1.
Grand Prismatic Spring
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It is located in the Midway Geyser Basin. Grand Prismatic Spring was noted by geologists working in the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871 and its colors match the rainbow dispersion of white light by an optical prism, red, orange, yellow, green, and blue. The first records of the spring are from early European explorers and surveyors. In 1839, a group of fur trappers from the American Fur Company crossed the Midway Geyser Basin and made note of a lake, most likely the Grand Prismatic Spring. In 1870 the Washburn–Langford–Doane Expedition visited the spring, noting a 50-foot geyser nearby, the vivid colors in the spring are the result of microbial mats around the edges of the mineral-rich water. The mats produce colors ranging from green to red, the amount of color in the microbial mats depends on the ratio of chlorophyll to carotenoids, in the summer, the mats tend to be orange and red, whereas in the winter the mats are usually dark green. The center of the pool is due to extreme heat. The deep blue color of the water in the center of the results from the scattering of blue light by particles suspended in the water. This effect is visible in the center of the spring due to the lack of archaea that live in the center. The spring is approximately 370 feet in diameter and is 160 feet deep, the spring discharges an estimated 560 US gallons of 160 °F water per minute. Media related to Grand Prismatic Spring at Wikimedia Commons
2.
Yellowstone National Park
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Yellowstone National Park is a national park located in the U. S. states of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho. It was established by the U. S. Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1,1872. Yellowstone was the first National Park in the U. S. and is widely held to be the first national park in the world. The park is known for its wildlife and its many features, especially Old Faithful Geyser. It has many types of ecosystems, but the subalpine forest is the most abundant and it is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion. Native Americans have lived in the Yellowstone region for at least 11,000 years, aside from visits by mountain men during the early-to-mid-19th century, organized exploration did not begin until the late 1860s. Management and control of the park fell under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior. However, the U. S. Army was subsequently commissioned to oversee management of Yellowstone for a 30-year period between 1886 and 1916, in 1917, administration of the park was transferred to the National Park Service, which had been created the previous year. Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance, Yellowstone National Park spans an area of 3,468.4 square miles, comprising lakes, canyons, rivers and mountain ranges. Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera, the caldera is considered an active volcano. It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years, half of the worlds geothermal features are in Yellowstone, fueled by this ongoing volcanism. Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the area of Yellowstone. The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the largest remaining nearly-intact ecosystem in the Earths northern temperate zone, hundreds of species of mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles have been documented, including several that are either endangered or threatened. The vast forests and grasslands also include species of plants. Yellowstone Park is the largest and most famous location in the Continental United States. Grizzly bears, wolves, and free-ranging herds of bison and elk live in the park, the Yellowstone Park bison herd is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States. Forest fires occur in the each year, in the large forest fires of 1988. Yellowstone has numerous opportunities, including hiking, camping, boating, fishing and sightseeing
3.
Spring (hydrology)
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A spring is any natural situation where water flows from an aquifer to the Earths surface. It is a component of the hydrosphere, a spring may be the result of karst topography where surface water has infiltrated the Earths surface, becoming part of the area groundwater. The groundwater then travels through a network of cracks and fissure—openings ranging from intergranular spaces to large caves, the water eventually emerges from below the surface, in the form of a karst spring. The forcing of the spring to the surface can be the result of an aquifer in which the recharge area of the spring water table rests at a higher elevation than that of the outlet. Spring water forced to the surface by elevated sources are artesian wells and this is possible even if the outlet is in the form of a 300-foot-deep cave. In this case the cave is used like a hose by the higher elevated area of groundwater to exit through the lower elevation opening. Non-artesian springs may simply flow from a higher elevation through the earth to a lower elevation, still other springs are the result of pressure from an underground source in the earth, in the form of volcanic activity. The result can be water at elevated temperature such as a hot spring, the action of the groundwater continually dissolves permeable bedrock such as limestone and dolomite, creating vast cave systems. The term seep refers to springs with small flow rates in which the water has filtered through permeable earth. Fracture springs, discharge from faults, joints, or fissures in the earth, tubular springs, in which the water flows from underground caverns. Spring discharge, or resurgence, is determined by the springs recharge basin, factors that affect the recharge include the size of the area in which groundwater is captured, the amount of precipitation, the size of capture points, and the size of the spring outlet. Water may leak into the system from many sources including permeable earth, sinkholes. In some cases entire creeks seemingly disappear as the water sinks into the ground via the stream bed, grand Gulf State Park in Missouri is an example of an entire creek vanishing into the groundwater system. The water emerges 9 miles away, forming some of the discharge of Mammoth Spring in Arkansas, human activity may also affect a springs discharge--withdrawal of groundwater reduces the water pressure in an aquifer, decreasing the volume of flow. Springs are often classified by the volume of the water they discharge, the largest springs are called first-magnitude, defined as springs that discharge water at a rate of at least 2800 liters or 100 cubic feet of water per second. The scale for spring flow is as follows, Minerals become dissolved in the water as it moves through the underground rocks and this may give the water flavor and even carbon dioxide bubbles, depending on the nature of the geology through which it passes. This is why spring water is bottled and sold as mineral water. Springs that contain significant amounts of minerals are sometimes called mineral springs, Springs that contain large amounts of dissolved sodium salts, mostly sodium carbonate, are called soda springs
4.
Geothermal gradient
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Geothermal gradient is the rate of increasing temperature with respect to increasing depth in the Earths interior. Away from tectonic plate boundaries, it is about 25 °C per km of depth near the surface in most of the world, strictly speaking, geo-thermal necessarily refers to the Earth but the concept may be applied to other planets. A line tracing the gradient through the body is called a geotherm on Earth. On the Moon it is called a selenotherm, the Earths internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion, heat produced through radioactive decay, and possibly heat from other sources. The major heat-producing isotopes in the Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, uranium-235, at the center of the planet, the temperature may be up to 7,000 K and the pressure could reach 360 GPa. Temperature within the Earth increases with depth, the heat content of the Earth is 1031 joules. Much of the heat is created by decay of radioactive elements. An estimated 45 to 90 percent of the heat escaping from the Earth originates from decay of elements mainly located in the mantle. Heat of impact and compression released during the formation of the Earth by accretion of in-falling meteorites. Heat released as abundant heavy metals descended to the Earths core, latent heat released as the liquid outer core crystallizes at the inner core boundary. Heat may be generated by tidal force on the Earth as it rotates, since rock cannot flow as readily as water it compresses and distorts, in Earths continental crust, the decay of natural radioactive isotopes has had significant involvement in the origin of geothermal heat. The continental crust is abundant in lower density minerals but also contains significant concentrations of heavier lithophilic minerals such as uranium, because of this, it holds the largest global reservoir of radioactive elements found in the Earth. Especially in layers closer to Earths surface, naturally occurring isotopes are enriched in the granite and these high levels of radioactive elements are largely excluded from the Earths mantle due to their inability to substitute in mantle minerals and consequent enrichment in partial melts. The mantle is made up of high density minerals with high contents of atoms that have relatively small atomic radii such as magnesium, titanium. Heat flows constantly from its sources within the Earth to the surface, total heat loss from the Earth is estimated at 44.2 TW. Mean heat flow is 65 mW/m2 over continental crust and 101 mW/m2 over oceanic crust and this is 0.087 watt/square meter on average, but is much more concentrated in areas where thermal energy is transported toward the crust by convection such as along mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes. The Earths crust effectively acts as an insulating blanket which must be pierced by fluid conduits in order to release the heat underneath. More of the heat in the Earth is lost through plate tectonics, the final major mode of heat loss is by conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs in the oceans due to the crust there being much thinner and younger than under the continents
5.
Groundwater
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Groundwater is the water present beneath Earths surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or a deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the naturally, natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps. Groundwater is also withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of Earths subsurface contains some water, Groundwater may not be confined only to Earth. The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have influenced by groundwater. There is also evidence that water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiters moon Europa. Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water, therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of water storage in the United States. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater. Polluted groundwater is less visible, but more difficult to clean up, than pollution in rivers, Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. An aquifer is a layer of substrate that contains and transmits groundwater. When water can flow directly between the surface and the zone of an aquifer, the aquifer is unconfined. The deeper parts of unconfined aquifers are more saturated since gravity causes water to flow downward. The upper level of this layer of an unconfined aquifer is called the water table or phreatic surface. Below the water table, where in general all pore spaces are saturated with water, is the phreatic zone, substrate with low porosity that permits limited transmission of groundwater is known as an aquitard
6.
