1.
Saud of Saudi Arabia
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Saud bin Abdulaziz Al Saud was King of Saudi Arabia from 1953 to 1964. After a period of tension in Saudi Arabia, he was forced from the throne. Prince Saud was born on 15 January 1902 in Kuwait City, the second son of Ibn Saud, he was born in the home of his grandfather Amir Abdul Rahman. They lived in Sikkat Inazza where the family was staying after their exile from Riyadh, when his father conquered Riyadh in 1902, Saud followed him with his mother and brothers. Prince Saud had one brother, Turki I. and a sister. Their mother was King Abdulazizs second wife Wadhah bint Muhammad bin Hussein Al-Orair, at the age of five years old, he studied under Sheikh Abdul Rahman Al-Mufaireej. He accompanied his father on his expeditions and, participated in several campaigns during the unification of the Arabian Peninsula. These qualities rendered him admiration from his friends and enemies alike and he also advised him to incline towards and respect of Muslim scholars and keep their company and listen to their advice. The young Saud had then pledged to his father that he would abide by his words. Sauds first political mission was at the age of thirteen, he led a delegation to Qatar, the 1st battle he fought was at on 1915, followed b Yatab battle in the same year, then Trubah battle in 1919. In 1925 he stopped the Almahmal crisis in Makkah, in 1929 he fought to stop the Ikhwan Revolt at Al Sebella. On 11 May 1933, he was appointed Crown Prince by his father, in 1934, King Abdulaziz sent two military expeditions, one of them was led by Crown Prince Saud who regained Najran and advanced secretly through the rugged mountains in the north west part of Yemen. Following the end of the war with Yemen, King Abdulaziz decided to encourage Saud to travel abroad, when a crisis erupted between the neighbouring Persian Gulf States of Bahrain and Qatar, Saud also visited the former during December 1937 in order to help sort out their differences. This was followed by visits to the until the eve of the Second World War. In 1947, Saud visited the United States and met with President Harry S, the Hajj of 1369 AH /1950 AD witnessed the establishment of the Makkah college that was later to be expanded and renamed Umm al-Qura University. The traditional Consultative Council in Makkah, the Majlis-ash-Shura or Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia was expanded on 17 November 1952, earlier, on 19 October 1953, King Abdulaziz had also appointed Crown Prince Saud as a Prime Minister for the first Saudi Cabinet. Before that, he appointed him as a Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, during this period, the Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia, including the Air Force, were modernised on a large scale with American assistance. On 10 June 1953, Saud with the approval of his father laid the foundation stone for the expansion
2.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
3.
Emblem of Saudi Arabia
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The Saudi Arabian national emblem was adopted in 1950. According to the Saudi Basic Law, it consists of two crossed swords with a tree in the space above and between the blades. The two swords represent the Kingdom of Hejaz and the Sultanate of Najd and its dependencies, which were united under Ibn Saud in 1926, the palm tree represents the Kingdoms assets which are defined as its people, heritage, history, and resources natural and non-natural. Thus, the palm is shown to be guarded by the two swords, which represent the force to be used in defence of the nation, the Emblem appears on government documents, diplomatic missions, as well as several Saudi Arabian flags. It is emblazoned in gold on the flag of the Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia, the latter is essentially the national flag with the added Emblem in gold, which is placed in the lower part of the hoist and not in the canton as with other royal standards. The Emblems lower position is in deference to the nature of the Shahada
4.
Anazzah
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Anazzah is an Arab tribe in the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, and the Levant. Anazzahs existence as a tribal group, like many prominent modern tribes, predates the rise of Islam in the 7th century CE. The classical Arab genealogists placed Anizzah within the large Rabiah branch of Adnanite tribes, alongside the tribes of Abdul Qays, Bakr ibn Wail, Bani Hanifa, in the genealogical scheme, Anazzahs eponymous ancestor is a great uncle of all of these. Two main branches of Anazzah are recorded by the early Muslim scholars, one branch was nomadic, living in the northern Arabian steppes bordering Syria and Mesopotamia. Families tracing their origin to Annizah through Hizzan still exist in that area today, the other tribes of Rabiah were far more prominent in the events of late pre-Islamic Arabia and the early Islamic era. According to historians such as Al-Tabari, Anazzah joined with Bakr ibn Wail under an alliance they called al-Lahazim, many of these tribes were followers of the christian faith prior to Islam. The tribute was known as khuwwa, and in exchange, the tribesmen pledged to protect the farmers from other tribes, other clans of the tribe spread across the northern Arabian steppes as far north and east as the Euphrates. In particular, it is believed originated from the area of Ayn Tamr in the Iraqi desert near Karbala. In the 19th century, the Swiss traveler Burckhardt and the British traveler Doughty visited the tribe in their stronghold of Khaybar, a 19th century oral poetic epic telling the tale of a rivalry between two heroes from Shammar and Annizah was published in 1992. The Ruwallah were among the tribes took part in the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans in 1916. Another northern branch of Annizah, the Amarat, was centered in the deserts of Iraq, according to the tribes genealogists, the modern tribe in north Arabia is divided into the following branches, Dhana Bishr - which includes the Amarat of Iraq. Dhana Maslam - which includes the Ruwallah of north Arabia, the sparse chronicles of Nejd relating to the pre-Wahhabi era relate a process of penetration of the tribe into northern and western Nejd, where they began to claim pastures during the winter months. In the 15th century, the region of Al-Qassim in northern Nejd was being rapidly settled through migration, in the early 18th century—just prior to the rise of Wahhabism—the Bedouins of Annizah are recorded to have reached as far as the gates of Riyadh, killing its ruler in battle. This battle was part of a war in which Riyadh. Limited settlement of Bedouin tribesmen in nearby towns and villages has always been a process in the region. These recently settled tribesman are often distinguished from their sedentary cousins by retaining tribal appellations such as al-Annizi or Al-Ruwaili as their surnames, Bedouin Rabiah Ruwallah Banu Bakr Banu Hanifa De Gaury, Gerald
5.
Saudi Arabia
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Saudi Arabia is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south. It is separated from Israel and Egypt by the Gulf of Aqaba and it is the only nation with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast and most of its terrain consists of arid desert and mountains. The area of modern-day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of four regions, Hejaz, Najd and parts of Eastern Arabia. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud and he united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud. Saudi Arabia has since been a monarchy, effectively a hereditary dictatorship governed along Islamic lines. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam has been called the predominant feature of Saudi culture, with its global spread largely financed by the oil and gas trade. Saudi Arabia is sometimes called the Land of the Two Holy Mosques in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, the state has a total population of 28.7 million, of which 20 million are Saudi nationals and 8 million are foreigners. The states official language is Arabic, petroleum was discovered on 3 March 1938 and followed up by several other finds in the Eastern Province. Saudi Arabia has since become the worlds largest oil producer and exporter, controlling the second largest oil reserves. The kingdom is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy with a high Human Development Index and is the only Arab country to be part of the G-20 major economies. However, the economy of Saudi Arabia is the least diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, the state has attracted criticism for its treatment of women and use of capital punishment. Saudi Arabia is an autocracy, has the fourth highest military expenditure in the world. Saudi Arabia is considered a regional and middle power, in addition to the GCC, it is an active member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and OPEC. Following the unification of the Hejaz and Nejd kingdoms, the new state was named al-Mamlakah al-ʻArabīyah as-Suʻūdīyah by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder, Abdulaziz Al Saud. Although this is translated as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in English it literally means the Saudi Arab kingdom. Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the possession of the royal family. Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning family of or House of, in the case of the Al Saud, this is the father of the dynastys 18th century founder, Muhammad bin Saud. There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago
6.
