1.
Huancayo Province
–
Huancayo Province is located in Peru. It is one of the 9 provinces composing the Junín Region and it borders to the north with the Concepción Province, the east with the Satipo Province, the south with the Huancavelica Region and the west with the Chupaca Province. The province has an population of 439699 inhabitants. The capital of the province is the city of Huancayo, the Chunta mountain range and the Waytapallana mountain range traverse the province. The province is divided into 28 districts over an area of 4711,15 km² and these districts are, Ankap Wachanan Apu Inka Wari Willka Municipal website
Huancayo Province
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Turi Turi (Torre Torre) rock formations near the city of Huancayo
2.
Trinity
–
The Christian doctrine of the Trinity holds that God is three consubstantial persons or hypostases—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—as one God in three Divine Persons. The three persons are distinct, yet are one substance, essence or nature, in this context, a nature is what one is, whereas a person is who one is. Reflection, proclamation, and dialogue led to the formulation of the doctrine that was felt to correspond to the data in the Bible. The simplest outline of the doctrine was formulated in the 4th century, further elaboration continued in the succeeding centuries. Scripture contains neither the word Trinity, nor an expressly formulated doctrine of the Trinity, rather, according to the Christian theology, it bears witness to the activity of a God who can only be understood in Trinitarian terms. The doctrine did not take its shape until late in the fourth century. During the intervening period, various solutions, some more. Trinitarianism contrasts with nontrinitarian positions which include Binitarianism, Unitarianism, Oneness Pentecostalism or Modalism, the word trinity is derived from Latin trinitas, meaning the number three, a triad. This abstract noun is formed from the adjective trinus, as the word unitas is the noun formed from unus. The corresponding word in Greek is tριάς, meaning a set of three or the number three, the first recorded use of this Greek word in Christian theology was by Theophilus of Antioch in about 170. He wrote, In like manner also the three days which were before the luminaries, are types of the Trinity, of God, and His Word, and His wisdom. And the fourth is the type of man, who needs light, that so there may be God, the Word, wisdom, man. The Ante-Nicene Fathers asserted Christs deity and spoke of Father, Son and Holy Spirit, Trinitarians view these as elements of the codified doctrine. Ignatius of Antioch provides early support for the Trinity around 110, exhorting obedience to Christ, and to the Father, and to the Spirit. Justin Martyr also writes, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Saviour Jesus Christ, the first of the early church fathers to be recorded using the word Trinity was Theophilus of Antioch writing in the late 2nd century. He defines the Trinity as God, His Word and His Wisdom in the context of a discussion of the first three days of creation, the first defence of the doctrine of the Trinity was in the early 3rd century by the early church father Tertullian. He explicitly defined the Trinity as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, St. Justin and Clement of Alexandra used the Trinity in their doxologies and St. Basil likewise, in the evening lighting of lamps. The highly allegorical exegesis of the Valentinian school inclined it to interpret the relevant scriptural passages as affirming a Divinity that, the Valentinian Gospel of Phillip, which dates to approximately the time of Tertullian, upholds the Trinitarian formula
Trinity
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The Holy Trinity by unknown Portuguese master (16th cent.). Museu Diocesano de Santarém, Portugal
Trinity
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The "
Shield of the Trinity " or Scutum Fidei diagram of traditional medieval Western Christian symbolism, since 12th-century CE.
Trinity
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The earliest known depiction of the Trinity,
Dogmatic Sarcophagus, 350 AD
Vatican Museums
Trinity
–
The Baptism of Christ, by
Piero della Francesca, 15th century
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
4.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
Peru
–
Sculpted
Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of
Chavín de Huantar
Peru
Peru
–
A
Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
Peru
–
The citadel of
Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru
5.
Regions of Peru
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The regions of Peru are the first-level administrative subdivisions of Peru. Since its 1821 independence, Peru had been divided into departments but faced the problem of a centralization of political and economic power in its capital. Under the new arrangement, the former 24 departments plus the Callao Province has become regional circumscriptions, the province of Lima has been excluded from this process and does not form part of any region. Unlike the earlier departments, regions have a government and have a wide array of responsibilities within their jurisdiction. Under the 2002 Organic Law of Regional Governments, there is a process of transfer of functions from the central government to the regions. A2005 referendum for the merger of several failed to get the necessary electoral support. Peruvian regions and departments are subdivided in provinces and districts, the 1979 Peruvian Constitution contained provisions for the decentralization of power through the creation of autonomous regions, but they were not implemented. As a way of creating a source of power, the regime established twelve autonomous regions on January 20,1989 in the hope of winning some elections at this level. However, due to the haste of their creation, these governments were not provided with fiscal resources of their own so they depended on the goodwill of the central government for funding. The 1990 presidential elections were marked by the discredit of political parties as evidenced in the election of Alberto Fujimori, Fujimori withheld financial transfers to regional governments and then, on December 29,1992, replaced them with government-designated Transitory Councils of Regional Administration. Having dissolved Congress in the 1992 Peruvian constitutional crisis, Fujimori called an election for a Constitutional Assembly which drafted the 1993 Constitution and this new text included provisions for the creation of regions with autonomous, elected governments but they were not carried out. A framework law on decentralization issued on January 30,1998, confirmed the permanence of transitory councils, Fujimori was forced to resign in November 2000 under accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations. After an interim government led by Valentín Paniagua, Alejandro Toledo was elected president for the 2001–2006 period on a platform that included creating regional governments. New regional governments were elected on November 20,2002, one in each of the former departments, the province of Lima, containing the capital, was excluded from the process thus it is not part of any region. In the 2002 elections, most regional governments went to parties in opposition, with going to the APRA and only one to Possible Peru. Thus, no merger was carried out, new elections for regional governments were held on November 19,2006, most regions went to local political movements rather than to national parties. The APRA, which had won the elections held on June 4,2006. The Regional Coordination Council has a role on planning and budget issues
Regions of Peru
6.
Provinces of Peru
–
The provinces of Peru, known in Spanish as provincias, are the second-level administrative subdivisions of the country. There are 196 provinces in Peru, grouped into 25 regions except for the Lima Province which does not belong to any region and this makes an average of 7 provinces per region. The region with the fewest provinces is Callao and the region with the most is Ancash, while provinces in the sparsely populated Amazon rain forest of eastern Peru tend to be larger, there is a large concentration of them in the north-central area of the country. The province with the least number of districts is Purús Province, the province with the most districts is Lima Province, with 43 districts. The most common number of districts per province is 8, a total of 29 provinces share this number of districts, the table below shows all provinces with their capitals and the region in which they are located. The UBIGEO code uniquely identifies each province, capitals in bold are also a regional capital. Provinces in which the capital is located all have an UBIGEO code ending in 01. Administrative divisions of Peru Regions of Peru Districts of Peru Municipalities of Peru
Provinces of Peru
–
Peru
7.