Crust (geology)
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In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or natural satellite, which is chemically distinct from the underlying mantle. The crust of the Earth is composed of a variety of igneous, metamorphic. The crust is underlain by the mantle, the upper part of the mantle is composed mostly of peridotite, a rock denser than rocks common in the overlying crust. The boundary between the crust and mantle is conventionally placed at the Mohorovičić discontinuity, a boundary defined by a contrast in seismic velocity, the crust occupies less than 1% of Earths volume. The crust of the Earth is of two types, oceanic and continental. The oceanic crust is 5 km to 10 km thick and is composed primarily of basalt, diabase, the continental crust is typically from 30 km to 50 km thick and is mostly composed of slightly less dense rocks than those of the oceanic crust. Some of these less dense rocks, such as granite, are common in the continental crust, both the continental and oceanic crust float on the mantle. Because the continental crust is thicker, it both to greater elevations and greater depth than the oceanic crust. The slightly lower density of continental rock compared to basaltic oceanic rock contributes to the higher relative elevation of the top of the continental crust. As the top of the continental crust reaches elevations higher than that of the oceanic, the temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values typically in the range from about 200 °C to 400 °C at the boundary with the underlying mantle. The crust and underlying relatively rigid uppermost mantle make up the lithosphere, because of convection in the underlying plastic upper mantle and asthenosphere, the lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates that move. The temperature increases by as much as 30 °C for every kilometer locally in the part of the crust. Earth has probably always had some form of basaltic crust, in contrast, the bulk of the continental crust is much older. The oldest continental crustal rocks on Earth have ages in the range from about 3.7 to 4, some zircon with age as great as 4.3 billion years has been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane. The average age of the current Earths continental crust has been estimated to be about 2.0 billion years, most crustal rocks formed before 2.5 billion years ago are located in cratons. Such old continental crust and the underlying mantle asthenosphere are less dense than elsewhere in Earth, formation of new continental crust is linked to periods of intense orogeny, these periods coincide with the formation of the supercontinents such as Rodinia, Pangaea and Gondwana. The continental crust has a composition similar to that of andesite. The most abundant minerals in Earths continental crust are feldspars, which make up about 41% of the crust by weight, followed by quartz at 12%, Continental crust is enriched in incompatible elements compared to the basaltic ocean crust and much enriched compared to the underlying mantle
7.
Beppu
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Beppu is a city in Ōita Prefecture on the island of Kyushu, Japan, at the west end of Beppu Bay. In November 2013 the city had a population of 122,085, the total area is 125.13 km2. Beppu is famous for its hot springs, Beppu is situated between the sea and the mountains. The city was founded on April 1,1924, and is famous for its onsen and it has eight major geothermal hot spots, sometimes referred to as the eight hells of Beppu. Six of these are located in the Kannawa district, and two in the more remote Shibaseki district, Beppu is also divided into eight major hot spring areas known as Beppu Hattō. Beppu is part of the course of the annual Beppu-Ōita Marathon, the competition has been held every year since 1952 and is classed as an IAAF Silver Label road race. Shidaka Lake is located 600 metres above sea level, otobaru Waterfall is a local natural attraction, located in the mountain area of Beppu city,20 minutes walk from Wonder Rakutenchi, a traditional amusement park. Takasakiyama Monkey Park is located 10 minutes from the centre of Beppu by bus, the park is home to more than 1500 Japanese macaques. Kijima Kogen is a resort includes an 18-hole golf course. It is located on a plateau en route to Yufuin, Beppu has not only usual hot springs but some sand and foot baths as well. One famous spot is Beppu Kaihin Sunayu, Ashiyu and it is 15 minutes by bus from Beppu station, on Route 10. Beppu Park is located in the center of the city, a 15-minute walk from Beppu Station, Beppu Fireworks Festival, held in late July, is one of the biggest fireworks displays in Oita. Five thousand fireworks are set off from boats floating on Beppu Bay, Beppu Contemporary Art Festival Mixed Bathing World is an art festival held every three years in Beppu. Beppu University, a university first chartered in 1954, also has a campus in Oita City. Beppu Mizobe Gakuen College, established in 1986, is a junior college located in the north of Beppu. Beppu is home to the Oita Heat Devils basketball team, the teams season was cancelled in 2011 due to the earthquake that struck Japan on March 11. The city of Beppu has sister city relationships with the following locations
8.
Algeria
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Algeria, officially the Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast. Its capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres, Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes. Abdelaziz Bouteflika has been President since 1999, Berbers are the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. Algeria is a regional and middle power, the North African country supplies large amounts of natural gas to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to OPEC Algeria has the 16th largest oil reserves in the world, Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent, most of Algerias weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC, the countrys name derives from the city of Algiers. The citys name in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazāir, a form of the older Jazāir Banī Mazghanna. In the region of Ain Hanech, early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa were found, neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles similar to those in the Levant. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques, tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian. The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian and this industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC and this life, richly depicted in the Tassili nAjjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a native population that came to be called Berbers. These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages, as Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, by the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthages North African territory, the Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars
9.
Lassen Volcanic National Park
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Lassen Volcanic National Park is a United States National Park in northeastern California. The dominant feature of the park is Lassen Peak, the largest plug dome volcano in the world, Lassen Volcanic National Park started as two separate national monuments designated by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1907, Cinder Cone National Monument and Lassen Peak National Monument. The source of heat for volcanism in the Lassen area is subduction off the Northern California coast of the Gorda Plate diving below the North American Plate, the area surrounding Lassen Peak is still active with boiling mud pots, stinking fumaroles, and churning hot springs. Lassen Volcanic National Park is one of the few areas in the world where all four types of volcano can be found, the park is accessible via State Routes SR89 and SR44. SR89 passes north-south through the park, beginning at SR36 to the south, SR89 passes immediately adjacent the base of Lassen Peak. A large lodge with concession facilities was located near the south-west entrance, a new, full-service visitor center was constructed in the same location, and opened to the public in 2008. Near the old location was also located Lassen Ski Area. Native Americans have inhabited the area long before white settlers first saw Lassen. The natives knew that the peak was full of fire and water, White immigrants in the mid-19th century used Lassen Peak as a landmark on their trek to the fertile Sacramento Valley. One of the guides to these immigrants was a Danish blacksmith named Peter Lassen, Lassen Peak was named after him. Nobles Emigrant Trail was later cut through the area and passed Cinder Cone. Inconsistent newspaper accounts reported by witnesses from 1850 to 1851 described seeing fire thrown to a terrible height, as late as 1859, a witness reported seeing fire in the sky from a distance, attributing it to an eruption. Early geologists and volcanologists who studied the Cinder Cone concluded the last eruption occurred between 1675 and 1700, after the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, the United States Geological Survey began reassessing the potential risk of other active volcanic areas in the Cascade Range. Further study of Cinder Cone estimated the last eruption occurred between 1630 and 1670, recent tree-ring analysis has placed the date at 1666. The Lassen area was first protected by being designated as the Lassen Peak Forest Preserve, Lassen Peak and Cinder Cone were later declared as U. S. National Monuments in May 1907 by President Theodore Roosevelt. Starting in May 1914 and lasting until 1921, a series of minor to major eruptions occurred on Lassen and these events created a new crater, and released lava and a great deal of ash. Fortunately, because of warnings, no one was killed, because of the eruptive activity, which continued through 1917, and the areas stark volcanic beauty, Lassen Peak, Cinder Cone and the area surrounding were declared a National Park on August 9,1916. The 29-mile Main Park Road was constructed between 1925 and 1931, just 10 years after Lassen Peak erupted, near Lassen Peak the road reaches 8,512 feet, making it the highest road in the Cascade Mountains
10.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. In addition to its employees, over 11,000 as of 2015, NOAA research. NOAA plays several roles in society, the benefits of which extend beyond the U. S. economy and into the larger global community. NOAA supplies information to its customers and partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and this is clearly manifest in the production of weather warnings and forecasts through the National Weather Service, but NOAAs information products extend to climate, ecosystems, and commerce as well. A Provider of Environmental Stewardship Services, NOAA is also the steward of U. S. coastal and marine environments. A Leader in Applied Scientific Research, the five fundamental activities are, Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks. Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of that data, assessing and predicting the changes of these systems over time. Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with important information, managing resources for the betterment of society, economy and environment. NOAA formed a conglomeration of several existing agencies that were among the oldest in the federal government, NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No.4 of 1970. In 2007 NOAA celebrated 200 years of service with its ties to the United States Coast, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is a uniformed service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft, and serve in scientific and administrative posts. And in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library and this is done through a collection of national and regional centers,13 river forecast centers, and more than 120 local weather forecast offices. They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches and they issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is relevant to the issues of global warming. The NWS operates NEXRAD, a network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation. Many of their products are broadcast on NOAA Weather Radio, a network of transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe weather statements, watches. The National Ocean Service focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, in 1960 TIROS-1, NOAAs first owned and operated geostationary satellite was launched. Since 1966 NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites and since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites, in 1979 NOAAs first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched
11.
Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
12.
Heat
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In physics, heat is the amount of energy flowing from one body to another spontaneously due to their temperature difference, or by any means other than through work or the transfer of matter. Thus, energy exchanged as heat during a process changes the energy of each body by equal. The sign of the quantity of heat can indicate the direction of the transfer, for example from system A to system B, negation indicates energy flowing in the opposite direction. While heat flows spontaneously from hot to cold, it is possible to construct a heat pump or refrigeration system that does work to increase the difference in temperature between two systems, conversely, a heat engine reduces an existing temperature difference to do work on another system. Heat is a consequence of the motion of particles. When heat is transferred between two objects or systems, the energy of the object or systems particles increases, as this occurs, the arrangement between particles becomes more and more disordered. In other words, heat is related to the concept of entropy, historically, many energy units for measurement of heat have been used. The standards-based unit in the International System of Units is the joule, Heat is measured by its effect on the states of interacting bodies, for example, by the amount of ice melted or a change in temperature. The quantification of heat via the change of a body is called calorimetry. In calorimetry, sensible heat is defined with respect to a specific chosen state variable of the system, sensible heat causes a change of the temperature of the system while leaving the chosen state variable unchanged. Heat transfer that occurs at a constant system temperature but changes the state variable is called latent heat with respect to the variable, for infinitesimal changes, the total incremental heat transfer is then the sum of the latent and sensible heat. Physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in his 1871 classic Theory of Heat, was one of many who began to build on the established idea that heat has something to do with matter in motion. This was the idea put forth by Benjamin Thompson in 1798. One of Maxwells recommended books was Heat as a Mode of Motion, Maxwell outlined four stipulations for the definition of heat, It is something which may be transferred from one body to another, according to the second law of thermodynamics. It is a quantity, and so can be treated mathematically. It cannot be treated as a substance, because it may be transformed into something that is not a material substance. Heat is one of the forms of energy and this was the way of the historical pioneers of thermodynamics. Maxwell writes that convection as such is not a purely thermal phenomenon, in thermodynamics, convection in general is regarded as transport of internal energy
13.
Earth
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Earth, otherwise known as the World, or the Globe, is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life. It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets, according to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. Earths gravity interacts with objects in space, especially the Sun. During one orbit around the Sun, Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times, thus, Earths axis of rotation is tilted, producing seasonal variations on the planets surface. The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides, stabilizes the Earths orientation on its axis, Earths lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of Earths surface is covered with water, mostly by its oceans, the remaining 29% is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes, rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. The majority of Earths polar regions are covered in ice, including the Antarctic ice sheet, Earths interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates the Earths magnetic field, and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics. Within the first billion years of Earths history, life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earths atmosphere and surface, some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earths distance from the Sun, physical properties, in the history of the Earth, biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events. Over 99% of all species that lived on Earth are extinct. Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely, over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival. Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures, politically, the world has about 200 sovereign states, the modern English word Earth developed from a wide variety of Middle English forms, which derived from an Old English noun most often spelled eorðe. It has cognates in every Germanic language, and their proto-Germanic root has been reconstructed as *erþō, originally, earth was written in lowercase, and from early Middle English, its definite sense as the globe was expressed as the earth. By early Modern English, many nouns were capitalized, and the became the Earth. More recently, the name is simply given as Earth. House styles now vary, Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, another convention capitalizes Earth when appearing as a name but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the. It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as what on earth are you doing, the oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4. 5672±0.0006 billion years ago. By 4. 54±0.04 Gya the primordial Earth had formed, the formation and evolution of Solar System bodies occurred along with the Sun
14.
Mantle (geology)
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The mantle is a layer inside a terrestrial planet and some other rocky planetary bodies. For a mantle to form, the body must be large enough to have undergone the process of planetary differentiation by density. The mantle surrounds the planetary core, the mantle is surrounded by the crust. The terrestrial planets, the Moon, two of Jupiters moons and the asteroid Vesta each have a made of silicate rock. Interpretation of spacecraft data suggests that at least two moons of Jupiter, as well as Titan and Triton each have a mantle made of ice or other solid volatile substances. The interior of Earth, similar to the terrestrial planets, is divided into layers of different composition. The mantle is a layer between the crust and the outer core, Earths mantle is a silicate rocky shell with an average thickness of 2,886 kilometres. The mantle makes up about 84% of Earths volume and it is predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves as a very viscous fluid. The mantle encloses the hot core rich in iron and nickel, past episodes of melting and volcanism at the shallower levels of the mantle have produced a thin crust of crystallized melt products near the surface. A thin crust, the part of the lithosphere, surrounds the mantle and is about 5 to 75 km thick. In some places under the ocean the mantle is exposed on the surface of Earth. The mantle is divided into sections which are based upon results from seismology and these layers are the following, the upper mantle, the transition zone, the lower mantle, and anomalous core–mantle boundary with a variable thickness. The uppermost mantle plus overlying crust are relatively rigid and form the lithosphere, below the lithosphere the upper mantle becomes notably more plastic. In some regions below the lithosphere, the shear velocity is reduced. Inge Lehmann discovered a seismic discontinuity at about 220 km depth, although this discontinuity has been found in other studies, the transition zone is an area of great complexity, it physically separates the upper and lower mantle. Very little is known about the lower mantle apart from that it appears to be relatively seismically homogeneous, the D layer at the core–mantle boundary separates the mantle from the core. A principal source of the heat that drives plate tectonics is the decay of uranium, thorium. The mantle differs substantially from the crust in its properties as the direct consequence of the difference in composition
15.
Gradient
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In mathematics, the gradient is a multi-variable generalization of the derivative. While a derivative can be defined on functions of a variable, for functions of several variables. The gradient is a function, as opposed to a derivative. If f is a differentiable, real-valued function of several variables, like the derivative, the gradient represents the slope of the tangent of the graph of the function. More precisely, the gradient points in the direction of the greatest rate of increase of the function, the components of the gradient in coordinates are the coefficients of the variables in the equation of the tangent space to the graph. The Jacobian is the generalization of the gradient for vector-valued functions of several variables, a further generalization for a function between Banach spaces is the Fréchet derivative. Consider a room in which the temperature is given by a field, T. At each point in the room, the gradient of T at that point will show the direction in which the temperature rises most quickly, the magnitude of the gradient will determine how fast the temperature rises in that direction. Consider a surface whose height above sea level at point is H, the gradient of H at a point is a vector pointing in the direction of the steepest slope or grade at that point. The steepness of the slope at point is given by the magnitude of the gradient vector. The gradient can also be used to measure how a scalar field changes in other directions, rather than just the direction of greatest change, suppose that the steepest slope on a hill is 40%. If a road goes directly up the hill, then the steepest slope on the road will also be 40%, if, instead, the road goes around the hill at an angle, then it will have a shallower slope. This observation can be stated as follows. If the hill height function H is differentiable, then the gradient of H dotted with a unit vector gives the slope of the hill in the direction of the vector. More precisely, when H is differentiable, the dot product of the gradient of H with a unit vector is equal to the directional derivative of H in the direction of that unit vector. The gradient of a function f is denoted ∇f or ∇→f where ∇ denotes the vector differential operator. The notation grad f is commonly used for the gradient. The gradient of f is defined as the vector field whose dot product with any vector v at each point x is the directional derivative of f along v. That is
16.
