1.
Chinese name
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Chinese personal names are names used by those from mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and the Chinese diaspora overseas. Prior to the 20th century, educated Chinese also utilized a courtesy name or style name called zi by which they were known among those outside of their family and closest friends. From at least the time of the Shang dynasty, the Han Chinese observed a number of naming taboos regulating who may or may not use a given name. In general, using the given name connoted the speakers authority, peers and younger relatives were barred from speaking it. Owing to this, many historical Chinese figures – particularly emperors – used a half-dozen or more different names in different contexts and those possessing names identical to the emperors were frequently forced to change them. Although some terms in the ancient Chinese naming system, such as xìng and míng, are used today, they were used in different. Commoners possessed only a name, and the modern concept of a surname or family name did not yet exist at any level of society.3 billion citizens. In fact, just the top three – Wang, Li, and Zhang – cover more than 20% of the population. This homogeneity results from the majority of Han family names having only one character. Chinese surnames arose from two separate traditions, the xìng and the shì. The original xìng were clans of royalty at the Shang court, the shì did not originate from families, but denoted fiefs, states, and titles granted or recognized by the Shang court. Apart from the Jiang and Yao families, the original xìng have nearly disappeared, xìng is now used to describe the shì surnames which replaced them, while shì is used to refer to maiden names. The enormous modern clans sometimes share ancestral halls with one another, nonetheless, however tenuous these bonds sometimes are, it remains a minor taboo to marry someone with the same family name. In modern mainland China, it is the norm that a woman keeps her name unchanged. A child usually inherits his/her fathers surname, though the law explicitly states that a child may use either parents or the grandparents. It is also possible, though far less common, for a child to both parents surnames. In the older generations, it was common for a married woman to prepend her husbands surname to her own. This practice is now almost extinct in mainland China, though there are a few such as the name change of Gu Kailai, but survives in some Hong Kong, Macau
2.
Chinese surname
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Chinese surnames are used by Han Chinese and Sinicized ethnic groups in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames existed, namely xing or lineage names, and shi or clan names, Chinese family names are patrilineal, passed from father to children. Women do not normally change their surnames upon marriage, except in places with more Western influences such as Hong Kong, traditionally Chinese surnames have been exogamous. The colloquial expressions laobaixing and bǎixìng are used in Chinese to mean ordinary folks, prior to the Warring States period, only the ruling families and the aristocratic elite had surnames. Historically there was also a difference between clan names or xing and lineages names or shi, Xing were surnames held by the noble clans. They generally are composed of a nü radical which has taken by some as evidence they originated from matriarchal societies based on maternal lineages. Another hypothesis has been proposed by sinologist Léon Vandermeersch upon observation of the evolution of characters in oracular scripture from the Shang dynasty through the Zhou, the female radical seems to appear at the Zhou period next to Shang sinograms indicating an ethnic group or a tribe. This combination seems to designate specifically a female and could mean lady of such or such clan, prior to the Qin Dynasty China was largely a fengjian society. In this way, a nobleman would hold a shi and a xing, after the states of China were unified by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC, surnames gradually spread to the lower classes and the difference between xing and shi blurred. Many shi surnames survive to the present day, according to Kiang Kang-Hu, there are 18 sources from which Chinese surnames may be derived, while others suggested at least 24. The following are some of the sources, Xing, These were usually reserved for the central lineage of the royal family. Of these xings, only Jiang and Yao have survived in their form to modern days as frequently occurring surnames. Royal decree by the Emperor, such as Kuang, state name, Many nobles and commoners took the name of their state, either to show their continuing allegiance or as a matter of national and ethnic identity. These are some of the most common Chinese surnames, name of a fief or place of origin, Fiefdoms were often granted to collateral branches of the aristocracy and it was natural as part of the process of sub-surnaming for their names to be used. An example is Di, Marquis of Ouyangting, whose descendants took the surname Ouyang, there are some two hundred examples of this identified, often of two-character surnames, but few have survived to the present. Names of an ancestor, Like the previous example, this was also a common origin with close to 500 or 600 examples,200 of which are two-character surnames, often an ancestors courtesy name would be used. For example, Yuan Taotu took the character of his grandfathers courtesy name Boyuan as his surname. Sometimes titles granted to ancestors could also be taken as surnames, seniority within the family, In ancient usage, the characters of meng, zhong, shu and ji were used to denote the first, second, third and fourth eldest sons in a family
3.
Hu (surname)
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In 2006, it was the 15th most common surname in China. In 2013, it was the 13th most common in China, some other less-common surnames pronounced Hu include 瓠, 護, 戶, 扈, 虎, 呼, 忽, 斛 and 壶. According to tradition, the Hu surname has several historical origins, first, Hu could derive from the family of Duke Hu of Chen. King Wu of Zhou enfeoffed his son-in-law Gui Man 媯滿 with the state of Chen and his posthumous name was Duke Hu, and some of his descendants adopted Hu as their surname. Second, Hu could derive from two Zhou vassal states named Hu 胡, one located near Luohe or another near Fuyang, third, Hu could derive from non-Chinese people adopting it as their surname. For example, in the 496 Change of Xianbei names to Han names, fourth, Hu could derive from the clan name of the ancient Tiele people within the Xiongnu confederation. Non-Chinese peoples and ethnic minorities in China sometimes took the Chinese exonym for their group as their surname. The best example is Hu 胡, which was used to refer to barbarian groups on the northern and western frontiers of China. Hu was used for various northern and western peoples of non-Chinese stock and it was commonly used for people of Persian, Sogdian, Turkish, Xianbi, Indian and Kushan origin and, occasionally, for the Xiongnu. Two historically significant Hu names are this Donghu 東胡 ancient Mongolian nomadic group, Hu was also one of the eight surnames of the first Han Chinese clans who first moved out the Central Plains into Fujian province during the Wu Hu uprising. The Hồ 胡 clan which founded the Hồ dynasty in Vietnam originated in Zhejiang province of China, the surname 虎, which means Tiger, is rare in China to the point where a lot of people are not aware that it is used as a surname. Some believe it came from the name of a 4, 300-year-old chancellor while others believe it originates among the Hui Muslim minority, non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states, Hu 胡, ChinaKnowledge. 胡, Chinese Text Project Surname HU, Chinese Culture Forum
4.
General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
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The officeholder is usually considered the paramount leader of China. According to the Constitution, the General Secretary serves as an ex member of the Politburo Standing Committee. The current General Secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012, as China is a de facto one-party state, the General Secretary holds ultimate power and authority over state and government. However, the men who have held the post have held far less power than Chairman Mao Zedong, since the mid-1990s, the General Secretary has traditionally also held the post of President of the PRC. While the presidency is nominally a ceremonial post, it is customary for the General Secretary to assume the presidency to confirm his status as de jure head of state. These bodies were tasked with establishing the general direction for national security as well as the agenda for economic reform. Both groups are headed by the General Secretary, that the power of the General Secretary has become more concentrated
5.
Central Committee of the Communist Party of China
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The Central Committee of the Communist Party of China is a political body that comprises the top leaders of the Communist Party of China. It is currently composed of 205 full members and 171 alternate members, members are elected once every five years by the National Congress of the Communist Party of China. The Central Committee is, formally, the partys highest organ of authority when the National Congress is not in session and it also oversees work of various powerful national organs of the party. The Committee convenes at least once a year at a plenary session, the Committee operates, however, on the principle of democratic centralism, i. e. once a decision is made, the entire body speaks with one voice. The role of the Central Committee has varied throughout history, nonetheless, Central Committee plenums function as venues whereby policy is discussed, fine-tuned, and publicly released in the form of resolutions or decisions. The Central Committee is therefore technically the partys highest organ of authority when the National Congress is not in session. The Central Committee must also be convened to prepare for a National Congress, for example, to determine its dates, delegate selection, agenda. The Central Committee has the power to elect the General Secretary and the members of the Politburo, its Standing Committee, and the Central Military Commission. These elections take place in the form of votes, i. e. there is only one candidate. In some instances write-in candidates may also be allowed, the Central Committee also confirms membership of the Secretariat, the organ in charge of executing party policy, whose membership is determined through nomination by the Politburo. The Central Committees role has varied throughout history and it was founded in 1927 as a successor organization to the Central Executive Committee, a group of party leaders charged with executing party work during the pre-revolutionary days of the CPC. Over the next decades it served to confirm the party leadership lineup and legitimize military, strategic. In practice, power was concentrated in a group of military and political leaders. Although the Central Committee was required to convene at least once a year, it did not convene at all in 1951–53,1960, 1963–65, and 1967. Mao did not hold power over the Central Committee, as evidenced by the debates surrounding the policies of the Great Leap Forward. Mao faced some opposition at the 11th Plenum but ultimately most delegates were goaded into ratifying Maos decisions, many members were politically disgraced or purged thereafter. The Committee was then convened again in October 1968 to ratify the decision to then head of state Liu Shaoqi from the Party. At the 12th plenum, less than half the members actually attended, in a letter to Mao evaluating the members of the Central Committee at the time, Kang Sheng wrote that some 70% of CC members were considered traitors, spies, or otherwise politically unreliable
6.
