is difficult to define, and the meaning of the word has changed over time, related concepts are wonder, admiration, elevation, and the sublime. In Awe, The Delights and Dangers of Our Eleventh Emotion, neuropsychologist and he defines awe as an overwhelming and bewildering sense of connection with a startling universe that is usually far beyond the narrow band of our consciousness. Pearsall sees awe as the 11th emotion, beyond those now scientifically accepted. ”Most definitions allow for awe to be a positive or a negative experience, but when asked to describe events that elicit awe, most people only cite positive experiences. The term awe stems from the Old English word ege, meaning “terror, dread, awe, ” which may have arisen from the Greek word áchos, meaning “pain. ”The word awesome originated from the word awe in the late 16th century, to mean “filled with awe. ”The word awful also originated from the word awe, to replace the word Old English word egeful. Awe reinforces social hierarchies Keltner and Haidt proposed an explanation for awe. This primordial awe would have occurred when the high-status person had characteristics of vastness that required the low-status individual to engage in Piagetian accommodation. Keltner and Haidt propose that this primordial awe later generalized to any stimulus that is both vast and that requires accommodation, Awe is a sexually-selected characteristic Keltner and Haidt’s model has been critiqued by some researchers, including by psychologist Vladimir J. Konečni. Konečni argued that people can only experience awe, especially aesthetic awe when they are not in physical danger. However, this hypothesis has yet to be tested and verified, Awe increases systematic processing A third evolutionary theory is that awe serves to draw attention away from the self and toward the environment. This occurs as a way to build informational resources when in the presence of novel, in other words, awe functions to increase systematic, accommodative processing, and this would have been adaptive for survival. This hypothesis is the most recent and has received the most empirical support, sundararajan expanded upon Keltner and Haidt’s model by arguing that first, an individual must be confronted with perceived vastness. If an individual can assimilate this perceived vastness into her or his existing mental categories, if an individual cannot assimilate the perceived vastness, then s/he will need to accommodate to the new information. If this is not accomplished, an individual will experience trauma, if an individual can accommodate, s/he will experience awe and wonder. By this model, the same vast experience could lead to increased rigidity, increased flexibility, sundararajan did not speculate on the evolutionary origins of awe. Despite the meaningfulness that feelings of awe can bring, it has rarely been scientifically studied, research on awe is in its infancy and has primarily focused on describing awe and the social consequences of awe
28.
Boredom
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It is also understood by scholars as a modern phenomenon which has a cultural dimension. There is no accepted definition of boredom. But whatever it is, researchers argue, it is not simply another name for depression or apathy, in both conceptions, boredom has to do fundamentally with an experience of time and problems of meaning. The expression boredom means state of being bored,1852, from bore + -dom and it also has been employed in a sense bores as a class and practice of being a bore. The word bore as a noun meaning a thing which causes ennui or annoyance is attested to since 1778, the noun bore comes from the verb bore, which had the meaning be tiresome or dull first attested 1768, a vogue word c. 1780-81 according to Grose, possibly an extension of to move forward slowly and persistently. The French term for boredom, ennui, is used in English as well. The term ennui was first used as a French word in English, in the 1660s, the term ennui comes from French ennui, from Old French enui annoyance, back-formation from enoiier, anuier. Different scholars use different definitions of boredom, which complicates research, Boredom has been defined by Cynthia D. Mark Leary et al. describe boredom as an affective experience associated with cognitive attentional processes. In positive psychology, boredom is described as a response to a challenge for which the subject has more than enough skill. There are three types of boredom, all of which problems of engagement of attention. Boredom proneness is a tendency to experience boredom of all types and this is typically assessed by the Boredom Proneness Scale. Recent research has found that boredom proneness is clearly and consistently associated with failures of attention, Boredom and its proneness are both theoretically and empirically linked to depression and similar symptoms. Nonetheless, boredom proneness has been found to be as strongly correlated with attentional lapses as with depression. Although boredom is often viewed as a trivial and mild irritant, proneness to boredom has been linked to a diverse range of possible psychological, physical, educational. Absent-mindedness is where a person shows inattentive or forgetful behaviour, absent-mindedness is a mental condition in which the subject experiences low levels of attention and frequent distraction. Absent-mindedness is not a condition but rather a symptom of boredom. When suffering from absent-mindedness, people tend to show signs of memory lapse and this can usually be a result of a variety of other conditions often diagnosed by clinicians such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and depression
29.