Volcano
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A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. Earths volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of plate hypothesis volcanism, Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called hotspots, for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the boundary,3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created where two plates slide past one another. Erupting volcanoes can pose hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines, the word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology, at the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot molten rock. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, therefore, most volcanic activity is submarine, black smokers are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example, subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the temperature of the overlying mantle wedge. This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high content, so it often does not reach the surface. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed, typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant and is eventually re-formed as the plate advances over the postulated plume and this theory is currently under criticism, however. The most common perception of a volcano is of a mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit, however. The features of volcanoes are more complicated and their structure. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have features such as massive plateaus
17.
Steam
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Steam is water in the gas phase, which is formed when water boils. Steam is invisible, however, steam often refers to wet steam, at lower pressures, such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains, water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal 100 °C at standard pressure. If heated further it becomes superheated steam, piston type steam engines played a central role to the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80% of the worlds electricity. If liquid water comes in contact with a hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure. Steam explosions have been responsible for many accidents, and may also have been responsible for much of the damage to the plant in the Chernobyl disaster. Steam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high temperature all of the water evaporates. Superheated steam is steam at a higher than its boiling point for the pressure. Steam tables contain thermodynamic data for water/steam and are used by engineers and scientists in design. Additionally, thermodynamic phase diagrams for water/steam, such as a diagram or a Mollier diagram shown in this article. Steam charts are used for analysing thermodynamic cycles. In agriculture, steam is used for sterilization to avoid the use of harmful chemical agents. Steams capacity to transfer heat is used in the home, for cooking vegetables, steam cleaning of fabric, carpets and flooring. In each case, water is heated in a boiler, steam is also used in ironing clothes to add enough humidity with the heat to take wrinkles out and put intentional creases into the clothing. About 90% of all electricity is generated using steam as the working fluid, in electric generation, steam is typically condensed at the end of its expansion cycle, and returned to the boiler for re-use. However, in cogeneration, steam is piped into buildings through a heating system to provide heat energy after its use in the electric generation cycle. The worlds biggest steam generation system is the New York City steam system, in other industrial applications steam is used for energy storage, which is introduced and extracted by heat transfer, usually through pipes. Steam is a reservoir for thermal energy because of waters high heat of vaporization
18.
Crepuscular rays
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Crepuscular rays /krᵻˈpʌskjᵿlər/, in atmospheric optics, are rays of sunlight that appear to radiate from the point in the sky where the sun is located. These rays, which stream through gaps in clouds or between other objects, are columns of sunlit air separated by darker cloud-shadowed regions, despite seeming to converge at a point, the rays are in fact near-parallel shafts of sunlight, and their apparent convergence is a perspective effect. The name comes from their frequent occurrences during twilight hours, when the contrasts between light and dark are the most obvious, crepuscular comes from the Latin word crepusculum, meaning twilight. The rays in some cases may extend across the sky and appear to converge at the antisolar point, in this case they are called anticrepuscular or antisolar rays. These are not as easily spotted as crepuscular rays and this apparent dual convergence is a perspective effect analogous to railway tracks appearing to converge to opposite points in opposite directions. Crepuscular rays are usually orange in appearance because the path through the atmosphere at sunrise, particles in the air scatter short wavelength light through Rayleigh scattering much more strongly than longer wavelength yellow and red light. Backstays of the nautical term, from the fact that backstays that brace the mast of a sailing ship converge in a similar way Buddha rays Cloud breaks Jacobs Ladder Ropes of Maui—originally
19.
Mammoth Hot Springs
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Mammoth Hot Springs is a large complex of hot springs on a hill of travertine in Yellowstone National Park adjacent to Fort Yellowstone and the Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District. It was created thousands of years as hot water from the spring cooled and deposited calcium carbonate. Because of the amount of geothermal vents, travertine flourishes. Although these springs lie outside the boundary, their energy has been attributed to the same magmatic system that fuels other Yellowstone geothermal areas. The hot water that feeds Mammoth comes from Norris Geyser Basin after traveling underground via a line that runs through limestone. The limestone from rock formations along the fault is the source of the calcium carbonate, shallow circulation along this corridor allows Norris superheated water to slightly cool before surfacing at Mammoth, generally at about 170 °F. Algae living in the pools have tinted the travertine shades of brown, orange, red. Thermal activity here is extensive both over time and distance, the thermal flows show much variability with some variations taking place over periods ranging from decades to days. Terrace Mountain at Mammoth Hot Springs is the largest known carbonate-depositing spring in the world, the most famous feature at the springs is the Minerva Terrace, a series of travertine terraces. The terraces have been deposited by the spring over many years but, due to recent minor earthquake activity, the Mammoth Terraces extend all the way from the hillside, across the Parade Ground, and down to Boiling River. The Mammoth Hotel, as well as all of Fort Yellowstone, is built upon an old terrace formation known as Hotel Terrace, there was some concern when construction began in 1891 on the fort site that the hollow ground would not support the weight of the buildings. Several large sink holes can be out on the Parade Ground. This area has been active for several thousand years. The Mammoth area exhibits much evidence of activity from the Pinedale Glaciation. The summit of Terrace Mountain is covered with glacial till, thereby dating the formation there to earlier than the end of the Pinedale Glaciation. Several thermal kames, including Capitol Hill and Dude Hill, are features of the Mammoth Village area. Ice-marginal stream beds are in evidence in the small, narrow valleys where Floating Island Lake, in Gardner Canyon one can see the old, sorted gravel bed of the Gardner River covered by unsorted glacial till
20.
Magma
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Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals, dissolved gas and sometimes gas bubbles. Magma often collects in magma chambers that may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion, magma is capable of intruding into adjacent rocks, extrusion onto the surface as lava, and explosive ejection as tephra to form pyroclastic rock. Magma is a complex high-temperature fluid substance, temperatures of most magmas are in the range 700 °C to 1300 °C, but very rare carbonatite magmas may be as cool as 600 °C, and komatiite magmas may have been as hot as 1600 °C. Environments of magma formation and compositions are commonly correlated, environments include subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Despite being found in such locales, the bulk of the Earths crust. Except for the outer core, most of the Earth takes the form of a rheid. Magma, as liquid, preferentially forms in high temperature, low pressure environments within several kilometers of the Earths surface, magma compositions may evolve after formation by fractional crystallization, contamination, and magma mixing. By definition rock formed of solidified magma is called igneous rock, melting of solid rocks to form magma is controlled by three physical parameters, temperature, pressure, and composition. Mechanisms are discussed in the entry for igneous rock, as a rock melts, its volume changes. When enough rock is melted, the small globules of melt link up, under pressure within the earth, as little as a fraction of a percent partial melting may be sufficient to cause melt to be squeezed from its source. The degree of melting is critical for determining what type of magma is produced. The degree of partial melting required to form a melt can be estimated by considering the relative enrichment of incompatible elements versus compatible elements, incompatible elements commonly include potassium, barium, cesium, and rubidium. Rock types produced by small degrees of melting in the Earths mantle are typically alkaline. Typically, primitive melts of this composition form lamprophyre, lamproite, kimberlite and sometimes nepheline-bearing mafic rocks such as alkali basalts, pegmatite may be produced by low degrees of partial melting of the crust. Some granite-composition magmas are eutectic melts, and they may be produced by low to high degrees of melting of the crust. At high degrees of melting of the crust, granitoids such as tonalite, granodiorite and monzonite can be produced. Being only the time in recorded history that magma had been reached, IDDP decided to invest in the hole. A cemented steel case was constructed in the hole with a perforation at the close to the magma
21.