Communist Party of China
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The Communist Party of China is the founding and ruling political party of the Peoples Republic of China. It was founded in 1921, chiefly by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, the CPC is currently the worlds second largest political party with a membership of 88.76 million as of 2016. It also controls the worlds largest armed force, the Peoples Liberation Army, the highest body of the CPC is the National Congress, convened every fifth year. The partys leader holds the offices of General Secretary, Chairman of the Central Military Commission, through these posts the party leader is the countrys paramount leader. The current party leader is Xi Jinping, elected at the 18th National Congress, the CPC is still committed to communist thought and continues to participate in the International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties each year. The official explanation for Chinas economic reforms is that the country is in the stage of socialism. The planned economy established under Mao Zedong was replaced by the socialist market economy, the CPC has its origins in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, during which radical ideologies like Marxism and anarchism gained traction among Chinese intellectuals. Other influences stemming from the Bolshevik revolution and Marxist theory inspired the Communist Party of China, Li Dazhao was the first leading Chinese intellectual who publicly supported Leninism and world revolution. In contrast to Chen Duxiu, Li did not renounce participation in the affairs of the Republic of China, both of them regarded the October Revolution in Russia as groundbreaking, believing it to herald a new era for oppressed countries everywhere. The CPC was modeled on Vladimir Lenins theory of a vanguard party, Study circles were, according to Cai Hesen, the rudiments. Several study circles were established during the New Culture Movement, the founding National Congress of the CPC was held on 23–31 July 1921. With only 50 members in the beginning of 1921, the CPC organization, while it was originally planned to be held in Shanghai French Concession, police officers interrupted the meeting on 3 July. Because of that, the congress was moved to a tourist boat on South Lake in Jiaxing, Zhejiang province, only 12 delegates attended the congress, with neither Li nor Chen being able to attend. Chen sent a representative to attend the congress. The resolutions of the called for the establishment of a communist party. The communists dominated the left wing of the KMT, a party organized on Leninist lines, when KMT leader Sun Yat-sen died in March 1925, he was succeeded by a rightist, Chiang Kai-shek, who initiated moves to marginalize the position of the communists. Fresh from the success of the Northern Expedition to overthrow the warlords, Chiang Kai-shek turned on the communists, ignoring the orders of the Wuhan-based KMT government, he marched on Shanghai, a city controlled by communist militias. Although the communists welcomed Chiangs arrival, he turned on them, Chiangs army then marched on Wuhan, but was prevented from taking the city by CPC General Ye Ting and his troops
7.
Jiang Zemin
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Jiang has been described as the core of the third generation of Communist Party leaders since 1989. With the waning influence of Eight Elders due to old age and with the death of Deng Xiaoping, Jiang consolidated his hold on power, Jiang has been criticized for being too concerned about his personal image at home, and too conciliatory towards Russia and the United States abroad. His contributions to party doctrine, known as the Three Represents, were written into the constitution in 2002. Jiang vacated the post of party General Secretary in 2002, but did not relinquish all of his titles until 2005. Jiang was born in the city of Yangzhou, Jiangsu and his ancestral home was the Jiang Village, Wuyuan County, Jiangxi. This was also the hometown of a number of prominent figures in Chinese academic, Jiang grew up during the years of Japanese occupation. His uncle, also his father, Jiang Shangqing, died fighting the Japanese in World War II and is considered in Jiang Zemins time to be a national hero. He graduated there in 1947 with a degree in electrical engineering. Jiang married Wang Yeping in 1949, also a native of Yangzhou and she graduated from Shanghai International Studies University. They have two sons, Jiang Mianheng and Jiang Miankang and he claims that he joined the Communist Party of China when he was in college. After the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China, Jiang received his training at the Stalin Automobile Works in Moscow in the 1950s and he also worked for Changchuns First Automobile Works. In 1985 he became Mayor of Shanghai, and subsequently the Party Secretary of Shanghai, Jiang received mixed reviews as mayor. Many of his critics dismissed him as a pot, a Chinese term for someone who only seems useful. Many credited Shanghais growth during the period to Zhu Rongji, Jiang was an ardent believer, during this period, in Deng Xiaopings economic reforms. In an attempt to curb student discontent in 1986, Jiang recited the Gettysburg Address in English in front of a group of student protesters, Jiang was described as having a passable command of several foreign languages, including Romanian, Russian, and English. One of his activities was to engage foreign visitors in small talk on arts and literature in their native language. He became friends with Allen Broussard, the African-American judge who visited Shanghai in 1987, in 1989, China was in crisis over the Tiananmen Square protest, and the central government was in conflict on how to handle the protesters. In June, Deng Xiaoping dismissed liberal Zhao Ziyang, who was considered to be too conciliatory toward the student protestors, at the time, Jiang was the Shanghai Party secretary, the top figure in Chinas new economic center
8.
Xi Jinping
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Xi Jinping is the current General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, President of the Peoples Republic of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission. As General Secretary, Xi holds a seat on the Politburo Standing Committee. The son of Communist veteran Xi Zhongxun, Xi Jinping rose through the ranks politically in Chinas coastal provinces, Xi was governor of Fujian from 1999 to 2002, and governor, then party secretary of neighboring Zhejiang province from 2002 to 2007. Following the dismissal of Chen Liangyu, Xi was transferred to Shanghai as party secretary for a period in 2007. Xi joined the Politburo Standing Committee and central secretariat in October 2007, Xi was vice-president from 2008 to 2013 and Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission from 2010 to 2012. Since assuming power, Xi has attempted to legitimize the authority of the Communist Party by introducing far-ranging measures to enforce party discipline and he initiated an unprecedented and far-reaching campaign against corruption, leading to the downfall of prominent incumbent and retired officials. Xi has also imposed further restrictions over civil society and ideological discourse, Xi Jinping was born in Beijing on 15 June 1953. After the founding of the Communist state in 1949, Xis father held a series of posts, including propaganda chief, vice-premier, Xis father is from Fuping County, Shaanxi, and Xi could further trace his patrilineal descent from Xiying in Dengzhou, Henan. He is the son of Xi Zhongxun and his wife Qi Xin. When Xi was age 10, his father was purged from the Party and sent to work in a factory in Luoyang, Henan. In May 1966, Xis secondary education was cut short by the Cultural Revolution, Xi was age 15 when his father was jailed in 1968 during the Cultural Revolution. Without the protection of his father, Xi was sent to work in Yanchuan County, Shaanxi and he later became the Party branch secretary of the production team, leaving that post in 1975. When asked about this experience later by Chinese state television, Xi recalled, and when the ideals of the Cultural Revolution could not be realised, it proved an illusion. From 1979 to 1982, Xi served as secretary for his fathers former subordinate Geng Biao and this gained Xi some military background. In 1985, as part of a Chinese delegation to study American agriculture, he visited the town of Muscatine and this trip, and his stay with an American family, has been considered influential in his views on the United States. Xi joined the Communist Youth League in 1971 and the Communist Party of China in 1974, in 1982, he was sent to Zhengding County in Hebei as deputy Party Secretary of Zhengding County. He was promoted in 1983 to Secretary, becoming the top official of the county, Xi subsequently served in four provinces during his regional political career, Hebei, Fujian, Zhejiang, and Shanghai. Xi held posts in the Fuzhou Municipal Party Committee and became the president of the Party School in Fuzhou in 1990, in 1997, Xi was named an alternate member of the 15th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China
9.