Districts of Peru
–
The districts of Peru are the third-level country subdivisions of Peru. They are subdivisions of the provinces, which in turn are subdivisions of the regions or departments. There are 1,838 districts in total, in the dry Andean area, many districts have less than 3,500 inhabitants due to low population density in the area. In some cases, their populations have decreased in comparison to the days when they were founded, districts that are located at very high altitudes tend to be scarcely populated. These districts usually are large in area, have few available land for use, many basic government services do not reach all residents of these districts due to their difficult geography. Many lack financial means to govern their jurisdictions and they often have high emigration rates. A similar pattern can be observed in many districts located in the Peruvian Amazon rainforest, once important settlements created during the era of colonization, they nowadays do not offer much space for agriculture. Deeper into the jungle, the districts of the selva alta have higher populations living on geographically large districts, districts located outside the colonized area have very low populations that are entirely composed of Native Amazonian tribes. All over the country, many districts have higher populations than the minimum required by law and these districts are old and tend to be smaller in area with high population densities since prehispanic times. Districts with a population of more than 10000 inhabitants should ideally be subdivided, particularly if they are large in area. Colonization happens quickly and boundaries of districts are not modified. This is less of a problem in the coast where communication is easier, however, reaching to large populations remain a problem in this area. This is a list of the top twenty Peruvian districts by population, population density, area, Source, INEI Source, INEI Source, INEI Source, INEI Regions of Peru Provinces of Peru Administrative divisions of Peru
Districts of Peru
–
Districts of Peru
8.
Municipal government
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It is to be distinguished from the county, which may encompass rural territory and/or numerous small communities such as towns, villages and hamlets. The term municipality may also mean the governing or ruling body of a given municipality, a municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district. The term is derived from French municipalité and Latin municipalis, a municipality can be any political jurisdiction from a sovereign state, such as the Principality of Monaco, or a small village, such as West Hampton Dunes, New York. The power of municipalities range from virtual autonomy to complete subordination to the state, municipalities may have the right to tax individuals and corporations with income tax, property tax, and corporate income tax, but may also receive substantial funding from the state. Similar terms include Spanish ayuntamiento, also called municipalidad, Polish gmina, Dutch/Flemish Gemeente, in Australia, the term local government area is used in place of the generic municipality. Here, the LGA Structure covers only incorporated areas of Australia, incorporated areas are legally designated parts of states and territories over which incorporated local governing bodies have responsibility. In Canada, municipalities are local governments established through provincial and territorial legislation, the Province of Ontario has different tiers of municipalities, including lower, upper, and single tiers. Types of upper tier municipalities in Ontario include counties and regional municipalities, nova Scotia also has regional municipalities, which include cities, counties, districts, or towns as municipal units. In India, a Nagar Palika or Municipality is a local body that administers a city of population 100,000 or more. Under the Panchayati Raj system, it directly with the state government. Generally, smaller cities and bigger towns have a Nagar Palika. Nagar Palikas are also a form of local self-government entrusted with duties and responsibilities. Such a corporation in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, since local government reorganisation, the unit in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is known as a district, and in Scotland as a council area. A district may be awarded borough or city status, or can retain its district title, in Jersey, a municipality refers to the honorary officials elected to run each of the 12 parishes into which it is subdivided. This is the highest level of government in this jurisdiction. In the United States, municipality is usually understood as a city, town, village, or other local government unit, in the Peoples Republic of China, a direct-controlled municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing. In Taiwan, a municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Kaohsiung, New Taipei, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei. In Portuguese language usage, there are two words to distinguish the territory and the administrative organ, when referring to the territory, the word concelho is used, when referring to the organ of State, the word município is used
Municipal government
–
Dhaka City Corporation Building
Municipal government
–
Chennai Corporation headquarters
Municipal government
–
Municipal Corporation Building, Mumbai
Municipal government
–
Municipal Corporation of Delhi Headquarters
9.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
UTC-5
–
Behind (−)
10.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
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Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
–
G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
–
Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
–
William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
11.
Quechua (geography)
–
Quechua is one of the eight Natural Regions of Peru and is between 2,300 and 3,500 m above sea level. It is composed of big valleys divided by rivers fed by estival rains and its flora includes Andean alder, gongapa, and arracacha. People who live in this region, cultivate corn, squash, passionfruit, papaya, wheat, notable fauna include birds like the chihuanco or white-necked thrush
Quechua (geography)
–
Valle del Colca,
Arequipa, Peru
Quechua (geography)
–
Passion fruit or Granadilla
12.
Andes
–
The Andes or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They are a range of highlands along the western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000 km long, about 200 to 700 km wide, the Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, the Andes are the location of several high plateaus – some of which host major cities, such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the worlds second-highest after the Tibetan plateau and these ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate, the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes. The Andes are the worlds highest mountain range outside of Asia, the highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earths center than any other location on the Earths surface, the worlds highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m. The etymology of the word Andes has been debated, the majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means east as in Antisuyu, one of the four regions of the Inca Empire. In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel, meaning rope, the Andes range is about 200 km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres wide. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate. In the south, the Andes share a boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, from a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines, the Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile, the Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau, the specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow
Andes
–
Aerial photo of a portion of the Andes between
Argentina and
Chile
Andes
Andes
–
"
Cono de Arita " in the
Puna de Atacama,
Salta (
Argentina).
Andes
–
Aerial view of Aconcagua.
13.
Wari Empire
–
The Wari Empire was a political formation that emerged around AD600 in the central highlands of Peru and lasted for about 500 years, to 1100 AD. It operated about the time as the Tiwanaku culture and at one time was thought to have been derived from it. In 2008 archeologists found a city, the Northern Wari ruins, also called Cerro Pátapo. The find was the first to show an extensive settlement related to the Wari culture that far north, some scholars in the field debate whether the Wari communities can be termed an empire. For instance, the archaeologist Ruth Shady has suggested the society could better be considered an economic network of Wari centres. Scholars who contend the society did constitute an empire include William Isbell, Katherine Schreiber, leaders had to plan projects and organize large amounts of labor to accomplish such projects. The discovery in early 2013 of an undisturbed, imperial royal tomb, El Castillo de Huarmey, provides evidence of the material wealth, the Wari Empire was a second-generation state of the Andean region, both it and Tiwanaku had been preceded by the first-generation Moche state. The Wari required mita labor of its subjects as a form of tribute, mita laborers were involved in the construction of buildings at the Wari capital and in the provinces. The two empires met at Moquegua, where the Wari and Tiwanaku populations co-existed without conflicts, while the Wari likely had significant organizational and administrative power, it remains unclear what the origins of its political and artistic forms were. The polity seems to have survived until ca, AD1100, when it collapsed, likely as a result of both environmental change and internal socio-political stresses. Wari culture Tiwanaku empire Wendell C, bennett, Excavations at Wari, Ayachucho, Peru. Gordon F. McEwan, The Middle Horizon in the Valley of Cuzco, Peru, William H. Isbell and Gordon F. McEwan, eds. Huari Administrative Structure, Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, katharina J. Schreiber, Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru. Politywide Analysis and Imperial Political Economy, The Relationship between Valley Political Complexity and Administrative Centers in the Wari Empire of the Central Andes
Wari Empire
–
Wari and Tiwanaku zones of influence
14.
