1.
Hostel
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Hostels provide budget-oriented, sociable accommodation where guests can rent a bed, usually a bunk bed, in a dormitory and share a bathroom, lounge and sometimes a kitchen. Rooms can be mixed or single-sex, and private rooms may also be available, in a few countries, such as the UK, Ireland, India and Australia, the word hostel sometimes also refers to establishments providing longer-term accommodation. In India, Pakistan and South Africa, hostel also refers to boarding schools or student dormitories in resident colleges and universities, in other parts of the world, the word hostel mainly refers to properties offering shared accommodation to travellers or backpackers. Backpackers Hostels began in Australia and New Zealand and differ from Hostels by being open during the day time, in 1912, in Altena Castle in Germany, Richard Schirrmann created the first permanent Jugendherberge or Youth Hostel. These first youth hostels were an exponent of the vision of the German Youth Movement to let poor city youngsters breathe fresh air outdoors. The youths were supposed to manage the hostel themselves as much as possible, doing chores to keep the costs down and build character, because of this, many youth hostels closed during the middle part of the day. While most hostels still close during the day no longer require chores beyond washing up after self-catered meals. The words hotel, hostel, and hostal are etymologically related, coming into the English language from Old French hostel, itself from Late Latin hospitale, nowadays, however, they each refer to distinct types of accommodation. In particular, hostal is used in Spanish either with the sense as hostel. For those who prefer an environment, hostels do not usually have the same level of formality as hotels. For those who prefer to socialise with their guests, hostels usually have more common areas. The dormitory aspect of hostels also increases the social factor, Hostels normally close during the day to keep down cost. There is less privacy in a hostel than in a hotel, sharing sleeping accommodation in a dormitory is very different from staying in a private room in a hotel or bed and breakfast, and might not be comfortable for those requiring more privacy. Hostels encourage more interaction between guests due to the shared sleeping areas and communal areas such as lounges, kitchens. Care should be taken with personal belongings, as guests may share a living space. Noise can make sleeping difficult on occasions, whether from snoring, talking, sexual activity, someone either returning late or leaving early, to mitigate this, some wear earplugs and/or sleeping masks. Some hostels may include a hot meal in the price, the traditional hostel format involved dormitory style accommodation. Some newer hostels also include en-suite accommodation with single, double or quad occupancy rooms, in recent years, the numbers of independent and backpackers hostels have increased greatly to cater for the greater numbers of overland, multi-destination travellers
2.
Motel
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A motel is a hotel designed for motorists and usually has a parking area for motor vehicles. Motels are often owned, though motel chains do exist. Several historic motels are listed on the US National Register of Historic Places, Motels differ from hotels in their location along highways, as opposed to the urban cores favored by hotels, and their orientation to the outside. Motels almost by definition include a lot, while older hotels were not usually built with automobile parking in mind. Because of their construction, the number of rooms which would fit on any given amount of land was low compared to the high-rise urban hotels which had grown around train stations. The automobile brought mobility and the motel could appear anywhere on the vast network of two-lane highways. Motels are typically constructed in an I-, L-, or U-shaped layout that includes guest rooms, a managers office, a small reception, and in some cases, a small diner. A motel was typically single-story with rooms opening directly onto a parking lot, a second story, if present, would face onto a balcony served by multiple stairwells. U. S. Route 66 is the most popular example of the neon era, many of these signs remain in use to this day. Rooms with connecting doors also commonly appeared in hotels and motels. A few motels would offer honeymoon suites with extra amenities such as whirlpool baths, the first campgrounds for automobile tourists were constructed in the late 1910s. Before that, tourists who couldnt afford to stay in a hotel either slept in their cars or pitched their tents in fields alongside the road, the modern campgrounds of the 1920s and 1930s provided running water, picnic grounds, and restroom facilities. They also kept those pesky tin can tourists out of the farmers fields, Auto camps predated motels by a few years, established in the 1920s as primitive municipal camp sites where travelers pitched their own tents. As demand increased, for-profit commercial camps gradually displaced public camp grounds, until the first travel trailers became available in the 1930s, auto tourists adapted their cars by adding beds, makeshift kitchens and roof decks. The next step up from the trailer was the cabin camp. During the Great Depression, landholders whose property fronted onto highways built cabins to convert land to income, some opened tourist homes. The buildings for a motel or cabin court were quick and simple to construct, with plans and instructions readily available in how-to. The 1935 City Directory for San Diego, California, lists motel-type accommodations under tourist camps, one initially could stay in the Depression-era cabin camps for less than a dollar per night but small comforts were few and far between
3.
Bathroom
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A bathroom is a room in the home for personal hygiene activities, generally containing a sink and either a bathtub, a shower, or both. In some countries, the toilet is included in this room, for ease of plumbing, whereas other cultures consider this insanitary, historically, bathing was often a collective activity, which took place in public baths. In some countries the social aspect of cleansing the body is still important, as for example with sento in Japan. In North American English the word bathroom may be used to any room containing a toilet. The term for the used to clean the body varies around the English-speaking world. A full bathroom is generally understood to contain a bath or shower, a toilet, an ensuite bathroom or ensuite shower room is attached to and only accessible from a bedroom. A family bathroom, in British estate agent terminology, is a full bathroom not attached to a bedroom, a Jack and Jill bathroom or connected bathroom is situated between and shared by the occupants of two separate bedrooms. A wetroom is a room usually equipped with a shower. In the United States, there is a lack of a single, universal definition, in some U. S. markets, a toilet, sink, and shower are considered a full bath. In addition, there is the use of the bathroom to describe a room containing a toilet, usually a basin. See that article for further synonyms and euphemisms, bathrooms often have one or more towel bars or towel rings for hanging towels. Some bathrooms contain a medicine cabinet for personal hygiene products and medicines, some bathrooms contain a bidet, which might be placed next to a toilet. The design of a bathroom must account for the use of hot and cold water, in significant quantities, for cleaning the body. The water is used for moving solid and liquid human waste to a sewer or septic tank. Water may be splashed on the walls and floor, and hot air may cause condensation on cold surfaces. From a decorating point of view the bathroom presents a challenge, ceiling, wall and floor materials and coverings should be impervious to water and readily and easily cleaned. The use of ceramic or glass, as well as smooth plastic materials, is common in bathrooms for their ease of cleaning. Such surfaces are often cold to the touch, however, alternatively, the floor may be heated, possibly by strategically placing resistive electric mats under floor tile or radiant hot water tubing close to the underside of the floor surface
4.
Room number
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A room number is a number assigned to a room within a building. Its purpose is to identify a particular room, and help building inhabitants locate that room, logical and consistent assignment of room numbers is important for efficient everyday building usage, and to allow emergency personnel to quickly and easily find their way to any area of a building. Room numbers may consist of three digits, but can be any number of digits, the room number is generally assigned with the first digit indicating the floor on which the room is located. For example, room 412 would be on the floor of the building. Buildings that have more than nine floors will have four digits assigned to rooms beyond the ninth floor, for example, room 1412 would be on the 14th floor. The second digit may represent the wing, or section, of the building in which the room is located, room 540 will typically be found adjacent to room 542, in a four digit room number, this digit will be the third digit instead of the second. The third digit is assigned based on the side of the corridor on which the room is located, one side of the corridor has odd-numbered rooms. However, numbers may also proceed in a manner on one side of the corridor before switching to the opposite side to continue doing so on that side. In four digit numbers, this digit will be represented by the fourth digit instead of the third. This is known as the Parent-Child Room Numbering system, the room which is entered first is known as the Parent Room. Rooms accessed after first passing through the Parent Room are Child Rooms, a letter may appear before the numbers to indicate a particular building or wing. For example, Room D149 is a room in D building, an offset may be used to accommodate unnumbered floors. For example, in a building with floors labeled G, M,1,2,11 and 12, the 4th room in each of those floors could be numbered 104,114,124,134. 224, and 234, respectively — with an offset of 11 in the floor numbers and this trick is sometimes used to make the floor number slightly less obvious, e. g. for security or marketing reasons. Some apartments are numbered using the room number assignment method. Some apartments, however, are assigned with a number followed by a letter, there may be one or two numbers in the apartment number, followed by just one letter. For example, apartment 14R would be on the fourteenth floor, apartment 7B would be on the seventh floor. Some apartment buildings may use points or the letters F, C, or R to indicate the front, center
5.