President of the People's Republic of China
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The President of the Peoples Republic of China is the head of state of the Peoples Republic of China. Under the constitution, the presidency is a ceremonial office with limited powers. However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, the current President is Xi Jinping, who took office in March 2013. Since 1993, apart from periods of transition, the top leader of China simultaneously serves as the President, the head of the party. This individual then carries out different duties under separate titles, the office was first established in the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China in 1954 and successively held by Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi. Liu fell into disgrace during the Cultural Revolution, after which the office became vacant. The office was abolished under the Constitution of 1975, then reinstated in the Constitution of 1982, the official English-language translation of the title was Chairman, after 1982, this translation was changed to President, although the Chinese title remains unchanged. The President is limited to serve up to two terms of five years each, according to the current Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China, the President must be a Chinese citizen with full electoral rights who has reached the age of 45. The Presidents term of office is the same as the term of the National Peoples Congress, the President is elected by the National Peoples Congress, Chinas highest state body, which also has the power to remove the President and other state officers from office. Elections and removals are decided by a majority vote. According to the Organic Law of the NPC, the President is nominated by the NPC Presidium, in practice, however, the ruling Communist Party of China reserves the post of President for its current General Secretary. Like all officers of state elected by the NPC, the President is elected from a one name ballot, in the event that the office of President falls vacant, the Vice-President succeeds to the office. In the event that both offices fall vacant, the Chairman of the NPC Standing Committee temporarily acts as President until the NPC can elect a new President and Vice-President, in addition, the President names and dismisses ambassadors to foreign countries, signs and annuls treaties with foreign entities. According to the Constitution, all of these require the approval or confirmation of the National Peoples Congress. The President also conducts state visits on behalf of the Peoples Republic, under the constitution the state visit clause is the only presidential power that does not stipulate any form of oversight from the National Peoples Congress. As the vast majority of powers are dependent on the ratification of the NPC, the President is, in essence. It is therefore conceived to function as an symbolic institution of the state rather than an office with true executive powers. Upon the nomination of the Premier, the NPC convenes to confirm the nomination, to date, it has never rejected a personnel nomination
10.
Wen Jiabao
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Wen Jiabao was the sixth Premier of the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China, serving as Chinas head of government for a decade between 2003 and 2013. In his capacity as Premier, Wen was regarded as the figure behind Beijings economic policy. From 2002 to 2012, he held membership in the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China, the de facto top power organ. He worked as the chief of the Party General Office between 1986 and 1993, and accompanied Party general secretary Zhao Ziyang to Tiananmen Square during the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. In 1998, he was promoted to the post of Vice Premier under Premier Zhu Rongji, his mentor, Wen was dubbed the peoples premier by both domestic and foreign media. Instead of concentrating on GDP growth in cities and rich coastal areas, Wen advocated for advancing policies considered more favourable towards farmers. Wens government reduced taxes and pursued ambitious infrastructure projects. Following the global crisis of 2008, Wens government injected four trillion yuan as part of a stimulus program. He left office in 2013 and was succeeded by Li Keqiang, a native of Beichen District, Tianjin, Wen Jiabao went to the Nankai High School from which his predecessor premier Zhou Enlai graduated. He joined the Communist Party of China in April 1965 and entered the force in September 1967. Wen has a background in engineering and holds a degree from the Beijing Institute of Geology. He studied geomechanics in Beijing and began his career in the bureau of Gansu province. From 1968–1978, he presided over the Geomechanics Survey Team under the Gansu Provincial Geological Bureau, Wen succeeded in office, rising as chief of the Gansu Provincial Geological Bureau and later as Vice-minister of Geology and Mineral Resources. Wen was discovered by then-general secretary Hu Yaobang, and joined the ranks of the Central Committee, after Wen was promoted to work in Beijing, he served as Chief of the Partys General Affairs Office, an organ that oversaw day-to-day operations of the partys leaders. He remained in the post for eight years, Wen has built a network of patronage during his career. Throughout this period Wen was said to be an administrator and technocrat, having earned a reputation for meticulousness, competence. Wen served as Secretary of the Central Financial Work Commission from 1998 to 2002, Wens most significant political recovery occurred after accompanying Zhao on his visit to students demonstrating in Tiananmen Square in 1989. Wen Jiabao is the only Chief of the Partys General Affairs Office to have served under three General Secretaries, Hu Yaobang, Zhao Ziyang, and Jiang Zemin
11.
Central Military Commission (China)
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The State CMC is nominally considered the supreme military policy-making body and its chairman, elected by the National Peoples Congress, is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. In reality, command and control of the PLA, however, both commissions are identical in membership, thus actually forming one identical institution under two different names, in order to fit in both state government and party systems. Both commissions are currently chaired by Xi Jinping, who is the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China as well as Paramount leader, the 11-man commission issues directives relating to the PLA, including senior appointments, troop deployments and arms spending. CMC has control over 6.8 million personnel The CMC is housed in the Ministry of National Defense compound in western Beijing. The party military committee dates back to October 1925, and while operating under various degrees of authority and responsibility, was named the Central Military Affairs Commission. Among Western commentators, “Affairs” is frequently dropped from the title, as a commission, it ranks higher in the party hierarchy than departments such as the Organization or United Front Departments. In this period, the Committee was always chaired by Mao Zedong, in the September 1949 reorganization, military leadership was transferred to a government body, the Peoples Revolutionary Military Commission of the Central Peoples Government. As a consequence of the Cultural Revolution, the Party CMC became the sole military overseeing body, both the National Defense Commission and State CMC have been described as consultative bodies. Contrarily to the National Defense Commission, however, the Party and state CMCs are almost identical in leadership, composition, the Commission included the post of secretary-general until 1992. This post was held by Yang Shangkun, Huang Kecheng, Luo Ruiqing, Ye Jianying, Luo Ruiqing, Geng Biao, Yang Shangkun, Yang Baibing. In 2016, the 5 traditional departments were dissolved by order of Chairman Xi Jinping, unlike in most countries, the Central Military Commission is not considered as just another ministry. Although China does have a Ministry of National Defense, headed by a Minister of National Defense, the most important chain of command runs from the CMC to the four General Headquarters and, in turn, to each of the service branches. In addition, the CMC also has control over the Rocket Force, the National Defense University. The CMC shares command authority with the Ministry of Public Security of the State Council. The CMC is usually chaired by the General Secretary of the Communist Party, members of the CMC normally includes the Directors of the PLA’s Four Department and the Commander of the Ground Force, Air Force, Navy, and Rocket Force. The Chairman of the CMC was twice in its history held by an official who had given up his other posts, by Deng in the late 1980s. In the case of Deng Xiaoping, because of his prestige, he was able to exercise considerable power after his retirement, one major factor is that, in contrast to Deng Xiaoping, who always had close relations with the Peoples Liberation Army, Jiang had no military background. In addition, with the promotion of the generation of Chinese leaders to lead the civilian party
12.
