1.
Westphalia
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Westphalia is a region in northwestern Germany and one of the three historic parts of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It has an area of 7,802 sq mi and 7.9 million inhabitants, the region is almost identical with the Province of Westphalia which was a part of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1815 to 1918 and the Free State of Prussia from 1918 to 1946. In 1946, Westphalia merged with the Northern Rhineland, another part of Prussia. In 1947, the state with its two parts was joined by a third one, Lippe, a former principality and free state. All of the 17 districts and 9 independent cities of Westphalia, the Westphalian language, a variant of the German language, spreads north of Westphalias borders into southwest Lower Saxony. Being a part of the North German Plain, most of Westphalias north is flat, in the south the German Central Uplands emerge. Westphalia is divided into the following landscapes, other important rivers are the Ems and the Lippe. The Langenberg and the Kahler Asten in the Sauerlands part of the Rothaar Mountains are Westphalias, Westphalia is divided into three governmental districts. These are subdivided into districts and independent cities. All districts and independent cities of the districts of Arnsberg. The District of Lippe as successor of the Free State of Lippe in the Governmental District of Detmold is rather considered to be a historic region. The traditional symbol of Westphalia is the Westphalian Steed, a horse on a red field. It is derived from the Saxon Steed in the coat of arms of the medieval Duchy of Saxony which most of todays Westphalia was part of. In official contexts the coat of arms of Westphalia is being used by the Westphalia-Lippe Regional Association which represents these two historic parts of North Rhine-Westphalia. The coat of arms of Lower Saxony uses a different version of the Saxon Steed since the state also covers parts of the Old Saxons duchy. The colors of Westphalia are white and red, the flag of the Westphalia-Lippe Regional Association uses these colors with the Westphalian coat of arms in its center. The flag of North Rhine-Westphalia is a combination of the Northern Rhinelands colors green/white, the flag of the Prussian Province of Westphalia already displayed the colors white and red. The flag of Lower Saxony shows the colors of Germany and the Saxon Steed, composed in Iserlohn in 1886 by Emil Rittershaus, the Westfalenlied is an unofficial anthem of Westphalia
2.
Uradel
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Uradel is a genealogical term introduced in late 18th-century Germany to distinguish those families whose noble rank can be traced to the 14th century or earlier. The word stands opposed to Briefadel, a used for titles of nobility created in the early modern or modern period by letters patent. Since the earliest known such letters were issued in the 14th century, Uradel and Briefadel families are generally further divided into the categories adlig, freiherrlich, gräflich, and fürstlich houses. The latter are referred to as Hochadel. The first use of the word Uradel to designate the oldest nobility dates from 1788, the term is found in the Almanach de Gotha from 1907, in which it is applied to all persons and families known to have carried specific titles of nobility before the year 1400. According to a more strict definition, described in Der Große Brockhaus in 1928. It was used officially from the 19th century by the Royal Prussian Herald Office, Hochadel is not a synonym for Uradel. Whereas Uradel is opposed to Briefadel, Hochadel is opposed to Niederer Adel and these people were raised up from serfdom to be placed in positions of power and responsibility. e. In fact, most of the families in the former Uradel volumes of the Gotha are of ministerialis origin, a similar term used more often than Uradel in Austria is alter Adel. The term Uradel can be found in Scandinavian genealogy from the early 20th century, the contrasting term Briefadel was calqued as brevadel. The 1926 edition of the Swedish Nordisk familjebok also cites 1350 as the required date, the letters patent referred to here is that issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV to Wicker Frosch, a burgher of Frankfurt, on 30 September 1360. In Norway, one of the earliest known patent is of 1458. Notes Bibliography Godsey, William D. Nobles and Nation in Central Europe, Free Imperial Knights in the Age of Revolution, 1750–1850
3.
Plettenberg
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Plettenberg is a town in the Märkischer Kreis, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Plettenberg is located to the east of the Sauerland hills, the highest elevation of the city area is in the Ebbegebirge with 663 m above sea level, the lowest elevation with 194 m near Teindeln. The city is spread out between the four valleys of the rivers Lenne, Else, Oester and Grüne, the name was later changed to Plettenberg, as the name of the noble family von Plettenberg, who owned virtually all of the city and surrounding lands. The Dukes of the Mark bought the town from Cologne, who in 1301 built the castle Schwarzenberg, in 1387, Count Engelbert III granted the town some privileges, it received full city rights in 1397 from Count Dietrich von der Mark. At the same time, the city was fortified, the city blossomed in the following centuries thanks to mining and iron casting, as well as trading with the Hanseatic League. In 1941, the city was enlarged to its current size, when the former city, the number of inhabitants till 1933 is the core city, since 1998 with the incorporated districts. The coat of arms shows the coat of arms of the counts of Mark in the center and it is displayed between two towers. The coat of arms was granted together with the city rights, in 1794, the crown atop the shield was added in seals of the city. In 1840, the version on a shield was adopted. However the city council did not want to repeat the symbols which was present in the coat of arms. After Plettenberg merged with the municipalities of Plettenberg-Land and Ohle in 1940 and this time it was officially granted on September 28,1942, however provisionally due to the war. Yet after the lost war, the coat of arms was never revoked, the coat of arms of the municipality of Plettenberg-Land showed a silver-blue shield split vertically, the symbol of the master of Plettenberg. It is overlaid with the chequered bar of the Mark. The coat of arms was designed by Otto Hupp, and was granted on January 16,1935, the coat of arms of the Amt Plettenberg was very similar, it only had an additional red shell in the top-left-hand corner as the symbol of the masters of Ohle. Also designed by Otto Hupp it was granted on July 13,1936, the coat of arms of the municipality of Ohle shows the Saint Martin of Tours splitting his cloak to share with the beggar. Saint Martin is the saint of the church of Ohle. A small escutcheon is placed next to the Saint, showing a red shell on a yellow background, the coat of arms was also designed by Otto Hupp, and was granted on October 17,1935
4.
Marshal
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Marshal is a term used in several official titles in various branches of society. As marshals became trusted members of the courts of Medieval Europe, during the last few centuries, it has been used for elevated offices, such as in military rank and civilian law enforcement. Marshal is an ancient loanword from Old French, which in turn is borrowed from Old Frankish *marhskalk, being still evident in Middle Dutch maerscalc, marscal and it is cognate with Old High German mar-scalc id. modern German Marschall. It originally and literally meant horse servant, from Germanic *marha- horse and this horse servant origin is retained in the current French name for farrier, maréchal-ferrant. The late Roman and Byzantine title of comes stabuli was adopted as a Latin analogue, which has become the French connétable and, derived from the French, finally, in Byzantium a marshal with elevated authority, notably a borderlands military command, is also known as an Exarch. In many countries, the rank of marshal, cf. field marshal, is the highest army rank, the equivalent navy rank is often admiral of the fleet. Marshals are typically, but not exclusively, appointed only in wartime, in many countries, especially in Europe, the special symbol of a marshal is a baton, and their insignia often incorporate batons. In some countries, the marshal is used instead of general in the higher air force ranks. The four highest Royal Air Force ranks are marshal of the Royal Air Force, air marshal, air marshal. The five-star rank of marshal of the Air Force is used by some Commonwealth, in the French Army and most National Armies modeled upon the French system, maréchal des logis is a cavalry term equivalent to sergeant. Some historical rulers have used special marshal titles to reward certain subjects, though not strictly military ranks, these honorary titles have been exclusively bestowed upon successful military leaders, such as the famous grand marshal of Ayacucho Antonio José de Sucre. Most famous are the Marshals of France, not least under Napoléon I, in England during the First Barons War the title Marshal of the Army of God was bestowed upon Robert Fitzwalter by election. Both the Soviet Union and Russia have army general as well as marshal in their rank system, the relationships between them is unresolved. Marshal of the Soviet Union Chief marshal of an arm was used in five Soviet military branches – the air force, artillery, armoured troops, engineer troops. Marshal of an arm was used in five Soviet military branches – the air force, artillery, armoured troops, engineer troops. Marshal of an arm is considered equivalent to the rank general of the army, which was used in the infantry. The function of the Marshal of the Court varies according to national tradition, often, the charge includes also the honorary privilege as chief of the protocol to announce formally the arrival of VIP guests at audiences, state dinners, and conferences in the monarchs premises. This office was made hereditary in the high nobility, e. g. the English Earl Marshal
5.