Calmness
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Calmness is the mental state of peace of mind being free from agitation, excitement, or disturbance. It also refers being in a state of serenity, tranquillity, calmness can most easily occur for the average person during a state of relaxation, but it can also be found during much more alert and aware states. Some people find that focusing the mind on something external, or even internal, such as the breathing, calmness is a quality that can be cultivated and increased with practice. It usually takes a trained mind to stay calm in the face of a deal of different stimulation. The negative emotions are the greatest challenge to someone who is attempting to cultivate a calm mind, some disciplines that promote and develop calmness are prayer, yoga, relaxation training, breath training, and meditation. Jon Kabat-Zinn states that “Concentration is a cornerstone of mindfulness practice and your mindfulness will only be as robust as the capacity of your mind to be calm and stable. Without calmness, the mirror of mindfulness will have an agitated and choppy surface and will not be able to reflect things with any accuracy. ”Another term usually associated with calmness is Peace
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Compassion
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Compassion is the response to the suffering of others that motivates a desire to help them. Compassion motivates people to go out of their way to physical, spiritual. There is also an aspect of compassion which regards a quantitative dimension, such that individuals compassion is often given a property of depth, vigour, the etymology of compassion is Latin, meaning co-suffering. More involved than simple empathy, compassion commonly gives rise to a desire to alleviate anothers suffering. Compassion is often, though not inevitably, the key component in what manifests in the context as altruism. In ethical terms, the expressions down the ages of the so-called Golden Rule often embodies by implication the principle of compassion, the English noun compassion, meaning to love together with, comes from Latin. Ranked a great virtue in numerous philosophies, compassion is considered in almost all the religious traditions as among the greatest of virtues. Three theoretical perspectives of compassion have been proposed, which are contrasted by their predictions, Compassion as a synonym of empathic distress, which is characterized by the feeling of distress in connection with another persons suffering. This perspective of compassion is based on the finding that people sometimes emulate, Compassion is simply a variation of love or sadness, not a distinct emotion. From the perspective of psychology, Compassion can be viewed as a distinct emotional state, which can be differentiated from distress, sadness. Identifying with another person is a process for human beings. This process is related to compassion because sympathizing with others is possible with people from other countries, cultures, locations. A possible source of process of identifying with others comes from a universal category called Spirit. Toward the late 1970s, very different cultures and nations around the world took a turn to religious fundamentalism, the more one person knows about the human condition and the associated experiences is another route to identification. The importance of identifying with others for compassion is contrasted by the physical and psychological effects of abandonment. Compassion seems to be characteristic of democratic societies, the role of compassion as a factor contributing to individual or societal behavior has been the topic of continuous debate. In contrast to the process of identifying with other people, an absence of compassion may require ignoring or disapproving identification with other people or groups. This concept has been illustrated throughout history, The Holocaust, Genocide, European colonization of the Americas, the seemingly essential step in these atrocities could be the defining of the victims as not human or not us
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Contempt
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Contempt, not classified among Paul Ekmans six basic emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise, is a mixture of disgust and anger. The word originated in 1393, from the Latin word contemptus meaning scorn and it is the past participle of contemnere and from com- intensive prefix + temnere to slight, scorn. Ekman and Friesen identified a specific facial expression that observers in ten different cultures, in this study, citizens of West Sumatra, Indonesia, were given photos of American, Japanese, and Indonesian peoples. “An expression in which the corner of the lip is tightened and raised slightly on one side of the face signaled contempt. ”This study showed that contempt, as well as the expression of contempt. Paul Ekman, a widely recognized psychologist, found six emotions that were recognized, anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness. Findings on contempt are less clear, though there is at least some evidence that this emotion. In the 1990s Ekman proposed an expanded list of emotions, this time including contempt, contempt requires a judgment concerning the appearance or standing of the object of contempt. This may have not been done deliberately but by a lack of status and this lack of status may cause the contemptuous to classify the object of contempt as utterly worthless, or as not fully meeting a particular interpersonal standard. Therefore, contempt is a response to a failure to meet an interpersonal standard. Contempt is also a way of regarding or attending