Guo Boxiong
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Guo Boxiong was a retired general of the Peoples Liberation Army of China. He served as the Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission, Chinas top military council, during the same period he also held a seat in the Politburo of the Communist Party of China, Chinas top decision-making body. He was expelled from the Communist Party on 30 July 2015, on July 25,2016, he was sentenced to life imprisonment for bribery. Guo was born in Liquan County, Shaanxi province, in August 1958, Guo, aged 16 and just finished middle school, began working at a military factory in Xingping, Shaanxi province. Guo joined the Peoples Liberation Army in 1961, two years later, he joined the Communist Party of China. Guo was trained at Chinas National Defense University and the Xian Army Academy in Peoples Liberation Army Military Academy where he graduated, Guo earned a series of promotions in the 1970s. In the 55th Division of the 19th Army, Guo rose from a soldier to chief of staff of the 55th Division by 1982, afterwards Guo became commander of the 47th Group Army for three years. In 1993 Guo became deputy commander of the Beijing Military Region, the heart of Chinas defense establishment, in September 1999, Guo became a member of the Central Military Commission, deputy chief of staff, and was also promoted to the rank of General. The Vice-Chairmanship of the CMC is the highest executive position given to military officers and he retired at the 18th National Congress in November 2012. After Guos retirement, Xi Jinping, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and supreme commander of the PLA, Guo was subject of intense rumours surrounding possible involvement with corruption during his time in office, particularly in overseas Chinese media. Guo, along with his colleague of the same rank, retired General Xu Caihou, attended a new years gala in early 2014. However, shortly thereafter, in the summer of 2014, as part of the fallout of the Gu Junshan case, Xu was court-martialed and expelled from the party. After Xus fall, Guo was euphemistically referred to in Chinese-language media as the Northwest Wolf, sensing impending doom, friends from Guos hometown visited Guo in Beijing, urging him to clarify the situation to the authorities to avoid the same fate as Xu. In response, Guo reportedly said, some things cannot be easily clarified, in February 2015, Guos son, Guo Zhenggang, a rear admiral in the PLA Navy, and his wife, were detained for investigation by military authorities in connection to business and real estate dealings. This was followed by reports in international media that Guo himself was also undergoing investigation and he was duly expelled from the Communist Party of China and his case moved to military prosecution authorities for further processing. Guo was, remarkably, the member of the 17th Politburo of the Communist Party of China to be expelled from the Communist Party. On July 25,2016, Guo was sentenced to imprisonment for bribery. Guo Boxiong has a brother, Guo Boquan born in 1961, who, until 2015, headed up the Department of Civil Affairs of Shaanxi province and a former official in the city of Weinan
13.
Vice President of the People's Republic of China
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The office was created by the 1982 constitution. Formally, the Vice President is elected by the National Peoples Congress in accordance with Article 62 of the Constitution, in practice, this election falls into the category of single-candidate elections. The candidate is recommended by the Presidium of the National Peoples Congress, by law, the Vice President must be a Chinese citizen of 45 years of age or older. He or she cannot serve for two terms, a term being the equivalent of one session of the NPC, which is five years. The Vice Presidents duties include assisting the President, and replacing him should he resign or die in office, the Vice-President may play a major role in foreign affairs. For instance, the Vice-President generally sits on the Foreign Affairs Leading Group, the Vice-President has also typically sits on the Central Coordination Group for Hong Kong and Macau Affairs. Therefore, while the Vice-President may not actually have substantive powers as defined in the Constitution, the holders of the office have all been individuals with a degree of political clout. Currently, Vice-President Li Yuanchao is the member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of China, but not the Standing Committee
14.
Rong Yiren
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Rong Yiren was the Vice President of the Peoples Republic of China from 1993 to 1998 and was heavily involved with the opening of the Chinese economy to western investment. Rong was born on May 1,1916 in Wuxi, a city near Shanghai in Jiangsu Province and his father Rong Desheng and uncle Rong Zongjing were the founders and operators of a flour and cotton milling business. He was educated at the Christian-run St. Johns University, one of Chinas most prestigious colleges at the time. At the end of the Chinese Civil War and the founding of the Peoples Republic of China and his family was allowed to keep their business until 1956, when all private businesses became state-owned. His family was given $6 million in compensation and he was appointed the vice-mayor of Shanghai in 1957 and later served as an economics adviser for the Communist Party of China. During the Cultural Revolution, he was denounced as a capitalist and he lost a great deal of his personal wealth and was the target of death threats from the Red Guards, radical youth organizations aligned with the new social and cultural policies of Mao Zedong. In a situation typical of disgraced government officials during the Cultural Revolution and he received some political protection from Zhou Enlai and was thus protected from further abuse and mistreatment. After the death of Mao Zedong and the end of Cultural Revolution and he set up the China International Trust and Investment Corp. or CITIC, in 1978, which was responsible for much of the initial western investment in China. At the height of the movement in 1989, he risked his life by asking the top Chinese leaders to negotiate with the students. After the Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989, many analysts believed that he would receive severe punishment. Instead however, he was appointed to the ceremonial post of vice-president in 1993, Rong retired in 1998 and died on October 26,2005. He was listed as one of the richest men in Asia, most of this wealth can be attributed to Rongs son Larry Yung in his role as chair of CITIC Pacific
15.
Taizhou, Jiangsu
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Taizhou is a prefecture-level city in central Jiangsu Province in eastern China. Situated on the bank of the Yangtze River, it borders Nantong to the east, Yancheng to the north. The 2010 census counted its population at 4,618,937 of whom 1,607,108 live in the area made of three urban districts. Hu Jintao, former General Secretary of the Communist Party of China considered Taizhou his home town as did Mei Lanfang, the prefecture-level city of Taizhou administers six county-level divisions, including two districts and four county-level cities. These are further divided into 105 township-level divisions, including 91 towns, eight townships and its latitude ranges from about 32° 02′ — 33°11′ N and longitude 119° 38′ — 120° 32′ E, with a total area of 5,793 square kilometres. Neighbouring Areas, Yangzhou to the west, Nantong to the east, Taizhou City has a long history and was first known as Hǎiyáng in the Spring and Autumn period, it was later called Hǎilíng during the Western Han Dynasty. It became Hailing County in 117 B. C. and was famous during the Eastern Jin Dynasty on a par with Jinling and Guangling, Lanling. During the Southern Tang Dynasty it was named Taizhou Prefecture, which means Peaceful country, Taizhou became independent of its larger neighbour Yangzhou in the 10th century AD. Under the Ming dynasty, the trade was centered here. In 1952, the construction of a new canal and ship locks linked Taizhou with the Yangzi River. With a history of over 2100 years, Taizhou has enjoyed the reputation of being the Ancient County of the Han and Tang Dynasties, through the ages, it has seen gatherings of many talented people and famous merchants. Taizhou has always been a political, economic, cultural and transportation center in Central Jiangsu Province, the hometown of great artistic Masters like Shi Naian, Zheng Banqiao, and Mei Lanfang, etc. Taizhou is also the birthplace of the Navy of Chinese Peoples Liberation Army, Taizhou is now one of the famous historical and cultural cities of Jiangsu Province. Taizhou is a center for flour mills, textile works, fishing net manufacturing, having a favorable geographical location, rich resources and solid economic foundation, Taizhou was approved by the States Council to be one of the open coastal cities. In the past 20 years, the growth has remained stable with an average annual growth rate exceeding 10%. It is one of the cities inside the Yangtse River Delta with its developed industry, convenient transportation. In 2009, the GDP reached RMB165.1 billion yuan, the GDP per capita RMB35,498 yuan, the fiscal revenue RMB34.4 billion yuan, five county-level cities or districts are ranked among the Chinas Top 100 Counties with Greatest Comprehensive Power. It boasts numbers of large-sized enterprises or groups, such as Chunlan Group Corp, Taizhou was among the first few cities in Jiangsu to be recognized as having a famous cultural history
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Jiangsu
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Jiangsu, formerly romanized as Kiangsu, is an eastern-central coastal province of the Peoples Republic of China. It is one of the provinces in manufacturing electronics and apparel items. Jiangsu is the third smallest, but the fifth most populous, Jiangsu has the second-highest GDP of Chinese provinces, after Guangdong. Jiangsu borders Shandong in the north, Anhui to the west, Jiangsu has a coastline of over 1,000 kilometres along the Yellow Sea, and the Yangtze River passes through the southern part of the province. Since the Sui and Tang dynasties, Jiangsu has been an economic and commercial center. Cities such as Yangzhou, Nanjing, Wuxi, Suzhou and Shanghai are all major Chinese economic hubs, since the initiation of economic reforms in 1990, Jiangsu has become a focal point for economic development. It is widely regarded as Chinas most developed province measured by its Human Development Index, Jiangsu is home to many of the worlds leading exporters of electronic equipment, chemicals and textiles. It has also been Chinas largest recipient of foreign investment since 2006. Its 2014 nominal GDP was more than 1 trillion US dollars and its name is a compound of the first elements of the names of the two cities of Jiangning and Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is 苏, the character of its name. The state of Wu was subjugated in 473 BC by the state of Yue, Yue was in turn subjugated by the powerful state of Chu from the west in 333 BC. Eventually the state of Qin swept away all the other states, during the Three Kingdoms period, southern Jiangsu became the base of the Eastern Wu whose capital, Jiankang, is modern Nanjing. When nomadic invasions overran northern China in the 4th century, the court of the Jin Dynasty moved to Jiankang. Cities in southern and central Jiangsu swelled with the influx of migrants from the north, Jiankang remained as the capital for four successive Southern Dynasties and became the largest commercial and cultural center in China. The Tang Dynasty relied on southern Jiangsu for annual deliveries of grain and it was during the Song Dynasty, which saw the development of a wealthy mercantile class and emergent market economy in China, that south Jiangsu emerged as a center of trade. From then onwards, south Jiangsu, especially cities like Suzhou or Yangzhou, would be synonymous with opulence. Today south Jiangsu remains one of the richest parts of China, the Mongols took control of China in the thirteenth century. The Ming Dynasty, which was established in 1368 after driving out the Mongols who had occupied China, following a coup by Zhu Di, however, the capital was moved to Beijing, far to the north
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Liu Yongqing
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Liu Yongqing, is the wife of Hu Jintao, the former General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and President of the People’s Republic of China. Traditionally, Liu Yongqing’s role would be domestic, but this is fast changing as Chinese leaders travel abroad more. Liu had often accompanied her husband on his trips to foreign countries and has made personal appearances at charities. Liu Yongqing was born in 1940 in Chongqing and she met her husband at Tsinghua University in Beijing. Later she went on to work for Beijing city planning committee, as with her husband, Lius life and background are not widely known among observers abroad. She received virtually no public attention before Hu Jintao’s presidency, Hu himself has preferred to stay out of the public eye and has tended to avoid publicity during his political career. Hu Jintao and Liu Yongqing have two grown children – a son named Hu Haifeng and a daughter named Hu Haiqing, both of whom were educated at the Tsinghua University, Haiqing was married in 2003, at the age of 33, to Mao Daolin
18.