Duchy of Westphalia
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The Duchy of Westphalia was a historic territory in the Holy Roman Empire, which existed from 1180. It was located in the region of Westphalia, originally one of the three main regions in the German stem duchy of Saxony and today part of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. The duchy was held by the Archbishops and Electors of Cologne until its secularization in 1803, the town of Soest was lost to the Duchy of Cleves-Mark after the Soest Feud in 1449. The Rhenish Duchy of Berg and the Westphalian County of Mark in the west remained an obstacle to a connection with the Cologne territory on the Lower Rhine river. The Westphalian duchy formed the largest part of the Cologne electorate, the Hellweg section connecting the towns of Werl, Erwitte and Geseke was part of an important trade route from Aachen to Goslar. First parishes were established east of the Rhenish etstates around Soest, numerous monastery foundations, like Grafschaft Abbey in 1072 by Anno II of Cologne, stabilized the ecclesiastical rule. The other counties of the region could not resist the encroachment of the mighty Archbishopric, the former counts of Werl created a new county known as Werl-Arnsberg, and managed to keep their smaller and smaller territory independent of the Archbishops until they finally sold in 1368. Engelbert managed to connect the lands of the duchy by annexing the territory from Hellweg to Diemel, further controversy of its expansion eventually leads to Engelberts death at the hands of Frederick I of Isenberg in 1225. In 1260 by an agreement with the Dukes of Brunswick the Weser River became the border of their spheres of influence. The purchase and annexation of Werl-Arnsberg in 1368 united the territories of the north and south of the Sauerland, the Archbishop Frederick von Saarwerden began a hopeless campaign to maintain Colognian rights in Marck, and in 1392 was forced to abandon them. His successor, Dietrich II of Moers witnessed the last attempts by Cologne to gain rulership in Westphalia by attempting to break the powerful positions of Cleves, the financial burden placed upon the knights and cities of the Duchy of Westphalia led them into union in 1437. Cologne made peace with Cleves in 1441, this led Soest, the richest town of Westphalia, to refuse recognising Colognian supremacy in 1444 in the Soest Feud, Soest had become a part of the Duchy of Cleves. Thereafter the town of Arnsberg became the capital of Westphalia. Economically the loss of Soest had weakened the duchy, especially as the surroundings of the town were very fertile and the grain was needed for the mountainous regions in the South. Peace with Marck was made in 1445 which witnessed territorial concessions from both sides, after the Soest Feud, the city of Soest remained part of the Duchy of Cleves. Starting from 1463, the league of knights and cities in Westphalia began a long, during the reign of Archbishop Herman V of Wied, the Reformation arrived in Westphalia. The Duchy of Westphalia was again confirmed as integral territory of the Archbishopric in 1590, like most other territories of Germany, Westphalia suffered during the Thirty Years War. In 1794 the Archbishops relocated to Westphalia after the French had annexed the territories west of the Rhine River, in the secularisation of 1803 the Duchy of Westphalia became part of Hesse-Darmstadt
6.
Archbishop of Cologne
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Since the early days of the Catholic Church, there have been ninety-four bishops and archbishops of Cologne. Seven of these ninety-four retired by resignation, including four resignations which were in response to impeachment, eight of the bishops and archbishops were coadjutor bishops before they took office. Seven individuals were appointed as coadjutors freely by the Pope, one of the ninety-four moved to the Curia, where he became a cardinal. Additionally, six of the archbishops of Cologne were chairmen of the German Bishops Conference, currently, Rainer Maria Cardinal Woelki is the Archbishop of Cologne, since his 2014 transfer from Berlin, where he had been Cardinal Archbishop. All names before Maternus II are to be approached with considerable skepticism, Maternus was present at a council in Rome in 313. The bishops between Severinus and Charentius are also apocryphal, Domitianus was the Bishop of Maastricht. The given dates of office before Gunther are also conjectural, at best, 88–128 Paulinus Marcellinus Aquilinus Levoldus c. 470–500 Domitianus fl. c.535 Charentinus fl. c.570 Eberigisil II
7.
Bailiff
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A bailiff is a manager, overseer or custodian, a legal officer to whom some degree of authority or jurisdiction is given. Bailiffs are of various kinds and their offices and duties vary greatly, another official sometimes referred to as a bailiff was the vogt, see Vogt and Vogt. In the Holy Roman Empire a similar function was performed by the Amtmann, Bailiff was the term used by the Normans for what the Saxons had called a reeve, the officer responsible for executing the decisions of a court. The duty of the bailiff would thus include serving summonses and orders, the district within which the bailiff operated was called his bailiwick, even to the present day. Bailiffs were outsiders and free men, that is, they were not usually from the bailiwick they were responsible for. Throughout Norman England, the Saxon and Norman populations gradually mixed, primarily then, bailiff referred to the officer executing the decisions of manorial courts, and the hundred courts. Likewise, in Scotland a bailie was the officer of a barony. With the introduction of Justices of the Peace, magistrates courts acquired their own bailiffs, historically, courts were not always concerned with legal matters, and often decided administrative matters for the area within their jurisdiction. A bailiff of a manor, therefore, would oversee the manors lands and buildings, collect its rents, manage its accounts. In the 19th century, the functions of courts were mostly replaced by the creation of elected local authorities. Nevertheless, the bailiff is retained as a title by the chief officers of various towns and the keepers of royal castles, such as the High Bailiff of Westminster. In Scotland, bailie now refers to an officer corresponding to an English alderman. The high court acquired the sheriffs, the county court the bailiffs, to avoid confusion with their underlings, the County Courts Act 1888 renamed bailifs as High Bailiffs. This act also formally acknowledged the High Bailiffs right to appoint under-bailiffs as he wished, the High Bailiff gradually became a purely ceremonial role, the courts clerk liaising with under-bailiffs directly. The Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888 enacts that no person may act as an under-bailiff to levy any distress for rent, unless he is authorized by a county court judge to act as an under-bailiff. The County Courts Act 1888 restricted the hours an under-bailiff could execute a possession warrant and it also limited the ability to bring a legal complaint against a bailiff, six days notice now had to be given. In the Channel Islands the bailiff is the first civil officer in each of the two bailiwicks and he is appointed by the Crown, and holds office until retirement. He presides as a judge in the court, and takes the opinions of the jurats, he also presides over the states
8.
Arnsberg
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Arnsberg is a town in the Hochsauerland district, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is the location of the Regierungsbezirk Arnsbergs administration and one of the three local administration offices of the Hochsauerlandkreis, Arnsberg is located in the north-east of the Sauerland in the Ruhr river valley. The river Ruhr meanders around the south of the old town of Arnsberg, the town is nearly completely encircled by forest, and the nature parkArnsberger Wald lies to the north. Arnsberg is connected by Federal Motorway 46 to Brilon in the east, the municipal territory spans a distance of up to 13 kilometres from the southern to the northern limits. The town was built by the counts of Werl in the 11th century and they built a castle there whose remains can still be visited and are occasionally used for public celebrations. It was destroyed in the Seven Years War in 1769, in the 12th century, old Arnsberg became the seat of Westphalian jurisdiction. Later, the city lost its independence and was subject to the Archbishops of Colognea, in 1816, it came under Prussian rule and was made a local administrative centre. The current city of Arnsberg was created in 1975 by merging 14 cities and municipalities into one city, old Arnsberg itself and Neheim-Hüsten are the two urban parts, while the other parts are very rural. Neheim and Hüsten were merged in 1941, in the Second World War, Arnsberg first suffered widespread destruction and catastrophic loss of lives when RAF Lancasters breached the dam of the Möhne Reservoir in the night from 16 to 17 May 1943. The nearby Abbey Himmelpforten was completely washed away, later, dozens of Arnsberg citizens were killed in several British air raids aimed at destroying the railway viaduct. The targets were destroyed on 19 March 1945 using a Grand Slam bomb. Arnsbergs population is mostly Roman Catholic, Catholic churches include the Probsteikirche or the Heilig-Kreuz Kirche, the Auferstehungskirche is a Protestant church. There is also a New Apostolic congregation, the cemeteries are mostly Catholic but there is also a Jewish cemetery. The Kunstverein Arnsberg operates in Arnsberg, the arms of the city depict a white eagle on a blue field. Earlier it was an eagle on a red field, introduced in 1278. In the 17th century the red was changed to blue, reflecting the Bavarian blue of the House of Wittelsbach
9.