to the object of contempt. However, contempt may be experienced as a highly visceral emotion similar to disgust, contempt has a certain comparative element. Because of this element, contempt also involves what we might term a “positive self-feeling” of the contemptuous. A characteristic of contempt is the withdrawal or distance one typically feels regarding the object of one’s contempt. This psychological distancing is a way of expressing one’s nonidentification with the object of one’s contempt. This form of regard constitutes a psychological withdrawal from the object of contempt, contempt can be useful to being a functioning member of the moral community. An ethics of contempt provides a much larger breadth of answers than other competing systems of ethics, whether they be based on ethics of actions or ethics of feelings. By feeling contempt for those things which are found to be unethical, immoral, or morally unsavory, the main response of contempt lies within “publicized expression of low regard for the objects held in contempt”. So while one would make their feelings known to others, the person with contempt would not necessarily want to deal with the situation at hand
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Contentment
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Contentment is a mental or emotional state of satisfaction maybe drawn from being at ease in ones situation, body and mind. Colloquially speaking, contentment could be a state of having accepted ones situation and is a milder, Contentment and the pursuit of contentment are possibly a central thread through many philosophical or religious schools across diverse cultures, times and geographies. Siddharta might have said Health is the most precious gain and contentment the greatest wealth, john Stuart Mill, centuries later, would write I have learned to seek my happiness by limiting my desires, rather than in attempting to satisfy them. Marcus Aurelius wrote Live with the gods, and he who does so constantly shows them that his soul is satisfied with what is assigned to them. Hebrews 13,5 reads Keep your lives free from the love of money and be content with what you have, because God has said, Never will I leave you and he follows the course of nature in whatever situation he may be. In general, the needs in Maslows hierarchy are achieved. Many religions have some form of bliss or heaven as their apparent goal. The source of all dissatisfaction appears to stem from the ability to compare experiences, in the Bible, there is an intriguing allegorical account that mans fall from his paradisal state was caused by man eating the forbidden fruit from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. Mans eyes were opened to know the distinction between good and evil, in other words, when man becomes intellectually developed to distinguish between good and bad, he realizes that is a gap between what he considers good or ideal and what he is experiencing. The perception of this disparity is what creates psychological and physiological tension, interestingly, in the Tao Te Ching, this development of man from his primal state of consciousness called Tao is similarly expounded in this manner, When the Tao is lost, there is goodness. When goodness is lost, there is morality, morality as we know is the intellectual discernment between good and evil. There is therefore a belief one can achieve contentment by living in the moment. For this reason, specializations in this pursuit to live in the moment are found in religious and mystical schools, manifested in forms of meditation. A more practical way for most people would be to simply practice contentment as an attitude, practicing gratitude is perhaps a way to understand what contentment as an attitude is about. Seen in this light, contentment is not an achievement but an attitude that one can adopt at any time. The American philosopher Robert Bruce Raup wrote a book Complacency, The Foundation of Human Behavior in which he claimed that the human need for complacency was the spring of human behavior. Raup made this the basis of his theory, which he later used in his severe criticisms of the American education system of the 1930s. In many ways, contentment can be associated with the concept of happiness
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Desire
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Desire is a sense of longing or hoping for a person, object, or outcome. The same sense is expressed by such as craving. When a person desires something or someone, their sense of longing is excited by the enjoyment or the thought of the item or person, and they want to take actions to obtain their goal. The motivational aspect of desire has long noted by philosophers. Marketing and advertising companies have used psychological research on how desire is stimulated to find effective ways to induce consumers into buying a given product or service. The theme of desire is at the core of romance novels, the theme of desire is also used in other literary genres, such as gothic novels. Poets ranging from Homer to Toni Morrison have dealt with the themes of desire in their work, in philosophy, desire has been identified as a philosophical problem since Antiquity. In The Republic, Plato argues that individual desires must be postponed in the name of the higher ideal. In De Anima, Aristotle claims that desire is implicated in animal interactions, Hobbes proposed the concept of psychological hedonism, which asserts that the fundamental motivation of all human action is the desire for pleasure. Baruch Spinoza had a view which contrasted with Hobbes, in that he saw natural desires as a form of bondage that are not chosen by a person of their own