Zhongnanhai
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The term Zhongnanhai is closely linked with the central government and senior Communist Party officials. It is often used as a metonym for the Chinese leadership at large, China Central Television frequently shows footage of meetings inside the compound, but limits its coverage largely to views of the interior of buildings. These two lakes are part of a series of projects carried out during the construction of the nearby Forbidden City. Also part of the system is the Northern Sea, or Beihai, now a public park. The Northern, Central. And the Shichahai is connected to Beihai at the north, the Taiye Lake were originally an imperial garden called Xiyuan, with parklands on the shores, enclosed by a red wall in the west part of the Imperial City, Beijing. Most of the pavilions, shrines, and temples survive from this period, whereas the Northern sea had a religious focus, the shores of Central and Southern seas were dotted with a number of palaces. During the Jin dynasty, the Emperor Zhangzong of Jin built the northern lake, the northern section of Zhongnanhai was the Taiye Lake, with an attached palace called the Palace of Great Peace. During the Yuan Dynasty, Taiye Lake was included in the Imperial City and it was also expanded, covering approximately the area occupied by the Northern and Central Seas today. Three palaces were built around the lake, after the Ming Dynasty moved its capital to Beijing, construction on the existing Imperial Palace began in 1406. The Ming palace was to the south of the Yuan palace, as a result, a new Southern Sea was dug to the south of the old lake. The excavated soil, together with that from construction of the moat, was piled up to form Jingshan, at this time, the three lakes were connected and were collectively called the Taiye Lake. The three lakes were divided by bridges, the lakes were part of an extensive royal park called Xiyuan to the west of the Imperial Palace. After the Qing Dynasty established its capital in Beijing, the government reduced the size of the park to within a small walled area around the three lakes. Several successive emperors built pavilions and houses along the lake shores, during the reign of the Empress Dowager Cixi, the Empress Dowager and the Emperor would often live in the Zhongnanhai compound, travelling to the Forbidden City only for ceremonial duties. During the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, the Russian army occupied Zhongnanhai, almost all artifacts and decorations in the compound were looted. Later, the Eight-Nation Alliance commander also lived in Zhongnanhai, when Puyi was crowned Emperor, his father as the Prince Regent lived for a short time in the compound. Zhongnanhai attained political significance during the Republic of China era, when the Beiyang Government under Yuan Shikai placed its presidential palace in the Zhongnanhai compound from 1911, the current main gate, Xinhua Gate or Gate of New China, was created by Yuan Shikai. The present gatehouse was previously a pavilion located on the shore the Southern Sea
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Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
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Tsinghua University
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Tsinghua University is a research university located in Beijing, China, established in 1911. With strong research and training, Tsinghua University is consistently ranked as one of the top institutions in China. In the aftermath of the Boxer Rebellion, American Secretary of State John Hay suggested that the US $30 million plus Boxer indemnity paid by China to the United States was excessive. The faculty members for sciences were recruited by the YMCA from the United States, in 1925, the school established its College Department and started its research institute on Chinese studies. In 1928, Tsinghua changed its name to National Tsing Hua University, after the war, Tsinghua moved back to Beijing and resumed its operations. When the Cultural Revolution began in 1966, many university students walked out of the classrooms and it was not until 1978, after the Cultural Revolution had ended, that the university began to take in students again. Even so, Tsinghua University remained in the top tier of schools in China, since the 1980s, the university has incorporated a multidisciplinary system. As a result, several schools were re-incorporated, in 1996, Tsinghua School of Economics and Management established partnership with the Sloan School of Management at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. One year later, Tsinghua and MIT founded the MBA program Tsinghua-MIT Global MBA, most national and international university rankings place Tsinghua amongst the best universities in Mainland China. Admission to Tsinghua is extremely competitive, admission to Tsinghuas graduate schools is also very competitive, with, for example, only about 16% of MBA applicants admitted each year. With its motto of Self-Discipline and Social Commitment, Tsinghua University describes itself as being dedicated to academic excellence, the well-being of Chinese society and to global development. The motto goes back to a speech with the title Gentleman given by Liang Qichao in 1914, as of 2003, Tsinghua University has 12 colleges and 48 departments,41 research institutes,35 research centers, and 167 laboratories, including 15 national key laboratories. The university offers 51 bachelors degree programs,139 masters degree programs and 107 PhD programs, recently, Tsinghua has become the first Chinese university to offer a Master of Laws program in American law, through a cooperative venture with the Temple University Beasley School of Law. The university is a member of LAOTSE, a network of leading universities in Europe. Each year, the University celebrates the Intellectual Property Summer Institute in cooperation with Franklin Pierce Law Center of Concord and it has its own editorial, Tsinghua University Press. These scholars will live on the university campus at Schwarzman College, as of 2014, Tsinghua University has 19 schools and 55 departments covering a broad range of subjects, including science, engineering, arts and literature, social sciences, medicine. Department of Mathematical Sciences was established in 1927, as one of the premier Departments of Mathematical Sciences in China, DMS has produced many famous Chinese mathematicians such as Shiing-Shen Chern and Luogeng Hua. In 1952, Tsinghua DMS was merged with the Peking University Department of Mathematical Sciences, then in 1979 it was renamed Department of Applied Mathematics, and renamed again in 1999 to its current title
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Hydraulic engineering
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Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. One feature of these systems is the use of gravity as the motive force to cause the movement of the fluids. This area of engineering is intimately related to the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals, and levees. Hydraulic engineering is the application of the principles of mechanics to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement. Before beginning a hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how water is involved. The hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the interaction of the water with its boundary. Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering defines hydrostatics as the study of fluids at rest, in a fluid at rest, there exists a force, known as pressure, that acts upon the fluids surroundings. This pressure, measured in N/m2, is not constant throughout the body of fluid, pressure, p, in a given body of fluid, increases with an increase in depth. Four basic devices for measurement are a piezometer, manometer, differential manometer, Bourdon gauge. As Prasuhn states, On undisturbed submerged bodies, pressure acts along all surfaces of a body in a liquid and this reaction is known as equilibrium. More advanced applications of pressure are that on plane surfaces, curved surfaces, dams, the main difference between an ideal fluid and a real fluid is that for ideal flow p1 = p2 and for real flow p1 > p2. Ideal fluid is incompressible and has no viscosity, ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all fluids that exist have some viscosity. A viscous fluid will deform continuously under a force, whereas an ideal fluid doesnt deform. The various effects of disturbance on a flow are stable, transition. For an ideal fluid, Bernoullis equation holds along streamlines, as the flow comes into contact with the plate, the layer of fluid actually adheres to a solid surface. There is then a considerable shearing action between the layer of fluid on the surface and the second layer of fluid. The second layer is forced to decelerate, creating a shearing action with the third layer of fluid. As the fluid passes further along the plate, the zone in which shearing action occurs tends to spread further outwards and this zone is known as the boundary layer