Arabs
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Arabs are an ethnic group inhabiting the Arab world. They primarily live in the Arab states in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabs are first mentioned in the mid-ninth century BCE as a tribal people dwelling in the central Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs appear to have been under the vassalage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, tradition holds that Arabs descend from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The Arabian Desert is the birthplace of Arab, there are other Arab groups as well that spread in the land and existed for millennia. Before the expansion of the Caliphate, Arab referred to any of the largely nomadic Semitic people from the northern to the central Arabian Peninsula and Syrian Desert. Presently, Arab refers to a number of people whose native regions form the Arab world due to spread of Arabs throughout the region during the early Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. The Arabs forged the Rashidun, Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphates, whose borders reached southern France in the west, China in the east, Anatolia in the north, and this was one of the largest land empires in history. The Great Arab Revolt has had as big an impact on the modern Middle East as the World War I, the war signaled the end of the Ottoman Empire. They are modern states and became significant as distinct political entities after the fall and defeat, following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland whilst respecting the sovereignty of its member states. Beyond the boundaries of the League of Arab States, Arabs can also be found in the global diaspora, the ties that bind Arabs are ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historical, identical, nationalist, geographical and political. The Arabs have their own customs, language, architecture, art, literature, music, dance, media, cuisine, dress, society, sports, the total number of Arabs are an estimated 450 million. This makes them the second largest ethnic group after the Han Chinese. Arabs are a group in terms of religious affiliations and practices. In the pre-Islamic era, most Arabs followed polytheistic religions, some tribes had adopted Christianity or Judaism, and a few individuals, the hanifs, apparently observed monotheism. Today, Arabs are mainly adherents of Islam, with sizable Christian minorities, Arab Muslims primarily belong to the Sunni, Shiite, Ibadi, Alawite, Druze and Ismaili denominations. Arab Christians generally follow one of the Eastern Christian Churches, such as the Maronite, Coptic Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, or Chaldean churches. Listed among the booty captured by the army of king Shalmaneser III of Assyria in the Battle of Qarqar are 1000 camels of Gi-in-di-buu the ar-ba-a-a or Gindibu belonging to the Arab
7.
Muhammad bin Saud
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Ibn Sauds family traced its descent to the tribe of Banu Audi and Hanifa tribes but, despite popular misconceptions, Muhammad ibn Saud was neither a nomadic bedouin nor was he a tribal leader. Rather, he was the chief of a settlement near modern-day Riyadh. Furthermore, he was a competent and ambitious desert warrior, the initial power base was the town of Ad-Diriyyah, where he met Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhab, who came to Ibn Saud for protection. Muhammad ibn Saud granted this and the two decided to work together to implement Ibn Abdel Wahhabs ideas of purifying Islam from innovations in its practice by bringing it back to its purest form. They formed an alliance in 1744 which was formalized by the wedding of Muhammad bin Abdul-Wahhabs daughter to Abdul Aziz, son, thereafter, the descendants of Muhammad bin Saud and the descendants of bin Abdul-Wahhab, the Al ash-Sheikh, have remained closely linked. Using the ideology of Ibn Abdul-Wahhab, Ibn Saud helped establish the House of Saud among other forces in the Arabian peninsula, the use of religion as a basis for legitimacy differentiated the House of Saud from neighboring clans and built support. Whilst under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, Ibn Saud is considered the founder of what became known as the First Saudi State. The way he set up his government has served as the model for rulers of the House of Saud to the present day, the government was based on Islamic principles and made use of shura. He ruled until his death in 1765 and afterwards his son, Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad, as a forerunner of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University is named after him. Second Saudi State Third Saudi State See also S. R. Valentine, Force & Fanaticism, Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond, Hurst & Co, London/New York,2015, passim
8.
Salman of Saudi Arabia
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Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud is King of Saudi Arabia, Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, and head of the House of Saud. He served as the Deputy Governor and then the Governor of Riyadh for 48 years from 1963 to 2011 and he was then appointed as Minister of Defence. He was also named the Crown Prince in 2012 following the death of his brother Nayef bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Salman was crowned as the new King of Saudi Arabia on 23 January 2015 following the death of his half-brother, King Abdullah. Salman was born on 31 December 1935, and is reported to be the 25th son of Ibn Saud, Salman and his six brothers make up what is referred to as the Sudairi Seven. He was raised in the Murabba Palace, Salman received his early education at the Princes School in the capital city of Riyadh, a school established by Ibn Saud specifically to provide education for his children. He studied religion and modern science, Salman was first appointed as deputy governor of Riyadh Province in 1954 when he was 19 years old and held the post until 1955. He was appointed governor of Riyadh Province on 4 February 1963 and his tenure lasted for forty-eight years from 1963 to 2011. As governor, he contributed to the development of Riyadh from a town into a major urban metropolis. He served as an important liaison to attract tourism, capital projects and he favored political and economic relationships with the West. During his governorship, Salman recruited advisors from King Saud University, during Salmans five decades as Riyadh governor, he became adept at managing the delicate balance of clerical, tribal, and princely interests that determine Saudi policy. In January 2011, he ordered the arrest of Riyadh beggars who try to take advantage of the generosity of people, all foreign beggars were deported and Saudi beggars were placed in a rehabilitation program by the Ministry of Social Affairs. Salman also undertook several tours during his reign. In 1974, he visited Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar to strengthen Saudi Arabias relationship with the nations, during his visit to Montreal, Quebec, Canada, in 1991, he inaugurated a gallery. In 1996, he was received in the Élysée Palace in Paris by the then-French president Jacques Chirac, the same year he toured Bosnia and Herzegovina to give donations to the Muslim citizens of the country. Being a part of an Asian tour in 1998, Salman visited Pakistan, Japan, Brunei, under Salman, Riyadh became one of the richest cities in the Middle East and an important place for trade and commerce. There were also infrastructural advances including schools, universities and sports stadiums, about the province, he said Every village or town in the Riyadh Region is dear to me, and holds a special place in my heart. I witnessed every step taken by the city of Riyadh, Prince Salman was also named as a member of the National Security Council on the same day. It is speculated that his placement in the line of succession occurred due to his qualities
9.
King of Saudi Arabia
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The King of Saudi Arabia is Saudi Arabias head of state and absolute monarch. He serves as the head of the Saudi monarchy — House of Saud, the King is called the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The title, which signifies Saudi Arabias jurisdiction over the mosques of Masjid al Haram in Mecca and Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina, King Abdulaziz began conquering todays Saudi Arabia in 1902, by restoring his family as emirs of Riyadh. He then proceeded to conquer first the Nejd and then the Hejaz and he progressed from Sultan of Nejd, to King of Hejaz and Nejd, and finally to King of Saudi Arabia in 1932. The kings since Ibn Sauds death have all been his sons, sons of Ibn Saud are considered to have primary claim on the throne of Saudi Arabia. This makes the Saudi monarchy quite distinct from Western monarchies, which feature large, clearly defined royal families. The current Crown Prince is the first grandson of Ibn Saud to be in the line of succession, Saudi Arabia is ruled by Islamic law and purports to be an Islamic state, but many Muslims see a hereditary monarchy as being a discouraged system of government in Islam. The King of Saudi Arabia is also considered the Head of the House of Saud, the Crown Prince is also the Deputy Prime Minister. The kings after Faisal have named a second Deputy Prime Minister as the subsequent heir after the Crown Prince. Crown Prince Muhammad bin Nayef, born 30 August 1959, son of Nayef bin Abdulaziz and Al Jawhara bint Abdulaziz bin Musaed bin Jiluwi Al Saud, Grandson of Ibn Saud and Hassa bint Ahmed Al Sudairi. Deputy Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman, born 31 August 1985, son of King Salman, the Royal Standard consists of a green flag, with an Arabic inscription and a sword featured in white, and with the national emblem embroidered in gold in the lower right canton. The script on the flag is written in the Thuluth script, Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia Succession to the Saudi Arabian throne List of rulers of Saudi Arabia
10.
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques
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The title refers to the ruler taking the responsibility of guarding and maintaining the two holiest mosques in Islam, Al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina. It is believed that the first person to use the title was Saladin, after defeating the Mamluks and gaining control of the two Muslim holy cities, Mecca and Medina in 1517, the Ottoman Sultan Selim I adopted the title. Rather than style himself the Ḥākimül-Ḥaremeyn, he accepted the more pious title Ḫādimül-Ḥaremeyn and this title was used by all subsequent Ottoman Caliph Sultans until Mehmed VI, the last. The first King of Saudi Arabia to assume the title was Fahd bin Abdul Aziz in 1986 and he replaced the term His Majesty with Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The reigning king, Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, took the title after the death of King Abdullah, his half brother
11.
Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia
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The Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia is the second most important position in Saudi Arabia, second to the king, and is his designated successor. Currently, the Crown Prince assumes power with the approval of the Allegiance Commission after he is appointed by the king and this system was introduced to the country in the Abdullah Era. In the absence of the king, an order is issued to have the prince manage the affairs of the state until the kings return. The order changes the title temporarily from the Crown Prince. The last Crown prince of the Second Saudi State was Abdulaziz ibn Abdul Ramhan ibn Saud and his father abdicated the pretended throne to him in 1900, and began his famous wars of conquest of what would become the third Saudi state. When had taken enough land to become recognized as a genuine Emir, when Turki died during the flu pandemic of 1919, his only child was still in utero, and Abdulaziz designated his second son Saud to be heir and that further succession would be brother to brother. When the Unification of Saudi Arabia was complete in 1932, Abdulaziz had himself declared king, when the old king died in 1953, Saud became king and his brother Faisal, as planned was declared Crown Prince. The King and his heir began feuding over whether or not King Saud was competent or not, Feisal took the title Prime Minister for a while, and on occasion took over the government against the kings wishes. Saud fought back, and things came to a head in 1964, the next in Line, Prince Mohammed, was deemed unsuitable, and was de jure Crown Prince for a short time before he was deposed in favor of Prince Khalid in 1965. With Khalid not all interested in being king, his crown prince, Fahd. When King Fahd had a stroke in 1995, Crown Prince Abdullah became the formal Regent for the balance of the reign, as the nation became a gerontocracy in the 2000s and early 10s, three Crown Princes died of old age in rapid succession. In the meantime, more and more princes were passed over, in January 2015, Ibn Sauds last son, Muqrin, became Crown Prince, only to be ousted three months later in favor of his nephew, Mohammed bin Nayef. When King Faisal was murdered in 1975, King Khalid designated Prince Abdullah, as King Khalid became ill with old age, the question of who would succeed Abdullah as Second Deputy became more pressing. Prince Musaid, whose son had murdered King Faisal, long knew he was out and Prince Bandar demanded and got, Prince Sultan, despite opposition, was appointed when the old king died. Once a Princes place was cemented in the line of succession, Prince Sultan attempted a coup against Crown Prince Abdullah, who was regent for the ailing King Fahd, in 1995, and he remained in place until he became Crown Prince in 2005. Competition for the position became intense when Fahd, then Sultan died a few years later, the youngest brother of all, Muqrin, became second deputy in 2013, and received the honorific deputy crown prince a year later. With the internal politics of the House of Saud being clear as mud the seniority system came to an end when scores of grandsons were bypassed in favor of Muhammad bin Nayef, succession to the Saudi Arabian throne King of Saudi Arabia
12.
Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted between 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service
13.
Wahhabism
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Wahhabism is an Islamic doctrine and religious movement founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The term Wahhabi is often used polemically and adherents commonly reject its use, the movement emphasises the principle of tawhid. Wahhabism is named after a preacher and activist, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The alliance between followers of ibn Abd al-Wahhab and Muhammad bin Sauds successors proved to be a durable one, today Ibn Abd Al-Wahhabs teachings are the official, state-sponsored form of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia. With the help of funding from Saudi petroleum exports, the movement underwent explosive growth beginning in the 1970s, However, Wahhabism has also been called a particular orientation within Salafism, or an ultra-conservative, Saudi brand of Salafism. Estimates of the number of adherents to Wahhabism vary, with one giving a figure of fewer than 5 million Wahhabis in the Persian Gulf region. The majority of mainstream Sunni and Shia Muslims worldwide strongly disagree with the interpretation of Wahhabism, Islamic scholars, including those from the Al-Azhar University, regularly denounce Wahhabism with terms such as Satanic faith. It has also criticized for the destruction of historic shrines of saints, mausoleums. A misguided creed that fosters intolerance, promotes simplistic theology, and restricts Islams capacity for adaption to diverse, a term used by opponents of Salafism in hopes of besmirching that movement by suggesting foreign influence and conjuring up images of Saudi Arabia. The term is most frequently used in countries where Salafis are a minority of the Muslim community but have made recent inroads in converting the local population to Salafism. The British also adopted it and expanded its use in the Middle East, Wahhabis do not like – or at least did not like – the term. Ibn Abd-Al-Wahhab was averse to the elevation of scholars and other individuals, according to Robert Lacey the Wahhabis have always disliked the name customarily given to them and preferred to be called Muwahhidun. Another preferred term was simply Muslims since their creed is pure Islam, However, critics complain these terms imply non-Wahhabis are not monotheists or Muslims, and the English translation of that term causes confusion with the Christian denomination. Early Salafis referred to simply as Muslims, believing the neighboring Ottoman Caliphate was al-dawlah al-kufriyya. The prominent 20th-century Muslim scholar Nasiruddin Albani, who considered himself of the Salaf, a New York Times journalist writes that Saudis abhor the term Wahhabism, feeling it sets them apart and contradicts the notion that Islam is a monolithic faith. Ingrid Mattson argues that, Wahhbism is not a sect and it is a social movement that began 200 years ago to rid Islam of rigid cultural practices that had acquired over the centuries. Journalist Karen House calls Salafi, a politically correct term for Wahhabi. In any case, according to Lacey, none of the terms have caught on
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Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
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Royal family
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A royal family is the immediate family of a king or queen regnant, and sometimes his or her extended family. However, in common parlance members of any family which reigns by hereditary right are often referred to as royalty or royals and it is also customary in some circles to refer to the extended relations of a deposed monarch and his or her descendants as a royal family. A dynasty is referred to as the House of. As of July 2013, there are 26 active sovereign monarchies in the world who rule or reign over 43 countries in all, in some cases, royal family membership may extend to great grandchildren and more distant descendants of a monarch. In certain monarchies where voluntary abdication is the norm, such as the Netherlands, there is often a distinction between persons of the blood royal and those that marry into the royal family. In certain instances, such as in Canada, the family is defined by who holds the styles Majesty. Under most systems, only persons in the first category are dynasts and this is not always observed, some monarchies have operated by the principle of jure uxoris. In addition, certain relatives of the monarch possess special privileges and are subject to certain statutes, conventions, the precise functions of a royal family vary depending on whether the polity in question is an absolute monarchy, a constitutional monarchy, or somewhere in between. The specific composition of royal families varies from country to country, as do the titles and royal, the composition of the royal family may be regulated by statute enacted by the legislature, the sovereigns prerogative and common law tradition, or a private house law. Public statutes, constitutional provisions, or conventions may also regulate the marriages, names, the members of a royal family may or may not have a surname or dynastic name. Some countries have abolished royalty altogether, as in post-revolutionary France, whilst mediatization occurred in other countries such as France, Italy and Russia, only the certain houses within the former Holy Roman Empire are collectively called the Mediatized Houses
16.
Emirate of Diriyah
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The Emirate of Diriyah was the first Saudi state. In 1744, both Muhammed bin Abd Al Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud took an oath to achieve their goal. Furthermore, Sauds forces brought the highlands of Asir under their suzerainty, while Muhammed bin Abd Al Wahhab wrote letters to people, after many military campaigns, Saud died in 1765, leaving the leadership to his son, Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad. Sauds forces went so far as to command of the Shia holy city of Karbala in 1801. Here they destroyed grave markers of saints and monuments and killed over 5000 civilians, Muhammed bin Abd Al Wahhab died in 1792. In 1803, eleven year after Wahhabs death, the son of Abdul Aziz Bin Muhammad, Saud bin Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad bin Saud, taif was the first city to be captured, and later the two holy cities of Mecca and Medina. This was seen as a challenge to the authority of the Ottoman Empire. The task of weakening the grip of the House of Saud was given to the viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha. This initiated the Ottoman–Wahhabi War, in which Muhammad Ali sent his troops to the Hejaz region by sea and his son, Ibrahim Pasha, then led Ottoman forces into the heart of Nejd, capturing town after town. Sauds successor, his son Abdullah bin Saud, was unable to prevent the recapture of the region, finally, Ibrahim reached the Saudi capital at Diriyah and placed it under siege for several months until it surrendered in the winter of 1818. Ibrahim then shipped off many members of the clans of Al Saud and Muhammed Ibn Abd Al Wahhab to Egypt, before he left he ordered a systematic destruction of Diriyah, whose ruins have remained untouched ever since. Muhammad bin Saud 1726–1744, 1744–1765 Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad 1765–1803 Saud bin Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad bin Saud 1803–1814 Abdullah bin Saud 1814–1818, ottoman–Saudi War Second Saudi State Saudi Arabia List of Sunni Muslim dynasties Facey, William, Hawkins, Philip. Dirʻīyyah and the first Saudi state
17.