free will. David Hume claimed that desires and passions are noncognitive, automatic bodily responses, immanuel Kant called any action based on desires a hypothetical imperative, meaning by this that it is a command of reason that applies only if one desires the goal in question. Kant also established a relation between the beautiful and pleasure in Critique of Judgment, georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel claimed that self-consciousness is desire. Because desire can cause humans to become obsessed and embittered, it has called one of the causes of woe for mankind. Within the teachings of Buddhism, craving is thought to be the cause of all suffering that one experiences in human existence, the eradication of craving leads one to ultimate happiness, or Nirvana. However, desire for wholesome things is seen as liberating and enhancing, in Hinduism, the Rig Vedas creation myth Nasadiya Sukta states regarding the one spirit, In the beginning there was Desire that was first seed of mind. Poets found the bond of being in non-being in their hearts thought, according to the early Buddhist scriptures, the Buddha stated that monks should generate desire for the sake of fostering skillful qualities and abandoning unskillful ones. There is a message here between what Buddha said, that desire must be created, and what some monks propose to their followers. Dr. Oscar R. Gómez holds that teachings imparted privately by H. H. 14th Dalai Lama are meant for leaders to be able to choose a desire consciously by creating it previously from the inside
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Disappointment
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Disappointment is the feeling of dissatisfaction that follows the failure of expectations or hopes to manifest. It is a source of psychological stress, disappoint is traced to the Middle English disappointen by way of the Old French desapointer. In literal meaning, it is to remove from office and its use in the sense of general frustration traces to the late 15th century, and it first appears recorded in English as an emotional state of dejection in the middle 18th century. Disappointment is a subjective response related to anticipated rewards, Disappointment recovery time can vary among people for some it can take a few minutes some take a few days. Disappointment, and an inability to prepare for it, has also hypothesized as the source of occasional immune system compromise in optimists. The disappointment effect posits that optimists do not utilize emotional cushioning to prepare for disappointment and this disappointment effect has been challenged since the mid-1990s by researcher Suzanne C. Segerstrom, who has published, alone and in accord, several articles evaluating its plausibility and her findings suggest that, rather than being unable to deal with disappointment, optimists are more likely to actively tackle their problems and experience some immunity compromise as a result. Disappointment theory, pioneered in the mid-1980s by David E, Disappointment theory has been utilized in examining such diverse decision-making processes as return migration, taxpayer compliance and customer willingness to pay. David Gill and Victoria Prowse provide experimental evidence that people are disappointment averse when they compete, decision analysts operate on the assumption that individuals will anticipate the potential for disappointment and make decisions that are less likely to lead to the experience of this feeling. Disappointment is, along with regret, measured by direct questioning of respondents, further Evidence of the Impact of Regret and Disappointment in Choice under Uncertainty. Mandel, David R. Denis J. Hilton, Patrizia Catellani
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Disgust
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Disgust is an emotional response of revulsion to something considered offensive, distasteful, or unpleasant. In The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Charles Darwin wrote that disgust is a sensation that refers to something revolting. Disgust is experienced primarily in relation to the sense of taste, musically sensitive people may even be disgusted by the cacophony of inharmonious sounds. Disgust is one of the emotions of Robert Plutchiks theory of emotions and has been studied extensively by Paul Rozin. It invokes a characteristic expression, one of Paul Ekmans six universal facial expressions of emotion. Unlike the emotions of fear, anger, and sadness, disgust is associated with a decrease in heart rate and it is believed that the emotion of disgust has evolved as a response to offensive foods that may cause harm to the organism. A common example of this is found in human beings who show disgust reactions to mouldy milk or contaminated meat, Disgust appears to be triggered by objects or people who possess attributes that signify disease. This behavioral immune system has found to make sweeping generalizations because it is more costly to perceive a sick person as healthy than to perceive a healthy person as sickly. This can be explained in terms of each of the types of disgust, for those especially sensitive to moral disgust, they would want to be less aggressive because they want to avoid hurting others. Based on these findings, disgust may be used as an tool to decrease aggression in individuals. Disgust may produce specific responses, such as reduced blood pressure, lowered heart-rate. Research has also found that people who are sensitive to disgust tend to find their own in-group more attractive. Taking a further look into hygiene, disgust was the strongest predictor of attitudes toward obese individuals. A disgust reaction to obese individuals was also connected with views of moral values, Disgust may have an important role in certain forms of morality. Pathogen disgust arises from a desire to survive and, ultimately and he compares it to a behavioral immune system that is the first line of defense against potentially deadly agents such as dead bodies, rotting food, and vomit. Sexual disgust arises from a desire to avoid biologically costly mates, the two primary considerations are intrinsic quality and genetic compatibility. Moral disgust pertains to social transgressions and includes such as lying, theft, murder. Unlike the other two domains, moral disgust motivates avoidance of social relationships with norm-violating individuals because those relationships threaten group cohesion, sensitivity to disgust rises during pregnancy, along with levels of the hormone progesterone