Inca
–
The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru, the Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572, from 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the son of the sun, the Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old world. In the words of one scholar, The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, the Incan economy has been described as feudal, slave, socialist. The economy functioned largely without money and without markets, instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. Taxes consisted of an obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food, the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, the four suyu. The four suyu were, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu and Kuntisuyu, the name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu, the term Inka means ruler or lord in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000. The Spanish adopted the term as a term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca referred to the nation that they encountered, the Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells a story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu Tuqu was named Qhapaq Tuqu, the other caves were Maras Tuqu and Sutiq Tuqu. Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave and they were, Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa and Ayar Uchu, and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura. Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans, Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live and they traveled for a long time
Inca
–
Inca Empire
Inca
–
Banner of the Tawantinsuyu
Inca
–
The first image of the Inca in Europe,
Pedro Cieza de León, Cronica del Peru, 1553
Inca
–
View of
Machu Picchu
15.
Pachacuti
–
Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui or Pachacutec or Pachakutiq Inka Yupanki was the ninth Sapa Inca of the Kingdom of Cusco which he transformed into the Inca Empire. Most archaeologists now believe that the famous Inca site of Machu Picchu was built as an estate for Pachacuti, in Quechua Pachakutiq means he who overturns space and time, and Yupanki means with honor. During his reign, Cusco grew from a hamlet into an empire that could compete with, and eventually overtake and he began an era of conquest that, within three generations, expanded the Inca dominion from the valley of Cusco to nearly the whole of western South America. He was the ruler of the Inca state who, from ruling a simple chiefdom came to rule a great empire. Although he had not been designated as successor by his father Viracocha Inca, he led a defense against the warlike army of Chanka while his father. The victory over the Chankas made Inca Viracocha recognize him as his successor around 1438, as part of his vision of a statesman and warrior chieftain he conquered many ethnic groups and states, highlighting his conquest of the Collao that enhanced the prestige of the Inca Pachacutec. Due to the expansion of their domains he was considered an exceptional leader, enlivening glorious epic stories. Numerous kurakas do not hesitate to recognize his skills and identify him as son of the Sun and he conquered the provinces of Colla-Suyu and Chinchay-Suyu. Along with his sons, Tupac Ayar Manco, and Apu Paucar Usnu, additionally, he left garrisons in subjugated lands. Pachacuti, son of Inca Viracocha, was the fourth of the Hanan dynasty and his wifes name was Mama Anahuarqui, or Quya Anawarkhi. He had three sons, Tupac Ayar Manco, Apu Paucar, and Tupac Inca Yupanqui, pacachuti had his two brothers, Ccapac Yupanqui and Huayana Yupanqui, killed after the military campaign against the province of Chinchay-Suyu. He also killed his sons Tilca Yupanqui and Auqui Yupanqui, Amaru, the older son, was originally chosen to be co-regent and eventual successor. Pachacuti later chose Tupac Inca because Amaru was not a warrior and he was also the first one to retire. Pachacutis given name was Cusi Yupanqui and he was not supposed to succeed his father Inca Viracocha who had appointed his brother Urco as crown prince. However in the midst of an invasion of Cuzco by the Chankas, while his father and brother fled the scene, Pachacuti rallied the army and prepared for a desperate defense of his homeland. In the resulting battle, the Chankas were defeated so severely that legend tells even the stones rose up to fight on Pachacutis side, thus The Earth Shaker won the support of his people and the recognition of his father as crown prince after the death of Urco. Pachacuti rebuilt much of Cusco, designing it to serve the needs of an imperial city, each suyu had a sector of the city, centering on the road leading to that province, nobles and immigrants lived in the sector corresponding to their origin. Each sector was divided into areas for the hanan and hurin moieties
Pachacuti
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Statue of Pachacuti,
Aguas Calientes, Peru
Pachacuti
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Pachacuti as drawn by
Guaman Poma
16.
Inca empire
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The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru, the Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572, from 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the son of the sun, the Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old world. In the words of one scholar, The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, the Incan economy has been described as feudal, slave, socialist. The economy functioned largely without money and without markets, instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. Taxes consisted of an obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food, the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, the four suyu. The four suyu were, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu and Kuntisuyu, the name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu, the term Inka means ruler or lord in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000. The Spanish adopted the term as a term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca referred to the nation that they encountered, the Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells a story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu Tuqu was named Qhapaq Tuqu, the other caves were Maras Tuqu and Sutiq Tuqu. Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave and they were, Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa and Ayar Uchu, and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura. Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans, Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live and they traveled for a long time
Inca empire
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Inca Empire
Inca empire
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Banner of the Tawantinsuyu
Inca empire
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The first image of the Inca in Europe,
Pedro Cieza de León, Cronica del Peru, 1553
Inca empire
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View of
Machu Picchu
17.
Inca road system
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The Inca road system was the most extensive and advanced transportation system in pre-Columbian South America. It was about 39,900 kilometres long, the network was based on two north-south roads with numerous branches. The best known portion of the system is the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu. Part of the network was built by cultures that precede the Inca Empire. During the Spanish colonial era, parts of the system were given the status of Camino Real. In 2014 the road became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The eastern route ran high in the grasslands and mountain valleys from Quito, Ecuador to Mendoza. The western route followed the coastal plain not including in coastal deserts where it hugged the foothills, more than twenty routes ran over the western mountains, while others traversed the eastern cordillera in the mountains and lowlands. Some of these roads reach heights of over 5,000 metres above sea level, the trails connected the regions of the Inca empire from the northern provincial capital in Quito, Ecuador past the modern city of Santiago, Chile in the south. The Inca road system linked together about 40,000 kilometres of roadway, although the Inca roads varied greatly in scale, construction, and appearance, for the most part they varied between about 1 to 4 metres in width. Much of the system was the result of the Incas claiming exclusive right over numerous traditional routes, many new sections were built or upgraded substantially, through Chiles Atacama desert, and along the western margin of Lake Titicaca, serve as two examples. The Incas developed techniques to overcome the difficult territory of the Andes, on steep slopes they built stone steps resembling giant flights of stairs. In desert areas near the coast they built low walls to keep the sand from drifting over the road, the Qhapaq Ñan constituted the principal north-south highway of the Inca Empire traveling 6,000 kilometres along the spine of the Andes. The Qhapaq Ñan unified this immense and heterogeneous empire through a political system of power. It allowed the Inca to control his Empire and to troops as needed from the capital. The most important Inca road was the Camino Real, as it is known in Spanish and it began in Quito, Ecuador, passed through Cusco, and ended in what is now Tucumán, Argentina. The Camino Real traversed the mountain ranges of the Andes, with altitudes of more than 5,000 m. El Camino de la Costa, the trail, with a length of 4,000 kilometres
Inca road system
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Extension of the Inca road system
Inca road system
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Inca Empire
18.