Bed and breakfast
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A bed and breakfast is a small lodging establishment that offers overnight accommodation and breakfast. Bed and breakfasts are often private family homes and typically have four and eleven rooms, with six being the average. Bed and breakfast is also used to describe the level of catering included in a hotels room prices, as opposed to room only, generally, guests are accommodated in private bedrooms with private bathrooms, or in a suite of rooms including an en suite bathroom. Some homes have private bedrooms with a bathroom which is shared with other guests, Breakfast is served in the bedroom, a dining room, or the hosts kitchen. B&Bs and guest houses may be operated as either a source of income or a primary occupation. Often the owners themselves prepare the breakfast and clean the rooms, properties with hired professional management are uncommon but may exist if the same owner operates multiple B&Bs. Some B&Bs operate in a niche market, floating bed and breakfasts are boats or houseboats which offer B&B accommodation, the CCGS Alexander Henry museum ship was one example. In some communities, former lighthouse keeper quarters have been turned into B&B rooms after the light has been automated or decommissioned, in China expatriates have remodelled traditional structures in quiet picturesque rural areas and opened a few rustic boutique hotels with minimum amenities. Most patrons are tourists but they are growing in popularity among the Chinese, in Hungary B&B is very popular. Usually is a small hotel, an intimate ambience and a pleasant atmosphere. It provides an alternate for the hotels. In Hungarian the B&B is called Panzió or Szálló, in India, the government is promoting the concept of bed & breakfast. The government is doing this to increase tourism, especially keeping in view the demand for hotels during the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi and they have classified B&B in 2 categories - Gold & Silver B&B. All B&B will be approved by the Ministry of Tourism who will then categorize it as Gold or Silver based upon the pre-defined criteria, charges for standard B&B is around $100 to $120 each head for a month and for premium B&B services starts from $180 and above. Registered Irish B&Bs are star rated by Fàilte Ireland and along with the majority unregistered B&Bs, generally, B&Bs in Ireland are family owned & run, with a small percentage being leased/managed but still with the personal service expected in this sector. Owners / Managers nearly always live on premises, Breakfast can mean a cooked Irish Fry or continental style buffet. The Israeli B&B is known as a zimmer, all over the country, but especially in northern Israel the zimmers has developed an extensive industry. Settlements belonging to families and rural settlements are rented for a short period
6.
Capsule hotel
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The guest room is a modular plastic or fiberglass block roughly 2 by 1 by 1.25 m. Facilities differ, but most include a television, an electronic console, the capsules are stacked side-by-side, two units high, with steps providing access to the second level rooms, leading to comparisons to corpse drawers in a morgue. The open end of the capsule can be closed, for privacy, luggage is stored in a locker, and washrooms are communal. Guests are asked not to smoke or eat in the capsules, some hotels also provide restaurants, pools, and other entertainment facilities. Capsule hotels vary in size, from fifty or so capsules to 700, some capsule hotels offer separate sections for male and female guests. Clothes and shoes can sometimes be exchanged for a yukata and slippers on entry, a towel may also be provided. The benefit of these hotels is convenience and low price, usually around ¥2000-4000 a night and they provide an alternative for those who may be too drunk to return home safely, or too embarrassed to face their spouses. This style of hotel has not gained popularity outside Japan, although Western variants known as pod hotels have been developed, with larger accommodations. The first capsule hotel in the world was the Capsule Inn Osaka, designed by Kisho Kurokawa and located in the Umeda district of Osaka, in 2012, China opened its first capsule hotel in Xian. In 2014, the first European capsule hotel opened in Belgium, in January 2017, the first capsule hotel opened in Hong Kong. The first capsule hotel in India was opened on 1 March 2017 in Andheri, the hotel, called Urbanpod, contains 140 units with an individual area of between 50 square feet and 90 sq ft. Sleepbox Transit hotel Shinjuku Kuyakusho-mae Capsule Hotel Japans Capsule Hotels
7.
The Peninsula Paris
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The Peninsula Paris is a historic luxury hotel, formerly known as the Hotel Majestic, located on Avenue Kléber in the 16th arrondissement of Paris, France. It opened in 1908 and was converted to government offices in 1936, the hotel served as a field hospital for wounded officers during World War I, staffed largely by British aristocrats. During World War II it served as the headquarters of the German military high command in France during the Nazi occupation of Paris, the hotel played a pivotal role in the deportation of Parisian Jews and the 1944 assassination attempt on Hitler. The building reopened as The Peninsula Paris in August 2014 following a complicated, Avenue Kléber, part of Baron Haussmanns rebuilding plan for Paris, was originally known as avenue du Roi de Rome in tribute to Napoleon I’s son. In 1864, a rich Russian nobleman named Alexandr Basilewski constructed a palace at 19 avenue du Roi de Rome, Basilewski sold the palace in 1868 to Queen Isabella II of Spain, who established the palace as her home in exile during the First Spanish Republic. She continued to live there for the next 36 years and the palace was known as the Palais de Castille, after the queen’s death, the property was acquired by hotel magnate Leonard Tauber after a bidding war that involved the United States government and the King of Belgium. Tauber constructed the luxurious Hotel Majestic on the site, retaining Queen Isabellas bathroom accoutrements, including her marble bath, designed by Armand Sibien, construction began in 1906 and the hotel opened in December 1908. The hotel was purchased by Henry Devenish Harben for use as a hospital at the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It was damaged during its service, and was not renovated and reopened until 1916. In 1922 it was the site of a dinner hosted by Violet and Sydney Schiff and attended by Marcel Proust, Igor Stravinsky. The dinner party of the century, was immortalised in Richard Davenport-Hiness book, Proust at the Majestic, the 1st unofficial Chess Olympiad was held at the hotel in 1924. George Gershwin wrote An American in Paris while staying at the hotel in 1928, the hotel was purchased by the French government in 1936 to serve as offices for the Ministry of Defence. It served as the headquarters of the German military high command in France from October 1940 to July 1944 during the occupation of Paris in World War II and he spoke of experiments for the killing of Jews using a specially prepared truck whose exhaust fumes would kill the deportees. In this context the word “gassing” was first used outside of Hitlers inner circle in relation to the extermination of the Jewish population of Paris, militärbefehlshaber Frankreich staff at The Majestic were soon processing hundreds of deportation orders against the Jewish population of Paris. Stülpnagel opposed the policy and decided to act against Hitler, on 20 July 1944, Stülpnagels co-conspirator Claus von Stauffenberg made his assassination attempt on Hitler at the Wolfsschanze in East Prussia. For his part, Stülpnagel put his part of the plot into operation from The Majestic, ordering Hans Otfried von Linstow to round up all SS and Gestapo officers in Paris and imprison them. These events were witnessed by Walter Bargatzky, a high ranking German officer who wrote Hotel Majestic, after the plot failed, Bargatzky left his office at The Majestic and returned to room 409 in The Raphael to await his arrest. It never came and like other members of the plot
8.
Inn
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Inns are generally establishments or buildings where travelers can seek lodging and, usually, food and drink. They are typically located in the country or along a highway, Inns in Europe were possibly first established when the Romans built their system of Roman roads two millennia ago. Some inns in Europe are several centuries old, in addition to providing for the needs of travelers, inns traditionally acted as community gathering places. Historically, inns in Europe provided not only food and lodging, famous London examples of inns include the George and the Tabard. There is however no longer a distinction between an inn and other kinds of establishment. Many pubs use the name inn, either because they are established and may have been formerly coaching inns. Inns were like bed and breakfasts, with a community dining room which was used for town meetings or rented for wedding parties. The front, facing the road was ornamental and welcoming for travelers, the back also usually had at least one livery barn for travelers to keep their horses. There were not lobbies as in modern inns, but the innkeeper would answer the door for each visitor, many inns were simply large estates that had extra rooms for renting. During the 19th century the inn played a role in the growing transportation system of England. Industry was on the rise and people were traveling more in order to keep, the English Inn was considered an important part of English infrastructure as it helped maintain a smooth flow of travel throughout the country. As modes of transport have evolved, tourist lodging has adapted to each generation of traveller. A stagecoach made frequent stops at roadside coaching inns for water, food, a passenger train stops only at designated stations in the city centre, around which were built grand railway hotels. The lodging aspect of the word inn lives on in hotel brand names like Holiday Inn, the Inns of Court in London were once accommodations for members of the legal profession. Other forms of inn exist throughout the world, among them are the honjin and ryokan of Japan, and caravanserai of the Ottoman Empire. In Asia Minor, during the periods of rule by the Seljuq and Ottoman Turks and these inns provided accommodation for people and their vehicles or animals and served as a resting place for people, whether travelling on foot or by other means. These inns were built between towns if the distance between them was too far for one days travel and these structures were called caravansarais which were inns with large courtyards with ample supplies of water for both drinking and other uses. They would also contain a café in addition to supplies of food
9.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
10.