House of La Marck
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The House of La Marck, original German name von der Mark, was an important family in the history of Europe, which from about 1200 appeared as the Counts of Mark. The family history started with Count Adolf I, scion of a branch of the Rhenish Berg dynasty residing at Altena Castle in Westphalia. In the early 13th century Adolf took his residence at his familys estates around Mark, Adolf had inherited the Mark fortress from his father Count Frederick I of Berg-Altena together with the older county around Altena and began to call himself Count de La Mark. Members of the family became Bishops in the Prince-Bishoprics of Liège, Münster and Osnabrück, and Archbishops in Cologne. Later collateral lines became Dukes of Bouillon, a title which was inherited by the House of La Tour dAuvergne, Princes of Sedan, Dukes of Nevers, Counts of Rethel. Anne of Cleves is one of the most renowned figures in history descending from the line of the House of La Mark. Adolf III de la Marck was a son of Count Adolph II and he was bishop of Münster and later archbishop of Cologne. In 1364 he left his position as bishop of Cologne to his cousin Engelbert III, Engelbert de la Marck was prince-bishop of Liège from 1345 until 1364. He was also archbishop of Cologne from 1364 until 1369, William I de la Marck was the younger brother of Erard III de la Marck. He was nicknamed Le Sanglier des Ardennes, Erard de la Marck, nephew of William I, was prince-bishop from 1506 till 1538. Robert II de la Marck, nephew of William I, was Duke of Bouillon, seigneur of Sedan, Robert III de la Marck, son of Robert II, was Marshal of France in 1526 and historian. Robert IV de la Marck was Duke of Bouillon and Prince of Sedan, William II de la Marck was admiral of the Gueux de mer, the so-called sea beggars who fought in the Eighty Years War. He was the great-grandson of William I de la Marck, in 1591 the heiress of one of the collateral lines of the family, Charlotte de la Marck, was married to Henri de La Tour dAuvergne, Marshal of France. In 1594 Charlotte died without issue, and her claims to Bouillon passed to her husband. euweb. cz, Marek, arenberg, dukes of Bouillon, William the Wild Boar, Erard de la Mark
10.
Feud
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Feuds begin because one party perceives itself to have been attacked, insulted or wronged by another. Intense feelings of resentment trigger the initial retribution, which causes the party to feel equally aggrieved. The dispute is subsequently fuelled by a cycle of retaliatory violence. This continual cycle of provocation and retaliation makes it difficult to end the feud peacefully. Feuds frequently involve the original family members and/or associates, can last for generations. They can be interpreted as an outgrowth of social relations based in family honor. Until the early period, feuds were considered legitimate legal instruments and were regulated to some degree. For example, Serb culture calls this krvna osveta, meaning blood revenge, in the English-speaking world, vendetta is sometimes extended to mean any other long-standing feud, not necessarily involving bloodshed. Sometimes, it is not mutual, but rather refers to a series of hostile acts waged by one person against another without reciprocation. Blood feuds were common in societies with a rule of law. An entire family is considered responsible for any one of them has done. Sometimes two separate branches of the family have even come to blows, or worse, over some dispute. The practice has mostly disappeared with more centralized societies where law enforcement, in Homeric ancient Greece, the practice of personal vengeance against wrongdoers was considered natural and customary, Embedded in the Greek morality of retaliation is the right of vengeance. Feud is a war, just as war is a series of revenges. In the ancient Hebraic context, it was considered the duty of the individual, the executor of the law of blood-revenge who personally put the initial killer to death was given a special designation, goel haddam, the blood-avenger or blood-redeemer. Six Cities of Refuge were established to provide protection and due process for any unintentional manslayers, the avenger was forbidden from harming the unintentional killer if the killer took refuge in one of these cities. According to historian Marc Bloch, The Middle Ages, from beginning to end, the onus, of course, lay above all on the wronged individual, vengeance was imposed on him as the most sacred of duties. The solitary individual, however, could do but little, moreover, it was most commonly a death that had to be avenged
11.
Evangelical Church in Germany
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In 2015, the EKD had a membership of 22,271,000 members, or 27. 1% of the German population. It constitutes one of the largest national Protestant bodies in the world, behind the Church of England, earlier, there had been successful royal efforts at unity in various German states, beginning with Prussia and several minor German states in 1817. These unions resulted in the first united and uniting churches, a new development within Protestantism which later spread to parts of the world. This utterly failed, with the Confessing Church and the German Christians-led Reichskirche opposing each other, other Protestant churches aligned themselves with one of these groups, or stayed neutral in this church strife. In 1948, the Evangelical Church in Germany was organized in the aftermath of World War II to function as a new organization for German Protestant churches. As a result of tensions between West and East Germany, the churches in East Germany broke away from the EKD in 1969. In 1991, following German reunification, the East German churches rejoined the EKD, as for church governance, the Lutheran churches typically practise an episcopal polity, while the Reformed and the United ones a mixture of presbyterian and congregationalist polities. Most member churches are led by a bishop, only one member church, the Evangelical Reformed Church, is not restricted to a certain territory. In some ways, the member churches resemble dioceses of the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches. Literally, evangelisch means of the Gospel, denoting a Protestant Reformation emphasis on sola scriptura, dr. Martin Luther encouraged this term alongside Christian. From the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 to the end of the First World War and this changed somewhat with growing religious freedom in the 19th century, especially in the republican states of Bremen, Frankfurt, Lübeck, and Hamburg. The greatest change came after the German Revolution, with the formation of the Weimar Republic, however, the Peoples Church Union quickly split along territorial lines after the churches relationship with the new governments improved. It was realised that one mainstream Protestant church for all of Germany was impossible, the churches met in Dresden in 1919 and created a plan for federation, and this plan was adopted in 1921 at Stuttgart. Then in 1922 the then 28 territorially defined Protestant churches founded the German Evangelical Church Confederation, at the time, the federation was the largest Protestant church federation in Europe with around 40 million members. In July 1933, the German Evangelical Church was formed under the influence of the German Christians, the Confessing Church arose in resistance to the Nazi regimes ideology. The National Socialists had much influence over the decisions of the first National Synod, in 1948, freed from the German Christians influence, the Lutheran, Reformed and United churches came together as the Evangelical Church in Germany at the Conference of Eisenach. In June 1991, following German reunification, the BEK merged with the EKD, a modern English translation, however, would be regional church. This turned the Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union into an umbrella, being itself a member of EKD but covering some regional church bodies
12.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
13.
Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
14.
Kamen
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Kamen is a town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, in the district Unna. Kamen is situated at the east end of the Ruhr area, bergkamen Hamm Bönen Unna Dortmund Lünen The town of Kamen consists of the following 6 districts, Heeren-Werve Methler Kamen Rottum Derne Südkamen Elections held in May 2014. SPD,22 CDU,10 Alliance 90/The Greens,4 The Left,2 FDP,1 FW,1 Hermann Hupe, was elected mayor in 2003 with 55,1 % of the votes, he was reelected in 2009 and 2014. Kamen is twinned with, Ängelholm Bandırma Beeskow Eilat Montreuil-Juigné Sulecin Unkel Kamen is maybe most known because of the highway crossing. The north-south directed A1 meets the east-west directed A2, due to the importance of both highways the crossing is prone for traffic jams, the village Kamen-Methler is well known for its football training camps. The German football team prepared themselves for the 1990 World Cup win in Kamen-Methler, during the soccer world championship 2006 in Germany the Spanish football team lived there
15.
Olfen
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Olfen is a town in the district of Coesfeld, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is sometimes called the Gate to the Ruhr Area and it is also considered the horse-friendliest town in North Rhine-Westphalia. Interesting sights include a castle and historic sawmill, Bishop Wolfhelm, who originated from the Ulfloa Oberhof, gave the small town its name. Wolfhelm was the fourth Bishop of Mimingardeford, today called Münster, the fire disaster of 1857, in which 142 houses were destroyed, has gone down as the Great Fire of Olfen in Olfens history books. Wilhelm Sendermann was elected for mayor in September 2015 with 87,4 % of the vote, thomas Hoof, founder of Manufactum Günter Schlierkamp, professional bodybuilder La Grange, Texas, United States
16.
Wilhelm II, German Emperor
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Wilhelm II or William II was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918. He was the eldest grandchild of the British Queen Victoria and related to many monarchs and his leading generals, Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, dictated policy during the First World War with little regard for the civilian government. An ineffective war-time leader, he lost the support of the army, abdicated in November 1918, and fled to exile in the Netherlands. Wilhelm was born on 27 January 1859 at the Crown Princes Palace, Berlin to Prince Frederick William of Prussia and his wife, Victoria, Princess Royal, the eldest daughter of Britains Queen Victoria. At the time of his birth, his great-uncle Frederick William IV was king of Prussia, a traumatic breech birth left him with a withered left arm due to Erbs palsy, which he tried with some success to conceal. His left arm was about 6 inches shorter than his right arm, historians have suggested that this disability affected his emotional development. In 1863, Wilhelm was taken to England to be present at the wedding of his Uncle Bertie, William attended the ceremony in a Highland costume, complete with a small toy dirk. During the ceremony the four-year-old became restless and his eighteen-year-old uncle Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, charged with keeping an eye on him, told him to be quiet, but Wilhelm drew his dirk and threatened Alfred. When Alfred attempted to subdue him by force, Wilhelm bit him on the leg and his grandmother, Queen Victoria, missed seeing the fracas, to her Wilhelm remained a clever, dear, good little child, the great favourite of my beloved Vicky. His mother, Vicky, was obsessed with his damaged arm and she blamed herself for the childs handicap and insisted that he become a good rider. The thought that he, as heir to the throne, should not be able to ride was intolerable to her, riding lessons began when Wilhelm was eight and were a matter of endurance for Wilhelm. Over and over, the prince was set on his horse. He fell off time after time but despite his tears was set on its back again, after weeks of this he finally got it right and was able to maintain his balance. Wilhelm, from six years of age, was tutored and heavily influenced by the 39-year-old teacher Georg Hinzpeter, Hinzpeter, he later wrote, was really a good fellow. Whether he was the tutor for me, I dare not decide. The torments inflicted on me, in this riding, must be attributed to my mother. As a teenager he was educated at Kassel at the Friedrichsgymnasium, in January 1877, Wilhelm finished high school and on his eighteenth birthday received as a present from his grandmother, Queen Victoria, the Order of the Garter. After Kassel he spent four terms at the University of Bonn, studying law and he became a member of the exclusive Corps Borussia Bonn
17.