Jauja
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Jauja is a city and capital of Jauja Province in Peru. It is situated in the fertile Mantaro Valley,45 kilometres to the northwest of Huancayo and its population according to the 2007 census was 16,424. Jauja, which flourished for a time, was once the capital of Spanish Peru. Its name is referenced in the popular Spanish expression país de Jauja, which literally means country of Jauja, the town, with a laid back ambiance and salubrious climate, has narrow streets with houses painted blue. Laguna de Paca lake is close to the city, an important Xauxa town was located in the vicinity before the Incas. During the Inca civilization, the town of Hatun Xauxa was established, today the ruins of this settlement can be seen on a hill, approximately 3 kilometres southeast of the town. Oral tradition mentions that the Inca ordered the mutilation of mens and womens hands in Jauja, after the Battle of Cajamarca, Francisco Pizarro sent his brother Hernando Pizarro to Pachacamac. Upon his return to Cajamarca, Hernando captured Chalcuchimac in the Jauja Valley, advancing towards Cuzco, Pizarros force stopped in Jauja, where Francisco had Chalcuchimac burned alive, after the death of Túpac Huallpa. Xauxa was a considerable town. seated in the midst of a verdant valey, fertilized by a thousand little rills, there were several capacious buildings of rough stone. and a temple of some note. After the Spanish had sealed the conquest of Peru by taking Cusco in 1533 and it was named Santa Fe de Hatun Xauxa in keeping with the Quechua name. In the same year, Pizarro and his men discovered that Jauja was home to huge accumulations of Inca food, clothing, the Spaniards recognized that they could live comfortably for months. This was the origin of the legend of the Land of Cockaigne, when the decision was made in 1535 to move the capital to Lima to take advantage of proximity to the port, Lima began to overshadow Jaujas importance. During colonial times, Jauja became dependent upon Tarma, later Huancayo, increased in importance and surpassed Jauja as a commercial centre. Between 1742 and 1756, Juan Santos Atahuala led an uprising in the mountains of Jauja, the first mayor of Jauja was Don Arias Villalobos. Jaujas dry climate was recognized, however, as being beneficial for patients with respiratory tract tuberculosis, in this regard, the Jauja hospital cared for many Spaniards. The wealth that they brought to Jauja helped it regain in popularity, with the establishment of the sanatorium Sunday Olavegoya Jauja patients came from many parts of the world, making Jauja a cosmopolitan city. This was described in the novel Páis de Jauja, by Edgardo Rivera Martínez, tombstones with names from all over the world can be seen in the Jauja cemetery, but after the development of antibiotics, the city began to lose its importance as a health mecca. The small city, however, has retained much of its colonial-era charm, over the years the people of Jauja have come to refer to their town and region as el páis de Jauja, this name was also used in Riveras book on the area and its culture
Jauja
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Vista de la esquina del Jr. Grau y Junin hacia la iglesia de la plaza mayor de Jauja.
Jauja
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Seal
Jauja
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El Español de Tunantada, también llamado príncipe, es un personaje que integra la Tunantada, originaria de Jauja. Baile declarado patrimonio de la Nación del Perú.
Jauja
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El Chuto, es un personaje que integra el baile de la Tunantada, Patrimonio de la Nación, Originaria de Jauja-Perú.
19.
Conquistador
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Conquistadors /kɒŋˈkɪstəˌdɔːrz/ is a term used to refer to the soldiers and explorers of the Spanish Empire or the Portuguese Empire in a general sense. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, Oceania, Africa and Asia, conquering territory and they colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Portugal established a route to China in the early 16th century, sending ships via the southern coast of Africa, human infections gained worldwide transmission vectors for the first time, from Africa and Eurasia to the Americas and vice versa. The spread of diseases, including smallpox, flu and typhus. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports, by the late 16th century silver imports from America provided one-fifth of Spains total budget. The conquistadors were professional warriors, using European tactics, firearms and their units would often specialize in forms of combat that required long periods of training that were too costly for informal groups. Their armies were composed of Iberian and other European soldiers. Native allied troops were largely equipped with armament and armour that varied geographically. Some groups consisted of men without military experience, Catholic clergy which helped with administrative duties. These native forces often included African slaves and Native Americans and they not only fought in the battlefield but served as interpreters, informants, servants, teachers, physicians, and scribes. India Catalina and Malintzin were Native American women slaves who worked for the Spaniards, Castilian law prohibited foreigners and non-Catholics from settling in the New World. However, not all conquistadors were Castilian, many foreigners Hispanicised their names and/or converted to Catholicism to serve the Castilian Crown. For example, Ioánnis Fokás was a Castilian of Greek origin who discovered the strait that bears his name between Vancouver Island and Washington State in 1592, german-born Nikolaus Federmann, Hispanicised as Nicolás de Federmán, was a conquistador in Venezuela and Colombia. The origin of people in mixed expeditions was not always distinguished. Castilian law banned Spanish women from travelling to America unless they were married and accompanied by a husband, women who travelled thus include María de Escobar, María Estrada, Marina Vélez de Ortega, Marina de la Caballería, Francisca de Valenzuela, Catalina de Salazar. Some conquistadors married Native American women or had illegitimate children, European young men enlisted in the army because it was one way out of poverty. Catholic priests instructed the soldiers in mathematics, writing, theology, Latin, Greek, and history, Kings army officers taught military arts. An uneducated young recruit could become a leader, elected by their fellow professional soldiers
Conquistador
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Conquistadors and their native
Tlaxcalan allies enter Tenochtitlan
Conquistador
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The surrender of
Granada in 1492. The last
Moorish sultan of Granada,
Muhammad XII, before
Ferdinand and Isabella.
Conquistador
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Christopher Columbus 's first landing in the Americas in 1492
Conquistador
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Hernando De Soto and Spanish Conquistadores seeing the Mississippi River for the first time.
20.
Francisco Pizarro
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Francisco Pizarro González was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that conquered the Inca Empire. He captured and killed Incan emperor Atahualpa and claimed the lands for Spain, Francisco Pizarro was born in Trujillo, Spain in modern-day Extremadura, Spain. He was the son of infantry colonel Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisca González. His date of birth is uncertain, but it is believed to be sometime in the 1470s, little attention was paid to his education and he grew up illiterate. His father was a colonel of infantry who served in Navarre and his mother married late in life and had a son Francisco Martín de Alcántara, who was at the conquest of Peru with his half-brother from its inception. Through his father, Francisco was a cousin, once removed. On 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Gulf of Urabá in Tierra Firme, Pizarro became a participant in Ojedas failed colony, commanding the remnants until he abandoned it with the survivors. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso in 1513, in 1513, Pizarro accompanied Vasco Núñez de Balboa in his crossing of the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific coast. The following year, Pedrarias Dávila became the appointed governor of Castilla de Oro. During the next five years, Pizarro became an associate of Dávila. When Dávila decided to get rid of Balboa out of distrust, he instructed Pizarro to personally arrest him, Balboa was beheaded in January 1519. For his loyalty to Dávila, Pizarro was rewarded with the positions of mayor, on 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Urabá. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso and, in 1513, reports of Perus riches and Cortéss success in Mexico tantalized Pizarro. He undertook two expeditions to conquer the Incan Empire in 1524 and in 1526, both failed as a result of native hostilities, bad weather and lack of provisions. Pedro de los Ríos, the Governor of Panama, made an effort to recall Pizarro, in April 1528, he reached northern Peru and found the natives rich with precious metals. This discovery gave Pizarro the motivation to plan an expedition to conquer the area. He returned to Panama to make arrangements, but the Governor refused to grant permission for the project, Pizarro returned to Spain to appeal directly to King Charles I. His plea was successful and he received not only a license for the proposed expedition and he was joined by family and friends and the expedition left Panama in 1530
Francisco Pizarro
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Spanish colonization of the Americas
Francisco Pizarro
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Marquess Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro
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Francisco Pizarro's route of exploration during the conquest of Peru (1531–1533)
Francisco Pizarro
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Pizarro and his followers in
Lima in 1535
21.