Coaching inn
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There are few motels with the function of refueling to motor vehicles, but the feeding function to horses was required for coaching inn. Coaching inns stabled teams of horses for stagecoaches and mail coaches, traditionally they were seven miles apart but this depended very much on the terrain. Hence any suspiciously elaborate tale would become a cock and bull story and this is a cock-and bull story in itself, however, as there is no evidence to suggest that this is where the phrase originated. The phrase, first recorded in 1621, may instead be an allusion to Aesops fables, as this slightly predates coaching inns, the names of the two inns could have been a reference to Cock and Bull stories as to encourage the passing of such anecdotes within their doors. Historic inns in Oxford include The Bear Inn and the Lamb & Flag, examples of historic inns in Wales include the Black Boy Inn and the Groes Inn. The Black Lion in Cardigan is probably the oldest Welsh coaching inn, Inn Public house Stagecoach Inn Coaching Era, The, Stage and Mail Coach Travel in and Around Bath, Bristol and Somerset, Roy Gallop, Fiducia, ISBN 1-85026-019-2 Coaching inns. Photos of examples of what may be considered coaching inns in geograph. org. uk
11.
Coach (carriage)
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A coach is originally a large, usually closed, four-wheeled carriage with two or more horses harnessed as a team, controlled by a coachman and/or one or more postilions. It had doors in the sides, with generally a front and a seat inside and, for the driver. The term coach first came into use in the 15th century, there are a number of types of coaches, with differentiations based on use, location and size. Special breeds of horses, such as the now-extinct Yorkshire Coach Horse, were developed to pull the vehicles, Kocs was the Hungarian post town in the 15th century onwards, which gave its name to a fast light vehicle, which later spread across Europe. Therefore, the English word coach, the Spanish and Portuguese coche, the German Kutsche, and it was not until about the middle of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, that coaches were introduced to England. Coaches were reputedly introduced into England from France by Henry FitzAlan, a coach with four horses is a coach-and-four. A coach together with the horses, harness and attendants is a turnout, the bodies of early coaches, as of American Concord stagecoaches, were hung on leather straps. In the eighteenth century steel springs were substituted, an improvement in suspension, a coach might have a built-in compartment called a boot, used originally as a seat for the coachman and later for storage. A luggage case for the top of a coach was called an imperial, the front and rear axles were connected by a main shaft called the perch or reach. A crossbar known as a bar supported the springs. Coaches were often decorated by using a sable brush called a liner. In the 19th century the term coach was applied to railway carriages, a park drag is also known as a private coach as it was owned by private individuals for their own personal driving. A park drag has seats on its top and is driven to a team of four well-matched carriage horses. The principal ceremonial coaches in the United Kingdom are the Gold State Coach, Irish State Coach, the business of a coachman was to drive a coach. He was also called a jarvey or jarvie, especially in Ireland, if he drove dangerously fast or recklessly he was a jehu (from Jehu, king of Israel, who was noted for his furious attacks in a chariot, or a Phaeton. A postilion or postillion sometimes rode as a guide on the horse of a pair or of one of the pairs attached to a coach. A guard on a coach was called a shooter. Traveling by coach, or pleasure driving in a coach, as in a tally-ho, was called coaching, in driving a coach, the coachman used a coachwhip, usually provided with a long lash
12.
Exeter
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Exeter is a cathedral city in Devon, England with a population of 127,300. It lies within the county of Devon, of which it is the county town as well as the home of Devon County Council, currently, the administrative area has the status of a non-metropolitan district and is therefore under the administration of the County Council. The city is on the River Exe about 37 miles northeast of Plymouth and 70 miles southwest of Bristol, Exeter was the most south-westerly Roman fortified settlement in Britain, although there is evidence a Cornish tribe existed in Exeter before the Roman invasion. Exeter became a centre during the Middle Ages and into the Tudor times, Exeter Cathedral, founded in the mid 11th century. During the late 19th century, Exeter became an affluent centre for the wool trade, after the Second World War, much of the city centre was rebuilt and is now considered to be a centre for modern business and tourism in Devon and Cornwall. The name Exe is a development of the Brittonic name—meaning water or, more exactly, full of fish —that also appears in the English Axe and Esk, the Welsh Usk. Exeter began as settlements on a dry ridge ending in a spur overlooking a navigable river teeming with fish, although there have been no major prehistoric finds, these advantages suggest the site was occupied early. Coins have been discovered from the Hellenistic kingdoms, suggesting the existence of a settlement trading with the Mediterranean as early as 250 BC. Such early towns had been a feature of pre-Roman Gaul as described by Julius Caesar in his Commentaries, the Romans established a 42-acre playing-card shaped fort named Isca around AD55. To distinguish the two, the Romans also referred to Exeter as Isca Dumnoniorum, Watertown of the Dumnonii, a small fort was also maintained at Topsham, a supply depot on the route between the two was excavated at St Loyes on Topsham Road in 2010. The presence of the built up an unplanned civilian community of natives. This area was excavated in the 1970s, but could not be maintained for public view owing to its proximity to the present-day cathedral, in January 2015, it was announced that Exeter Cathedral had launched a bid to restore the baths and open an underground centre for visitors. In the late 2nd century, the ditch and rampart defences around the old fortress were replaced by a bank and wall enclosing a much larger area, although most of the visible structure is older, the course of the Roman wall was used for Exeters subsequent city walls. Thus about 70% of the Roman wall remains, and most of its route can be traced on foot, the dating of the coins so far discovered, however, suggests a rapid decline, virtually none have been discovered dated after the year 380. By that time, the city was held by the Saxons, Exeter was known to the Saxons as Escanceaster. In 876, it was attacked and briefly captured by Danish Vikings, alfred the Great drove them out the next summer. Over the next few years, he elevated Exeter to one of the four burhs in Devon and these permitted the city to fend off another attack and siege by the Danes in 893. King Athelstan again strengthened the walls around 928, and at the time drove out the remaining Britons from the city
13.
Western Europe
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Western Europe, or West Europe, is the region comprising the western part of Europe. Below, some different geographic and geopolitical definitions of the term are outlined, prior to the Roman conquest, a large part of Western Europe had adopted the newly developed La Tène culture. This cultural and linguistic division was reinforced by the later political east-west division of the Roman Empire. The division between these two was enhanced during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages by a number of events, the Western Roman Empire collapsed, starting the Early Middle Ages. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, mostly known as the Greek or Byzantine Empire, survived, in East Asia, Western Europe was historically known as taixi in China and taisei in Japan, which literally translates as the Far West. The term Far West became synonymous with Western Europe in China during the Ming dynasty, the Italian Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci was one of the first writers in China to use the Far West as an Asian counterpart to the European concept of the Far East. In his writings, Ricci referred to himself as Matteo of the Far West, the term was still in use in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Post-war Europe would be divided into two spheres, the West, influenced by the United States, and the Eastern Bloc. With the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain, behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Although some countries were neutral, they were classified according to the nature of their political. This division largely defined the popular perception and understanding of Western Europe, the world changed dramatically with the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989. The Federal Republic of Germany peacefully absorbed the German Democratic Republic, COMECON and the Warsaw Pact were dissolved, and in 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Several countries which had part of the Soviet Union regained full independence. Although the term Western Europe was more prominent during the Cold War, it remains much in use, in 1948 the Treaty of Brussels was signed between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. It was further revisited in 1954 at the Paris Conference, when the Western European Union was established and it was declared defunct in 2011, after the Treaty of Lisbon, and the Treaty of Brussels was terminated. When the Western European Union was dissolved, it had 10 member countries, six member countries, five observer countries. The CIA divides Western Europe into two smaller subregions, regional voting blocs were formed in 1961 to encourage voting to various UN bodies from different regional groups. The European Union is an economic and political union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe, some Western and Northern European countries of Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein are members of EFTA, though cooperating to varying degree with the European Union
14.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
15.