Ibn Saud
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He reconquered his familys ancestral home city of Riyadh in 1902, starting three decades of conquests that made him the ruler of nearly all of central Arabia. He consolidated his control over the Najd in 1922, then conquered the Hejaz in 1925 and he extended his dominions into, what later became, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932. As King, he presided over the discovery of petroleum in Saudi Arabia in 1938 and he fathered many children, including 45 sons, and all of the subsequent kings of Saudi Arabia. Ibn Saud was born on 15 January 1875 in Riyadh in the region of Najd in central Arabia and he was the son of Abdul Rahman bin Faisal, last ruler of the Emirate of Nejd, the Second Saudi State, a tribal sheikhdom centered on Riyadh. His family, the House of Saud, had been a power in central Arabia for the previous 130 years, Ibn Sauds mother was a member of the Sudairi family, Sarah Al Sudairi. In 1890, the House of Sauds long-term regional rivals, the Rashidis, Ibn Saud was 15 at the time. He and his family took refuge with the Al Murrah. Later, the Al Sauds moved to Qatar and stayed there for two months and their next stop was Bahrain, where they stayed briefly. Their final destination was Kuwait, where lived for nearly a decade. As the raid proved profitable, it attracted more participants, the raiders numbers peaked at over 200, but numbers dwindled over the ensuing months. In the autumn, the made camp in the Yabrin oasis. While observing Ramadan, he decided to attack Riyadh and retake it from the Al Rashid, on the night of 15 January 1902, he led 40 men over the walls of the city on tilted palm trees and took the city. The Rashidi governor of the city, Ajlan, was killed in front of his own fortress, the Saudi recapture of the city marked the beginning of the Third Saudi State. Following the capture of Riyadh, many supporters of the House of Saud rallied to Ibn Sauds call to arms. He was a leader and kept his men supplied with arms. Over the next two years, he and his forces recaptured almost half of the Najd from the Rashidis, in 1904, Abdulaziz of Al Rashid appealed to the Ottoman Empire for military protection and assistance. The Ottomans responded by sending troops into Arabia, on 15 June 1904, Ibn Sauds forces suffered a major defeat at the hands of the combined Ottoman and Rashidi forces. His forces regrouped and began to wage guerrilla warfare against the Ottomans, over the next two years, he was able to disrupt their supply routes, forcing them to retreat
18.
Allegiance Council
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It was formed on 7 December 2007 by King Abdullah. At the time of its formation, the Councils intended function was to appoint a Crown Prince once a new King succeeds to the throne. Due to increasing uncertainty of succession beyond Prince Sultan, King Abdullah issued the Allegiance Institution Law in 2006, the Council gave additional voice to members of the Al Saud when a new King selects his Crown Prince. The role of the Council was intended to take effect once late Prince Sultan succeeded to the throne. However, in 2009, when he was ill with cancer, late Prince Nayef was appointed Second Deputy Prime Minister. This led to uncertainty over the role of the Council, the appointment of late Prince Nayef was openly questioned by Prince Talal. The Council supposedly undertook its duties for the first time when Prince Sultan died in October 2011, one week after his death, King Abdullah announced that the Council had selected Prince Nayef as the new Crown Prince. However, the Council just swore allegiance to Nayef as Crown Prince, whether or not it actually voted the selection remained unclear. Similar apparent dysfunctionality of the council was also observed in regard to the appointment of Prince Salman as Crown Prince in June 2012, Prince Talal stated that the princes on the Council were not consulted on the succession of Prince Salman and that the Council became ineffective. Under the Allegiance Institution Law, the King nominates up to three candidates for the position of Crown Prince, the Allegiance Council then selects one of them as Crown Prince. If the Council rejects all of the Kings nominees, it may nominate its own candidate, the Crown Prince will be then decided by a vote among the Council, The Council also preempts the possibility of the King becoming incapacitated. In the event the King permanently loses his ability to exercise his powers, if both the King and the Crown Prince become permanently incapacitated, the Council will form a five-member Transitory Ruling Council to temporarily assume administration of the Kingdom. The Council will also select a new King within seven days, despite this, the Sudairis are said to have influence over more than half the council members. After almost a year with the post of second deputy Prime Minister vacant, Prince Muqrin was formally designated by royal decree in 2013. This meant that he was next in line, bypassing several senior princes. The poll, which is considered a vote, was 75% Yes. At the end of April 2015, barely three months into his reign, King Salman dismissed Prince Muqrin from his post as Crown Prince, Prince Muhammad was automatically promoted and Prince Mohammed bin Salman was declared Deputy Crown Prince. The Council met the day to ratify the decision, which it did 28 to 4
19.
Emirate of Nejd
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The Emirate of Nejd was the second Saudi state, existing between 1824 and 1891 in Nejd, the regions of Riyadh and Hail of what is now Saudi Arabia. The second Saudi period was marked by territorial expansion and less religious zeal, although the Saudi leaders continued to be called Imam. Turki bin Abdullah bin Muhammads reconquest of Riyadh from Egyptian forces in 1824 is generally regarded as the beginning of the Second Saudi State. He made his capital in Riyadh and was able to enlist the services of many relatives who had escaped captivity in Egypt, Turki was assassinated in 1834 by Mishari ibn Abdul-Rahman, a distant cousin. Mishari was soon besieged in Riyadh and later executed by Faisal, Faisal, however, faced a re-invasion of Najd by the Egyptians four years later. The local population was unwilling to resist, and Faisal was defeated, in 1840, however, external conflicts forced the Egyptians to withdraw all their presence in the Arabian Peninsula, leaving Khalid with little support. Seen by most locals as nothing more than an Egyptian governor, Khalid was toppled soon afterwards by Abdullah ibn Thuniyyan, upon Faisals death in 1865, Abdullah assumed rule in Riyadh but was soon challenged by his brother, Saud. The two brothers fought a civil war, in which they traded rule in Riyadh several times. A vassal of the Saudis, Muhammad ibn Abdallah ibn Rashid of Hail took the opportunity to intervene in the conflict, gradually, Ibn Rashid extended his authority over most of Najd, including the Saudi capital, Riyadh. Ibn Rashid finally expelled the last Saudi leader, Abdul-Rahman bin Faisal, from Najd after the Battle of Mulayda in 1891
20.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
21.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
22.
Sharif of Mecca
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The Sharif of Mecca or Hejaz was the title of the leader of the Sharifate of Mecca, traditional steward of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and the surrounding Hejaz. The term sharif means noble in Arabic and is used to describe the descendants of Prophet Muhammads grandson al-Hassan ibn Ali, the Sharif was charged with protecting the cities and their environs and ensuring the safety of pilgrims performing the Hajj. The title is sometimes spelled Sheriff or Sherif, with the variant used, for example. The common law political and legal office of sheriff found in anglophone countries is unrelated. The office of the Sharifate of Mecca dates back to the late Abbasid era, until 1200, the Sharifate was held by a member of the Hawashim clan, not to be confused with the larger clan of Banu Hashim to which all Sharifs claim descent. Descendants of the Banu Hashim continued to hold the position until the 20th century on behalf of various Muslim powers including the Ayyubids, in 1517, the Sharif acknowledged the supremacy of the Ottoman Caliph, but maintained a great degree of local autonomy. During the Ottoman era, the Sharifate expanded its authority northwards to include Medina, and southwards to the frontiers of Asir, and regularly raided Nejd. The Sharifate came to an end shortly after the reign of Hussein bin Ali, ruled from 1908, after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 and its subsequent dissolution in 1923, Hussein declared himself Caliph. The British granted control over the newly formed states of Iraq and Transjordan to his sons Faisal and Abdullah. In 1924, however, in the face of increasing attacks by Ibn Saud, Hussein abdicated his secular titles to his eldest son, Ali bin Hussein, at the end of 1925, Ibn Saud conquered the Hejaz and expelled the Hashemites. The House of Saud has ruled the cities and the Hajj since that time. Hassan bin Abu Numayy II, Co-reigned with his father for the first thirty-one years of his rule, Abd al-Muttalib bin Hassan, Reigned for less than a year. Abu Talib bin Hassan, Co-reigned with his brother Idris, Idris bin Hassan, Co-reigned with his brother Abu Talib for the first two years of his rule, then with his brother Idris for six years and nephew Muhsin for sixteen. Fuhaid bin Hassan, Co-reigned with his brother Idris and his son Muhsin, Muhsin bin Fuhaid, Co-reigned with his father for the first six years of his rule, and with his uncle Idris for the first sixteen. Ahmed bin Abd al-Muttalib Masoud bin Idris Abdullah I bin Hassan Muhammed bin Abdullah, Co-reigned with his first cousin once removed, Zeid bin Muhsin, First reign, co-reigned with his first cousin once removed, Muhammed. Namy bin Abd al-Muttalib, Briefly co-reigned with his cousin Abd al-Aziz, Abd al-Aziz bin Idris, Briefly co-reigned with his cousin Namy. Saad bin Zeid, First reign, co-reigned with his brother Ahmed for the last three years of his rule, Ahmed bin Zeid, First reign, co-reigned with his brother Saad. Barakat bin Muhammed bin Ibrahim bin Barakat bin Abu Numayy Said bin Barakat Ahmed bin Zeid, Ahmed bin Ghalib bin Muhammed bin Musaid bin Masoud bin Hasan Muhsin bin Hussein Said bin Saad, Ceded reign to his father Saad
23.