Superheating
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This article is about the phenomenon where a liquid can exist in a metastable state above its boiling point. See superheated water for pressurized water above 100 °C, see superheater for the device used in steam engines. In physics, superheating is the phenomenon in which a liquid is heated to a higher than its boiling point. Superheating is achieved by heating a substance in a clean container, free of nucleation sites. Water is said to boil when bubbles of water vapor grow without bound, for a vapor bubble to expand, the temperature must be high enough that the vapor pressure exceeds the ambient pressure. Below that temperature, a vapor bubble will shrink and vanish. Superheating is an exception to this rule, a liquid is sometimes observed not to boil even though its vapor pressure does exceed the ambient pressure. The cause is a force, the surface tension, which suppresses the growth of bubbles. Surface tension makes the bubble act like a rubber balloon, the pressure inside is raised slightly by the skin attempting to contract. For the bubble to expand, the temperature must be raised slightly above the point to generate enough vapor pressure to overcome both surface tension and ambient pressure. What makes superheating so explosive is that a bubble is easier to inflate than a small one, just as when blowing up a balloon. It turns out the pressure due to surface tension is inversely proportional to the diameter of the bubble. This means if the largest bubbles in a container are only a few micrometres in diameter, once a bubble does begin to grow, the pressure due to the surface tension reduces, so it expands explosively. In practice, most containers have scratches or other imperfections which trap pockets of air that provide starting bubbles, but a container of liquid with only microscopic bubbles can superheat dramatically. Superheating can occur when a container of water is heated in a microwave oven. When the container is removed, the water appears to be below the boiling point. However, once the water is disturbed, some of it violently flashes to steam, the boiling can be triggered by jostling the cup, inserting a stirring device, or adding a substance like instant coffee or sugar. The chances of superheating are greater with smooth containers, because scratches or chips can house small pockets of air, which serve as nucleation points
22.
Geyser
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A geyser is a spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam. As a fairly rare phenomenon, the formation of geysers is due to particular hydrogeological conditions that exist in only a few places on Earth, generally all geyser field sites are located near active volcanic areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of magma. Generally, surface water works its way down to a depth of around 2,000 metres where it contacts hot rocks. The resultant boiling of the water results in the geyser effect of hot water. Over one thousand known geysers exist worldwide, at least 1,283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, United States, and an average of 465 geysers are active there in a given year. Like many other phenomena, geysers are not unique to planet Earth. Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as cryogeysers, have been observed on several of the moons of the solar system. Due to the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid, they are more easily visible by particles of dust. Water vapor jets have been observed near the pole of Saturns moon Enceladus. There are also signs of carbon dioxide eruptions from the polar ice cap of Mars. In the latter two cases, instead of being driven by energy, the eruptions seem to rely on solar heating via a solid-state greenhouse effect. The word geyser comes from Geysir, the name of a spring at Haukadalur, Iceland, that name, in turn, comes from the Icelandic verb geysa, to gush. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas, as the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface through the geysers internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain. The heat needed for geyser formation comes from magma that needs to be near the surface of the earth, the fact that geysers need heat much higher than normally found near the earths surface is the reason they are associated with volcanoes or volcanic areas. The pressures encountered at the areas where the water is heated make the point of the water much higher than at normal atmospheric pressures. The water ejected from a geyser travels underground through deep, pressurized fissures in the Earths crust, in order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system made of fractures, fissures, porous spaces, and sometimes cavities is required. This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated, Geysers are generally aligned along faults
23.
Fumarole
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A fumarole is an opening in a planets crust, often in areas surrounding volcanoes, which emits steam and gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen sulfide. The steam forms when superheated water vaporizes as its pressure drops when it emerges from the ground, the name solfatara, from the Italian solfo, sulfur, is given to fumaroles that emit sulfurous gases. Fumaroles may occur along tiny cracks or long fissures, in clusters or fields. A fumarole field is an area of springs and gas vents where magma or hot igneous rocks at shallow depth release gases or interact with groundwater. From the perspective of groundwater, a fumarole could be described as a hot spring that boils off all its water before the water reaches the surface. Fumaroles may persist for decades or centuries if located above a persistent heat source, the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, for example, was formed during the 1912 eruption of Novarupta in Alaska. Initially, thousands of fumaroles occurred in the ash from the eruption. An estimated four thousand fumaroles exist within the boundaries of Yellowstone National Park in the United States, in April 2006 fumarole emissions killed three ski-patrol workers east of Chair 3 at Mammoth Mountain Ski Area in California. The workers were overpowered by toxic fumes that had accumulated in a crevasse they had fallen into, another example is an array of fumaroles in the Valley of Desolation in Morne Trois Pitons National Park in Dominica. Boiling Lake Mazuku Mofetta Mudpot Mud volcano USGS Photo Glossary, Fumarole Sulfur Mining on Gunung Welirang Volcano Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Fumarole
24.
Clay
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Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to water content and become hard, brittle. Depending on the content in which it is found, clay can appear in various colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red. Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size, silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline, geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 µm, sedimentologists often use 4–5 μm, and colloid chemists use 1 μm. Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils Atterberg limits, ISO14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being larger. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to the process, some clay minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of deposits, primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation, secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Clay deposits are associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes. Depending on the source, there are three or four main groups of clays, kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite. Chlorites are not always considered to be a clay, sometimes being classified as a group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of clays in these categories. Varve is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion. This type of deposit is common in glacial lakes
25.
Mudpot
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A mudpot — or mud pool — is a sort of acidic hot spring, or fumarole, with limited water. It usually takes the form of a pool of bubbling mud, the acid and microorganisms decompose surrounding rock into clay and mud. The mud of a mudpot takes the form of a viscous, often bubbling, as the boiling mud is often squirted over the brims of the mudpot, a sort of mini-volcano of mud starts to build up, sometimes reaching heights of 3–5 feet. Although mudpots are often called mud volcanoes, true mud volcanoes are very different in nature, the mud of a mudpot is generally of white to greyish color, but is sometimes stained with reddish or pink spots from iron compounds. When the slurry is particularly colorful, the feature may be referred to as a paint pot, Mudpots form in high-temperature geothermal areas where water is in short supply. The little water that is available rises to the surface at a spot where the soil is rich in volcanic ash, clay, the thickness of the mud usually changes along with seasonal changes in the water table. The geothermal areas of Yellowstone National Park contain several examples of both mudpots and paint pots, as do some areas of Iceland and New Zealand. Several locations in and around the Salton Sea in California are also home to active mudpots, Mudpots at Yellowstone National Park official site Mudpots photo gallery at Yellowstone NP official site
26.
Boiling point
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The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor. The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the environmental pressure. A liquid in a vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid at high pressure has a boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. For a given pressure, different liquids boil at different temperatures, for example, water boils at 100 °C at sea level, but at 93.4 °C at 2,000 metres altitude. The normal boiling point of a liquid is the case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level,1 atmosphere. At that temperature, the pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure. The standard boiling point has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar, the heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure. Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation, evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquids edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, a saturated liquid contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase, the liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of energy results in a phase transition. If the pressure in a system remains constant, a vapor at saturation temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy is removed, similarly, a liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied. The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the point is dependent on the pressure. Boiling points may be published with respect to the NIST, USA standard pressure of 101.325 kPa, at higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, the boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached
27.
Warm Springs, Georgia
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Warm Springs is a city in Meriwether County, Georgia, United States. The population was 478 at the 2010 census, Warm Springs, originally named Bullochville, first came to prominence in the 19th century as a spa town, because of its mineral springs which flow constantly at nearly 90 °F. In the late 19th century traveling to the springs was attractive as a way to get away from Atlanta. Traveling by railroad to Durand, they would go to Bullochville. One of the places benefiting from this was the Meriwether Inn, once the automobile became popular in the early 20th century, the tourists began going elsewhere, starting the decline of the Meriwether Inn. In 1921, Franklin Roosevelt contracted polio, one of the few things that seemed to ease his pain was immersion in warm water, and while in said water to bathe and engage in physical exercise. His first time in Warm Springs was October 1924 and he went to a resort in the town whose attraction was a permanent 88-degree natural spring, but whose main house was described as ramshackle. It is famous for the Little White House, where Roosevelt lived while president and he died there in 1945 and it is now a public museum. Roosevelt first came in the 1920s in hopes that the water would improve his paraplegia. He was a constant visitor for two decades, and renamed the town from Bullochville to Warm Springs, the springs are not available for public use as a bath/spa resort, but they are used by the Roosevelt Institute for therapeutic purposes. Warm Springs is located at 32°53′19″N 84°40′48″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.2 square miles, of which,1.2 square miles of it is land and 0. 83% is water. As of the census of 2010, there were 485 people,172 households, the population density was 409.7 people per square mile. There were 208 housing units at a density of 175.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 67. 22% White,31. 75% African American,34. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the family size was 2.99. In the city, the population was out with 21. 2% under the age of 18,7. 4% from 18 to 24,22. 1% from 25 to 44,20. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 45 years, for every 100 females there were 62.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 57.2 males, the median income for a household in the city was $21,547, and the median income for a family was $29,950
28.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
29.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
30.