Luxury goods
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Luxury goods are often synonymous with superior goods and Veblen goods. Luxury goods are said to have high income elasticity of demand, as people become wealthier and this also means, however, that should there be a decline in income its demand will drop. Income elasticity of demand is not constant with respect to income, although the technical term luxury good is independent of the goods quality, they are generally considered to be goods at the highest end of the market in terms of quality and price. Classic luxury goods include haute couture clothing, accessories, and luggage, many markets have a luxury segment including, for example, automobile, yacht, wine, bottled water, coffee, tea, foods, watches, clothes, jewelry, and high fidelity. The hiring of full-time or live-in domestic servants is a luxury reflecting disparities of income, some financial services, especially in some brokerage houses, can be considered luxury services by default because persons in lower-income brackets generally do not use them. The three dominant trends in the luxury goods market are globalization, consolidation, and diversification. Globalization is a result of the availability of these goods, additional luxury brands. Consolidation involves the growth of big companies and ownership of brands across many segments of luxury products, examples include LVMH, Richemont, and Kering, which dominate the market in areas ranging from luxury drinks to fashion and cosmetics. Leading global consumer companies, such as Procter & Gamble, are attracted to the industry. The luxury goods market has been on a climb for many years. Apart from the setback caused by the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, the industry has performed well, particularly in 2000. In that year, the luxury goods market – which includes drinks, fashion, cosmetics, fragrances, watches, jewelry, luggage, handbags – was worth close to $170 billion. The United States has been the largest regional market for goods and is estimated to continue to be the leading personal luxury goods market in 2013. The largest sector in this category was luxury drinks, including premium whisky, Champagne and this sector was the only one that suffered a decline in value. In 2012, China surpassed Japan as the worlds largest luxury market, chinas luxury consumption accounts for over 25% of the global market. The Economist Intelligence Unit published a report on the outlook for luxury goods in Asia which explores the trends and forecasts for the luxury goods market across key markets in Asia. In 2014, the sector is expected to grow over the next 10 years because of 440 million consumers spending a total of 880 billion euros. Secular luxury manuscripts were commissioned by the wealthy and differed in the same ways from cheaper books
16.
Restaurant
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A restaurant, or an eatery, is a business which prepares and serves food and drinks to customers in exchange for money. Meals are generally served and eaten on the premises, but many also offer take-out and food delivery services. In Western countries, most mid- to high-range restaurants serve alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, some restaurants serve all the major meals, such as breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Other restaurants may serve a single meal or they may serve two meals or even a kids meal. Restaurants may be classified or distinguished in different ways. The primary factors are usually the food itself, the cuisine and/or the style of offering, beyond this, restaurants may differentiate themselves on factors including speed, formality, location, cost, service, or novelty themes. In the former case, customers usually wear casual clothing, in the latter case, depending on culture and local traditions, customers might wear semi-casual, semi-formal or formal wear. Typically, at mid- to high-priced restaurants, customers sit at tables, their orders are taken by a waiter, after eating, the customers then pay the bill. Another restaurant approach which uses few waiters is the buffet restaurant, customers serve food onto their own plates and then pay at the end of the meal. Buffet restaurants typically still have waiters to serve drinks and alcoholic beverages, fast food restaurants are also considered a restaurant. The travelling public has long been catered for with ships messes and railway restaurant cars which are, in effect, many railways, the world over, also cater for the needs of travellers by providing railway refreshment rooms, a form of restaurant, at railway stations. In the 2000s, a number of travelling restaurants, specifically designed for tourists, have been created and these can be found on trams, boats, buses, etc. A restaurants proprietor is called a restaurateur /ˌrɛstərəˈtɜːr/, like restaurant, professional cooks are called chefs, with there being various finer distinctions. Most restaurant will have various waiting staff to serve food, beverages and alcoholic drinks, including busboys who remove used dishes and cutlery. In finer restaurants, this may include a host or hostess, a maître dhôtel to welcome customers and to them. A new route to becoming a restauranter, rather than working ones way up through the stages, is to operate a food truck, once a sufficient following has been obtained, a permanent restaurant site can be opened. This trend has become common in the UK and the US, a chefs table is a table located in the kitchen of a restaurant, reserved for VIPs and special guests. Patrons may be served a themed tasting menu prepared and served by the head chef, Restaurants can require a minimum party and charge a higher flat fee
17.
Concierge
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A concierge is an employee of an apartment building, hotel, or office building. The concierge serves guests of an apartment building, hotel, or office building with duties similar to those of a receptionist, the position can also be maintained by a security guard over the late night shift. A similar position, known as the portero, exists in Spanish-speaking regions, in medieval times, the concierge was an officer of the king who was charged with executing justice, with the help of his bailiffs. Later on in the 18th century, the concierge was an official of the kingdom, appointed by the king to maintain order and oversee the police. In 19th-century and early 20th-century apartment buildings, particularly in Paris and he often had a small apartment on the ground floor, called la loge, and was able to monitor all comings and goings. However, such settings are now rare, most concierges in small or middle-sized buildings have been replaced by the part-time services of door-staff. Some larger apartment buildings or groups of buildings retain the use of concierges, a modern concierge may also serve as a lifestyle manager, like a secretary or an adjutant. Concierge also assist with sending and receiving parcels, in hospitals, concierge services are becoming increasingly available. A hospital concierge provides similar services to those of a hotel concierge and this helps hospital employees who work long shifts, and helps to provide work-life balance. There are numerous independent personal concierge companies that provide errand services, services include informational requests, setting dinner reservations, making telephone calls, researching travel arrangements and more. Typically, concierge companies will bill on a rate, and depending upon the type of task. Other companies bill a flat monthly fee based upon the number of requests a member is allowed to each month. In the United Kingdom, since the year 2000 and as of 2010, concierge has become a key marketing and loyalty tool in the banking sector and this service offering is also known as lifestyle management. The French word concierge is likely derived from the Old French cumcerges, the film Home Alone 2, Lost in New York had a concierge named Mr. Hector who works at the Plaza Hotel and was suspicious of Kevin McCallister. In the 2014 Wes Anderson film, The Grand Budapest Hotel, héctor Elizondo portrays a concierge of the Plaza Hotel in the American Dad. There was a reference by Hector to having done other concierge roles, the film For Love or Money describe the story about concierge at a luxurious hotel who is dreaming to open his own hotel on Roosevelt Island
18.
Conference and resort hotels
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Conference and resort hotels are hotels which often contain full-sized luxury facilities with full-service accommodations and amenities. These hotels may attract business conferences and vacationing tourists and offer more than a convenient place to stay. These hotels may be referred to as major conference center hotels, flagship hotels, destination hotels, the market for conference and resort hotels is a subject for market analysis. These hotels as destinations may be characterized by distinctive architecture, upscale lodgings, ballrooms, large facilities, restaurants. They may be located in a variety of settings from major cities to remote locations, since the 1800s, the traditional concept full service conference and resort hotels has been based upon a venue which is typically remote and has a natural feature as its attraction. For example, the Kviknes Hotel in Norway is a difficult to reach remote location which provides access to the scenic fjord at Balestrand. A megaresort is a type of destination which is of a large size. The hotels along the Las Vegas Strip are most typically thought of as megaresorts owing to their immense size, Kirk Kerkorian is credited for building the first mega resort in 1969 earning him the nickname father of the mega resort. Two projects in Las Vegas in 1969 and 1973 by architect Martin Stern, Jr. and entrepreneur Kirk Kerkorian, the International Hotel, the Mirage given its size and emphasis on non-gaming entertainment options like shopping and fine dining to draw in customers. Megaresorts use the same fantastic or mythical theme throughout their properties, many megaresorts have a large theme park as its centerpiece. Resorts such as the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts feature multiple hotels, multiple theme parks, other megaresorts exist with no specific centerpiece, having many features that are considered prominent, such as Atlantis Paradise Island and its upcoming sister park in Dubai
19.
Boutique hotel
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Boutique hotels began appearing in the 1980s in major cities like Paris, London, New York, and San Francisco. The term was coined by Steve Rubell in 1984 when he compared the Morgans Hotel, a trend observed in recent times is for international hotel chains to establish luxury boutique sub-brands to capitalize on the growth of this segment. Many boutique hotels are furnished in a themed, stylish and/or aspirational manner, the popularity of the boutique concept has prompted some multi-national hotel companies to try to capture a market share. In the United States, New York City remains an important centre for boutique hotels clustered about Manhattan, some members of the hospitality industry are following the general no-frill chic consumer trend, with affordable or budget boutique hotels being created all around the world. Boutique hotels are found in London, New York City, Miami and they are also found in resort destinations with exotic amenities such as electronics, spas, yoga and/or painting classes
20.