Rashidi dynasty
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The rulers of Hail were the sons of Abdullah bin Rashid, founder of the dynasty. The Al Rasheed derived their name from their forebear Abdullah ibn Rasheed, the first amir Abdullah Ibn Rasheed was the first to begin the establishment of the Emirate of Hail. The Rasheedi amirs cooperated closely with the Ottoman Empire, however, this cooperation became problematic as the Ottoman empire lost popularity. In 1890, Al Rasheed occupied Riyadh, then they defeated Al Sauds and forced them to go into exile, first in Bahrain, next to Qatar and finally to Kuwait. As with many Arab ruling dynasties, the lack of an accepted rule of succession was a recurrent problem with the Rasheedi rule. The internal dispute normally centered on whether succession to the position of amir should be horizontal or vertical and these internal divisions within the family led to bloody infighting. In the last years of the nineteenth century six Rasheedi leaders died violently, nevertheless, The Al Rasheed Family still ruled and fought together in the Saudi–Rashidi Wars. During the first twenty years of the 20th century the Arabian Peninsula saw a series of wars as the Saudis. While the Al Rasheed rallied the majority of tribes to their side the effort proved futile. Ibn Saud had the hand and the support of the majority of central Arabian tribes. Some members of the Rasheed family left the country and went into voluntary exile, by the 1990s only a handful were still outside Saudi Arabia. Abdullah bin Rashid came to the picture after leading a revolt against the ruler of Hail, Muhammad bin Ali, as a leader, Abdullah was praised for bringing peace and stability both to Hail and to the surrounding region. Abdullah demanded from his brother prince ʿUbayd an ahd according to succession to the office of amir would remain in Abdullahs line. Where it was supported by their cousin and close friend Zamil Bin Sabhan from Al Sabhan Family who supported both brothers for the succession, Talal is remembered for his relative liberalism and interest in building projects. During his rule, the Barzan Palace in Hail was completed, Talal was considered relatively tolerant towards foreigners, including traders in Hail, Many of these traders belonged to the Shia sect, hated by some Sunni, doubly hated by the Wahabees. In the 1860s, internal disputes in the House of Saud allowed a Rashidi/Ottoman alliance to oust them, the Rashidi occupied the Saudi capital of Riyadh in 1865 and forced the leaders of the House of Saud into exile. Talal later died in an incident which has been termed mysterious. Charles Doughty, in his book Travels in Arabia Deserta, writes that Talal committed suicide, Talal left seven sons, but the oldest, Bandar, was only 18 or 20 when his father died
24.
Emirate of Jabal Shammar
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The Emirate of Jabal Shammar, also known as the Emirate of Haʾil or the Emirate of The House of Rashīd, was a state in the Nejd region of Arabia, existing from the mid-nineteenth century to 1921. Jabal Shammar in English is translated as the Mountain of the Shammar and it was led by a monarchy of the House of Rashīd. It includes parts of modern day Saudi Arabia, Iraq, the Emirate of Jabal Shammar was established in 1836 and throughout most of its existence was in feud with the House of Saud over control of Nejd. The Rashīdis, rulers of Jabal Shammar, had succeeded in ousting the Saudis from Riyadh in 1891 following the Battle of Mulayda and this resulted in the abolition of the Second Saudi State, the Emirate of Nejd, and incorporation of its territory into Jabal Shammar. As the Saudis were out of the picture, exiled in Kuwait and this alliance became less and less profitable during the course of the 19th century as the Ottomans lost influence and legitimacy. In 1902, Abdulaziz Ibn Saud succeeded in recapturing Riyadh for the House of Saud, following the death of the Emir, Jabal Shammar gradually went into decline, being further pressed with the demise of its patron in World War I. Ibn Saud, allied with the British Empire as a counterweight to the Ottomans support for Jabal Shammar, the Emirate of Jabal Shammar was finally terminated with the Saudi campaign of late 1921. The Emirate surrendered to the Saudis on November 2,1921, Abdullah came to power after leading a revolt against the ruler of Hail, Muhammad bin Ali, who was a fellow member of the Jaafar al-Shammari lineage. As a leader, Abdullah was praised for bringing peace and stability both to Hail and to the surrounding region, Abdullah demanded from his brother prince ʿUbayd an ahd, according to which succession to the office of amir would remain in Abdullahs line. The son of Abdullah, Talal is remembered for his relative liberalism, during his rule, the Barzan Palace in Hail was completed. Talal was considered relatively tolerant towards foreigners, including traders in Hail, Many of these belonged to the Shia sect, hated by some Sunni. In the 1860s, internal disputes in the House of Saud allowed a Rashīd/Ottoman alliance to oust them, the Rashīd occupied the Saudi capital of Riyadh in 1865 and forced the leaders of the House of Saud into exile. Talal later died in an incident which has been termed mysterious. Charles Doughty, in his book Travels in Arabia Deserta, writes that Talal committed suicide, Talal left seven sons, but the oldest, Bandar, was only 18 or 20 when his father died. A younger brother of Talal, he was supported by members of the Rashīd family. After only a year, he was shot and killed in the Barzan Palace by his nephew and next amir, Bandar. Doughtys version of the events is that Bandar and Badr, the second-oldest son, ruled for only a short time before he was killed by his uncle, Muhammed, the brother of Mutʿib. Bandar reportedly married his uncles widow and had a son by her, a confrontation outside Hail with his nephew, the young Amir Bandar, ended with Muhammed killing Bandar
25.
Najd
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Najd or Nejd is the geographical central region of Saudi Arabia in which twenty-eight percent of Saudis live. Najd consists of the regions of Riyadh, al-Qassim, and Hail, Najdis were sometimes referred to in the past as the dominant minority in Saudi Arabia. Unlike Hejaz, Najd is very remote and had largely avoided falling under foreign control, in pre-Islamic times the region of Nejd was settled by many tribes like the Kindites, Tayy and many others. Led by Usma bin Luai the Tayy invaded the mountains of Aja and these mountains are now known as Jabal Shammar. The Tayy became nomadic camel herders and horse breeders in northern Najd for centuries, in the 5th century CE, the tribes of North Arabia became a major threat to the trade line between Yemen and Syria. The Ḥimyarites decided to establish a state that controlled Central. The Kindites gained strength and numbers to play that role, and their first capital was Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil, today known as Qaryat al-Fāw. In the 5th and 6th centuries CE the Kindites made the first real concerted effort to all the tribes of Central Arabia through alliances. Al-Ḥārith ibn Amr, the most famous of their kings, finally succeeded in capturing the Lakhmid capital of al-Ḥirah in southern modern day Iraq, later however in about 529, al-Mundhir recaptured the city and put King Ḥārith and about fifty members of his family to death. In 525 CE, the Aksumites invaded Ḥimyar, and this Kindites, had an effect with the Kindites who lost the support of the Ḥimyarites. Within three years the Kindite kingdom had split into four groups, Asad, Taghlib, Qays and Kinānah and these small principalities were then overthrown in the 530s and 540s in a series of uprisings of the Adnānī tribes of Najd and Ḥijāz. In 540 CE, the Lakhmids destroyed all the Kindite settlements in Nejd, the Kindites and most of the Arab tribes switched their alliances to the Lakhmids. During the Islamic Prophet Muhammads era, Muhammad carried out expeditions in the area. The first was the Nejd Caravan Raid against the Quraysh, which place in 624. The Meccans led by Safwan ibn Umayyah, who lived on trade, after Muhammad received intelligence about the Caravans route, Muhammad ordered Zayd ibn Haritha to go after the Caravan, and they successfully raided it and captured 100,000 dirhams worth of booty. The Invasion of Nejd, happened in Rabi‘ Ath-Thani or Jumada Al-Ula,4 A. H i. e. in October,625 AD, Muhammad led his fighters to Nejd to scare off some tribes he believed had suspicious intentions. Some scholars say the Expedition of Dhat al-Riqa took place in Nejd as part of this invasion, the most authentic opinion according to Saifur Rahman al Mubararakpuri, however, is that Dhat Ar-Riqa‘ campaign took place after the fall of Khaibar. This is supported by the fact that Abu Hurairah and Abu Musa Al-Ash‘ari witnessed the battle, Abu Hurairah embraced Islam only some days before Khaibar, and Abu Musa Al-Ash‘ari came back from Abyssinia and joined Muhammad at Khaibar
26.