Dortmund
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Dortmund is an independent city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is in the part of the state and is considered to be the administrative. Its population of 581,612 makes it the 8th largest city in Germany, moreover, Dortmund is the largest city by area and population in the Ruhr Area, an urban area with some 5.1 million inhabitants which is the largest urban agglomeration in Germany. Founded around 882, Dortmund became an Imperial Free City, throughout the 13th to 14th centuries, it was the chief city of the Rhine, Westphalia, the Netherlands Circle of the Hanseatic League. After the Thirty Years War the city was destroyed and decreased in significance until the onset of industrialization, the city then became one of Germanys most important coal, steel and beer centres. Thereby Dortmund was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II, the devastating bombing raids of the 12th March 1945 destroyed 98% of buildings in the inner city center. This bombing raids with more than 1,110 aircraft was a record to a target in World war II. The region has adapted since the collapse of its century long steel and coal industries and shifted to high technology biomedical technology, micro systems technology and also services. In 2009, Dortmund was classified as a Node city in the Innovation Cities Index published by 2thinknow and is the most sustainable city in Germany, the city is known as Westphalias green metropolis. Nearly half the territory consists of waterways, woodland, agriculture. This stands in a stark contrast with nearly a years of extensive coal mining. Dortmund is home to Ballspielverein Borussia 09 e. V, Dortmund, commonly known as Borussia Dortmund, a successful club in German football. The first time Dortmund was mentioned in documents was around 882. as Throtmanni. After it was destroyed by a fire, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I had the town rebuilt in 1152 and it became an Imperial Free City. Throughout the 13th to 14th centuries, it was the city of the Rhine, Westphalia. After 1320, the city appeared in writing as Dorpmunde, in the years leading up to 1344, the English King even borrowed money from well-heeled Dortmund merchant families Berswordt and Klepping, offering the regal crown as security. In 1388, Count von Mark joined forces with Archbishop of Cologne, following a major siege lasting 18 months, peace negotiations took place and Dortmund emerged victorious. After Cologne was excluded after the Anglo-Hanseatic War, Dortmund was made capital of the Rhine-Westphalian, the 1661 earthquake made the Reinoldikirche collapse
18.
Finnentrop
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Finnentrop is a Gemeinde in Olpe district in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Finnentrop is situated in the Sauerland, near the forks of the rivers Bigge, Finnentrop shares borders with Sundern and Eslohe, Lennestadt and Attendorn, as well as with Plettenberg. In 1162 Lenhausen and Rönkhausen were mentioned for the first time, until 13 July 1908, the place now known as Finnentrop had three names, Habbecke, Neubrücke and, once the Ruhr-Sieg railway was built, Bahnhof Finnentrop. Neubrücke consisted of one building at the forks of Bigge. The “new bridge” seems to have already built by 1847. The new municipality was cobbled together in 1969 from parts of the old Amt of Serkenrode and this restructuring also saw the municipality pass from Meschede district to Olpe district. The municipality’s name is drawn from the centre of Finnentrop situated a few hundred metres up the Bigge river. The ending —trop comes from trop or torp, meaning “village”, the High German word Dorf is a cognate, as is the English word thorpe. The municipal arms shows a rose under a wavy chevron, the rose stands for the Lords of Finnentrop and dates back to the year 1358. The chevron stands for the two rivers, the Bigge and the Lenne, which merge in the municipality, the colour green refers to the great swathes of greenery in the municipal area. Finnentrop maintains partnership arrangements with, Diksmuide, Belgium, Helbra, the mayor is since 1997 the jurist Dietmar Heß. The Attendorn-Finnentrop aerodrome is situated close to the village of Heggen, Arens, original name Heinrich Martin Arens, politician who served in many offices in Minnesota, including the U. S. Das Pfarrdorf, seine Industrie, der Eisenbahnknotenpunkt und seine Bewohner. Pickert’sche Sammlung, written by Voss, W. edited by Sasse, R.2005, further collection of literature from the Arbeitskreis für Geschichte und Heimatpflege in der Gemeinde Finnentrop e. V
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Sundern
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Sundern is a town in the Hochsauerland district, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. The name Sundern is common in Westphalia, as it means ground given away for private usage in the Westphalian dialect, Sundern is situated approximately 10 km south-west of Arnsberg. Around Sundern extends the nature park Homert which attracts tourists, many from the Netherlands, winter tourism is also substantial, primarily in the municipality Wildewiese with its skiing area. The Sorpesee, a lake, is used by watersportsmen, campers. SEVERIN Elektrogeräte GmbH has its headquarters in Sundern, william Danne, actor Joseph Machalke, priest Andrea Renzullo, singer and finalist in season 4 of Das Supertalent Heinrich Luebke, German President from 1959 to 1969, born in Enkhausen Official site
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Lippetal
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Lippetal is a municipality in the district of Soest, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Lippetal is located north and south of the river Lippe between the cities of Lippstadt and Hamm, Lippetal is situated at the northern boundary of the Soester Börde, south of the river Lippe and the southern Münsterland in north of the river. The river Lippe flows from east to the west through the municipality, there are eleven villages in Lippetal, Ahlen Bad Sassendorf Beckum Hamm Lippstadt Soest Wadersloh The municipality Lippetal was created by administrative reorganization in 1969. Lippetal was made with eleven villages from three different districts, the villages are mostly old Saxon settlements. The villages Oestinghausen and Lippborg were first mentioned in 1189, Hovestadt in 1213, and the place of pilgrimage Herzfeld in a document in 786
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Imperial Count
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Imperial Count was a title in the Holy Roman Empire. These imperial counts sat on one of the four benches of Counts, in the Merovingian and Franconian Empire, a Graf was an official who exercised the royal prerogatives in an administrative district. Their roles within the system tended to become hereditary and were gradually integrated with those of the ruling nobility by the close of the medieval era. Thus their Imperial immediacy tended to secure for them substantial independence within their own territories from the emperors authority, gradually they came also to be recognised as counselors entitled to be summoned to his Imperial Diets. A parallel process occurred among other authorities and strata in the realm, the most powerful nobles and bishops secured the exclusive privilege of voting to choose a Holy Roman Emperor, from among their own number or other rulers, whenever a vacancy occurred. As the Empire emerged from the era, immediate counts were definitively excluded from possessing the individual seat and vote in the Diet that belonged to electors. In order, however, to further their interests more effectively and to preserve their independence. In the Imperial Diet, starting in the 16th century, and consistently from the Perpetual Diet, early in the 16th century, such associations were formed in Wetterau and Swabia. The Franconian association was created in 1640, the Westphalian association in 1653 and they participated with the emperor, electors and princes in ruling the Empire by virtue of being entitled to a seat on one of the Counts benches in the Diet. The semi-sovereignty which distinguished Germany and Austrias high nobility from the lower nobility, thus the reichsständische imperial counts pegged their interests and status to those of the imperial princes. In 1521 there were 144 imperial counts, by 1792 only 99 were left, the decrease reflected elevations to higher title, extinction of the male line, and purchase or annexation by more powerful imperial princes. Each was annexed by its largest German neighbor, although many were swapped by one sovereign to another as they sought to shape more cohesive borders or lucrative markets. In 1815 the Congress of Vienna sought to back the clock on the French Revolutions politics. A few counties had been elevated to principalities by Napoleon, most of these were also mediatised by the Congress of Vienna. A few of their dynasties held on to their sovereignty until 1918, Lippe, Reuß, Schwarzburg, a comital or other title granted by a German sovereign conferred, in principle, rank only in that sovereigns realm, although usually recognised as a courtesy title elsewhere. Titles granted by Habsburg rulers in their capacity as Kings of Hungary, Archdukes or Emperors of Austria were not thereby Reichsgrafen, titular imperial counts usually had no role in the ruling of the Empire, although there were exceptions
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Nordkirchen Castle