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Ecstasy (emotion)
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Ecstasy is a subjective experience of total involvement of the subject, with an object of his or her awareness. In classical Greek literature it refers to removal of the mind or body from its place of function. The word is used to refer to any heightened state of consciousness or intensely pleasant experience. It is also used specifically to denote states of awareness of non-ordinary mental spaces. For the duration of the ecstasy the ecstatic is out of touch with life and is capable neither of communication with other people nor of undertaking normal actions. The experience can be brief in time, or it can go on for hours. Subjective perception of time, space or self may strongly change or disappear during ecstasy, for instance, if one is concentrating on a physical task, then any intellectual thoughts may cease. On the other hand, making a journey in an ecstatic trance involves the cessation of voluntary bodily movement. The particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy is usually associated with that individuals particular religious. Sometimes an ecstatic experience takes place due to contact with something or somebody perceived as extremely beautiful or holy. In some cases, a person might obtain an ecstatic experience by mistake, maybe the person unintentionally triggers one of the, probably many, physiological mechanisms through which such an experience can be reached. In such cases, it is not rare to find that the later, by reading, looks for an interpretation. People interpret the experience afterward according to their culture and beliefs, when a person is using an ecstasy technique, he usually does so within a tradition. When he reaches an experience, an interpretation of it already exists. The experience together with its subsequent interpretation may strongly and permanently change the value system, in 1925, James Leuba wrote, Among most uncivilized populations, as among civilized peoples, certain ecstatic conditions are regarded as divine possession or as union with the Divine. These states are induced by means of drugs, by physical excitement, but, however produced and at whatever level of culture they may be found, they possess certain common features which suggest even to the superficial observer some profound connection. Always described as delightful beyond expression, these awesome ecstatic experiences end commonly in mental quiescence or even in total unconsciousness. To recognize a continuity of impulse, of purpose, of form, in everyday language, the word ecstasy denotes an intense, euphoric experience
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Embarrassment
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Embarrassment is an emotional state of intense discomfort with oneself, experienced when having a socially unacceptable act or condition witnessed by or revealed to others. Usually some amount of loss of honor or dignity is involved, but how much and it is similar to shame, except that shame may be experienced for an act known only to oneself. Also, embarrassment usually carries the connotation of being caused by an act that is socially unacceptable. Embarrassment can be personal, caused by unwanted attention to private matters or personal flaws or mishaps, in many cultures, being seen nude or inappropriately dressed is a particularly stressful form of embarrassment. Personal embarrassment is usually accompanied by some combination of blushing, sweating, nervousness, stammering, sometimes the embarrassed person tries to mask embarrassment with smiles or nervous laughter, especially in etiquette situations. Such a response is common in certain cultures, which may lead to misunderstanding. There may also be feelings of anger depending on the seriousness of the situation. There is a range of responses, with the most minor being a perception of the act as inconsequential or even humorous. The capacity to experience embarrassment can also be seen as functional for the group or culture, similarly, embarrassment exhibited by boys more likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behaviour was less than one-third of that exhibited by non-aggressive boys. Thus proneness to embarrassment can act as a brake on behaviour that would be dysfunctional for a group or culture, Embarrassment can also be professional or official, especially after statements expressing confidence in a stated course of action, or willful disregard for evidence. Embarrassment increases greatly in instances involving official duties or workplace facilities, large amounts of money or materials, even small errors or miscalculations can lead to significantly greater official embarrassment if it is discovered that there was willful disregard for evidence or directives involved. Not all