Apartment hotel
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An apartment hotel is a serviced apartment complex that uses a hotel-style booking system. It is similar to renting an apartment, but with no fixed contracts and occupants can check-out whenever they wish, an apartment hotel complex usually offers a complete fully fitted apartment. These complexes are usually built, and similar to a hotel complex containing a varied amount of apartments. The length of stay in apartment hotels is varied with anywhere from a few days to months or even years. The people who stay in apartment hotels use them as accommodation, therefore. Apartment hotels were first created in holiday destinations as accommodation for families that needed to live in an apartment rather than stay as they would in a hotel, the apartments would provide a holiday home but generally be serviced. Later, these evolved to be complete homes, allowing occupants to do everything they would at home, such as cleaning, washing. Extended stay hotels are a type of lodging with features unavailable at standard hotels and these features are intended to provide more home-like amenities. There are currently 27 extended stay chains in North America with at least 7 hotels, there is substantial variation among extended stay hotels with respect to quality and the amenities available. Some of the economy chains attract clientele who use the hotels as semi-permanent lodging, extended-stay hotels typically have self-serve laundry facilities and offer discounts for extended stays, beginning at 5 or 7 days. They also have guestrooms with kitchens, the kitchens include at a minimum usually, a sink, a refrigerator, a microwave oven, and a stovetop. Some kitchens also have dishwashers and conventional ovens, Extended stay hotels are aimed at business travelers on extended assignments, families in the midst of a relocation, and others in need of temporary housing. The Residence Inn chain was launched in 1975 in Wichita, Kansas by Jack DeBoer, as of April 2005, there were over 450 Residence Inn hotels in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Staybridge Suites and Candlewood Suites, both owned by the InterContinental Hotels Group, are two examples of hotels designed for business and extended stay travelers, another brand of extended-stay hotels is Homewood Suites, which is part of Hilton Worldwide. Another hotel chain, Choice Hotels International, franchiser for brands such as Comfort Inn, Comfort Suites, Sleep Inn and they acquired the Suburban Extended Stay hotel chain in 2005, with over 150 hotels open and under development. The low-budget extended stay chain Intown Suites was founded in 1988, since 1999 the U. S. budget lodging chain Motel 6, owned by The Blackstone Group, operates Studio 6, a chain of extended stay hotels with weekly rates. The chain provides an area in its rooms, and allows pets. Serviced apartment Single Room Occupancy Studio apartment Corporate Housing
21.
Timeshare
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A timeshare is a property with a particular form of ownership or use rights. These properties are typically resort condominium units, in multiple parties hold rights to use the property. Units may be on a partial ownership, lease, or right to use basis, the term timeshare was coined in the United Kingdom in the early 1960s expanding on a vacation system that became popular after World War II. They rotated seasons each year, so each family enjoyed the prime seasons equally and this concept was mostly used by related families because joint ownership requires trust and no property manager was involved. However, few families vacation for a season at a time. It took almost a decade for timeshares in Europe to evolve to a run successful business venture. The first timeshare in the United States was started in 1974 by Caribbean International Corporation, based in Fort Lauderdale and it offered what it called a 25-year vacation license rather than ownership. The company owned two other resorts the vacation license holder could alternate their vacation weeks with, one in St. Croix and one in St. Thomas, the Virgin Islands properties began their timeshare sales in 1973 with owners Hillie Meyers, Don Saunders, and Arthur Zimand. The license owner was allowed to rent or give his week away as a gift in any particular year, the only stipulation was that the $15.00 per diem must be paid every year whether the unit was occupied or not. This must be paid yearly fee would become the roots of what is today as maintenance fees. Shortly thereafter, the Florida Real Estate Commission stepped in, enacting legislation to regulate Florida timeshares and this meant that in addition to the price of the owners vacation week, a maintenance fee and a homeowners association had to be initiated. This fee simple ownership also spawned timeshare location exchange companies like Interval International, cancellations, or rescission to the timeshare contract, remain the industrys biggest hurdle to date. The industry is regulated in all countries where resorts are located, in Europe, it is regulated by European and by national legislation. On May 17,2010, Mexico’s Ministry of Economy through the General Directorate of Standards established new regulations, the new regulations are outlined in the Official Mexican Norm, which consists of a series of official standards and regulations applicable to diverse activities in Mexico. It established the standards, Marketing companies are not allowed to offer gifts. The requirements to cancel a contract must be more practical. NOM recognizes the rights of timeshare consumers. It is strictly prohibited for the provider to dispose of the consumer’s personal information without written consent
22.
The Ritz Hotel, London
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The Ritz, London is a Grade II listed 5-star hotel located in Piccadilly in London, England. A symbol of high society and luxury, the hotel is one of the worlds most prestigious and it is a member of the international consortium, The Leading Hotels of the World. The hotel was opened by Swiss hotelier César Ritz in May 1906, after a weak beginning, the hotel began to gain popularity towards the end of World War I, and became popular with politicians, socialites, writers and actors of the day in particular. David Lloyd George held a number of meetings at the Ritz during the latter half of the war. Noël Coward was a diner at the Ritz in the 1920s and 1930s. Owned by the Bracewell-Smith family for a period until 1976, The Ellerman Group of Companies purchased the hotel for £80 million from Trafalgar House in October 1995 and they spent eight years and £40 million restoring it to its former grandeur. In 2002, it became the first hotel to receive a Royal warrant from HRH the Prince of Wales for its banquet, the exterior is both structurally and visually Franco-American in style with little trace of English architecture, and is heavily influenced by the architectural traditions of Paris. The facade on the Piccadilly side is roughly 231 feet,115 feet on the Arlington Street side, at the corners of the pavilion roofs of the Ritz are large green copper lions, the emblem of the hotel. The Ritz has 111 rooms and 23 suites, the Ritz Club, owned by London Clubs since 1998, is a casino in the basement of the hotel, occupying the space which was formerly the Ritz Bar and Grill. It offers roulette, black jack, baccarat, and poker, the interior was designed mainly by London and Paris based designers in the Louis XVI style, which is consistent throughout. The Ritzs most widely known facility is the Palm Court, which hosts the famous Tea at the Ritz and it is an opulently decorated cream-coloured Louis XVI setting, with panelled mirrors in gilt bronze frames. The hotel has six private dining rooms, the Marie Antoinette Suite, with its boiserie, the Rivoli Bar, built in the Art Deco style, was designed in 2001 by interior designer Tessa Kennedy, to resemble the bar on the Orient Express. Swiss hotelier César Ritz, the manager of the Savoy Hotel. It was built on the site which had been the Old White Horse Cellar, the financial backers of the Ritz felt that they had secured one of the prime sites in London for their project. Demolition of both of the began in 1904. The building is neoclassical in the Louis XVI manner, built during the Belle Époque to resemble a stylish Parisian block of flats, over arcades that consciously evoked the Rue de Rivoli. Its architects were Charles Mewès, who had previously designed Ritzs Hôtel Ritz Paris and it was one of the earliest substantial steel frame structures in London, the Savoy Hotel extension of 1903-04 being the first in the capital. Many of the used in the construction of the hotel were US-made
23.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
24.
Casino
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A casino is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. The industry that deals in casinos is called the gaming industry, casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions. There is much debate whether or not the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated. Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as comedy, concerts. The term casino is a confusing linguistic false friend for translators, Casino is of Italian origin, the root casa originally meant a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club. In modern-day Italian, the term designates a bordello, while the gambling house is spelled casinò with an accent. Not all casinos were used for gaming, the Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for the mass public meetings often held in its hall during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy. Until 1937, it was a well-known Danish theatre, the Hanko Casino in Hanko, Finland—one of that towns most conspicuous landmarks—was never used for gambling. Rather, it was a hall for the Russian nobility which frequented this spa resort in the late 19th century and is now used as a restaurant. In military and non-military usage in German and Spanish, a casino or kasino is an officers mess, in Italian—the source-language of the word—a casino is either a brothel, a mess, or a noisy environment, while a gaming house is called a casinò. The precise origin of gambling is unknown and it is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history. From the Ancient Greeks and Romans to Napoleons France and Elizabethan England and it was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry. In American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons, the creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities, New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco. It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, during the early 20th century in America, gambling became outlawed and banned by state legislation and social reformers of the time. However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada, Americas first legalized casinos were set up in those places. In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now Americas second largest gambling city, most jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age. Customers gamble by playing games of chance, in cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack. Most games played have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an overall advantage over the players and this can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative
25.