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Schloss Nordkirchen is a palace situated in the town of Nordkirchen in the Coesfeld administrative district in the state of North Rhine Westphalia, Germany. The schloss was built between 1703 and 1734 and is known as the Versailles of Westphalia since it is the largest of the fully or partly moated Wasserschlösser in that region. It was originally one of the residences of the Prince-Bishopric of Münster, the present Baroque schloss is the successor to a fully moated Wasserschloss built in the sixteenth century for the noble von Morrien family. In 1833, the passed to Count von Esterházy who sold it to Duke Engelbert Marie von Arenberg in 1903. In 1933, the Arenberg-Nordkirchen GmbH, a newly founded ducal assets management company, parts of the interior of the schloss are open to the public, as are the parterres and the surrounding park. Inside the schloss, a restaurant offering Westphalian cuisine looks out into the large formal garden that faces the northern façade of the schloss. The schloss chapel may be rented for weddings, the architects of the schloss and its complex of outbuildings were Gottfried Laurenz Pictorius, Peter Pictorius the Younger and Johann Conrad Schlaun, from 1724. The taller corps de logis is flanked by lower wings. The wings are symmetrical and enclose the cour dhonneur in a U shape. Dutch precedents, such as the palace Het Loo near Apeldoorn, make their presence felt, the schloss stands on a rectangular island surrounded by a broad moat-like canal. The island’s four corners are accentuated by four small free-standing pavilions, the garden front gives onto a landscaped park of some 170 hectares, reached through a formal parterre of scrolling broderie on axis, flanked by expanses of lawn. The gardens and the woods are peopled with a multitude of lifesize marble statues. Other sculptures were delivered by Panhoff and Charles Manskirch, further sculptures were added during the restoration in neo-Baroque style, undertaken in 1903-07. 3rd ed. Deutscher Kunstverlag, Munich/Berlin 2008, karl E. Mummenhoff, Schloß Nordkirchen, 2nd ed. Deutscher Kunstverlag, Munich/Berlin 1979. Karl E. Mummenhoff, Das Schloß Nordkirchen von 1918 bis 1976, Westfalen 56 pp 146–173
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Electorate of Cologne
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The Electorate of Cologne, sometimes referred to as Electoral Cologne, was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire and existed from the 10th to the early 19th century. It consisted of the Hochstift — the temporal possessions — of the Archbishop of Cologne, the Electorate should not be confused with the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cologne, which was larger and over which the Elector-Archbishop exercised only spiritual authority. There were only two other ecclesiastical prince-electors in the Empire, the Electorate of Mainz and the Electorate of Trier, the capital of the electorate was Cologne. Conflicts with the citizens of Cologne caused the Elector to move to Bonn, the Free Imperial City of Cologne was recognized after 1475, thus removing it from even the nominal secular authority of the Elector. Cologne and Bonn were occupied by France in 1794, the right bank territories of the Electorate were secularized in 1803 during the German mediatization. The territory of the Electorate of Cologne was smaller than the Archdiocese of Cologne, Cologne was the ancient Roman city of Colonia Agrippina in the province of Germania Inferior, and has been a bishops see since Roman times. In 953, the archbishops of Cologne first gained noteworthy secular power, to weaken the secular nobility, who threatened his power, Otto endowed Bruno and his successors in the bishops see with the prerogatives of secular princes. This was the beginning of the state of Cologne. By the end of the 12th century, the Archbishop of Cologne was one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Emperor, besides being prince-elector, he was Arch-chancellor of Italy as well, technically from 1238 and permanently from 1263 until 1803. In the Battle of Worringen, the archbishop was captured by soldiers of the city, eventually, the archbishop moved to Bonn to escape jurisdiction conflicts with the city government. In 1475, Cologne became a Free Imperial City, independent from the archbishop, the first pogrom against the Jews was in 1349, when they were used as scapegoats for the Black Death, and therefore burnt in an auto-da-fé. Political tensions arose from issues of taxation, public spending, regulation of business, long-distance trade in the Baltic grew, as the major trading towns came together in the Hanseatic League, under the leadership of Lübeck. The chief cities were Cologne on the Rhine River, Hamburg and Bremen on the North Sea, during the 16th century, two Archbishops of Cologne converted to Protestantism. The first, Hermann von Wied, resigned the archbishopric on converting, but Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, the war ruined most of the Electoral economy, and many villages and towns were besieged and destroyed. The Siege of Godesberg in November–December 1583 ended with the destruction of Godesberg Castle, after several more sieges, von Waldburg gave up his claim to the see and retired to Strasbourg with his wife. Ernst became archbishop–the first major success of the Counter-Reformation in Germany, under Ernsts direction, Jesuits supervised the reintroduction of Catholicism in the Electorate. From 1583 to 1761, the archbishopric was effectively a secundogeniture of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach, as the archbishop in this period usually also held the Bishopric of Münster, he was one of the most important princes of northwestern Germany. From 1597 until 1794, Bonn was the residence the Elector, after 1795, the electorates territories on the left bank of the Rhine were occupied by France, and were formally annexed in 1801
24.
Wolter von Plettenberg
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Wolter von Plettenberg was the Master of the Livonian Order from 1494 to 1535 and one of the greatest leaders of the Teutonic knights. He was an important early Baltic German, Plettenberg was born in Welver, Westphalia. He went to the fort of Narva at the age of ten and he joined the Order when he was about fifteen. In 1489 he was elected to marshal of the Order, in 1491 he fought successfully against the city of Riga and was elected master in 1494 and that same year Moscow closed down the Hanseatic office in Novgorod and imprisoned Hanseatic merchants there. Livonia was drifting into war with Muscovite Russia, after negotiations in 1498 failed, Plettenberg chose to prepare for pre-emptive attack against Pskov, which was then still a formally independent state, but under heavy influence from Moscow. In 1500 Plettenberg made an alliance with Grand Duke of Lithuania, Alexander Jagiellon and he also tried to convince Pope Alexander VI to issue a crusading bull against the Russians in order to acquire funding from the sale of indulgences, but his efforts were in vain. In the war with Russia, Plettenberg showed himself to be a talented and skilled commander and his strength lay in his skillful use of heavy cavalry and artillery fire. With such tactics von Plettenberg won the Battle of the Siritsa River, but without the promised help of the Lithuanians, Plettenberg was unable to conquer Pskov and only burned the stronghold of Ostrov. During the winter of 1501–1502, the Russians harshly ravaged Eastern Livonia, but Plettenberg decided to continue the war and tried to conquer Pskov one more time. However, due to Moscows strong support of Pskov, he was forced to retreat southwest from the city, on 13 September 1502 he won the Battle of Smolin with his 5,000 men against about 12,000 Russians. The next day,14 September, became the Victory Day in Livonia, in 1503 peace between Ivan III and Livonia on the terms of status quo ante bellum was concluded. During the Protestant Reformation, Plettenberg supported the Lutherans, hoping thus to subjugate the Catholic Archbishopric of Riga to him. The province was in disarray and the master had serious difficulties in ruling the territory remained divided between the Order, the bishoprics, and the rich cities of Riga, Tallinn and Tartu. In 1525 Plettenberg refused to convert himself to Lutheranism and to become a ruler of Livonia as the Grand Master Albert in Prussia had done. Instead he became vassal or Imperial Prince of the Emperor Charles V, in the beginning of the year 1535 he died quite suddenly at the age of about 85 years
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Livonian Order
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The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, formed in 1237. It was later a member of the Livonian Confederation, from 1435 to 1561, the Order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after their defeat by Samogitians in 1236 at the Battle of Schaulen. They were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights and became known as the Livonian Order in 1237, in 1298 Lithuanians took Karkus castle north of Riga, and defeated the order in the Battle of Turaida, killing Livonian Land Master Bruno and 22 knights. In 1346, the Order bought the Duchy of Estonia from King Valdemar IV of Denmark, life within the Orders territory is described in the Chronicle of Balthasar Russow. The Livonian Orders defeat in the Battle of Swienta on September 1,1435, during the Livonian War, however, the Order suffered a decisive defeat by troops of Muscovite Russia in the Battle of Ergeme in 1560. After coming to an agreement with Sigismund II Augustus and his representatives, in the southern part of the Brothers lands he created the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia for his family. Most of the lands were seized by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The north of Estonia was taken back by Denmark and Sweden, the Livonian Master, like the grandmaster of the Teutonic Order, was elected by his fellow knights for a life term. The grandmaster exercised supervisory powers and his advice was considered equal to a command, the grandmaster of Teutonic knights did not limit local autonomy, he rarely visited Livonia or sent ambassadors for oversight
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Gertrud von Plettenberg
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Gertrud von Plettenberg, was administrator of several castles of the Electorate of Cologne and royal mistress of Ernest of Bavaria, Prince-Elector-Archbishop of Cologne. The couple may have married morganatically in secret around 1605, Gertrud von Plettenberg was a member of the House of Plettenberg. Her family was poor and she was given a position at the court of Ernest of Bavaria in Arnsberg, Hirschberg, because of her, Ernest primarily resided at Arnsberg from 1595 onward. Gertrud and Ernest were lovers from 1595, and reportedly married secretly in 1605 and she had one son and one daughter with Ernest. From 1598, she is mentioned by contemporaries as his hostess, there were rumors at her death that she had been poisoned by the duchess of Cleves. Magdalena Padberg, Jungfer Gertrud und ihre Familie
27.