Islamism
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Islamism is a concept whose meaning has been debated in both public and academic contexts. It is commonly used interchangeably with the terms political Islam or Islamic fundamentalism and these movements have arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence, redefining politics and even borders according to Robin Wright. Some authors hold the term Islamic activism to be synonymous and preferable to Islamism, Central and prominent figures of modern Islamism include Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, Abul Ala Maududi, and Ruhollah Khomeini. Some Islamist thinkers emphasize peaceful political processes, whereas Sayyid Qutb in particular called for violence, however, Qutb, unlike modern extremists, denounced the killing of innocents. Following the Arab Spring, some Islamist currents became heavily involved in politics, while others spawned the most aggressive and ambitious Islamist militia to date. A theocratic ideology that seeks to impose any version of Islam over society by law, subsequently, clarified to be, the desire to impose any given interpretation of Islam on society. A movement so broad and flexible it reaches out to everything to everyone in Islam, making it unsustainable. and at the extremes, a violent vehicle for rejectionists and radicals. All who seek to Islamize their environment, whether in relation to their lives in society, their circumstances, or the workplace. Moderate and reformist Islamists who accept and work within the process include parties like the Tunisian Ennahda Movement. Jamaat-e-Islami of Pakistan is basically a socio-political and democratic Vanguard party but has gained political influence through military coup détats in the past. The Islamist groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Palestine participate in the democratic, following the Arab Spring, Roy has described Islamism as increasingly interdependent with democracy in much of the Arab Muslim world, such that neither can now survive without the other. While Islamist political culture itself may not be democratic, Islamists need democratic elections to maintain their legitimacy, at the same time, their popularity is such that no government can call itself democratic that excludes mainstream Islamist groups. The term, which denoted the religion of Islam, first appeared in English as Islamismus in 1696. The term appears in the U. S. Supreme Court decision in In Re Ross, the term Islamism acquired its contemporary connotations in French academia in the late 1970s and early 1980s. From French, it began to migrate to the English language in the mid-1980s, a 2003 article in Middle East Quarterly states, In summation, the term Islamism enjoyed its first run, lasting from Voltaire to the First World War, as a synonym for Islam. Enlightened scholars and writers generally preferred it to Mohammedanism, eventually both terms yielded to Islam, the Arabic name of the faith, and a word free of either pejorative or comparative associations. To all intents and purposes, Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism have become synonyms in contemporary American usage, the AP Stylebook entry for Islamist now reads as follows, An advocate or supporter of a political movement that favors reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam. Do not use as a synonym for Islamic fighters, militants, extremists or radicals, where possible, be specific and use the name of militant affiliations, al-Qaida-linked, Hezbollah, Taliban, etc
27.
Succession to the Saudi Arabian throne
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The order of succession to the throne of Saudi Arabia is determined by, and within, the House of Saud. A deputy crown prince was first selected in 2014, the current ruler of Saudi Arabia is King Salman, who succeeded King Abdullah on his death on 23 January 2015. On the same day, Prince Muqrin became Crown Prince only to be replaced three months later by Muhammad bin Nayef at the order of Salman, the appointment of grandsons to line of succession is to be based on merit. The Allegiance Council was created in 2006 to facilitate the transfer of power. The House of Saud controlled vast parts of the Arabian peninsula for two and a half centuries, the dynasty collapsed twice in the 1800s due to discord over succession. In 1890s, the Al Sauds were completely supplanted by the Al Rashid, the kingdom began to fight to restore itself through Emir Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman, known to the world as Ibn Saud, and his capture of Riyadh in 1902. After much tumult, Saudi Arabia became a kingdom in 1932, as Ibn Saud conquered Arabia, he formed alliances by polygamous marriages to members of its biggest tribes. This strengthened his power within the Al Sauds and expanded his legitimacy in Arabia, not to mention nearly a hundred children, the possibility of a baby as heir to a kingdom that was patently unstable, as the Emirate of Najed was in 1920, completely unacceptable. The Emir decided to leave the open, leaving hope for one of his brothers or his second son Saud to eventually take over what would become a mighty kingdom. In the late 1920s and early 30s, Ibn Sauds brother Muhammad bin Abdul-Rahman began to argue with him as to who would be next in line, his son Khalid, in 1933, the king made his choice, and Prince Saud was declared Crown Prince. Late in life, King ibn Saud declared that he wished that the Saudi succession would be via agnatic seniority and that Sauds heir presumptive would be his next, and more capable son, Faisal. There were rumors around this time that a son, Muhammad, was plotting to take the throne from his brothers when the time came. When the old king died in 1953, Saud became king, for the eleven years of his reign, the question of who was to succeed King Saud was considered a done deal. This was unacceptable to the rest of the Royal Clan, and at Faisals request, despite problems that led to his nickname The Father of the Two Evils, Prince Mohammed was an intelligent and dynamic personality, leaving the possibility of another royal feud. During one of the times Feisal had taken over the government, he had appointed his half brother Khalid as Deputy Prime Minister in 1962, bypassing Muhammed. One of the reasons that Muhammed initially demured from standing down, was his distrust of the so-called Sudairi Seven, the eldest of the group, Prince Fahd, was Feisals top choice. He was given the position of second deputy Prime Minister and at the time, royal sources let it be known that Prince Abdullah, head of the National Guard. Between the two, they would reign for 33 years, as King Khalids health began rapidly decline, the problem of succession came back into the fore
28.
Mohammad bin Salman
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Mohammad bin Salman Al Saud is the deputy crown prince of Saudi Arabia and the youngest minister of defense in the world. Mohammad is also chief of the House of Saud royal court and he has been described as the power behind the throne of his father, King Salman. Mohammad bin Salman Al Saud was born on 31 August 1985 in Jeddah and he is the son of King Salman from his third spouse, Fahda bint Falah bin Sultan Al Hithalayn. He is their eldest son and is brother of Turki bin Salman, former chairman of the Saudi Research. Prince Mohammad holds a degree in law from King Saud University. After graduating college, Mohammad bin Salman spent several years in the sector before becoming the personal aide of his father. He worked as a consultant for the Experts Commission, working for the Saudi Cabinet, on 15 December 2009, Mohammad bin Salman entered politics as a special advisor to his father when the latter was the governor of Riyadh Province. In June 2012, the Crown Prince, Nayef bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, died and he soon began remaking the court in his own image. On 2 March 2013, the chief of the Crown Prince court Prince Saud bin Nayef was appointed governor of the Eastern Province and Prince Mohammad succeeded him in the post and he was also given the rank of minister. On 25 April 2014 Prince Mohammad was appointed state minister, on 23 January 2015, King Abdullah died, Salman took the throne and Prince Mohammad was appointed minister of defense. He was also named as the general of the Royal Court on the same date. In addition he retained his post as the minister of the state, during the campaign Prince bin Salman went on vacation in the Maldives, where United States Secretary of Defense Ash Carter had trouble reaching him for days. According to the UN and human groups, direct war crimes were committed during the conflict. In April 2015 King Salman appointed one of his nephews, Mohammed bin Nayef. At the same time King Salman appointed his son Prince Mohammed as deputy crown prince. In late 2015, Prince bin Salman attended a meeting between King Salman and United States President Barack Obama, where the prince broke protocol to deliver a monologue criticizing U. S. foreign policy. After Prince bin Salman announced an anti-terrorist military alliance of Islamic countries in December 2015, on 4 January 2016, Prince Mohammad gave his first on-the-record interview, while talking to The Economist. On 10 January 2016, The Independent reported that the BND, portrayed Saudi defence minister and Deputy Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. as a political gambler who is destabilising the Arab world through proxy wars in Yemen and Syria
29.