Resort
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A resort is a self-contained commercial establishment that endeavors to provide most of a vacationers wants, such as food, drink, lodging, sports, entertainment, and shopping, on the premises. The term resort may be used for a property that provides an array of amenities, typically including entertainment. A hotel is frequently a central feature of a resort, such as the Grand Hotel at Mackinac Island, some resorts are also timeshare or fractionally owned, or wholly owned condominium complexes. A resort is not always a commercial establishment operated by a single company, commonly these facilities are of higher quality than would be expected if one were to stay at a hotel or eat in a towns restaurants. Closely related to these resorts are convention and large meeting sites, generally these occur in cities where special meeting halls, together with ample accommodations as well as varied dining and entertainment, are provided. An all-inclusive resort charges a price that includes most or all items. At a minimum, most inclusive resorts include lodging, unlimited food, drink, sports activities, all-inclusive resorts are found in the Caribbean, particularly in Dominican Republic, Egypt, and elsewhere. Many also offer sports and other included in the price as well. They are often located in warmer regions, the all-inclusive model originated in the Club Med resorts, which were founded by the Belgian Gérard Blitz. Some all-inclusive resorts are designed for specific vacation interests, for example, certain resorts cater to adults, while even more specialized properties accept couples only. Other all-inclusive resorts are geared toward families, with facilities like craft centers, game rooms, all-inclusive resorts are also very popular locations for destination weddings. A spa resort is a short term residential/lodging facility with the purpose of providing individual services for spa-goers to develop healthy habits. Historically many such spas were developed at the location of natural hot springs or sources of mineral waters, golf resorts are resorts that cater specifically to the sport of golf, and include access to one or more golf course and or clubhouse. Golf resorts typically provide golf packages that provide visitors with all greens and cart fees, range balls, accommodations, in North America a ski resort is generally a destination resort in a ski area. Ski resort is less likely to refer to a town or village, a megaresort is a type of destination resort which is of an exceptionally large size, such as those along the Las Vegas Strip. In Singapore integrated resort is a euphemism for a destination resort. A holiday village is a type of self-contained resort in Europe, a holiday camp in the United Kingdom refers to a resort where the accommodation is in chalets. The term holiday park is used for a resort where the accommodation includes static caravans, there are 1500+ timeshare resorts in the U. S. that are operated by major hospitality, timeshare-specific, or independent companies
26.
Hotel Manager
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A hotel manager, hotelier, or lodging manager is a person who manages the operation of a hotel, motel, resort, or other lodging-related establishment. The hotels General Manager is often supported by subordinate department managers that are responsible for individual departments, the size and complexity of a hotel management organizational structure varies significantly depending on the size, features, and function of the hotel or resort. A small hotel operation normally may consist of a small management team consisting of a Hotel Manager. Each department at the hotel or resort complex may normally consist of subordinate line-level managers and supervisors who handle day-to-day operations. Additional auxiliary functions such as security may be handled by third-party vendor services contracted by the hotel on an as-needed basis, Hotel management is necessary to complete the look of the hotel. The background and training required varies by the type of management position, size of operation, industry experience has proven to be a basic qualification for nearly any management occupation within the lodging industry. A BS degree in Hospitality Management or an equivalent Business degree is often preferred by most employers in the industry. A higher level graduate degree may be desired for a General Manager type position, a graduate degree may however be required for a higher level corporate executive position or above such as a Regional Vice President who oversees multiple hotel properties and General Managers. Hotel managers are generally exposed to long shifts that include late hours, weekends, the common workplace environment in hotels is fast-paced, with high levels of interaction with guests, employees, investors, and other managers. These duties may vary each day depending on the needs of the property, the managers responsibility also includes knowing about all current local events as well as the events being held on the hotel property. Managers are often required to attend department meetings, management meetings, training seminars for professional development. A hotel/casino property may require additional duties regarding special events being held on property for casino complimentary guests, the median annual wage in 2015 of the 48,400 lodging managers in the United States was $49,720
27.
Administration of business
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Business administration is management of a business. It includes all aspects of overseeing and supervising business operations, in general, administration refers to the broader management function, including the associated finance, personnel and MIS services. Alternatively, administration can refer to the bureaucratic or operational performance of routine tasks, usually internally oriented. Administrators, broadly speaking, engage in a set of functions to meet the organizations goals. These functions of the administrator were described by Henri Fayol as the five elements of administration, sometimes creating output, which includes all of the processes that create the product that the business sells, is added as a sixth element. A business administrator oversees a business and its operations, the job is to ensure that the business meets its goals and is properly organized and managed. When organizational changes are necessary, a person in this usually leads the way as well. In some cases, the person who starts or owns the business serves as its administrator, when a person has the title of business administrator, they are essentially the manager of the company and its other managers. The person oversees those in positions to ensure that they follow company policies. Additionally, they interact with people outside the company, such as business partners and vendors. The Bachelor of Business Administration is a degree in commerce. The degree is designed to give a broad knowledge of the aspects of a company and their interconnection. The degree also develops the students practical, managerial and communication skills, many programs incorporate training and practical experience, in the form of case projects, presentations, internships, industrial visits, and interaction with experts from industry. The Master of Business Administration is a degree in business administration. The MBA degree originated in the United States in the early 20th century when the country industrialized, most programs also include elective courses. The MBA is a degree and a professional degree. Accreditation bodies specifically for MBA programs ensure consistency and quality of education, Business schools in many countries offer programs tailored to full-time, part-time, executive, and distance learning students, many with concentrations. PhD in management is the highest academic degree awarded in the study of management science, the degree was designed for those seeking academic research and teaching careers as faculty or professors in the study of management at business schools worldwide
28.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
29.
Hospital
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A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized medical and nursing staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the hospital, which typically has an emergency department to treat urgent health problems ranging from fire. A district hospital typically is the health care facility in its region, with large numbers of beds for intensive care. Specialised hospitals can help reduce health care costs compared to general hospitals, a teaching hospital combines assistance to people with teaching to medical students and nurses. The medical facility smaller than a hospital is called a clinic. Hospitals have a range of departments and specialist units such as cardiology, some hospitals have outpatient departments and some have chronic treatment units. Common support units include a pharmacy, pathology, and radiology, Hospitals are usually funded by the public sector, by health organisations, by health insurance companies, or by charities, including direct charitable donations. Historically, hospitals were founded and funded by religious orders, or by charitable individuals. During the Middle Ages, hospitals served different functions from modern institutions, Middle Ages hospitals were almshouses for the poor, hostels for pilgrims, or hospital schools. The word hospital comes from the Latin hospes, signifying a stranger or foreigner, another noun derived from this, hospitium came to signify hospitality, that is the relation between guest and shelterer, hospitality, friendliness, and hospitable reception. By metonymy the Latin word then came to mean a guest-chamber, guests lodging, hospes is thus the root for the English words host hospitality, hospice, hostel and hotel. The German word Spital shares similar roots, the grammar of the word differs slightly depending on the dialect. Some patients go to a hospital just for diagnosis, treatment, or therapy and then leave without staying overnight, while others are admitted and stay overnight or for several days or weeks or months. Hospitals usually are distinguished from other types of facilities by their ability to admit and care for inpatients whilst the others. Larger cities may have several hospitals of varying sizes and facilities, some hospitals, especially in the United States and Canada, have their own ambulance service. A district hospital typically is the health care facility in its region, with large numbers of beds for intensive care. In California, district hospital refers specifically to a class of healthcare facility created shortly after World War II to address a shortage of beds in many local communities. Twenty-eight of Californias rural hospitals and 20 of its critical-access hospitals are District hospitals, Californias District hospitals are formed by local municipalities, have Boards that are individually elected by their local communities, and exist to serve local needs
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Article (grammar)