official failures result in embarrassment, even if the circumstances lead to some slight personal embarrassment for the people involved. Similarly, a scientist might be disappointed and embarrassed if one of his hypotheses was proven wrong. By contrast, exposure of falsified data supporting a claim would likely lead to professional embarrassment in the scientific community. Professional or official embarrassment is often accompanied by expressions of anger, denial of involvement. One typology of embarrassment is by Sharkey and Stafford, based on these types, Cupach and Metts classify two basic embarrassment situations, the actor responsible and the observer responsible. The word derives from the French word embarrasser, to block,5 However, it certainly is not directly derived from it, as the substitution of r for rr in Ibero-Romantic languages was not a known occurrence. The Spanish word may come from the Italian imbarazzare, from imbarazzo, joan Corominas and José Pacual, embarazar, Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, Vol. II, p. 555-556
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Empathy
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Empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within the other persons frame of reference, i. e. the capacity to place oneself in anothers position. Empathy is seeing with the eyes of another, listening with the ears of another, there are many definitions for empathy which encompass a broad range of emotional states. Types of empathy include cognitive empathy, emotional empathy, and somatic empathy, the English word empathy is derived from the Ancient Greek word εμπάθεια. This, in turn, comes from εν and πάθος, the term was adapted by Hermann Lotze and Robert Vischer to create the German word Einfühlung, which was translated by Edward B. Titchener into the English term empathy, alexithymia is a word used to describe a deficiency in understanding, processing or describing emotions in oneself as opposed to in others. This term comes from the negation of two Ancient Greek words, αλέξω and θυμός, thus alexithymia literally means pushing away your emotions. It also is the ability to feel and share another persons emotions, some believe that empathy involves the ability to match anothers emotions, while others believe that empathy involves being tenderhearted toward another person. Having empathy also can include having the understanding that there are factors that go into decision making. Past experiences have an influence on the making of today. Understanding this allows a person to have empathy for individuals who sometimes make decisions to a problem that most individuals would respond with an obvious response. Broken homes, childhood trauma, lack of parenting and many factors can influence the connections the brain which a person uses to make decisions in the future. Martin Hoffman is a Psychologist who studied the development of empathy, according to Hoffman everyone is born with the capability of feeling empathy. Compassion and sympathy are two terms that many associate with empathy, but all three of these terms are unique, even so, definitions vary, contributing to the challenge of defining empathy. Compassion is often defined as an emotion we feel when others are in need, Sympathy is a feeling of care and understanding for someone in need. It can also be understood as having the separateness of defining oneself, some include in sympathy also an empathic concern, a feeling of concern for another, in which some scholars include the wish to see them better off or happier. Empathy is distinct also from pity and emotional contagion, pity is feeling that another is in trouble and in need of help as they cannot fix their problems themselves, often described as feeling sorry for someone. Emotional contagion is when a person catches the emotions that others are showing without necessarily recognizing this is happening. Since empathy involves understanding the emotional states of people, the way it is characterized is derived from the way emotions themselves are characterized
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Attention
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It is the taking possession by the mind in clear and vivid form of one out of what seem several simultaneous objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration of consciousness are of its essence, Attention has also been referred to as the allocation of limited processing resources. Attention remains an area of investigation within education, psychology, neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience. The relationships between attention and consciousness are complex enough that they have warranted perennial philosophical exploration, prior to the founding of psychology as a scientific discipline, attention was studied in the field of philosophy. Due to this, many of the discoveries in the field of Attention were made by philosophers. Psychologist John Watson cites Juan Luis Vives as the Father of Modern Psychology due to his book De Anima et Vita in which Vives was the first to recognize the importance of empirical investigation. In his work on memory, Vives found that the more closely one attends to stimuli, by the 1990s, psychologists began using PET and later fMRI to image the brain while monitoring attention tasks. Because of the expensive equipment that was generally only available in hospitals. Pioneers of brain imaging studies of attention are psychologist Michael Posner. Their results soon sparked interest from the neuroscience community in these psychological studies. The results of experiments have shown a broad agreement with the psychological, psychophysiological. In cognitive