Elective monarchy
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An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, historically it is not uncommon for elective monarchies to transform into hereditary ones over time, or for hereditary ones to acquire at least occasional elective aspects. Many, if not most, kingdoms were officially elective historically, the kings of Macedon and of Epirus were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the ecclesia of democracies, the council of all free citizens. Military service often was linked with citizenship among the members of the royal house. In the ancient Kingdom of Rome, the kings were elected by the Assemblies, therefore, the office of Roman and Byzantine emperor remained vaguely elective and heredity never was, and could never be, formally established in law. The Holy Roman Empire is perhaps the best-known example of an elective monarchy, however, from 1453 to 1740, a Habsburg was always elected emperor, the throne becoming unofficially hereditary. During that period, the emperor was elected from within the House of Habsburg by a council of nobles called prince-electors. The secular electoral seats were hereditary, however, spiritual electors were usually elected by the cathedral chapters as religious leaders, but simultaneously ruled as monarch of a territory of imperial immediacy. Thus the prince-bishoprics were elective monarchies too, the same holds true for prince-abbeys, whose prince-abbesses or prince-abbots were elected by a college of clerics and imperially appointed as princely rulers in a pertaining territory. In the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, the kingship was partially elected, during the height of the kingdom in the mid-12th century there was a royal family and a relatively clear line of succession. Nevertheless, the king was elected, or at least recognized, here the king was considered a primus inter pares, and in his absence his duties were performed by his seneschal. Originally, the Kings of Sweden were elected by all men at the Mora Thing. Elective monarchy continued until 1544, when the Riksdag of the Estates designated the heirs of King Gustav Vasa as the heirs to the throne, the Danish monarchy was also officially elective, although the eldest son of the reigning monarch was usually elected. This continued until 1660, when a hereditary and absolute monarchy was instituted by Frederick III, though the monarchy of Norway was originally hereditary, it too became elective in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Candidates had to be of royal blood, but the kingship was elected by a council of noblemen, in 1905 Prince Carl was elected King of Norway, after the male population in an election decided Norway should still be a monarchy. Bernadotte eventually ascended the throne as Charles XIV John of Sweden, in Poland, after the death of the last Piast in 1370, Polish kings were initially elected by a small council, gradually, this privilege was granted to all members of the szlachta. During the election period, the function of the king was performed by an interrex and this unique Polish election was termed the free election. Since medieval times, the King of Bohemia was elected by the Estates of Lands of the Bohemian Crown, since 1526, when the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I assumed the Bohemian Crown, it was always held by the Habsburgs, who expected this situation to go on indefinitely
30.
Line of succession to the Saudi throne
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The order of succession to the throne of Saudi Arabia is determined by, and within, the House of Saud. A deputy crown prince was first selected in 2014, the current ruler of Saudi Arabia is King Salman, who succeeded King Abdullah on his death on 23 January 2015. On the same day, Prince Muqrin became Crown Prince only to be replaced three months later by Muhammad bin Nayef at the order of Salman, the appointment of grandsons to line of succession is to be based on merit. The Allegiance Council was created in 2006 to facilitate the transfer of power. The House of Saud controlled vast parts of the Arabian peninsula for two and a half centuries, the dynasty collapsed twice in the 1800s due to discord over succession. In 1890s, the Al Sauds were completely supplanted by the Al Rashid, the kingdom began to fight to restore itself through Emir Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman, known to the world as Ibn Saud, and his capture of Riyadh in 1902. After much tumult, Saudi Arabia became a kingdom in 1932, as Ibn Saud conquered Arabia, he formed alliances by polygamous marriages to members of its biggest tribes. This strengthened his power within the Al Sauds and expanded his legitimacy in Arabia, not to mention nearly a hundred children, the possibility of a baby as heir to a kingdom that was patently unstable, as the Emirate of Najed was in 1920, completely unacceptable. The Emir decided to leave the open, leaving hope for one of his brothers or his second son Saud to eventually take over what would become a mighty kingdom. In the late 1920s and early 30s, Ibn Sauds brother Muhammad bin Abdul-Rahman began to argue with him as to who would be next in line, his son Khalid, in 1933, the king made his choice, and Prince Saud was declared Crown Prince. Late in life, King ibn Saud declared that he wished that the Saudi succession would be via agnatic seniority and that Sauds heir presumptive would be his next, and more capable son, Faisal. There were rumors around this time that a son, Muhammad, was plotting to take the throne from his brothers when the time came. When the old king died in 1953, Saud became king, for the eleven years of his reign, the question of who was to succeed King Saud was considered a done deal. This was unacceptable to the rest of the Royal Clan, and at Faisals request, despite problems that led to his nickname The Father of the Two Evils, Prince Mohammed was an intelligent and dynamic personality, leaving the possibility of another royal feud. During one of the times Feisal had taken over the government, he had appointed his half brother Khalid as Deputy Prime Minister in 1962, bypassing Muhammed. One of the reasons that Muhammed initially demured from standing down, was his distrust of the so-called Sudairi Seven, the eldest of the group, Prince Fahd, was Feisals top choice. He was given the position of second deputy Prime Minister and at the time, royal sources let it be known that Prince Abdullah, head of the National Guard. Between the two, they would reign for 33 years, as King Khalids health began rapidly decline, the problem of succession came back into the fore
31.
Emir
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An Emir, sometimes transliterated Amir, Amier, or Ameer, is an aristocratic or noble title of high office used in a variety of places in the Arab countries and Afghanistan. It means commander, general, or prince, when translated as prince, the word emirate is analogous to a sovereign principality. Amir, meaning Lord or commander-in-chief, is derived from the Arabic root a-m-r, the word entered English in 1593, from the French émir. It was one of the titles or names of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the monarchs of UAE, Qatar and Kuwait are currently titled Emirs. All members of the House of Saud have the title of Emir, the caliphs first used the title Amir al-Muminin or Commander of the Faithful, stressing their leadership over the Islamic Empire, especially over the militia. The title has been assumed by various other Muslim rulers, including Sultans, for Shia Muslims, they still give this title to the Caliph Ali as Amir al Muminin. Note that the title was held by Christians as well, the word Emir is also used less formally for leaders in certain contexts. For example, the leader of a group of pilgrims to Mecca is called an Emir hadji, where an adjectival form is necessary, Emiral suffices. Amirzade, the son of a prince, hence the Persian princely title Mirza, the temporal leader of the Yazidi people is known as an Emir or Prince. From the start, Emir has been a military title, in certain decimally-organized Muslim armies, Amir was an officer rank. For example, in Mughal India Amirs commanded 1000 horsemen, ten of them under one Malik, Muhammad Amin Bughra, Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra, and Abdullah Bughra declared themselves Emirs of the First East Turkestan Republic. Amir is a name in the Persian language and a prefix name for many masculine names such as Amir Ali. Amir-i-Iel designates the head of an Il in imperial Persia, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the female name Emira, often interpreted as princess, is a derivative of the male name Emir. Abdul Abulbul Amir, both character and song, wat Tambor in Star Wars, Episode II – Attack of the Clones took the title of Emir. In the Star Wars universe the title may relate to Tambors military command, Emir Karim, a character in Wild At Heart, a Latin American drama. Specific emirates of note List of emirs of Harar List of emirs of Kuwait List of emirs of Qatar List of Emirs of Mosul Emirate of Afghanistan
32.