Ernest of Bavaria
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Ernest of Bavaria was Prince-elector-archbishop of the Archbishopric of Cologne from 1583 to 1612 as successor of the expelled Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg. He was also bishop of Münster, Hildesheim, Freising and Liège, Ernest was born in Munich, the son of Albert V, Duke of Bavaria, and Anna of Austria. Duke Albert had destined his third son, Ernest, for the clerical vocation and he was educated and trained by the Jesuits. In 1565 he became a canon at Salzburg, and soon afterward at Cologne, Treves, salentins resignation, however, was deferred, and in 1573 he actually submitted to the Council of Trent, and was thereupon confirmed by the curia as archbishop, foregoing the priestly consecration. That year instead saw Ernest elected, at the age of 19, in 1577, after the Bavarian court had failed in an attempt to secure Münster for Ernest, efforts looking to Cologne were resumed and prosecuted more zealously than before. Moreover, the support of the curia now heightened the hope of some practical result, the status which had been gained by the election of Ernest to Hildesheim could not as yet, by itself alone, afford a very trustworthy base of support. In 1581 Ernest was elected the Bishop of Liège, when Archbishop Gebhard of Truchsess Waldburg converted to Protestantism in 1583, Ernest was elected Archbishop of Cologne on 22 May 1583. With Spanish and Bavarian troops he quickly drove Gebhard into Werl in the Cologne War, in 1584 he was elected the Bishop of Münster, and also in that year the Papacy nuntiator was published. By now he was the Archbishop of Cologne and the Bishop of Liège, Münster, Freising and Hildesheim and he was an ardent supporter of the Counter-Reformation, and assisted the Catholics in Jülich-Cleves-Berg and Baden. In 1595 he selected his nephew Ferdinand of Bavaria to be the coadjutor of the bishoprics, Ernest died in 1612 in Arnsberg, Westphalia, and was buried in Cologne Cathedral. He was succeeded by Ferdinand of Bavaria, göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities. Porträt von Frans Hogenberg von 1604 Epitaph of Ernest of Bavaria
28.
Joachim van Plettenberg
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Baron Joachim Ammena van Plettenberg was the governor of the Cape of Good Hope from 11 August 1771 to 14 February 1785. Plettenberg was presiding governor after Ryk Tulbaghs death, on 18 May 1774 he was permanently appointed as governor. Plettenberg descended from a family from Westphalia in the Holy Roman Empire. His parents were Henrik Casimir van Plettenberg, colonel in the garrison in Leeuwarden. After his studies of law at the Utrecht University he left the country in 1764, in 1767 he married Cornelia Charlotte Feith, the widow of Louis Taillefer. At 28 years of age, in 1767, Plettenberg became Independent-Fiscaal, after the death of the Governor Ryk Tulbagh, Plettenberg took control of the administration, on 11 August 1771, he became Governor. Sometimes he acted not very successful, for instance, how he treated the sons of Wolraad Woltemade made him no friends. The French influenced Patriotic Movement became an opposition to him. At this time Cape Town was the property of a commercial company, in 1781 Plettenberg defended himself in a record. In 1785 he requested for discharge and was dismissed with all honors and he resigned on 14 February 1785 and went back to the Netherlands, where he died on 18 August 1793, at his Huis Windesheim, near Zwolle. His successor as Governor of Cape Town was Lieutenant Colonel Cornelis Jacob van de Graaff, Plettenberg had great interest in the discovery of unknown regions and supported the exploration of southern Africa. He made several tours to determine the borders of the Cape-Colony, among others he erected a column for the Dutch East India Company on 6 November 1778, the so-called Van Plettenberg Beacon. Since then, the place where it was erected is called Plettenberg Bay, the Plettenberg Bay area was rich in natural forests. Plettenberg was worried about these forests and suggested that a control post be erected to prevent the over-use of the timber, the Dutch East India Company started a woodcutter’s post in 1778. JF Meeding was appointed the first overseer of this post, in 1786 Johann Jacob Jerling was contracted to build a Timber Store for storage of the timber. The town of Plettenberg Bay was named after him in 1779 and his former Residency at Simons Town dating from 1777 is now the Simons Town Museum Weyl, Andreas, Joachim van Plettenberg, Gouverneur der niederländischen Kapkolonie. In, An Bigge, Lenne und Fretter, Part 1, Heft 35, Dezember 2011 p. 25-40, Part 2, Heft 36, House of Plettenberg National Archives of the Netherlands Gemeindearchiv Finnentrop
29.
Dutch Cape Colony
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The Cape Colony was between 1652 and 1691 a Commandment, and between 1691 and 1795 a Governorate of the Dutch East India Company. Jan van Riebeeck established the colony as a re-supply and layover port for vessels of the Dutch East India Company trading with Asia. As the only permanent settlement of the Dutch East India Company not serving as a trading post, as these farms were labour-intensive, Vryburghers imported slaves from Madagascar, Mozambique and Asia, which rapidly increased the number of inhabitants. Due to the rule of the Company some farmers tried to escape the rule of the company by moving further inland. In order to avoid collision with the Bantu peoples advancing south and west from east central Africa, in 1795, after the Battle of Muizenberg in present-day Cape Town, the British occupied the colony. Renewed Dutch control did not last long, however, as the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars invalidated the Peace of Amiens, in January 1806 the British occupied the colony for a second time after the Battle of Blaauwberg at present-day Bloubergstrand. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Great Britain, traders of the Dutch East India Company, under the command of Jan van Riebeeck, were the first people to establish a European colony in South Africa. The support station gradually became a community, the forebears of the Afrikaners. At the time of first European settlement in the Cape, the southwest of Africa was inhabited by San people, the local Khoikhoi had neither a strong political organisation nor an economic base beyond their herds. They bartered livestock freely to Dutch ships, as Company employees established farms to supply the Cape station, they began to displace the Khoikhoi. Conflicts led to the consolidation of European landholdings and a breakdown of Khoikhoi society, military success led to even greater Dutch East India Company control of the Khoikhoi by the 1670s. The Khoikhoi became the source of colonial wage labour. There they contested still wider groups of Khoikhoi cattle herders for the best grazing lands, by 1700, the traditional Khoikhoi lifestyle of pastoralism had disappeared. The Cape society in this period was thus a diverse one, by the time of British rule after 1795, the sociopolitical foundations were firmly laid. In 1795, France occupied the Seven Provinces of the Netherlands and this prompted Great Britain to occupy the territory in 1795 as a way to better control the seas in order stop any potential French attempt to get to India. The British sent a fleet of nine warships which anchored at Simons Town and, following the defeat of the Dutch militia at the Battle of Muizenberg, the Dutch East India Company transferred its territories and claims to the Batavian Republic in 1798, and ceased to exist in 1799. Improving relations between Britain and Napoleonic France, and its state the Batavian Republic, led the British to hand the Cape Colony over to the Batavian Republic in 1803. In 1806, the Cape, now controlled by the Batavian Republic, was occupied again by the British after their victory in the Battle of Blaauwberg
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Plettenberg Bay
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Plettenberg Bay, nicknamed Plet or Plett, is the primary town of the Bitou Local Municipality in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. As of the census of 2001, there were 29,149 population and it was originally named Bahia Formosa by early Portuguese explorers and lies on South Africas Garden Route 210 km from Port Elizabeth and about 600 km from Cape Town. Their tools, ornaments and food debris can be viewed in these caves, long before Jan van Riebeeck landed at the Cape, Portuguese explorers charted the bay in the 15th and 16th centuries, the first being Bartolomeu Dias in 1487. Ninety years later Manuel de Perestrelo aptly called it Bahia Formosa or the Beautiful Bay, the first European inhabitants were 100 Portuguese sailors marooned here for 9 months when the São Gonçalo sank in the bay in 1630. The survivors built two boats which they used to link with a passing vessel. A stone that they left behind on Beacon Island, known as the Van Plettenberg Stone, is now in the Cape Town museum, in 1763, the first European settlers in the Bay were stock farmers, hunters and frontiersmen from the Western Cape. A stinkwood navigational beacon was first erected on Beacon Island in 1771, the original was a square block of stinkwood, inscribed with the latitude and longitude of Plettenberg Bay and erected to enable mariners to check their location. It was replaced by a one by Captain Sewell in 1881. The bay housed a barracks for the Dutch East India Company in 1776, the Governor of the Cape, Baron Joachim van Plettenberg, renamed the town Plettenberg Bay in 1779. In 1869 the barracks was bought by St Peters Church and used as a rectory for the next 70 years, in 1787/88 Johann Jerling erected a timber shed commissioned by the Dutch East India Company, the remains can still be seen and are preserved as a provincial heritage site. In the 1830s, Plettenberg Bay was a point for ships travelling through during the winter time. As of 1833, the population of Plettenberg Bay was estimated around 400, with half being white, Edmund Roberts noted that the bay had a large abundance of cattle and sheep. He also recognized the excellence of its butter and a timber industry, a whaling station on Beacon Island closed down in 1916. Parts of the iron slipway are still visible today, a hotel called The Beacon Isle was built on the site of the whaling station. This was replaced by the iconic Beacon Isle Southern Sun Resort which opened for business in December 1972 and this building, designed by André Hoffe, has a layered atrium which pays tribute to the Guggenheim Museum of Frank Lloyd Wright. Between 1960 and 1990 Plettenberg Bay holiday resort expanded dramatically, extending along Robberg Beach, during the apartheid period property within Plettenberg Bay was designated for whites only, with segregation of the beaches and toilet facilities. New Horizons, across the N2, was designated as a settlement area for coloured people in 1968, as the 1980s progressed informal settlements of Xhosa migrants grew up around the edges of New Horizons and in the area of KwaNokuthula which became a town. Formal segregation ceased with the repeal of the laws
31.