Lima
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Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the coastal part of the country. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms an urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population of almost 10 million, Lima is the most populous area of Peru. Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18,1535 and it became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru, around one-third of the national population lives in the metropolitan area. Lima is home to one of the oldest higher-learning institutions in the New World, the National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12,1551 during the Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. In October 2013 Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games and it also hosted the December 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the Miss Universe 1982 pageant. In October 2015 Lima hosted the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group, according to early Spanish articles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century and this oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted, the chronicles show Límac replacing Ychma as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word Lima originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq, linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. Non-Peruvian Spanish speakers may mistakenly define the city name as the direct Spanish translation of lime, the city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the name of choice, on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac and many people assume that this is because its original Inca name is Talking River. However, the inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua, later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river, however, historically, the Flag of Lima has been known as the «Banner of Perus Kings City»
Lima
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Collage of Lima
Lima
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Flag
Lima
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Pachacamac was an important religious centre before the arrival of Spanish conquistadors
Lima
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Balconies were a major feature of Lima's architecture during the colonial period.
22.
Viceroy
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A viceroy /ˈvaɪs. rɔɪ/ is a regal official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning in the place of, a viceroys territory may be called a viceroyalty, though this term is not always applied. The adjectival form is viceregal, less often viceroyal, the term vicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy suo jure, although viceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term. Vicereine is more used to indicate a viceroys wife. The title was used by the Crown of Aragon, where beginning in the 14th century, it referred to the Spanish governors of Sardinia. In Europe, until the 18th century, the Habsburg crown appointed viceroys of Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia, Navarre, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, with the ascension of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish throne, the historic Aragonese viceroyalties were replaced by new captaincies general. At the end of War of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish monarchy was shorn of its Italian possessions and these Italian territories, however, continued to have viceroys under their new rulers for some time, Sardinia would have a viceroy until 1848. These large administrative territories became known as Viceroyalties, New viceroyalties were created for New Granada in 1717 and the Río de la Plata in 1776. These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by either a crown official, audiencias primarily functioned as superior judicial tribunals, but unlike their European counterparts, the New World audiencias were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers. The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of the intendant, which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues. The government started six years after the discovery of sea route to India by Vasco da Gama, in 1505, however the post was centered by governor Afonso de Albuquerque, who became plenipotentiary, and remained so. The duration in office was three years, possibly longer, given the power represented, of the thirty-four governors of India in the 16th century. After the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, the governors of Brazil that were members of the Portuguese high nobility started to use the title of Viceroy. Brazil became a permanent Viceroyalty in 1763, when the capital of the State of Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro, the designation Viceroy, although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. The Governor-General continued to be the representative of the Crown. The viceroys reported directly to the Secretary of State for India in London and were advised by the Council of India, alongside the Commander-in-Chief, India, the viceroy was the public face of the British presence in India, attending to many ceremonial functions as well as political affairs. During the offices history, the Governors-General of India were based in two cities, Calcutta during the 19th century and New Delhi during the 20th century, additionally, whilst Calcutta was the capital of British India, the viceroys spent the summer months at Simla. The two historic residences of the viceroys still stand, the Viceroys House in New Delhi and Government House in Calcutta and they are used today as the official residences of the President of India and the Governor of West Bengal, respectively
Viceroy
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Francisco de Almeida, first viceroy of
Portuguese India
Viceroy
–
Royal, noble and
chivalric ranks
Viceroy
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Louis Mountbatten, last viceroy of India
23.
Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa
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Francisco Álvarez de Toledo was an aristocrat and soldier of the Kingdom of Spain and the fifth Viceroy of Peru. He is often considered the best of Perus viceroys, albeit controversial for the impact of some of his actions on the Native American population. He held the position of viceroy from November 30,1569, until 1 May 1581 and he died in Escalona, Spain aged 67. Francisco de Toledo was born on 15 July 1515 in Oropesa, Castile belonging to the noble family Álvarez de Toledo, while his mother died and her aunts Mary and Elizabeth were responsible for their upbringing. At the age of eight he moved to the court of King Charles I of Spain, to serve as a page to the queen Leonor and he learned Latin, history, rhetoric and theology, fencing, music, dancing and courtly manners. Francisco de Toledo was fifteen years old when in 1530 King Charles I accepted him at home, the first military action in which intervened was the Conquest of Tunis, a great triumph of the imperial troops over the Ottoman Turks who snatched the plaza in North Africa. Following the signing of peace, Álvarez de Toledo returned to Spain and later went to Ghent, once participated in the expedition to Algiers, important Turkish square in North Africa, campaign which ended in failure due to bad weather. In the following years he continued to serve the imperial arms and it was a very turbulent time, as well as the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks occurred progress of Protestantism in Germany, region under imperial orbit. In all this time Álvarez de Toledo was near the emperor Charles V and he met the Spanish negotiations with England to start a new war against France. He dealt with the issues of Hispanic America interested about the status that should have the Indians. He left Barcelona in 1543 with the emperor, for Italy and he participated in the battles of Gelderland and Düren. The stay lasted until February 3,1557 when the works in Yuste were finished and they both served him until his death in 1558. The following years were spent by Álvarez de Toledo in activities related to the Order of Alcántara, between 1558 and 1565 he remained in Rome, where he participated in the discussion and definition of the Statutes of the Order, as attorney general. Toledo became the viceroy of Peru in 1569. He was appointed viceroy by Philip II after serving as a steward in the royal court, during his rule, Toledo took charge of the government and implemented many reforms. He centralized colonial governmental functions and laid the foundation for the administration of the viceroyalty. He established royal authority and Spanish dominance in the colony and he broke the power of the encomenderos, reducing them to obedient servants of the crown. He has been called one of the administrators of human times
Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa
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Francisco Álvarez de Toledo
Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa
–
The king
Charles I of Spain and emperor
Charles V of the
Holy Roman Empire
24.
Spanish Constitution of 1812
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The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was established on 19 March 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes, Spains first national sovereign assembly, the Cortes Generales, in refuge in Cádiz during the Peninsular War. It established the principles of universal suffrage, national sovereignty, constitutional monarchy and freedom of the press. This constitution, one of the most liberal of its time, was effectively Spains first, on 24 March 1814, six weeks after returning to Spain, Ferdinand VII abolished the constitution and had all monuments to it torn down. The Constitution Obelisk in Saint Augustine, Florida survived, the constitution was reinstated during the Trienio Liberal, and again briefly 1836—1837 while the Progressives prepared the Constitution of 1837. The Spaniards nicknamed the Constitution La Pepa, possibly because it was adopted on Saint Josephs Day, from a Spanish point of view, the Peninsular War was a war of independence against the French Empire and the king installed by Napoleon, his brother Joseph Bonaparte. While many in elite circles in Madrid were willing to accept Josephs rule, the war began on the night of 2 May 1808, and was immortalized by Francisco Goyas painting The Second of May 1808, also known as The Charge of the Mamelukes. The Junta first met on 25 September 1808 in Aranjuez and later in Seville, in any event, Floridablancas strength failed him and he died on 30 December 1808. When the Cortes convened in Cádiz in 1810, there appeared to be two possibilities for Spains political future if the French could be driven out. The first, represented especially by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, was the restoration of the absolutist Antiguo Régimen, the origins of the Cortes did not harbor any revolutionary intentions, since the Junta saw itself simply as a continuation of the legitimate government of Spain. The opening session of the new Cortes was held on 24 September 1810 in the now known as the Real Teatro de las Cortes. Few of the most conservative voices were at Cádiz, and there was no communication with King Ferdinand. Three basic principles were soon ratified by the Cortes, that sovereignty resides in the nation, the legitimacy of Ferdinand VII as king of Spain, and the inviolability of the deputies. Although the Cortes was not unanimous in its liberalism, the new Constitution reduced the power of the crown, the Catholic Church, the Cortes of Cádiz worked feverishly and the first written Spanish constitution was promulgated in Cádiz on 19 March 1812. The Constitution of 1812 is regarded as the document of liberalism in Spain. Suffrage, which was not determined by property qualifications, favored the position of the class in the new parliament. Repeal of traditional property restrictions gave liberals the freer economy they wanted, the first provincial government created under the Constitution was in the province of Guadalajara con Molina. Its deputation first met in the village of Anguita in April 1813, among the most debated questions during the drafting of the constitution was the status of the native and mixed-race populations in Spains possessions around the world. Most of the provinces were represented, especially the most populous regions
Spanish Constitution of 1812
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Plaza de España in Cadiz, commemorating the Spanish Constitution of 1812.