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Party Committee Secretary
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In most cases, it is the de facto highest political office of its area of jurisdiction. The term can also be used for the position of Communist Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, universities, hospitals. In post-Cultural Revolution Chinese political theory, the Communist Party is responsible for the formulation of policies, at every level of jurisdiction, a government leader serves alongside the party secretary. For example, in the case of a province, the provincial Party Secretary is the de facto highest office, the Governor is usually the second-highest-ranking official in the partys Provincial Committee, and holds the concurrent title of Deputy Party Committee Secretary. A similar comparison can be made for municipal Party Secretaries and Mayors, there have been rare instances where both Party Secretary and Governor positions were held by the same person, though this is not the common practice since the end of the Cultural Revolution. The Party Secretary is usually assisted by numerous Deputy Party Secretaries, until the 1980s, the leading position of a local party organization was called the First Secretary, its deputy the Second Secretary. The local party organizations each had its own Secretariat with numerous secretaries, at the provincial level, the party chief is known as CPC Provincial Committee Secretary, while the corresponding government position is known as Governor. At the prefecture or municipal level, the party chief is known as CPC Municipal Committee Secretary, at the county level, the party chief is known as CPC County Committee Secretary, while the corresponding government position is known as the County Governor. At the township level, the party chief is known as CPC Township/town Committee Secretary, at the village level, the local party chief, known as the Village Party Branch Secretary heads a committee of around ten people to make executive decisions related to the village. The process is not entirely formal, and therefore the party chief at this level is not considered part of the Chinese civil service. In writing and the media, the CPC designation before the title is not used often because it is assumed that Provincial Committee Secretary refers to the Communist Party secretary. Generally, a top government official will also hold the first deputy party chief position, a Deputy Party Secretary assists in the work of the Party Secretary. In provincial and most prefecture-level jurisdictions, there are two deputy party chiefs, the higher-ranked deputy party chief is generally also concurrently the head of the government of the party committees area of jurisdiction. The other deputy party chief is known as the zhuanzhi fushuji, literally, generally, the zhuanzhi deputy party chief is also the head of the party school of any given jurisdiction. A Party Branch or Party Group exists in almost all institutions of state which are not formally part of the Communist Party organization and these include government organs, Peoples Congresses, ministries, provincial and municipal departments and so on. These organizations are created by mandate of a Party Committee, serve to ensure that the policy guidelines of the party is followed at each respective institution. The Party Branch Secretary or Party Group Secretary is an office from that of the Party Committee Secretary. They do not have the organization and bureaucracy that is commonplace with a Party Committee
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Tibet Autonomous Region
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The Tibet Autonomous Region or Xizang Autonomous Region, called Tibet or Xizang for short, is a province-level autonomous region of the Peoples Republic of China. Within China, Tibet is identified as an autonomous region, the current borders of Tibet were generally established in the eighteenth century and include about half of ethno-cultural Tibet. In 1950, the Peoples Liberation Army defeated the Tibetan army in a battle fought near the city of Chamdo, in 1951, the Tibetan representatives signed a 17-point agreement with the Chinese Central Peoples Government affirming Chinas sovereignty over Tibet and the incorporation of Tibet. The agreement was ratified in Lhasa a few months later, the Dalai Lama fled to India in 1959 and renounced the 17-point agreement. Tibet Autonomous Region was established in 1965, thus making Tibet an administrative division that is equivalent in status to a Chinese province. The Tibet Autonomous Region is located on the Tibetan Plateau, the highest region on earth, in northern Tibet elevations reach an average of over 4,572 metres. Mount Everest is located on Tibets border with Nepal, Chinas provincial-level areas of Xinjiang, Qinghai and Sichuan lie to the north, northeast, and east, respectively, of the Tibet AR. There is also a border with Yunnan province to the southeast. The PRC has border disputes with the Republic of India over the McMahon Line of Arunachal Pradesh, the disputed territory of Aksai Chin is to the west, and its boundary with that region is not defined. The other countries to the south are Myanmar, Bhutan and Nepal. Physically, the Tibet AR may be divided into two parts, the region in the west and north-west, and the river region. On the south the Tibet AR is bounded by the Himalayas, the system at no point narrows to a single range, generally there are three or four across its breadth. Other lakes include Dagze Co, Namtso, and Pagsum Co, the lake region is a wind-swept Alpine grassland. This region is called the Chang Tang or Northern Plateau by the people of Tibet and it is some 1,100 km broad, and covers an area about equal to that of France. Due to its distance from the ocean it is extremely arid. The mountain ranges are spread out, rounded, disconnected, separated by flat valleys. The Tibet AR is dotted over with large and small lakes, generally salt or alkaline, due to the presence of discontinuous permafrost over the Chang Tang, the soil is boggy and covered with tussocks of grass, thus resembling the Siberian tundra. Salt and fresh-water lakes are intermingled, the lakes are generally without outlet, or have only a small effluent
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Guizhou
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Guizhou, formerly romanized as Kweichow, is a province of the Peoples Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. The area was first organized as a region of a Chinese empire under the Tang. During the Mongolian Yuan dynasty, the character 矩 was changed to the more refined 貴, the region formally became a province in 1413, with an eponymous capital then also called Guizhou but now known as Guiyang. From around 1046 BCE to the emergence of the Qin Dynasty, during the Warring States period, the Chinese state of Chu conquered the area, and control later passed to the Dian Kingdom. During the Three Kingdoms period, parts of Guizhou were governed by the Shu Han state based in Sichuan, followed by Cao Wei, during the 8th and 9th centuries in the Tang Dynasty, Chinese soldiers moved into Guizhou and married native women. Their descendants are known as Lǎohànrén, in contrast to new Chinese who populated Guizhou at later times and they still speak an archaic dialect. Many immigrants to Guizhou were descended from soldiers in garrisons who married these pre-Chinese women. It was during the following Ming Dynasty, which was again led by Han Chinese. The Ming established many garrisons in Guizhou from which to pacify the Yao and Miao minorities during the Miao Rebellions, chinese-style agriculture flourished with the expertise of farmers from Sichuan, Hunan and its surrounding provinces into Guizhou. Wu Sangui was responsible for the ousting the Ming in Guizhou, after the Second Opium War, criminal triads set up shop in Guangxi and Guizhou to sell British opium. For a time, Taiping Rebels took control of Guizhou, concurrently, Han Chinese soldiers moved into the Taijiang region of Guizhou, married Miao women, and their children were brought up as Miao. More unsuccessful Miao rebellions occurred during the Qing, in 1735, from 1795–1806, after the overthrow of the Qing in 1911 and following Chinese Civil War, the Communists took refuge in Guizhou during the Long March. While the province was ruled by the Guomindang warlord Wang Jialie. As the Second Sino-Japanese War pushed Chinas Nationalist Government to its southwest base of Chongqing, after the Chinese economic reform began in 1978, geographical factors led Guizhou to become the poorest province in China, with a GDP growth average of 9 percent from 1978–1993. Guizhou is a province, although its higher altitudes are in the west. It lies at the end of the Yungui Plateau. Guizhou has a humid climate. Its annual average temperature is roughly 10 to 20 °C, with January temperatures ranging from 1 to 10 °C, like in Chinas other southwest provinces, rural areas of Guizhou suffered severe drought during spring 2010
25.