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An article is a word that is used alongside a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Articles specify grammatical definiteness of the noun, in some extending to volume or numerical scope. The articles in the English language are the and a/an, an and a are modern forms of the Old English an, which in Anglian dialects was the number one and survived into Modern Scots as the number owan. Both on and an survived into Modern English, with one used as the number, in many languages, articles are a special part of speech, which cannot easily be combined with other parts of speech. In English, articles are considered a part of a broader speech category called determiners. In languages that employ articles, every common noun, with exceptions, is expressed with a certain definiteness. Every noun must be accompanied by the article, if any, corresponding to its definiteness, and this is in contrast to other adjectives and determiners, which are typically optional. This obligatory nature of articles makes them among the most common words in many languages—in English, for example, articles are usually characterized as either definite or indefinite. A few languages with well-developed systems of articles may distinguish additional subtypes, within each type, languages may have various forms of each article, according to grammatical attributes such as gender, number, or case, or according to adjacent sounds. The definite article is used to refer to a member of a group or class. It may be something that the speaker has already mentioned or it may be something uniquely specified, the definite article in English for both singular and plural nouns, is the. The children know the fastest way home, the sentence above refers to specific children and a specific way home, it contrasts with the much more general observation that, Children know the fastest ways home. The latter sentence refers to children in general and their specific ways home, refers to a specific book whose identity is known or obvious to the listener, as such it has a markedly different meaning from Give me a book. Which uses an indefinite article, which does not specify what book is to be given, the definite article can also be used in English to indicate a specific class among other classes, The cabbage white butterfly lays its eggs on members of the Brassica genus. However, recent developments show that definite articles are morphological elements linked to certain noun types due to lexicalization, under this point of view, definiteness does not play a role in the selection of a definite article more than the lexical entry attached to the article. The definite article is also used with proper names, which are already specified by definition. For example, the Amazon, the Hebrides, in these cases, the definite article may be considered superfluous. Its presence can be accounted for by the assumption that they are shorthand for a phrase in which the name is a specifier, i. e. the Amazon River
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London Borough of Southwark
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The London Borough of Southwark /ˈsʌðərk/ in south London, England forms part of Inner London and is connected by bridges across the River Thames to the City of London. It was created in 1965 when three smaller council areas amalgamated under the London Government Act 1963, all districts of the area are within the London postal district. It is governed by Southwark London Borough Council, Dulwich is home to the Dulwich Picture Gallery and the Imperial War Museum is in Elephant and Castle. The area was first settled in the Roman period but the name Southwark dates from the 9th century, the London Borough of Southwark was formed in 1965 from the former area of the Metropolitan Borough of Southwark, the Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell, and the Metropolitan Borough of Bermondsey. The borough borders the City of London and the London Borough of Tower Hamlets to the north, the London Borough of Lambeth to the west, to the south are the London Borough of Bromley and the London Borough of Croydon. At the 2001 census Southwark had a population of 244,866, Southwark is ethnically 63% white, 16% black African and 8% black Caribbean. The area is the home of many Nigerian, Jamaican, South African, Polish, Tower Bridge, the Millennium Bridge, Blackfriars Bridge, Southwark Bridge and London Bridge all connect the City of London to the borough. The skyscraper Shard London Bridge is currently the tallest building in the EU, the Tate Modern art gallery, Shakespeares Globe Theatre, the Imperial War Museum and Borough Market are also within the borough. At one mile wide, Burgess Park is Southwarks largest green space, Southwark has many notable places of Christian worship, Anglican, Roman Catholic and independent non-conformist. These include Charles Spurgeons Metropolitan Tabernacle, Southwark Cathedral, St Georges Cathedral, Londons Norwegian Church and Finnish Church and the Swedish Seamens Church are all in Rotherhithe. St George the Martyr is the oldest church in Greater London dedicated to Englands Patron Saint, the other redundant church is Francis Bedfords in Trinity Church Square, now a recording studio, Henry Wood Hall. Whilst Christianity is the dominant religion of the borough, several religious minorities are also active, according to the 2001 Census, approximately 28% of Southwark identified as non-religious, or chose not to state their faith. Charles Dickens set several of his novels in the old borough where he lived as a young man, the site of The Tabard inn, the White Hart inn and the George Inn which survives. The rebuilt Globe Theatre and its exhibition on the Bankside remind us of the areas being the birthplace of classical theatre, there is also the remains of the Rose Theatre. In 2007 the Unicorn Theatre for Children was opened on Tooley Street with both the Southwark Playhouse and the Union Theatre having premises in Bermondsey Street, the Menier Chocolate Factory combines a theatre and exhibition space. The Bankside Gallery is the headquarters of the Royal Watercolour Society, the Golden Hinde replica is at St Mary Overie Dock and nearby are the remains of the medieval Winchester Palace which is a scheduled ancient monument. Peckham Library, designed by Will Alsop won the Stirling Prize for modern architecture, the museum was closed by Southwark council in 2008. MOCA, London, as curated by the artist Michael Petry, is a museum located in Peckham Rye dedicated to exposing and showcasing new cutting-edge artists
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Greco-Roman world
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Certainly, all men of note and accomplishment, whatever their ethnic extractions, spoke and wrote in Greek and/or Latin. The historian Josephus Flavius was Jewish but he wrote and spoke in Greek and was a Roman citizen. Occupying the periphery of this world were Roman Germany, Illyria and Pannonia, also included was Dacia, Nubia, Mauretania, Arabia Petraea, the Tauric Chersonesus. The above seems to ignore the major rivalry between the Greco-Romans, during their period of ascendancy, and the empire to the east. In the schools of art, philosophy and rhetoric, the foundations of education were transmitted throughout the lands of Greek, within its educated class spanning all of the Greco-Roman era, the testimony of literary borrowings and influences is overwhelming proof of a mantle of mutual knowledge. For example, several hundred papyrus volumes found in a Roman villa at Herculaneum are in Greek, from the lives of Cicero and Julius Caesar, it is known that Romans frequented the schools in Greece. The installation, both in Greek and Latin, of Augustuss monumental eulogy, the Res Gestae, is a proof of recognition for the dual vehicles of the common culture. Most educated Romans were likely bilingual in Greek and Latin, Greco-Roman architecture is architecture of the Roman world that followed the principles and style established in ancient Greece. The most representative building of that era was the temple, other prominent structures that represented the style included government buildings, like the Roman Senate, and cultural structures, like the Colosseum. The three primary styles of column design used in temples in classical Greece were Doric, Ionic, examples of Doric architecture are the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, while the Erechtheum, which is located right next to the Parthenon is Ionic. Ionic Greco-Roman architecture tend to be more decorative than the formal Doric styles, by AD211, with Caracallas edict known as the Constitutio Antoniniana, all free inhabitants of the Empire became citizens. As a result, even after the Fall of Rome, the people of the empire that remained continued to call themselves Romans even though Greek became the language of the Empire. Rhomaioi is what they continued to call themselves through the Ottoman era, Classical Antiquity Classical mythology Legacy of the Roman Empire Greco-Roman mysteries Hellenistic Greece Magic in the Greco-Roman world List of Greco-Roman geographers Sir William Smith. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography
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History of Iran
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Iran is home to one of the worlds oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 7000 BC. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel names the Persians as the first Historical People, the Medes unified Iran as a nation and empire in 625 BC. It was the largest empire yet seen and the first world empire and they were succeeded by the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Empires, who successively governed Iran for almost 1000 years and made Iran once again as a leading power in the world. Persias arch-rival was the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire, the Persian Empire proper begins in the Iron Age, following the influx of Iranian peoples. Iranian people gave rise to the Medes, the Achaemenid, Parthian, once a major empire of superpower proportions, having conquered far and wide, Iran has endured invasions too, by the Greeks, Arabs, Turks, and the Mongols. Iran has continually reasserted its national identity throughout the centuries and has developed as a political and cultural entity. The Muslim conquest of Persia ended the Sasanian Empire and was a point in Iranian history. Islamization of Iran took place during the eighth to tenth centuries, however, the achievements of the previous Persian civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new Islamic polity and civilization. Iran, with its history of early cultures and empires, had suffered particularly hard during the late Middle Ages. Many invasions of nomadic tribes, whose leaders became rulers in this country, the earliest archaeological artifacts in Iran were found in the Kashafrud and Ganj Par sites that are thought to date back to 100,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic. Mousterian stone tools made by Neandertals have also been found, in 1949, a Neanderthal radius was discovered by Carleton S. Coon in Bisitun Cave. Early agricultural communities such as Chogha Golan in 10,000 BC along with such as Chogha Bonut in 8000 BC, began to flourish in. Around about the time, the earliest-known clay vessels and modeled human and animal terracotta figurines were produced at Ganj Dareh. There are also 10, 000-year-old human and animal figurines from Tepe Sarab in Kermanshah Province among many ancient artifacts. The two main Neolithic Iranian settlements were the Zayandeh River Culture and Ganj Dareh, parts of what is modern-day northwestern Iran was part of the Kura–Araxes culture, that stretched up into the neighboring regions of the Caucasus and Anatolia. Susa is one of the settlements of Iran and the world. Based on C14 dating, the time of foundation of the city is as early as 4395 BC, the general perception among archeologists is that Susa was an extension of the Sumerian city state of Uruk. In its later history, Susa became the capital of Elam and it is one of the most artifact-rich archaeological sites in the Middle East
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Spa