Spanish Constitution of 1812
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Cortes of Cadiz Oath in 1810. Oil painting by
José Casado del Alisal, 1863.
Spanish Constitution of 1812
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Allegory of the Constitution of 1812,
Francisco de Goya,
Swedish National Museum.
Spanish Constitution of 1812
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The promulgation of the Constitution of 1812, oil painting by
Salvador Viniegra (Museo de las Cortes de Cádiz).
25.
Cathedral
–
A cathedral is a Christian church which contains the seat of a bishop, thus serving as the central church of a diocese, conference, or episcopate. The counterpart term for such a church in German is Dom from Latin domus ecclesiae or domus episcopalis, also Italian Duomo, Dutch Domkerk, when the church at which an archbishop or metropolitan presides is specifically intended, the term kathedrikos naos is used. In addition, both the Catholic Church and Orthodox churches have formed new dioceses within formerly Protestant lands for converts, consequently, it is not uncommon to find Christians in a single city being served by three or more cathedrals of differing denominations. In the Catholic tradition, the term cathedral correctly applies only to a church houses the seat of the bishop of a diocese. The abbey church of a territorial abbacy serves the same function, the Catholic Church also uses the following terms. A pro-cathedral is a parish or other church used temporarily as a cathedral, usually while the cathedral of a diocese is under construction, renovation and this designation applies only as long as the temporary use continues. A co-cathedral is a cathedral in a diocese that has two sees. A proto-cathedral is the cathedral of a transferred see. The cathedral church of a bishop is called the metropolitan cathedral. The term cathedral actually carries no implication as to the size or ornateness of the building, nevertheless, most cathedrals are particularly impressive edifices. The building is now under renovation and restoration for solemn dedication under the title Christ Cathedral in 2018, in the ancient world the chair, on a raised dais, was the distinctive mark of a teacher or rhetor and thus symbolises the bishops role as teacher. A raised throne within a hall was also definitive for a Late Antique presiding magistrate. The history of cathedrals starts in the year 313, when the emperor Constantine the Great personally adopted Christianity, in the third century, the phrase ascending the platform, ad pulpitum venire, becomes the standard term for Christian ordination. During the siege of Dura Europos in 256, a complete Christian house church, or domus ecclesiae was entombed in a bank, surviving when excavated. Otherwise the large room had no decoration or distinctive features at all, in 269, soon after Dura fell to the Persian army, a body of clerics assembled a charge sheet against the bishop of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, in the form of an open letter. Characteristically a Roman magistrate presided from a throne in a large, richly decorated and aisled rectangular hall called a basilica. The earliest of these new basilican cathedrals of which remains are still visible is below the Cathedral of Aquileia on the northern tip of the Adriatic sea. The three halls create a courtyard, in which was originally located a separate baptistery
Cathedral
–
São Paulo Cathedral, a representative modern cathedral built in Neo-Gothic style.
Cathedral
–
Interior of
St. Mary's Episcopal Cathedral,
Memphis, Tennessee with a procession.
Cathedral
–
The cathedral of the
Pope as Bishop of Rome, Cathedral of St. John Lateran
Cathedral
–
Cathedral Basilica of Saint Louis
26.
Amerindian
–
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
Amerindian
–
Quechua women in
Peru
Amerindian
–
Pai Tavytera Indians in
Amambay Department,
Paraguay, 2012
Amerindian
–
Paleo-Indians hunting a
glyptodont
Amerindian
–
Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century
Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585), showing
Nahuas of conquest-era central Mexico suffering from smallpox
27.
Mestizos
–
The term was used as an ethnic/racial category in the casta system that was in use during the Spanish Empires control of their New World colonies. Mestizos are usually considered to be mixed Spaniards by the crown of Spain, the term mestizaje - taking as its root mestizo or mixed - is the Spanish word for miscegenation, the general process of mixing ancestries. To avoid confusion with the usage of the term mestizo. In colonial Venezuela, pardo was more commonly used instead of mestizo, pardo means being mixed without specifying which mixture, it was used to describe anyone born in the Americas whose ancestry was a mixture of European, Amerindian, and Black African. In colonial Brazil most of the population was mestiço in the original Iberian definition of the word. In the Philippines, which was a colony of Spain, the term came to refer to a Filipino with any foreign ancestry especially whites. In Canada, the Métis people is a community composed of those who possess combined European, in Saint Barthélemy, the term mestizo refers to people of mixed European and East Asian ancestry. The Spanish word mestizo is from Latin mixticius, meaning mixed and its usage has been documented as early as 1275, to refer to the offspring of an Egyptian and a Jew. This term was first documented in English in 1582 and it is related to the particular racial identity of historical non-white Amerindian-descended Hispanic and Latino American communities in an American context. In English-speaking Canada, Canadian Métis, as a loanword from French, refers to persons of mixed French, in the United States, Métis Americans and Mestizo Americans are two distinct racial and ethno-racial identities, as reflected in the use of French and Spanish loanwords, respectively. The latter was listed as a mestizo de sangley in birth records of the 19th century, with sangley as a reference to the Hokkiense word for business. Mestizo, mestiço, métis, mestís, Mischling, meticcio, mestiezen, mestee, in the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish developed an extremely vast complex system of racial hierarchy, which was used for social control and which also determined a persons standing in society. There were three categories of race during the initial period of colonization of the Americas by the Spanish, White Spaniard, Amerindian. During the Spanish colonial era, a myriad of terms were created to differentiate these racial mixtures, by the end of the colonial period in 1821, over one hundred sub-categories of possible variations of mixture existed, but official church and civil records were maintained with few categories. Church baptismal and marriage registers and civil records used the terms español, castizo, mestizo, mulato, and indio. As time went on, a system of hierarchy, the sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas developed where society was divided based on race, wealth. Mestizo – a person of mixed White European and Amerindian ancestry, in theory, and as depicted in eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings, español status could also be attained by people of mixed origin who consistently had intermarried with Europeans. Such cases might include the offspring of a parent and one Peninsular or criollo parent
Mestizos
–
A painting of a Spanish man and a Peruvian indigenous woman with Mestizo child, 1770.