Karl von Plettenberg
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Karl Freiherr von Plettenberg was a Prussian officer, and later General of Infantry during World War I. He was Commandant-General of the Guards Corps, Adjutant General of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, karl von Plettenberg was born on 18 December 1852 in Neuhaus into the Westphalian old noble Plettenberg family from the Sauerland. His father was Eugen von Plettenberg, an officer and his mother was Minette von der Borch. He led the Guards Corps at the First Battle of the Marne and he was decorated with the Pour le Mérite on 14 May 1915, and on 27 January 1916 awarded à la suite of the 1st Foot Guards Regiment. After criticism of the war by Erich Ludendorff and Paul von Hindenburg during the battles of material on the Western Front, after his retirement, he returned to Bückeburg where he died on 10 February 1938. Plettenbergstraße, a street in the town, is named after him and his oldest son, Karl-Wilhelm, was a lieutenant in the 1st Foot Guards Regiment of the Guards Corps at the outbreak of the war. He died on 30 August 1914 during the Battle of St Quentin and his second son, Kurt von Plettenberg, was plenipotentiary of the House of Hohenzollern and one of the inner circle of the July 20th plot against Hitler. He committed suicide on 10 March 1945 by jumping from a window during interrogation by the Gestapo
32.
General of the Infantry (Germany)
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General of the Infantry is a former rank of German Ground forces. Present it is an appointment or position to an OF-6 rank officer, responsible for affairs of training. General of the Infantry was a rank of General of the branch OF8 in the German land forces and also in the Prussian Army. It was the third-highest General officer rank, subordinate only to Colonel General and it is equivalent to a three-star rank today. The same rank was adopted by the Finnish Army between the world wars, German cavalry officers of equivalent rank were called General der Kavallerie and those in the artillery corps were General der Artillerie. In 1935 the Wehrmacht added the ranks of General der Panzertruppe, General der Gebirgstruppen, General der Fallschirmtruppen, in the Luftwaffe, the equivalent rank was General der Flieger. The rank was generally referred to only in the form of General, in the modern German armed forces, the Bundeswehr, the rank of Generalleutnant corresponds to the traditional rank of General der Infanterie. There was no equivalent rank in the army of East Germany, in the Bundeswehr, the position of an infantry officer responsible for certain questions of troop training and equipment, usually with the rank of Brigadier Generals. The position of general of the infantry is connected with that of commander of the infantry school, corresponding service positions also exist for other branches of the army. Since in this usage it refers to a not a rank. The form of address is usually Herr General and/or Herr Oberst, note that a number of these officers may also have gone on to higher ranks during their careers. General Comparative officer ranks of World War II
33.
Commandant-general
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Commandant-general is a military rank in several countries and is generally equivalent to that of commandant. Commandant general is the highest rank in the Argentine National Gendarmerie, depending on the appointment, it may be equal to any Argentine army rank from brigade general to the highest Argentine army rank, lieutenant general. During the Irish Civil War of 1922-23, the Irregulars, or anti-Treaty IRA, the term was acquired from the Boer rank, through veterans of the Irish Transvaal Brigade. Comandante generale, in Fascist Italys MVSN, was the title of the head of the Blackshirts, nowadays, is the title held by the commander of the Carabinieri. Historically, commandant-general has been the title of the appointment of commanding officer in several security forces in Portugal. Presently, in Portugal is the title of the officer commanding the National Republican Guard. In the past, it was also the title of the officers of the Public Security Police, the former Fiscal Guard. In Brazil, it is the title of the officers of the state military polices. Commandant-general was a rank in South African Republic and the Orange Free State Republic as well as in the Union of South Africa. The commandant-general of one of the Boer republics was the head of its armed forces, brigadier-General CF Beyers was the first Commandant-General of the Active Citizen Force until he resigned in 1914. He was succeeded as Commandant-General by Major-General J C Smuts with effect from 16 September 1914, in the United Kingdom, commandant-general is a military appointment, not a rank. See the following for more details, Commandant General Royal Marines Commandant-General of the RAF Regiment Commander-in-chief
34.
Guards Corps (German Empire)
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The Guards Corps / GK was a corps level command of the Prussian and then the Imperial German Armies from the 19th Century to World War I. The Corps was headquartered in Berlin, with its units garrisoned in the city, unlike all other Corps of the Imperial German Army, the Guards Corps did not recruit from a specific area, but from throughout Prussia and the Imperial Lands of Alsace-Lorraine. The Corps served in the Austro-Prussian War, during the Franco-Prussian War it was assigned to the 2nd Army. In peacetime the Corps was assigned to the II Army Inspectorate and it was still in existence at the end of the war in the 4th Army, Heeresgruppe Kronprinz Rupprecht on the Western Front. The Corps was disbanded with the demobilisation of the German Army after World War I, the Guards Corps fought in the Austro-Prussian War against Austria in 1866, including the Battle of Königgrätz. The Corps served in the Franco-Prussian War against France in 1870–1871 as part of 2nd Army and it saw action in the Battle of Gravelotte, Battle of Sedan and the Siege of Paris, among other actions. The 25 peacetime Corps of the German Army had a standardised organisation. Each consisted of two divisions with two infantry brigades, one field artillery brigade and a cavalry brigade each. Each brigade normally consisted of two regiments of the type, so each Corps normally commanded 8 infantry,4 field artillery and 4 cavalry regiments. In addition to the normal 2 Infantry Divisions, the Guards Corps also commanded the Guards Cavalry Division and it also incorporated an exceptional number of Corps Troops units, in particular school and demonstration units. On mobilization on 2 August 1914 the Corps was extensively restructured, the Guards Cavalry Division was assigned to the I Cavalry Corps, the 4th Guards Cavalry Brigade was broken up and its regiments assigned to the divisions as reconnaissance units. The Lehr Infantry Battalion was expanded to form the Lehr Infantry Regiment and it formed 6th Guards Infantry Brigade and together with the 5th Guards Infantry Brigade formed the 3rd Guards Division of the Guards Reserve Corps. Divisions received engineer companies and other units from the Corps headquarters. On mobilisation, the Guards Corps was assigned to the 2nd Army as part of the wing of the forces that invaded France. Soon into the war, at the 1st Battle of the Marne, in 1917, the corps was stationed on the Aisne River as part of 1st Army, and played an important role in the German defense against the French offensive in that sector. It was still in existence at the end of the war in the 4th Army, formationsgeschichte der Deutschen Infanterie im Ersten Weltkrieg. Imperial German Army 1914-18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle, the World War One Source Book. Stellenbesetzung der deutschen Heere 1815-1939, Bd.1, the London Stamp Exchange Ltd.1920
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Adjutant general
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An adjutant general is a military chief administrative officer. In Revolutionary France, the adjudant-général was a staff officer. It was a position for lieutenant-colonels and colonels in staff service. Starting in 1795, only colonels could be appointed to the position and it was supplemented by the rank of adjudant-commandant in 1800. In 1803 the position was abolished and adjudants-généraux reverted to the rank of colonel, in Imperial Russia, the General-Adjutant was an assistant who attended the Tsar, a field marshal or a general. Generaladjutant of the RIA In India the Adjutant-General is the administration officer for the Indian Army. In Pakistan, the Adjutant-General and Judge Advocate General is the armys most senior administration, for over 250 years the Adjutant-General to the Forces was one of the most senior officers in the British Army. He was responsible for developing the Armys personnel policies and supporting its people, since 2016 the Adjutant-General has been renamed Commander Home Command with different responsibilities. Formerly a major position, it is now a brigadier general billet. See List of Adjutants General of the U. S. Army, as of January 2015, the post is held by Brigadier General David K. “Mac” MacEwen. The chief administrative officer of a military unit, such as a division, corps. This officer is normally subordinated to the chief of staff. The senior military officer of a states, commonwealths, or territorys military forces, including the National Guard, the naval militia, and any state defense forces. This officer is known as the AG or the TAG and reports to the chief executive when the National Guard is not in a federalized status under Title 10 USC
36.