Prince
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A prince is a male ruler, monarch, or member of a monarchs or former monarchs family. Prince is also a title in the nobility of some European states. The feminine equivalent is a princess, the English word derives, via the French word prince, from the Latin noun princeps, from primus + capio, meaning the chief, most distinguished, ruler, prince. The Latin word prīnceps, became the title of the informal leader of the Roman senate some centuries before the transition to empire. Emperor Augustus established the position of monarch on the basis of principate. The term may be used of persons in various cultures. These titles were borne by courtesy and preserved by tradition, not law, in medieval and Early Modern Europe, there were as many as two hundred such territories, especially in Italy, Germany, and Gaelic Ireland. In this sense, prince is used of any and all rulers and this is the Renaissance use of the term found in Niccolò Machiavellis famous work, Il Principe. Most small territories designated as principalities during feudal eras were allodial and this is attested in some surviving styles for e. g. British earls, marquesses, and dukes are still addressed by the Crown on ceremonial occasions as high, in parts of the Holy Roman Empire in which primogeniture did not prevail, all legitimate agnates had an equal right to the familys hereditary titles. Gradual substitution of the title of Prinz for the title of Fürst occurred. Both Prinz and Fürst are translated into English as prince, but they not only different. This distinction had evolved before the 18th century for dynasties headed by a Fürst in Germany, note that the princely title was used as a prefix to his Christian name, which also became customary. Cadets of Frances other princes étrangers affected similar usage under the Bourbon kings, the post-medieval rank of gefürsteter Graf embraced but elevated the German equivalent of the intermediate French, English and Spanish nobles. By the 19th century, cadets of a Fürst would become known as Prinzen, the husband of a queen regnant is usually titled prince consort or simply prince, whereas the wives of male monarchs take the female equivalent of their husbands title. In Brazil, Portugal and Spain, however, the husband of a monarch was accorded the masculine equivalent of her title. To complicate matters, the style His/Her Highness, a prefix often accompanying the title of a dynastic prince, although the arrangement set out above is the one that is most commonly understood, there are also different systems. Depending on country, epoch, and translation, other usages of prince are possible, foreign-language titles such as Italian principe, French prince, German Fürst and Prinz, Russian knyaz, etc. are usually translated as prince in English
33.
Royal Highness
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Royal Highness is a style used to address or refer to some members of royal families, usually princes other than monarchs and their female consorts. When used as a form of address, spoken or written. When used as a reference, it is gender-specific and, in plural. Holders of the style Royal Highness generally rank below holders of the style Imperial Highness, by the 17th century, all local rulers in Italy adopted the style Highness, that was once used by kings and emperors only. Thus, the first use of the style Royal Highness was recorded in 1633, gaston, Duke of Orléans, younger son of King Henry IV of France, encountered the style in Brussels and assumed it himself. His children later used the style, considering it their prerogative as grandchildren of France, by the 18th century, Royal Highness had become the prevalent style for members of a continental reigning dynasty whose head bore the hereditary title of king or queen. The titles of members of non-hereditary rulers were less clear. Even in the cases of the titles, they usually only exist as courtesies. The chiefly appellation Kabiyesi is likewise used as the equivalent of the HRH, the title of Archduke or Archduchess of Austria was known to be complemented with the style of Royal Highness to all of the members of the House of Habsburg and later the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. The title of Prince/Princess of the Netherlands with the style of H. R. H. is or may be granted by law to the following classes of persons. The heir apparent to the throne, the spouse of the heir apparent. The children of the monarch, other than the heir apparent, the children of the heir apparent. A Prince/Princess of Orange-Nassau who is not also a Prince/Princess of the Netherlands is addressed as His/Her Highness without the predicate royal and that is the case for example of the children of Princess Margriet, younger daughter of the late Queen Juliana. In the British monarchy the style of Royal Highness is associated with the rank of prince or princess and this is especially important when a prince has another title such as Duke by which he or she would usually be addressed. In the United Kingdom, letters patent dated 21 August 1996 stated that the wife of a member of the Royal Family loses the right to the style of HRH in the event of their divorce. It was for this reason that when the Prince and Princess of Wales divorced, she ceased to be Royal Highness, and was styled Diana, Princess of Wales. Almost a year before, according to the claim of writer Tina Brown. The Princess of Wales is said to have replied, My title is a lot older than yours and she noted that the Spencer family, the family she was born to, is older than the House of Windsor
34.
Diriyah
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Diriyah, formerly romanized as Dereyeh and Dariyya, is a town in Saudi Arabia located on the north-western outskirts of the Saudi capital, Riyadh. Diriyah was the home of the Saudi royal family. Today, the town is the seat of the Diriyah Governorate, which includes the villages of Uyayna, Jubayla, and Al-Ammariyyah, among others. The Turaif district, the first capital of Saudis, in Diriyah was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2010, the ruins of the old city of Diriyah lay on either side of the narrow valley known as Wadi Hanifa, which continues southwards through Riyadh and beyond. Consisting almost entirely of mud-brick structures, the ruins are divided into three districts, Ghussaibah, Al-Mulaybeed, and Turaif, set on top of hills overlooking the valley, of the three, Turaif is the highest, and its bottom is easily accessible to tourists by foot. Part of the city wall, running along the edges of the wadi, the modern city is built at a lower altitude at the foot of the hill upon which Turaif is located. To the north of the town, inside the valley, are a number of gardens, palm groves, a dam known as Al-Ilb lies further north. During the Islamic Prophet Muhammads era the Expedition of Muhammad ibn Maslamah took place here in July, 627AD in Muharram, a platoon of thirty Muslims under the leadership of Muhammad bin Maslamah was despatched on a military mission. It headed for the habitation of Banu Bakr sept, the Muslims attacked that sept and dispersed them in all directions. Plenty of spoils were captured and the Muslims returned with the chief of the tribe of Banu Hanifa, the event is also mentioned by the Muslim scholar Ibn Sad in his book about Muhammads military campaigns. According to the chroniclers of Nejd, the city was founded in 1446-7 by Mani Al-Mraydi, an ancestor of the Saudi royal family. Mani and his clan had come from the area of Al-Qatif in eastern Arabia, upon the invitation of Ibn Dir, who was then the ruler of a group of settlements that now make up Riyadh. Ibn Dir is said to have been a relative of Mani Al-Mraydi, initially, Mani and his clan, known as the Mrudah, settled in Ghusaybah and Al-Mulaybeed. The entire settlement was named Al-Diriyah, after Manis benefactor Ibn Dir, later on, the district of Turaif was settled. Many families from other towns or from the tribes of the nearby desert eventually settled in the area. At that time, Muhammad ibn Saud emerged from a struggle within the family of Al-Diriyah, the Al Miqrin. In 1744, Ibn Saud took in a religious scholar named Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Ibn Saud agreed to implement Ibn Abdul Wahhabs religious views, and what later became known as the First Saudi State, with its capital at Diriyah, was born. Within the next decades, Ibn Saud and his immediate descendants managed to subjugate all of Nejd, as well as the eastern and western regions of Arabia
35.
Riyadh
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Riyadh is the capital and most populous city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of Riyadh Province and belongs to the regions of Najd. It is situated in the center of the Arabian Peninsula on a large plateau, the current mayor of Riyadh is Ibrahim Mohammed Al-Sultan. He was appointed mayor in 2015 and it has been designated a global city. During the Pre-Islamic era the city at the site was called Hajr, Hajr served as the capital of the province of Al Yamamah, whose governors were responsible for most of central and eastern Arabia during the Umayyad and Abbasid eras. Al-Yamamah broke away from the Abbasid Empire in 866 and the area fell under the rule of the Ukhaydhirites, the city then went into a long period of decline. In the 14th century, North African traveller Ibn Battuta wrote of his visit to Hajr, describing it as the city of Al-Yamamah. Later on, Hajr broke up several separate settlements and estates. The most notable of these were Migrin and Mikal, though the name Hajr continued to appear in local folk poetry, the earliest known reference to the area by the name Riyadh comes from a 17th-century chronicler reporting on an event from the year 1590. In 1737, Deham ibn Dawwas, a refugee from neighboring Manfuha, Ibn Dawwas built a single wall to encircle the various quarters of Riyadh, making them effectively a single town. In 1744, Muhammad ibn Abdel Wahhab formed an alliance with Muhammad ibn Saud, Ibn Saud then set out to conquer the surrounding region with the goal of bringing it under the rule of a single Islamic state. Ibn Dawwas of Riyadh led the most determined resistance, allied forces from Al Kharj, Al Ahsa. However, Ibn Dawwas fled and Riyadh capitulated to the Saudis in 1774, ending years of wars. The First Saudi State was destroyed by forces sent by Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Ottoman forces razed the Saudi capital Diriyah in 1818. They had maintained a garrison at Najd and this marked the decline of the House of Saud for a short time. In 1823, Turki ibn Abdallah chose Riyadh as the new capital, following the assassination of Turki in 1834, his eldest son Faisal killed the assassin and took control, and refused to be controlled by the Viceroy of Egypt. Najd was then invaded and Faisal taken captive and held in Cairo, in 1889, Abdul Rahman bin Faisal, the third son of Faisal again regained control over Najd and ruled till 1891, where after the control was regained by Muhammad bin Raschid. Internecine struggles between Turkis grandsons led to the fall of the Second Saudi State in 1891 at the hand of the rival Al Rashid clan, the al-Masmak fort dates from that period
Saudi Arabia
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