Mestizos
–
Las castas. 18th century, Museo Nacional del Virreinato,
Tepotzotlán, Mexico.
Mestizos
–
A representation of a Mestizo, in a Pintura de Castas from
New Spain during the late colonial period. The painting's caption states "Spanish and Indian produce Mestizo", 1780.
Mestizos
–
A statue of
Gonzalo Guerrero, who adopted the Maya way of life and fathered the first mestizo children of
Mexico, but not of the
Americas, since the first mestizos were born in the Caribbean, by Spanish men and indigenous Caribbean women.
28.
Spanish Peruvian
–
A Spanish Peruvian is a Peruvian citizen of Spanish descent. Among European Peruvians, the Spanish are the largest group of immigrants to settle in the country, in 1532, the Spanish conquistadores arrived in Peru. As they began to conquer the country, their culture and influence throughout the nation. Not only did their ideology spread, their population did as well, over the period of the Peruvian colonial era, hundreds of thousands of Spanish immigrants flooded into Peruvian ports. These Spanish-born immigrants, called Peninsulares, caused friction between themselves and the locally born Spanish criollos or creoles. The peninsulares had a higher social rank than the criollos even though their only difference was their place of birth. This would eventually lead to the movement in the early 19th century. During the colonial period, the Spanish crown disallowed the immigration of other Europeans to Peru, for this reason, throughout the entire colonial period, up until independence, the European population in Peru was made up solely of Spaniards. Around the time of independence the rate of immigration was low, the nation was, in essence, in a state of chaos, for the reason that the government was still in the process of deciding how it would rule the newly independent country. At this time, many caudillos, or dictators, attempted to control of the nation. Some of these attempts, such as that of Simón Bolívar, were met with approval from the public, Spanish immigration did not resume until the 1840s at the beginning of the Guano era, one of Perus most prosperous time periods. During this era, immigration from Spain greatly increased and the economy was booming and this era ended in 1866 with the Spanish-Peruvian War in which Peru emerged victorious. After the war, immigration decreased although the influx of immigrants remained steady until the 1930s, during the Spanish Civil War, thousands of Spaniards fled from Spain to Peru. Over the course of General Francisco Francos dictatorship many thousands fled in fear of the regime. The Spanish republicans fled Francos regime as well, seeking to escape retribution from the new government, world War II brought the end of Spanish immigration to Peru. The second wave of Spanish and other white Peruvians left during the Alan Garcia regime that led Peru to extreme poverty, nevertheless, immigration from Spain began again in considerable numbers throughout the 20th century due to many Spanish tourists settling in Peru. The regions from which most Spanish immigrants originated were Extremadura, Castile, Galicia, Catalonia, most of the colonial immigrants, in consequence, went from the southern regions of Spain to what now is considered the coastal Peruvian region. These immigrants generally departed from the ports of Cadiz and Sevilla and arrived in the ports of Callao, Mollendo, many of these immigrants made a stopover in a Caribbean port before arriving in Peru
Spanish Peruvian
–
Saint Rose of Lima
29.
Asian Peruvian
–
Asian Peruvians, primarily Chinese and Japanese, constitute some 15-20% of Perus population, which in proportion to the overall population is one of the largest of any Latin American nation. Peru has the second largest population of Japanese people in Latin America after Brazil, Asian slaves, shipped from the Spanish Philippines to Acapulco, were all referred to as Chino meaning Chinese. In reality they were of diverse origins, including Japanese, Malays, Filipinos, Javanese, Timorese, and people from modern day Bangladesh, India, Ceylon, Makassar, Tidore, Terenate, Filipinos made up most of their population. People from this community of Asians in Mexico were called los indios chinos by the Spanish. Spain received some of these Chino slaves from Mexico, where owning a Chino slave was a sign of high status. Some of these Asian slaves were brought to Lima, where it was recorded that in 1613 there was a small community of Asians made out of Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, Malays, Cambodians. Filipinos form the oldest Asian ethnic group in Peru and the rest of Latin-America, the bulk of Filipinos served as mariners in the transpacific Manila Galleon trade, which had Lima, Peru as a secondary port to Acapulco, Mexico. Their total number is due to high levels of assimilation. Both Filipinos and native Peruvians practice Catholicism and have a Hispanic culture, historic communities inhabited by people of Chinese descent are found throughout the Peruvian upper Amazon, including cities such as Yurimaguas, Nauta, Iquitos and the north central coast. Japanese immigrants arrived from Okinawa, but also from Gifu, Hiroshima, Kanagawa, many arrived as farmers or to work in the fields, but after their respective contracts were completed, settled in the cities. In the period before World War II, the Japanese community in Peru was largely run by Issei immigrants born in Japan and those of the second generation, were almost inevitably excluded from community decision-making. Koreans in Peru formed Latin Americas seventh-largest Korean diaspora community as of 2005, according to the statistics of South Koreas Ministry of Foreign Affairs and they are relatively small in size compared to both the Chinese and Japanese communities in Peru. Indians in Peru form a minority in the country. The first immigrants from India to have arrived in Peru were businessmen who had there in the early 1960s. Later on, the community grew in number marginally until the early 1980s, after many of its members left due to the severe local economic crises
Asian Peruvian
–
Chinatown in Lima
30.
White Latin American
–
White Latin Americans or European Latin Americans are Latin Americans who are considered white, typically due to European, or in some cases Levantine, descent. Latin American countries have often encouraged miscegenation, and even an amount of European ancestry could entail significant upwards social mobility. People descended from European settlers who arrived in the Americas during the colonial, composing from 33% to 36% of the population as of 2010, according to some sources, White Latin Americans constitute the largest racial-ethnic group in the region. White is the self-identification of many Latin Americans in some national censuses and these differences arise from the various historical processes and social contexts in which a given racial classification is used. As Latin America is characterized by differing histories and social contexts, according to Peter Wade specialist in race concepts of Latin America. In Argentina, for example, the notion of mixture has been downplayed, in Latin America, a persons ancestry may not be decisive in racial classification. For example, full-blooded siblings can often be classified as belonging to different races, People of European origin began to arrive in the Americas in the 15th century. Most Latin American countries then implemented blanqueamiento policies to promote European immigration, and some were successful, especially Argentina, Uruguay. From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the number of European immigrants who arrived far surpassed the number of original colonists. Between 1821 and 1932, of a total 15 million immigrants who arrived in Latin America, Argentina received 6.4 million, the following table shows estimates of white, black/mulatto, Amerindian, and mestizo populations of Latin America, from the 17th to the 20th centuries. The figures shown are, for the years between 1650 and 1980, from the Arias The Cry of My People, for 2000, from Lizcanos Composición Étnica. The casta race classification system of colonial Latin America designated people of mixed European-Native American ancestry variously, as criollo, castizo, as in Spain, persons of even remote Jewish or Moorish ancestry were not allowed to enroll in the Spanish Army or the Catholic Church in the colonies. The largest white population in Latin America is in Brazil, with 91 million whites out of 190.7 million total Brazilians, or 47. 7% of the total population, brazils southern region contains the highest concentration, at 79% of the population. Mexico, Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, and Chile also contain large numbers of whites, in terms of percentage of the total population, Uruguay, Argentina, and Costa Rica have the highest concentrations of whites, who constitute 80–90% of their total populations. The smallest concentration is in Honduras, with only 1%, self-reported races by percent in Latin America according to the 2016 Latinobarómetro survey. It is estimated that people in Mexico make up about 15% of the population. The majority are of Spanish descent, however, many non-Iberian immigrants arrived during the Second Mexican Empire in the 1860s. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, immigrants from Italy, Germany, Ireland, the United Kingdom, Lebanon, in this census, 10% of the population answered as being of entirely European heritage, while 59% of the population answered mixed heritage
White Latin American
–
Manuel Estrada Cabrera was a Guatemalan president in the early twentieth century, with a notable Spanish ancestry.