Little White House
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The Little White House was the personal retreat of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the United States, located in the Historic District of Warm Springs, Georgia. He first came to Warm Springs in 1924 for polio treatment, the house was finished in 1932. Roosevelt kept the house after he became President, using it as a presidential retreat and he died there on April 12,1945, three months into his fourth term. The house was opened to the public as a museum in 1948, a major attraction of the museum is the portrait that the artist Elizabeth Shoumatoff was painting of him when he died, now known as the Unfinished Portrait. It hangs near a finished portrait that Shoumatoff completed later from sketches, the house is operated by the State of Georgia as the Little White House Historic Site, also known as Roosevelts Little White House Historic Site. In the late 19th century, traveling to the springs was a desirable way to escape from Atlanta. Traveling by railroad to Durand, people would go to Bullochville. One of the places benefiting from this was the Meriwether Inn, once the automobile became popular in the early 20th century, tourists began going elsewhere, starting the decline of the inn. In 1921, Roosevelt, aged 39, was diagnosed with poliomyelitis, the few things that seemed to ease his pain was immersion in warm water, bathing and engaging in physical exercise. His first time in Warm Springs was October 1924 and he went to a resort in the town that had a permanent 880F natural spring, but whose main house was described as ramshackle. Roosevelt bought the resort and the 1, 700-acre farm surrounding it in 1927, five years later, in 1932, after winning the presidency for the first time, he ordered a six-room Georgia pine house to be built on the property. This house was his retreat throughout his presidency and became known as the Little White House. In total, he made 16 trips there during his presidency, usually spending two to three weeks at a time, as it took a day to reach Warm Springs from Washington, the Little White House is a six-room Colonial Revival structure made of Georgia pine. Three of the rooms were bedrooms, one for Roosevelt, one for his wife Eleanor, the other rooms were an entrance hall, a living room and a kitchen. Access to the Little White House was from a road that now only exists in parts. The garage-servants quarters was built in 1932, followed by the single-story frame cottage that served as a guesthouse in 1933, Wilkins family were the original owners of the property. Roosevelt used the Little White House as a base to replace Georgia politicians who refused to follow his policies and this was most notable in 1938 when Roosevelt tried and failed to have United States Senator Walter George replaced with a Roosevelt loyalist, even though both were Democrats. World War II affected Roosevelts time at the Little White House, the only year he did not go to the Little White House was 1942, as he was preoccupied by the beginnings of US involvement in the war
31.
Deildartunguhver
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Deildartunguhver is a hot spring in Reykholtsdalur, Iceland. It is characterized by a high flow rate for a hot spring. It is the hot spring in Europe. Some of the water is used for heating, being piped 34 kilometers to Borgarnes and 64 kilometers to Akranes, a fern called the deer fern or hard fern, Blechnum spicant, grows near Deildartunguhver. This fern grows nowhere else in Iceland
32.
Iceland
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Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, emigrated to Iceland, the island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, Iceland thus followed Norways integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Swedens secession from that union in 1523. In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918, until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture, and was among the poorest in Europe. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, in 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has an economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality, in 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy, some bankers were jailed, and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nations Scandinavian heritage, most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is related to Faroese
33.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
34.
Fountain
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A fountain is a piece of architecture which pours water into a basin or jets it into the air to supply drinking water and/or for a decorative or dramatic effect. Fountains were originally purely functional, connected to springs or aqueducts and used to drinking water and water for bathing and washing to the residents of cities, towns. Until the late 19th century most fountains operated by gravity, and needed a source of higher than the fountain, such as a reservoir or aqueduct. In addition to providing drinking water, fountains were used for decoration, Roman fountains were decorated with bronze or stone masks of animals or heroes. In the Middle Ages, Moorish and Muslim garden designers used fountains to create versions of the gardens of paradise. King Louis XIV of France used fountains in the Gardens of Versailles to illustrate his power over nature, the baroque decorative fountains of Rome in the 17th and 18th centuries marked the arrival point of restored Roman aqueducts and glorified the Popes who built them. By the end of the 19th century, as indoor plumbing became the source of drinking water. Mechanical pumps replaced gravity and allowed fountains to recycle water and to force it high into the air, the Jet dEau in Lake Geneva, built in 1951, shoots water 140 metres in the air. The highest such fountain in the world is King Fahds Fountain in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, fountains are used today to decorate city parks and squares, to honor individuals or events, for recreation and for entertainment. A Splash pad or spray pool allows city residents to enter, get wet, the musical fountain combines moving jets of water, colored lights and recorded music, controlled by a computer, for dramatic effects. Drinking fountains provide clean drinking water in buildings, parks. Ancient civilizations built stone basins to capture and hold precious drinking water, a carved stone basin, dating to around 2000 BC, was discovered in the ruins of the ancient Sumerian city of Lagash in modern Iraq. The ancient Assyrians constructed a series of basins in the gorge of the Comel River, carved in rock, connected by small channels. The lowest basin was decorated with carved reliefs of two lions, the ancient Greeks were apparently the first to use aqueducts and gravity-powered fountains to distribute water. In the 6th century BC the Athenian ruler Peisistratos built the fountain of Athens. It had nine large cannons, or spouts, which supplied drinking water to local residents. Greek fountains were made of stone or marble, with water flowing through bronze pipes, most Greek fountains flowed by simple gravity, but they also discovered how to use principle of a siphon to make water spout, as seen in pictures on Greek vases. The Ancient Romans built a system of aqueducts from mountain rivers and lakes to provide water for the fountains
35.
Florida
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Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St
36.
Silver Springs, Florida
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Silver Springs is an unincorporated community in Marion County, Florida, United States. It is the site of Silver Springs, a group of artesian springs, the community is part of the Ocala metropolitan area. One of Floridas first tourist attractions, the springs drew visitors even before the U. S. Civil War, glass bottom boats have been a popular way to see the 242-acre complex. A small amusement park with various animals, a stage, carousel. Silver Springs was founded in 1852, since the mid-19th century, the natural beauty of Silver Springs has attracted visitors from around the country. Glass bottom boat tours of the began in the late 1870s. The attraction features native animal exhibits and 30 or 90 minute glass bottom boat tours of the springs, downstream from the attraction is the Silver River State Park. Also located in Silver Springs is a park, Wild Waters. The T. W. Randall House, on the National Register of Historic Places, is located to the northeast, State Road 326 terminates at SR40, as does State Road 35, which becomes County Road 35 north of SR40 before terminating at SR326. County Roads 314 and 314A are also important north-south county roads run west
37.
Excelsior Geyser
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Excelsior Geyser Crater, formerly known as Excelsior Geyser, is a hot spring in the Midway Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States. Excelsior was named by the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871, the Excelsior Geyser pool discharges 4,000 to 4,500 gallons of 199 °F water per minute directly into the Firehole River. In the late 19th century, it was a geyser that erupted frequently. Most eruptions were about 100 feet high, although some exceeded 300 feet in height and width. It is believed that the powerful eruptions damaged its internal plumbing system, in 1985, Excelsior returned to activity for a 46-hour period from September 14 to 16. These eruptions were relatively small at 30 feet but a few were as much as 80 feet tall and 100 feet wide, all of these eruptions lasted about 2 minutes at intervals of 5 to 66 minutes. In the mid first decade of the 21st century Excelsior did have violent boiling strong enough to be considered as eruptions, the boiling reached between 5 to 10 feet and had a duration of seconds
38.