psychology there are at least two models which describe how visual attention operates and these models may be considered loosely as metaphors which are used to describe internal processes and to generate hypotheses that are falsifiable. Generally speaking, visual attention is thought to operate as a two-stage process, in the first stage, attention is distributed uniformly over the external visual scene and processing of information is performed in parallel. In the second stage, attention is concentrated to an area of the visual scene. The first of these models to appear in the literature is the spotlight model, the term spotlight was inspired by the work of William James, who described attention as having a focus, a margin, and a fringe. The focus is an area that extracts information from the scene with a high-resolution. Surrounding the focus is the fringe of attention, which extracts information in a more crude fashion. This fringe extends out to an area, and the cut-off is called the margin
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Enthusiasm
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Enthusiasm is intense enjoyment, interest, or approval. The word was used to refer to a person possessed by a god. Socrates taught that the inspiration of poets is a form of enthusiasm, the term was confined to a belief in religious inspiration, or to intense religious fervour or emotion. From this, a Syrian sect of the 4th century was known as the Enthusiasts. They believed that by perpetual prayer, ascetic practices and contemplation, man could become inspired by the Holy Spirit, in spite of the evil spirit. From their belief in the efficacy of prayer, they were known as Euchites. Several Protestant sects of the 16th and 17th centuries were called enthusiastic, during the years that immediately followed the Glorious Revolution, enthusiasm was a British pejorative term for advocacy of any political or religious cause in public, i. e. fanaticism. The Royal Society bylaws stipulated that any person discussing religion or politics at a Society meeting was to be ejected for being an enthusiast. Artistic inspiration Connoisseur Emotional contagion Entheogen Euphoria Fan Flow Motivation Zest Daniels, M. D. D. Price, PhD, the Essential Enneagram, New York, HarperCollins, ISBN 0-06-251676-0 Ronald Knox. Enthusiasm, a Chapter in the History of Religion, with Special Reference to the XVII and XVIII Centuries, New York, Dover Publications Susie Tucker. Enthusiasm, A Study in Semantic Change, enthusiasm, A Study in Project Management
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Envy
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Envy is an emotion which occurs when a person lacks anothers superior quality, achievement, or possession and either desires it or wishes that the other lacked it. Bertrand Russell said that envy was one of the most potent causes of unhappiness, Not only is the envious person rendered unhappy by his or her envy, Russell explained, but that person also wishes to inflict misfortune on others. One theory that helps to explain envy and its effects on behavior is the Socioevolutionary theory. Thus, this provides a framework for understanding social behavior and experiences, such as the experience and expression of envy, as rooted in biological drives for survival. Recent studies have demonstrated that inciting envy actually changes cognitive function, boosting mental persistence, schadenfreude means taking pleasure in the misfortune of others and can be understood as an outgrowth of envy in certain situations. Often, envy involves a motive to outdo or undo the rivals advantages, in part, this type of envy may be based on materialistic possessions rather than psychological states. Basically, people find themselves experiencing an overwhelming emotion due to someone else owning or possessing desirable items that they do not, for example, your next door neighbor just bought a brand new ocarina—a musical instrument youve been infatuated with for months now but cant afford. Feelings of envy in this situation would occur in the forms of pain, a lack of self-worth. It is that, which is why it flourishes in market societies, democracies of desire, they might be called, with money for ballots, but envy is more or less than desire. It begins with the almost frantic sense of emptiness inside oneself, one has to be blind to perceive the emptiness, of course, but thats what envy is, a selective blindness. Invidia, Latin for envy, translates as nonsight, and Dante had the envious plodding along under cloaks of lead, what they are blind to is what they have, God-given and humanly nurtured, in themselves. Envy may negatively affect the closeness and satisfaction of relationships, overcoming envy might be similar to dealing with other negative emotions. Individuals experiencing anger often seek professional treatment to help understand why they feel the way they do, subjects experiencing envy often have a skewed perception on how to achieve true happiness. By helping people to change perceptions, they will be more able to understand the real meaning of fortune. According to Lazarus, coping is a feature of the emotion process. There are very few theories that emphasize the coping process for emotions as compared to the information concerning the emotion itself. There are numerous styles of coping, of which there has been a significant amount of research done, for example, coping with envy can be similar to coping with anger. The issue must be addressed cognitively in order to work through the emotion, according to the research done by Salovey and Rodin, more effective strategies for reducing initial envy appear to be stimulus focused rather than self-focused