Communist Youth League of China
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The league is organized on the party pattern. Its leader is its First Secretary, who is also a member of the CPC Central Committee, the current First Secretary is Qin Yizhi. The Communist Youth League is responsible also for guiding the activities of the Young Pioneers, founded in May 1920, it was originally named as the Socialist Youth League of China. Whilst the Party was officially established in July 1921, the Chinese Socialist Youth League was organized with the Party being set up throughout the country. In May 1922, the 1st National Congress of the League was held under the leadership of the Party, in the 3rd National Congress in January 1925, the Chinese Socialist Youth League was renamed as the Chinese Communist Youth League. After the Sino-Japanese War, in order to adapt to the new social and political situation, later in May 1957, its name as the Chinese Communist Youth League was resumed, historically combining the congresses of all three leagues. From 1978 to 2008, six congresses were held, the Communist Youth League has contributed a number of top echelon leaders of the Communist Party-led government of the Peoples Republic of China. The proliferation of leaders with a Youth League background has led to the informal name Youth League faction being used to describe members of the leadership at different times. The first Youth League faction was represented by Hu Yaobang, the second Youth League faction is represented by Hu Jintao. While there is no direct lineage between the two Hus, Hu Jintaos administration has formally elevated the memory of the earlier Hu. In 2005, the 90th anniversary of Hu Yaobangs birth, a new museum, the scandalous death of the son of Ling Jihua and Gu Liping, a couple associated with the Communist Youth League, may have tarnished the reputation of the organization as a path to power. The national leading organization is the National Congress and the Central Committee, the National Congress are held each 5 years, but can be held earlier or later under special circumstances. CPC and is considered to be the CPCs assistant and backup, by the end of 2002, there were approximately 210,000 committee members of fundamental organizations. 2007 estimates put the number of Youth League members at 73 million, Central Committee reported at the end of 2006, students accounted for 49. 9% of the league. CYLCs official newspaper is the China Youth Daily, in EAs game series Command and Conquer Generals, the flag of the Youth League is used as an icon for the Nationalism upgrade. loc. gov/frd/cs/. - China Official website Site for the youth, promoting things such as patriotism, youth employment
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Paramount leader
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In modern Chinese politics, the paramount leader of the Communist Party of China and the State is an informal term that refers to the most prominent political leader in the Peoples Republic of China. The paramount leader is not a formal position nor an office unto itself, there has been significant overlap between paramount leader status and leadership core status, though they are separate concepts. Hence Xi Jinping is considered to have become paramount leader in November 2012 upon his becoming General Secretary, Chairman Mao Zedong was the undisputed ruler of Communist China beginning in 1949. Beginning in the 1980s, the leadership experimented with a quasi-separation of powers, whereby the offices of General Secretary, President, for example, in 1985, the General Secretary was Hu Yaobang, the President was Li Xiannian, and the Premier was Zhao Ziyang. However, Deng Xiaoping was still recognized as the core of the leadership during this period, both Hu and Zhao fell out of favour in the late 1980s, but Deng was able to retain ultimate political control. There has also been an emphasis on collective leadership, whereby the top leader is a first among equals style figure. This was particularly apparent during the tenure of Hu Jintao, when Jiang left the offices of General Secretary and President in 2002 and 2003, respectively, he held onto the position of Chairman of the Central Military Commission. Military power had always been an important facet in the exercise of power in Communist-ruled China. Thus between 2002 and 2004, when Jiang finally stepped down from his last formal post, it was ambiguous who the paramount leader was at the time, Hu Jintao held the same trio of positions during his years in power. These bodies were tasked with establishing the general direction for national security as well as the agenda for economic reform. Both groups are headed by General Secretary
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Simplified Chinese characters
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Simplified Chinese characters are standardized Chinese characters prescribed in the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters for use in mainland China. Along with traditional Chinese characters, it is one of the two character sets of the contemporary Chinese written language. The government of the Peoples Republic of China in mainland China has promoted them for use in printing since the 1950s and 1960s in an attempt to increase literacy and they are officially used in the Peoples Republic of China and Singapore. Traditional Chinese characters are used in Hong Kong, Macau. Overseas Chinese communities generally tend to use traditional characters, Simplified Chinese characters may be referred to by their official name above or colloquially. Strictly, the latter refers to simplifications of character structure or body, character forms that have existed for thousands of years alongside regular, Simplified character forms were created by decreasing the number of strokes and simplifying the forms of a sizable proportion of traditional Chinese characters. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms embodying graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms, some characters were simplified by applying regular rules, for example, by replacing all occurrences of a certain component with a simplified version of the component. Variant characters with the pronunciation and identical meaning were reduced to a single standardized character. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification, and are identical between the traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. Some simplified characters are very dissimilar to and unpredictably different from traditional characters and this often leads opponents not well-versed in the method of simplification to conclude that the overall process of character simplification is also arbitrary. In reality, the methods and rules of simplification are few, on the other hand, proponents of simplification often flaunt a few choice simplified characters as ingenious inventions, when in fact these have existed for hundreds of years as ancient variants. However, the Chinese government never officially dropped its goal of further simplification in the future, in August 2009, the PRC began collecting public comments for a modified list of simplified characters. The new Table of General Standard Chinese Characters consisting of 8,105 characters was promulgated by the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China on June 5,2013, cursive written text almost always includes character simplification. Simplified forms used in print have always existed, they date back to as early as the Qin dynasty, One of the earliest proponents of character simplification was Lubi Kui, who proposed in 1909 that simplified characters should be used in education. In the years following the May Fourth Movement in 1919, many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China, Traditional culture and values such as Confucianism were challenged. Soon, people in the Movement started to cite the traditional Chinese writing system as an obstacle in modernising China and it was suggested that the Chinese writing system should be either simplified or completely abolished. Fu Sinian, a leader of the May Fourth Movement, called Chinese characters the writing of ox-demons, lu Xun, a renowned Chinese author in the 20th century, stated that, If Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die. Recent commentators have claimed that Chinese characters were blamed for the problems in China during that time
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Traditional Chinese characters
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Traditional Chinese characters are Chinese characters in any character set that does not contain newly created characters or character substitutions performed after 1946. They are most commonly the characters in the character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong. Currently, a number of overseas Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between both sets. In contrast, simplified Chinese characters are used in mainland China, Singapore, the debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters has been a long-running issue among Chinese communities. Although simplified characters are taught and endorsed by the government of Mainland China, Traditional characters are used informally in regions in China primarily in handwriting and also used for inscriptions and religious text. They are often retained in logos or graphics to evoke yesteryear, nonetheless, the vast majority of media and communications in China is dominated by simplified characters. Taiwan has never adopted Simplified Chinese characters since it is ruled by the Republic of China, the use of simplified characters in official documents is even prohibited by the government in Taiwan. Simplified characters are not well understood in general, although some stroke simplifications that have incorporated into Simplified Chinese are in common use in handwriting. For example, while the name of Taiwan is written as 臺灣, similarly, in Hong Kong and Macau, Traditional Chinese has been the legal written form since colonial times. In recent years, because of the influx of mainland Chinese tourists, today, even government websites use simplified Chinese, as they answer to the Beijing government. This has led to concerns by residents to protect their local heritage. In Southeast Asia, the Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative regarding simplification, while major public universities are teaching simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications like the Chinese Commercial News, World News, and United Daily News still use traditional characters, on the other hand, the Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified. Aside from local newspapers, magazines from Hong Kong, such as the Yazhou Zhoukan, are found in some bookstores. In case of film or television subtitles on DVD, the Chinese dub that is used in Philippines is the same as the one used in Taiwan and this is because the DVDs belongs to DVD Region Code 3. Hence, most of the subtitles are in Traditional Characters, overseas Chinese in the United States have long used traditional characters. A major influx of Chinese immigrants to the United States occurred during the half of the 19th century. Therefore, the majority of Chinese language signage in the United States, including street signs, Traditional Chinese characters are called several different names within the Chinese-speaking world