Hot Springs, South Dakota
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Hot Springs is a city in Fall River County, South Dakota, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 3,711 and it is the county seat of Fall River County. In addition, neighboring Oglala Lakota County contracts the duties of Auditor, Hot Springs is one of the warmest places in South Dakota, with an annual mean temperature of 48.6 °F. Some of the attractions in the Hot Springs area are the Mammoth Site of Hot Springs and Evans Plunge, built in 1890, the town is a gateway to the attractions of the southern Black Hills, particularly Wind Cave National Park. Hot Springs holds the annual Miss South Dakota pageant, in recognition of its historic value, the National Trust for Historic Preservation listed Hot Springs as one of its 2009 Dozen Distinctive Destinations. The city center contains over 35 sandstone buildings, Hot Springs is also the home of a United States Department of Veterans Affairs hospital, which was designated in 2011 as a National Historic Landmark. Formerly known as the Battle Mountain Sanitarium, the 100-bed center was built in 1907 for patients suffering from rheumatism or tuberculosis, in the early 21st century, it offers extensive outpatient treatment, acute hospital care, PTSD treatment, and an alcohol and drug treatment facility. Community and state leaders, including Senator Tim Johnson, Senator John Thune, the Sioux and Cheyenne people had long frequented the area, appreciating its warm springs. According to several accounts, including an art piece by the Oglala Lakota artist Amos Bad Heart Bull. European settlers arrived in the half of the 19th century. They first named this city as Minnekahta, it was renamed in 1882, the present name is a translation of the Native American name. A variety of health resorts were built on the basis of the springs, Hot Springs is located at 43°26′N 103°29′W. The Fall River runs through the city, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.61 square miles, all of it land. Hot Springs has been assigned the ZIP code 57747 and the FIPS place code 30220, as of the census of 2010, there were 3,711 people,1,730 households, and 910 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,028.0 inhabitants per square mile, there were 1,958 housing units at an average density of 542.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 85. 4% White,1. 1% African American,9. 3% Native American,0. 5% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 2% from other races, and 3. 5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 1% of the population,42. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 20. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.03 and the family size was 2.79
39.
Hot Springs, Arkansas
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Hot Springs is the eleventh-largest city in the state of Arkansas and the county seat of Garland County. The city is located in the Ouachita Mountains among the U. S, interior Highlands, and is set among several natural hot springs for which the city is named. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city had a population of 35,193, in 2015 the estimated population was 35,635. The center of Hot Springs is the oldest federal reserve in the United States, the hot spring water has been popularly believed for centuries to possess medicinal properties, and was a subject of legend among several Native American tribes. Following federal protection in 1832, the city developed into a spa town. One of the largest Pentecostal denominations in the United States, the Assemblies of God, today, much of Hot Springss history is preserved by various government entities. Hot Springs National Park is maintained by the National Park Service, including Bathhouse Row, downtown Hot Springs is preserved as the Central Avenue Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The city also contains dozens of hotels and motor courts. Due to the popularity of the waters, Hot Springs benefited from rapid growth during a period when many cities saw a sharp decline in building. As a result, Hot Springss architecture is a key part of the blend of cultures, including a reputation as a tourist town. Also a destination for the arts, Hot Springs features the Hot Springs Music Festival, Hot Springs Documentary Film Festival, members of many Native American tribes had been gathering in the valley for untold numbers of years to enjoy the healing properties of the thermal springs. In 1673, Father Marquette and Jolliet explored the area and claimed it for France, the 1763 Treaty of Paris ceded the land to Spain, however, in 1800 control was returned to France until the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1807, a man named Prudhomme became the first settler of modern Hot Springs, on August 24,1818, the Quapaw Indians ceded the land around the hot springs to the United States in a treaty. After Arkansas became its own territory in 1819, the Arkansas Territorial Legislature requested in 1820 that the springs, twelve years later, in 1832, the Hot Springs Reservation was created by the United States Congress, granting federal protection of the thermal waters. The reservation was renamed Hot Springs National Park in 1921, the outbreak of the American Civil War left Hot Springs with a declining bathing population. After the Confederate forces suffered defeat in the Battle of Pea Ridge in March 1862, rector moved his staff and state records to Hot Springs. Union forces did not attack Little Rock, and the government returned to the city on July 14,1862. Many residents of Hot Springs fled to Texas or Louisiana and remained there until the end of the war, in September 1863, Union forces occupied Little Rock
40.
Saturnia
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Saturnia is a spa town in Tuscany in north-central Italy that has been inhabited since ancient times. It is a frazione of the comune of Manciano, in the province of Grosseto, famous for the homonym spa, its population is of 280. It lies about 14 km from Manciano,56 km from Grosseto,37 km northeast of Orbetello and the coast. Near the village,800 L/s of sulphurous water at 37 °C gushes over a waterfall, Saturnia takes its name from the Roman god Saturn. Legend has it that he tired of the constant wars of humans. Dionysius of Halicarnassus lists Saturnia as one of the towns first occupied by the Pelasgi, a Roman colony arrived in 183 BC, but little is known about it other than the fact that it was a prefecture. There are still remains of the city walls, in the polygonal style, Roman remains have also been discovered within the town, and remains of tombs outside. These tombs were covered by tumuli, which have now disappeared, so that George Dennis, author of Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. In 1300, Saturnia became the hideout of outlaws and was razed to the ground by the Sienese, forgotten for several centuries, Saturnia was rediscovered in the late 19th century when the land around the spring was drained and a spa built. Thousands of visitors come to bathe in the waters to this day, the Church of Santa Maria Maddalena is the main church in Saturnia. The earliest historical records related to the date back to 1188. The church holds the famous Madonna and Child frescoe attributed to Benvenuto di Giovanni at the end of the 15th century
41.
Truth or Consequences, New Mexico
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Truth or Consequences is a spa city and the county seat of Sierra County, New Mexico, United States. In 2012, the population was 6,411 and it is commonly known within New Mexico as T or C. It has frequently noted on lists of unusual place names. The first bath in the area was built at John Cross Ranch over Geronimo Springs in the late 1800s, however, major settlement did not begin until the construction of Elephant Butte Dam and Reservoir in 1912, the dam was completed in 1916. Elephant Butte Dam was a part of the Rio Grande Project, in 1916, the town was incorporated as Hot Springs. It became the Sierra County seat in 1937, originally named Hot Springs, the city changed its name to Truth or Consequences, the title of a popular NBC Radio program. Edwards visited the town during the first weekend of May for the next 50 years and this event was called Fiesta and included a beauty contest, a parade, and a stage show. The city still celebrates Fiesta each year during the first weekend of May, the parade generally features area celebrities such as the Hatch Chile Queen. Fiesta also features a dance in Ralph Edwards Park, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 12.8 square miles, of which 12.6 square miles is land and 0.1 square miles is water. The city is located on the Rio Grande, near Elephant Butte Reservoir, the winter season from October to March has pleasantly mild and sunny days and cold to very cold nights, with very occasional rainfall from extratropical cyclones. On average over the year 88.6 days top 90 °F or 32.2 °C,12.9 days top 100 °F or 37.8 °C, and 91.1 nights fall below 32 °F or 0 °C. Temperatures have fallen below 0 °F or −17.8 °C only twice since 1951, during 1987 and 2011, with the record low being −6 °F on February 3,2011. The lowest maximum temperature on record has been 20 °F on December 25,1987, precipitation is generally scarce apart from monsoonal storms. 1991 was also the wettest full calendar year with 17.04 inches or 432.8 millimetres, Truth or Consequences hosts several local hot springs. The combined flow of the hot springs complex in Truth or Consequences is estimated at 99 liters per second, before World War II, there were about 40 hot springs spas in Truth or Consequences. By 2008, the Hot Springs Association in Truth or Consequences had 10 spa facilities as members. Five of those obtained their water wells, and La Paloma Hot Springs & Spa, Indian Springs Bath House, Artesian Bath house. The New Mexico Department of Energy, Minerals, and Natural Resources created two demonstration projects using geothermal energy in Truth or Consequences in the 1980s
42.