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A spa is a location where mineral-rich spring water is used to give medicinal baths. Spa towns or spa resorts offer various health treatments, which are also known as balneotherapy. The belief in the powers of mineral waters goes back to prehistoric times. Such practices have been worldwide, but are especially widespread in Europe. Day spas are also popular, and offer various personal care treatments. The word spa itself denotes fountain, some experts also suggest that the word spa originated from the name of the Belgian town named Spa where a curative natural spring was discovered in the 14th century. Since medieval times, illnesses caused by iron deficiency were treated by drinking chalybeate spring water and it is commonly claimed, in a commercial context, that the word is an acronym of various Latin phrases such as Salus Per Aquam or Sanitas Per Aquam meaning health through water. Spa therapies have existed since the times when taking bath with water was considered as a popular means to treat illnesses. The practice of traveling to hot or cold springs in hopes of effecting a cure of some ailment dates back to pre-historic times, archaeological investigations near hot springs in France and Czech Republic revealed Bronze Age weapons and offerings. In Great Britain, ancient legend credited early Celtic kings with the discovery of the hot springs in Bath, many people around the world believed that bathing in a particular spring, well, or river resulted in physical and spiritual purification. Forms of ritual purification existed among the Native Americans, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, today, ritual purification through water can be found in the religious ceremonies of Jews, Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, and Hindus. These ceremonies reflect the ancient belief in the healing and purifying properties of water, complex bathing rituals were also practiced in ancient Egypt, in pre-historic cities of the Indus Valley, and in Aegean civilizations. Most often these ancient people did little building construction around the water, some of the earliest descriptions of western bathing practices came from Greece. The Greeks began bathing regimens that formed the foundation for modern spa procedures and these Aegean people utilized small bathtubs, wash basins, and foot baths for personal cleanliness. The earliest such findings are the baths in the complex at Knossos, Crete. They established public baths and showers within their gymnasium complexes for relaxation, Greek mythology specified that certain natural springs or tidal pools were blessed by the gods to cure disease. Around these sacred pools, Greeks established bathing facilities for those desiring healing, supplicants left offerings to the gods for healing at these sites and bathed themselves in hopes of a cure. The Spartans developed a primitive vapor bath, at Serangeum, an early Greek balneum, bathing chambers were cut into the hillside from which the hot springs issued
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Guinness World Records
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The book itself holds a world record, as the best-selling copyrighted book of all time. As of the 2017 edition, it is now in its 63rd year of publication, the international franchise has extended beyond print to include television series and museums. On 10 November 1951, Sir Hugh Beaver, then the director of the Guinness Breweries, went on a shooting party in the North Slob, by the River Slaney in County Wexford. After missing a shot at a golden plover, he involved in an argument over which was the fastest game bird in Europe. That evening at Castlebridge House, he realised that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europes fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must be numerous other questions debated nightly in pubs throughout Ireland and abroad and he realised then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. Beavers idea became reality when Guinness employee Christopher Chataway recommended University friends Norris and Ross McWhirter, the twin brothers were commissioned to compile what became The Guinness Book of Records in August 1954. A thousand copies were printed and given away, after the founding of The Guinness Book of Records at 107 Fleet Street, the first 198-page edition was bound on 27 August 1955 and went to the top of the British best seller lists by Christmas. The following year, it launched in the US, and sold 70,000 copies, since then, Guinness World Records has become a household name and the global leader in world records. Because the book became a hit, many further editions were printed, eventually settling into a pattern of one revision a year, published in September/October. The McWhirters continued to compile it for many years, Ross McWhirter was assassinated by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in 1975. Following Ross assassination, the feature in the show where questions about records posed by children were answered was called Norris on the Spot, Guinness Superlatives Limited was formed in 1954 to publish the first book. Sterling Publishing owned the rights to the Guinness book in the US for decades, and, under their management, the group was owned by Guinness PLC and subsequently Diageo until 2001, when it was purchased by Gullane Entertainment. Gullane was itself purchased by HIT Entertainment in 2002, with offices in New York City and Tokyo, Guinness World Records global headquarters remain in London, while its museum attractions are based at Ripley headquarters in Orlando, Florida, US. Recent editions have focused on record feats by person competitors, many records also relate to the youngest person who achieved something, such as the youngest person to visit all nations of the world, being Maurizio Giuliano. Each edition contains a selection of the records from the Guinness database, as well as new records. The majority of records are no longer listed in the book or on the website. For those unable to wait the 4–6 weeks for a reply, the Guinness Book of Records is the worlds most sold copyrighted book, earning it an entry within its own pages
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Monastery
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A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone. A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which may be a chapel, church or temple, a monastery complex typically comprises a number of buildings which include a church, dormitory, cloister, refectory, library, balneary and infirmary. These may include a hospice, a school and a range of agricultural and manufacturing such as a barn. In English usage, the monastery is generally used to denote the buildings of a community of monks. In modern usage, convent tends to be applied only to institutions of female monastics, historically, a convent denoted a house of friars, now more commonly called a friary. Various religions may apply these terms in specific ways. The earliest extant use of the term monastērion is by the 1st century AD Jewish philosopher Philo in On The Contemplative Life, in England the word monastery was also applied to the habitation of a bishop and the cathedral clergy who lived apart from the lay community. Most cathedrals were not monasteries, and were served by canons secular, however, some were run by monasteries orders, such as York Minster. Westminster Abbey was for a time a cathedral, and was a Benedictine monastery until the Reformation. They are also to be distinguished from collegiate churches, such as St Georges Chapel, in most of this article, the term monastery is used generically to refer to any of a number of types of religious community. In the Roman Catholic religion and to some extent in certain branches of Buddhism, there is a more specific definition of the term. Buddhist monasteries are generally called vihara, viharas may be occupied by males or females, and in keeping with common English usage, a vihara populated by females may often be called a nunnery or a convent. However, vihara can also refer to a temple, in Tibetan Buddhism, monasteries are often called gompa. In Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, a monastery is called a wat, in Burma, a monastery is called a kyaung. A Christian monastery may be an abbey, or a priory and it may be a community of men or of women. A charterhouse is any monastery belonging to the Carthusian order, in Eastern Christianity, a very small monastic community can be called a skete, and a very large or important monastery can be given the dignity of a lavra. The great communal life of a Christian monastery is called cenobitic, as opposed to the life of an anchorite. In Hinduism monasteries are called matha, mandir, koil, or most commonly an ashram, jains use the Buddhist term vihara
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Abbey
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An abbey is a complex of buildings used by members of a religious order under the governance of an abbot or abbess. It provides a place for activities, work and housing of Christian monks. The concept of the abbey has developed over centuries from the early monastic ways of religious men and women where they would live isolated from the lay community about them. Religious life in an abbey may be monastic, an abbey may be the home of an enclosed religious order or may be open to visitors. The layout of the church and associated buildings of an abbey often follows a set plan determined by the religious order. Abbeys are often self-sufficient while using any abundance of produce or skill to provide care to the poor and needy, some abbeys offer accommodation to people who are seeking spiritual retreat. There are many famous abbeys across Europe, the earliest known Christian monasteries were groups of huts built near the residence of a famous ascetic or other holy person. Disciples wished to be close to their man or woman in order to study their doctrine or imitate their way of life. In the earliest times of Christian monasticism, ascetics would live in social isolation and they would subsist whilst donating any excess produce to the poor. However, increasing religious fervor about the ways and or persecution of them would drive them further away from their community. For instance, the cells and huts of anchorites have been found in the deserts of Egypt, in 312 AD, Anthony the Great retired to the Thebaid region of Egypt to escape the persecution of the Emperor Maximian. Anthony was the best known of the anchorites of his due to his degree of austerity, sanctity. The deeper he withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples became and they refused to be separated from him and built their cells close to him. This became a first true monastic community, Anthony, according to Johann August Wilhelm Neander, inadvertently became the founder of a new mode of living in common, Coenobitism. At Tabennae on the Nile, in Upper Egypt, Saint Pachomius laid the foundations for the life by arranging everything in an organized manner. He built several monasteries, each with about 1,600 separate cells laid out in lines and these cells formed an encampment where the monks slept and performed some of their manual tasks. There were nearby large halls such as the church, refectory, kitchen, infirmary, an enclosure protecting all these buildings gave the settlement the appearance of a walled village. This layout, known as the laurae, became popular throughout Palestine, as well as the laurae, communities known as caenobia developed
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Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
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