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Standard Chinese
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Its pronunciation is based on the Beijing dialect, its vocabulary on the Mandarin dialects, and its grammar is based on written vernacular Chinese. Like other varieties of Chinese, Standard Chinese is a language with topic-prominent organization. It has more initial consonants but fewer vowels, final consonants, Standard Chinese is an analytic language, though with many compound words. There exist two standardised forms of the language, namely Putonghua in Mainland China and Guoyu in Taiwan, aside from a number of differences in pronunciation and vocabulary, Putonghua is written using simplified Chinese characters, while Guoyu is written using traditional Chinese characters. There are many characters that are identical between the two systems, in English, the governments of China and Hong Kong use Putonghua, Putonghua Chinese, Mandarin Chinese, and Mandarin, while those of Taiwan, Singapore, and Malaysia, use Mandarin. The name Putonghua also has a long, albeit unofficial, history and it was used as early as 1906 in writings by Zhu Wenxiong to differentiate a modern, standard Chinese from classical Chinese and other varieties of Chinese. For some linguists of the early 20th century, the Putonghua, or common tongue/speech, was different from the Guoyu. The former was a prestige variety, while the latter was the legal standard. Based on common understandings of the time, the two were, in fact, different, Guoyu was understood as formal vernacular Chinese, which is close to classical Chinese. By contrast, Putonghua was called the speech of the modern man. The use of the term Putonghua by left-leaning intellectuals such as Qu Qiubai, prior to this, the government used both terms interchangeably. In Taiwan, Guoyu continues to be the term for Standard Chinese. The term Putonghua, on the contrary, implies nothing more than the notion of a lingua franca, Huayu, or language of the Chinese nation, originally simply meant Chinese language, and was used in overseas communities to contrast Chinese with foreign languages. Over time, the desire to standardise the variety of Chinese spoken in these communities led to the adoption of the name Huayu to refer to Mandarin and it also incorporates the notion that Mandarin is usually not the national or common language of the areas in which overseas Chinese live. The term Mandarin is a translation of Guānhuà, which referred to the lingua franca of the late Chinese empire, in English, Mandarin may refer to the standard language, the dialect group as a whole, or to historic forms such as the late Imperial lingua franca. The name Modern Standard Mandarin is sometimes used by linguists who wish to distinguish the current state of the language from other northern. Chinese has long had considerable variation, hence prestige dialects have always existed. Confucius, for example, used yǎyán rather than colloquial regional dialects, rime books, which were written since the Northern and Southern dynasties, may also have reflected one or more systems of standard pronunciation during those times
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Pinyin
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Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languages written with the Latin alphabet, and also in certain computer input methods to enter Chinese characters. The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s by many linguists, including Zhou Youguang and it was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times. The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as a standard in 1982. The system was adopted as the standard in Taiwan in 2009. The word Hànyǔ means the language of the Han people. In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji in Beijing and this was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese. One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynasty scholar-official, the first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu. A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the effect of the kana syllabaries. This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script, while Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts. The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and it was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979. This Sin Wenz or New Writing was much more sophisticated than earlier alphabets. In 1940, several members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy for the masthead of the Sin Wenz Societys new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sens son, Sun Fo, Cai Yuanpei, the countrys most prestigious educator, Tao Xingzhi, an educational reformer. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of translations, biographies, some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks
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Cantonese
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Cantonese, or Standard Cantonese, is a variety of Chinese spoken in the city of Guangzhou in southeastern China. It is the prestige variety of Yue, one of the major subdivisions of Chinese. In mainland China, it is the lingua franca of the province of Guangdong and some neighbouring areas such as Guangxi. In Hong Kong and Macau, Cantonese serves as one of their official languages and it is also spoken amongst overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia and throughout the Western World. When Cantonese and the closely related Yuehai dialects are classified together, Cantonese is viewed as vital part of the cultural identity for its native speakers across large swathes of southeastern China, Hong Kong and Macau. Although Cantonese shares some vocabulary with Mandarin, the two varieties are mutually unintelligible because of differences in pronunciation, grammar and lexicon, sentence structure, in particular the placement of verbs, sometimes differs between the two varieties. This results in the situation in which a Cantonese and a Mandarin text may look similar, in English, the term Cantonese is ambiguous. Cantonese proper is the variety native to the city of Canton and this narrow sense may be specified as Canton language or Guangzhou language in English. However, Cantonese may also refer to the branch of Cantonese that contains Cantonese proper as well as Taishanese and Gaoyang. In this article, Cantonese is used for Cantonese proper, historically, speakers called this variety Canton speech or Guangzhou speech, although this term is now seldom used outside mainland China. In Guangdong province, people call it provincial capital speech or plain speech. In Hong Kong and Macau, as well as among overseas Chinese communities, in mainland China, the term Guangdong speech is also increasingly being used among both native and non-native speakers. Due to its status as a prestige dialect among all the dialects of the Cantonese or Yue branch of Chinese varieties, the official languages of Hong Kong are Chinese and English, as defined in the Hong Kong Basic Law. The Chinese language has different varieties, of which Cantonese is one. Given the traditional predominance of Cantonese within Hong Kong, it is the de facto official spoken form of the Chinese language used in the Hong Kong Government and all courts and it is also used as the medium of instruction in schools, alongside English. A similar situation exists in neighboring Macau, where Chinese is an official language along with Portuguese. As in Hong Kong, Cantonese is the predominant spoken variety of Chinese used in life and is thus the official form of Chinese used in the government. The variant spoken in Hong Kong and Macau is known as Hong Kong Cantonese, Cantonese first developed around the port city of Guangzhou in the Pearl River Delta region of southeastern China
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Jyutping
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Jyutping is a romanisation system for Cantonese developed by the Linguistic Society of Hong Kong, an academic group, in 1993. Its formal name is The Linguistic Society of Hong Kong Cantonese Romanisation Scheme, the LSHK promotes the use of this romanisation system. The name Jyutping is a contraction consisting of the first Chinese characters of the terms Jyut6jyu5, only the finals m and ng can be used as standalone nasal syllables. ^ ^ ^ Referring to the pronunciation of these words. There are nine tones in six distinct tone contours in Cantonese, however, as three of the nine are entering tones, which only appear in syllables ending with p, t, and k, they do not have separate tone numbers in Jyutping. Jyutping and the Yale Romanisation of Cantonese represent Cantonese pronunciations with the letters in, The initials, b, p, m, f, d, t, n, l, g, k, ng, h, s, gw, kw. The vowel, aa, a, e, i, o, u, the coda, i, u, m, n, ng, p, t, k. But they differ in the following, The vowels eo and oe represent /ɵ/ and /œː/ respectively in Jyutping, the initial j represents /j/ in Jyutping whereas y is used instead in Yale. The initial z represents /ts/ in Jyutping whereas j is used instead in Yale, the initial c represents /tsʰ/ in Jyutping whereas ch is used instead in Yale. In Jyutping, if no consonant precedes the vowel yu, then the initial j is appended before the vowel, in Yale, the corresponding initial y is never appended before yu under any circumstances. Jyutping defines three finals not in Yale, eu /ɛːu/, em /ɛːm/, and ep /ɛːp/ and these three finals are used in colloquial Cantonese words, such as deu6, lem2, and gep6. To represent tones, only tone numbers are used in Jyutping whereas Yale traditionally uses tone marks together with the letter h. Jyutping and Cantonese Pinyin represent Cantonese pronunciations with the letters in, The initials, b, p, m, f, d, t, n, l, g, k, ng, h, s, gw, kw. The vowel, aa, a, e, i, o, u, the coda, i, u, m, n, ng, p, t, k. But they have differences, The vowel oe represents both /ɵ/ and /œː/ in Cantonese Pinyin whereas eo and oe represent /ɵ/ and /œː/ respectively in Jyutping. The vowel y represents /y/ in Cantonese Pinyin whereas both yu and i are used in Jyutping, the initial dz represents /ts/ in Cantonese Pinyin whereas z is used instead in Jyutping. The initial ts represents /tsʰ/ in Cantonese Pinyin whereas c is used instead in Jyutping. To represent tones, the numbers 1 to 9 are usually used in Cantonese Pinyin, however, only the numbers 1 to 6 are used in Jyutping
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