Lava Hot Springs, Idaho
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Lava Hot Springs is a city in Bannock County, Idaho, United States. It is part of the Pocatello, Idaho Metropolitan Statistical Area, the population was 407 at the 2010 census, down from 521 in 2000. Lava Hot Springs is located at 42°37′10″N 112°0′51″W, at an elevation of 5,020 feet above sea level. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 0.71 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 407 people,209 households, the population density was 598.5 inhabitants per square mile. There were 317 housing units at a density of 466.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 5% White,0. 2% African American,0. 2% Native American,1. 2% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 2% of the population. 44. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 20. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 1.95 and the average family size was 2.74. The median age in the city was 50.9 years. 16. 7% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 2% were between the ages of 18 and 24,19. 2% were from 25 to 44,31. 4% were from 45 to 64, and 26. 5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48. 2% male and 51. 8% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 521 people,232 households, and 125 families residing in the city. The population density was 730.7 people per square mile, there were 309 housing units at an average density of 433.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 96. 93% White,1. 15% Native American,0. 19% Asian,1. 34% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 30% of the population. 39. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 19. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 3.06. In the city, the population was out with 27. 4% under the age of 18,5. 2% from 18 to 24,26. 7% from 25 to 44,21. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 98.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.9 males, the median income for a household in the city was $23,472, and the median income for a family was $38,750. Males had an income of $38,125 versus $20,313 for females
43.
Idaho
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Idaho is a state in the northwestern region of the United States. It borders the state of Montana to the east and northeast, Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, to the north, it shares a small portion of the Canadian border with the province of British Columbia. With a population of around 1.7 million people and an area of 83,569 square miles, Idaho is the 14th largest, the states capital and largest city is Boise. Idaho prior to European settlement was inhabited solely by Native American peoples, in the early 19th century, Idaho was considered part of the Oregon Country, an area disputed between the U. S. and the United Kingdom. Idaho was eventually admitted to the Union on July 3,1890, forming part of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho is divided into several distinct geographic and climatic regions. In the states north, the relatively isolated Idaho Panhandle is closely linked with Eastern Washington, the states south includes the Snake River Plain, while the south-east incorporates part of the Great Basin. Idaho is quite mountainous, and contains several stretches of the Rocky Mountains, additionally, around 38 percent of Idahos land is held by the United States Forest Service, the most of any state. Industries significant for the economy include manufacturing, agriculture, mining, forestry. Idahos agricultural sector supplies a number of different products, but the state is best known for its potato crop, the official state nickname is the Gem State, which references Idahos reputation for gemstones and, more broadly, its many wilderness areas. The exact origin of the remains a mystery. Willing later claimed that he had invented the name. Congress ultimately decided to name the area Colorado Territory when it was created in February 1861, thinking they would get a jump on the name, locals named a community in Colorado Idaho Springs. However, the name Idaho did not fall into obscurity, the same year Congress created Colorado Territory, a county called Idaho County was created in eastern Washington Territory. The county was named after a steamship named Idaho, which was launched on the Columbia River in 1860 and it is unclear whether the steamship was named before or after Willings claim was revealed. Regardless, a portion of Washington Territory, including Idaho County, was used to create Idaho Territory in 1863. Despite this lack of evidence for the origin of the name, the name Idaho may be derived from the Plains Apache word ídaahę́, which means enemy. The Comanches used this word to refer to the Idaho Territory, a 1956 Idaho history textbook says, Idaho is a Shoshoni Indian exclamation. The word consists of three parts, the first is Ee, which in English conveys the idea of coming down
44.
Glenwood Springs, Colorado
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The City of Glenwood Springs is the Home Rule Municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Garfield County, Colorado, United States. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 9,614 and it is also home to two of the campuses and the administrative offices of the Colorado Mountain College system. Glenwood Springs in 2015 was named the Most Vibrant Small Town Arts Environment in the United States by Southern Methodist University and it was named the Most Fun Town in America by Rand McNally and USA Today in 2011. Glenwood Springs was originally known as Defiance, a name still used by local teams or businesses. Defiance was established in 1883, a camp of tents, saloons and it was populated with the expected crowd of gamblers, gunslingers, and prostitutes. The location of Glenwood Springs, as well as gaining a stop on the railroad, the city has seen famous visitors, including President Teddy Roosevelt, who spent an entire summer vacation living out of the historic Hotel Colorado. Doc Holliday, a wild west legend from the O. K. Corral gunfight, kid Curry is buried in the same location. Infamous serial killer Ted Bundy was imprisoned in the Glenwood Springs jail until he escaped on the night of December 30,1977, Glenwood Springs was one of the first places in the United States to have electric lights. The original lighting was installed in 1897 inside of the Fairy Caves in Iron Mountain, later, a dam was built in Glenwood Canyon, providing water for the Shoshone power plant. Glenwood Springs is located in the mountain valleys that host the confluence of the Colorado River. The surrounding terrain is steeply contoured on all sides, with numerous caves to be found, extensive geothermal resources exist in the area, most famously manifest in the local hot springs, but also evidenced through other features such as the Dotsero maar. Occasional proposals to leverage the geothermal energy for other purposes arise, Glenwood Springs has experienced several significant mudslides throughout its history, a threat mitigated somewhat by public works. Glenwood Springs is one of the most walkable towns in America, due to assertive planning by city management during the early years of the city, Glenwood Springs owns some of the most senior water rights to tributaries of the Colorado River. Despite very little risk of water supply inadequacy, unlike most of the American West, supply is so ample that the city has an incomplete understanding of its own water rights. The towns drinking water is supplied primarily through senior rights to major watersheds in the Flat Tops Wilderness Area, and the tap water is generally of excellent quality. Extensive mineral deposits exist further up the Crystal River and the Roaring Fork, however, Glenwood Springs itself lies outside of the Colorado Mineral Belt, and there are no mineral or oil and gas sources near Glenwood Springs proper or its watersheds. Valley inversions and heavy traffic to Aspen can lead to air quality issues during exceptionally cold spells of winter. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, Glenwood Springs has an area of 5.7 square miles, of which 0.01 square miles
45.
Colorado
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Colorado is a state in the United States encompassing most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. Colorado is part of the Western United States, the Southwestern United States, Colorado is the 8th most extensive and the 21st most populous of the 50 United States. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Colorado was 5,540,545 on July 1,2016, the state was named for the Colorado River, which Spanish travelers named the Río Colorado for the ruddy silt the river carried from the mountains. The Territory of Colorado was organized on February 28,1861, Colorado is nicknamed the Centennial State because it became a state in the same year as the centennial of the United States Declaration of Independence. Colorado is noted for its landscape of mountains, forests, high plains, mesas, canyons, plateaus, rivers. Denver is the capital and the most populous city of Colorado, residents of the state are properly known as Coloradans, although the term Coloradoan has been used archaically and lives on in the title of Fort Collins newspaper, the Coloradoan. Colorado, Wyoming and Utah are the states which have boundaries defined solely by lines of latitude and longitude. The summit of Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet elevation in Lake County is the highest point in Colorado, Colorado is the only U. S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado and this point, which holds the distinction of being the highest low elevation point of any state, is higher than the high elevation points of 18 states and the District of Columbia. A little less than one half of the area of Colorado is flat, East of the Rocky Mountains are the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains, the section of the Great Plains within Nebraska at elevations ranging from roughly 3,350 to 7,500 feet. The Colorado plains were mostly prairies, but they have many patches of forests, buttes. Eastern Colorado is presently covered in farmland and rangeland, along with small farming villages. Precipitation is fair, averaging from 15 to 25 inches annually, corn, wheat, hay, soybeans, and oats are all typical crops, and most of the villages and towns in this region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator. Irrigation water is available from the South Platte, the Arkansas River, and a few other streams, however, heavy use of ground water from wells for irrigation has caused underground water reserves to decline. As well as agriculture, eastern Colorado hosts considerable livestock, such as cattle ranches. Roughly 70% of Colorados population resides along the edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor between Cheyenne, Wyoming, and Pueblo, Colorado. This region is protected from prevailing storms that blow in from the Pacific Ocean region by the high Rockies in the middle of Colorado. The Front Range includes Denver, Boulder, Fort Collins, Loveland, Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Greeley and other townships, on the other side of the Rockies, the significant population centers in Western Colorado are the cities of Grand Junction, Durango, and Montrose
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. PMID 16014951.