Kaiser
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Kaiser is the German word for emperor. In English, the term the Kaiser is usually reserved for the emperors of the German Empire, the rulers of the Empire of Austria were drawn from the Habsburg dynasty, who, after 1438, provided most of Holy Roman Emperors. The Austrian rulers adopted the title Kaiser, there were only four Kaisers of the Austrian Empire, and they have all belonged to the Habsburg dynasty. In 1871, there was debate about the exact title for the monarch of those German territories that agreed to unify under the leadership of Prussia. There were only three Kaisers of the German Empire, all of them belonged to the Hohenzollern dynasty, which, as kings of Prussia, had been de facto leaders of lesser Germany. In English the word Kaiser is mainly associated with the emperors of the unified German Empire. In 1806 the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved, but the title of Kaiser was retained by the House of Habsburg, the head of which, beginning in 1804, bore the title of Emperor of Austria. Georg Friedrich Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia, is head of the House of Hohenzollern, which was the former ruling dynasty of the German Empire. Karl von Habsburg is currently the head of the House of Habsburg, German Monarchy German nobility List of German monarchs Qaisar Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia Kaiser
37.
Kurt von Plettenberg
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Kurt Freiherr von Plettenberg was a German forester, cavalry officer and a person of the German Resistance. He was involved in the preparations for the 20 July plot, Plettenberg descended from an aristocratic family from Westphalia in Germany. His Father was Karl von Plettenberg and he was married to Arianne Freiin von Maltzahn, with whom he had two daughters and a son. Kurt Freiherr von Plettenberg studied law and forestry at the universities of Kiel, Lausanne, Hannoversch Münden, Berlin and his studies were temporarily interrupted by the First World War. He became regional forest director in the Reich Forest Office, in 1937 he resigned from the forest service at his own request because the political prescriptions of the National Socialist regime conflicted with his opinions. In the post of chamberlain he administered the property of the former royal house of Schaumburg-Lippe. Drafted in 1939, he distinguished himself in service as battalion leader and commander of a regiment of Infantry Regiment 9. At the end of 1941 he became plenipotentiary of the former Prussian royal family, Kurt von Plettenberg was arrested at the beginning of March 1945. To avoid betraying his friends under torture, he threw out of a third-floor window of the Gestapo’s house prison at 8. Münster 1985 Irmgard von der Lühe, Lebenswege im Widerstand, hubert Hugo Hilf, Dem Gedächtnis an Kurt Freiherr von Plettenberg. Jahrgang, Heft 7/1959, S. 133–134 August Winnig, Aus zwanzig Jahren, Dem Gedächtnis der Freunde Max Habermann, Ulrich von Oertzen, Kurt Freiherr von Plettenberg, Fritz-Dietlof Graf von der Schulenburg. Wittig, Hamburg 1948 Andreas Gautschi, Der Reichsjägermeister, fakten und Legenden um Hermann Göring. Nimrod, Hanstedt 2000, ISBN 3-927848-20-4 Heinrich Rubner, Deutsche Forstgeschichte 1933–1945, forstwirtschaft, Jagd und Umwelt im NS-Staat. Scripta-Mercaturae-Verlag, St. Katharinen 1997, ISBN 3-89590-032-X Hans-Jürgen Wegener, Freiherr von Plettenberg - Ein Vorbild
38.
House of Hohenzollern
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The House of Hohenzollern is a dynasty of former princes, electors, kings and emperors of Hohenzollern, Brandenburg, Prussia, the German Empire, and Romania. The family arose in the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the 11th century, the first ancestor of the Hohenzollerns was mentioned in 1061. They may have derived from the Burchardinger dynasty, the Hohenzollern family split into two branches, the Catholic Swabian branch and the Protestant Franconian branch, which later became the Brandenburg-Prussian branch. The Swabian branch ruled the principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen until 1849, members of the Franconian branch became Margrave of Brandenburg in 1415 and Duke of Prussia in 1525. The Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia were ruled in personal union after 1618 and were called Brandenburg-Prussia, germanys defeat in World War I in 1918 led to the German Revolution. The Hohenzollerns were overthrown and the Weimar Republic was established, thus bringing an end to the German monarchy, Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia is the current head of the royal Prussian line, while Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern is the head of the princely Swabian line. Zollern, from 1218 Hohenzollern, was a county of the Holy Roman Empire and its ruling dynasty was first mentioned in 1061. The Hohenzollerns named their estates after Hohenzollern Castle in the Swabian Alps, the Hohenzollern Castle still belongs to the family today. According to the medieval chronicler Berthold of Reichenau, Burkhard I, Count of Zollern was born before 1025, the Zollerns received the comital title from Emperor Henry V in 1111. As loyal vassals of the Swabian Hohenstaufen dynasty, they were able to enlarge their territory. In 1218 the burgraviate passed to Fredericks younger son Conrad I, he became the ancestor of the Franconian Hohenzollern branch. 1150-1155 and 1160, Gotfried of Zimmern, 4th oldest son of Frederick I before 1171 – c,1200, Frederick III/I Count Frederick III of Zollern was a loyal retainer of the Holy Roman Emperors Frederick Barbarossa and Henry VI. In about 1185 he married Sophia of Raabs, the daughter of Conrad II, after the death of Conrad II who left no male heirs, Frederick III was granted Nuremberg in 1192 as Burgrave Frederick I of Nuremberg-Zollern. Since then the name has been Hohenzollern. The younger brother, Conrad III, received the burgraviate of Nuremberg from his older brother Frederick IV in 1218, members of the Franconian line eventually became the Brandenburg-Prussian branch. The Franconian line later converted to Protestantism, the cadet Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern was founded by Conrad I, Burgrave of Nuremberg. Beginning in the 16th century, this branch of the family became Protestant and decided on expansion through marriage, the family supported the Hohenstaufen and Habsburg rulers of the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th to 15th centuries, being rewarded with several territorial grants. He ruled the Margraviate of Brandenburg-Ansbach after 1398, from 1420, he became Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach
39.
20 July plot
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On 20 July 1944, Claus von Stauffenberg and other conspirators attempted to assassinate Adolf Hitler, Führer of Nazi Germany, inside his Wolfs Lair field headquarters near Rastenburg, East Prussia. The name Operation Valkyrie, originally referring to part of the conspiracy, has become associated with the entire event. The apparent purpose of the attempt was to seize political control of Germany and its armed forces from the Nazi Party. The underlying desire of many of the involved high-ranking Wehrmacht officers was apparently to show to the world that not all Germans were like Hitler and the Nazi Party. The details of the peace initiatives remain unknown, but they likely would have included demands to accept wide-reaching territorial annexations by Germany in Europe. The plot was the culmination of the efforts by groups in the German resistance to overthrow the Nazi German government. The failure of the assassination and the military coup détat which was planned to follow led to the arrest of at least 7,000 people by the Gestapo, of whom 4,980 were executed. Since 1938, conspiratorial groups planning an overthrow of some kind had existed in the German Army, early leaders of these plots included Brigadier-General Hans Oster, General Ludwig Beck and Field Marshal Erwin von Witzleben. Oster was the deputy head of the Military Intelligence Office, Beck was a former Chief-of-Staff of the German Army High Command. Von Witzleben was the commander of the German 1st Army. Military conspiratorial groups exchanged ideas with civilian, political, and intellectual groups in the Kreisauer Kreis. Moltke was against killing Hitler, instead, he wanted him placed on trial, moltke said, we are all amateurs and would only bungle it. Moltke also believed killing Hitler would be hypocritical, Hitler and National Socialism had turned wrong-doing into a system, something which the resistance should avoid. This first military resistance group delayed their plans after Hitlers extreme popularity following the rapid success in the battle for France. In 1942, a new group formed, led by Colonel Henning von Tresckow, a member of Field Marshal Fedor von Bocks staff. Tresckow systematically recruited oppositionists to the Groups staff, making it the centre of the army resistance. Little could be done against Hitler as he was heavily guarded, during 1942, Oster and Tresckow nevertheless succeeded in rebuilding an effective resistance network. Linking this asset to Tresckows resistance group in Army Group Centre created a viable coup apparatus, the bomb failed to detonate, and a second attempt a week later with Hitler at an exhibition of captured Soviet weaponry in Berlin also failed
40.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
41.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
42.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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