White Latin American
–
Latin America.
White Latin American
–
Enrique Bolaños, 82nd President of Nicaragua. He is of Spanish and German heritage.
White Latin American
–
Victor Bisonó is a Dominican politician.
31.
INEI
–
The Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática is a semi-autonomous Peruvian government agency which coordinates, compiles, and evaluates statistical information for the country. Its current director is Renán Quispe Llanos, as stated on its website, the INEI eases decision-making with help of quality statistical information and the use of information technology and thus helps develop the society. The latest census performed by the INEI is the 2005 Census and its preliminary results were released to the public on November 30,2005 and final results on February 20,2006. An earlier census is the 1993 Census, in its reports INEI uses standard coding systems for geographical location and classification of economical activities, UBIGEO ClaNAE Census in Peru INEI website
INEI
INEI
–
The INEI the 2007 Census.
32.
Francisco Carle Airport
–
Francisco Carle Airport is a high-elevation regional airport serving Jauja, in the Junin Region of Peru, and surrounding cities such as Huancayo and Tarma. It is currently served by two scheduled airlines, the airport terminal and runways have undergone expansion to accommodate larger aircraft. Travelers to domestic and international destinations connect in Limas Jorge Chávez International Airport, on 28 March 2017 Peruvian Airlines Flight 112, operated by Boeing 737-300 landing at Francisco Carle Airport swerved off the runway while landing and caught fire. All 141 onboard survived the accident, transport in Peru List of airports in Peru Airport information for SPJJ at World Aero Data. Data current as of October 2006, ourAirports - Jauja SkyVector - Francisco Carle OpenStreetMap - Jauja
Francisco Carle Airport
–
Jauja Airport Francisco Carle Airport
33.
Ferrocarril Central Andino
–
Ferrocarril Central Andino is the consortium which operates the Ferrovías Central railway in Peru linking the Pacific port of Callao and the capital Lima with Huancayo and Cerro de Pasco. As one of the Trans-Andean Railways it is the second highest in the world constructed by the Polish engineer Ernest Malinowski in 1871–1876, investors in Ferrocarril Central Andino include RDC, Juan Olaechea & Company, Minas Buenaventura, ADR Inversiones, and Inversiones Andino. The line starts at the city of Callao and goes through Lima. It crosses into Junín state via the Galera Tunnel, the second highest railroad tunnel in the world. It reaches La Oroya, where it splits in two, the southern branch goes to Huancayo, while the northern branch goes into Pasco region, formerly a branch split off at Cerro de Pasco and ran into Pachitea Province in Huánuco region. In June 2006, the Peruvian government agreed that FCCA should go ahead with converting the 914 mm gauge Ferrocarril Huancayo - Huancavelica to 1,435 mm gauge. Estimated to take 16 months, the US$33m project was to be funded jointly by the government and this project was finished by October 2010. RDC has suggested the building of a 21 km, US$400m tunnel in the Andes, in 1851, engineer Ernest Malinowski proposed to extend the newly opened Lima to Callao railroad as far as the valley of Jauja. Malinowski, a Polish expatriate, was exiled in Peru by political problems in his country, occupied at that time by Germany. The government commissioned Felipe Barreda, Mariano Felipe Paz Soldán, and this commission devised a detailed plan for the railroad which, after approval by the Peruvian Congress, was integrated with the Malinowski proposal. The Peruvian Congress named a new commission to make recommendations on alternate construction plans and this last option was the choice of engineer Gerrit Backus, reputed to be one of the most able professionals in the design and construction of railway routes. This third phase lasted until March 1866 when work stopped due to the war with Spain, in 1868, Don Diego Masías brought in Henry Meiggs, a North American who had been a contractor in both New Jersey and in Chile, who had been working in Chile. The audacious Meiggs, after negotiation, appeared before the government on 21 September of that year proposing to design. Meiggs reportedly told the government, I will place rails there, the studies were approved and, with a construction budget that had climbed to 27 million pounds, Meiggs proposal was accepted. The contract was finalized and signed on December 23,1869, construction began in January 1870 with an elaborate ceremony in which the first stone in the Monserrate station in Lima was placed. The work began under the direction of Malinowski, head of the Technical Body, the Callao, Lima & Oroya Railway opened to Chicla by 1878 and reached La Oroya by 1893 and Huancayo in 1908. In 1923 a branch was opened from Ticlio to Morococha via La Cima, from where in April 1955 a spur line opened to Volcán Mine, both branch and spur have since closed to traffic. No.206 of this type is retained for special workings, the first diesels for road operations were delivered from Alco in 1963
Ferrocarril Central Andino
–
Lima Desamparados station
Ferrocarril Central Andino
–
Crossing a steel bridge between Rio Blanco and San Mateo
Ferrocarril Central Andino
–
Steel bridge near Matucana
Ferrocarril Central Andino
–
GE C30-7 1001 near the summit
34.
Break-of-gauge
–
With railways, a break-of-gauge occurs where a line of one gauge meets a line of a different gauge. Trains and rolling stock cannot run through some form of conversion between gauges, and freight and passengers must otherwise be transhipped. A break-of-gauge adds delays, cost, and inconvenience, narrow gauges tend to be associated with smaller loading gauges and sharper curves, which tend to reduce initial capital costs. This offsets the costs of any affected by the break-of-gauge. Historically narrow gauge railways were built on marginal lines, mostly through hilly and mountainous terrain to cut costs. Associated disadvantages were not recognized as much as rail lines were operated independent of potentially connecting lines regardless of gauge as competing companies built. Only the building of union stations or the nationalization of railroads changed this, an advantage is that invading armies may be severely hampered. Another advantage might be if the different gauges have different loading gauges. Similarly, if the larger and smaller gauges use different couplers or brakes, for passenger trains the inconvenience is less, especially at major stations where many passengers change trains or end their journeys anyway. Therefore, some railways have been built with gauges otherwise not used in the concerned countries. For example, the railways in Japan and Spain use 1,435 mm while their respective mainline railroad systems use 1,067 mm and 1,668 mm. For night trains, which are common in places like Russia. For these, often the bogies are replaced, even if it takes more time than having passengers change trains. If local government has influence over the construction of railways, some may see it as desirable for trains to stop in rather than pass through their town. Transhipping freight from cars of one gauge to cars of another is very labour- and time-intensive, if the capacity of the freight cars on both systems does not match, additional inefficiencies can arise. If the frequency is low, trains might need to wait a time for its counterpart to arrive before transshipping. This is avoided by storing the goods, but that is also an inconvenience, technical solutions to avoid transhipping include variable gauge axles, replacing the bogies of cars, and using transporter cars that can carry a car of a different gauge. Talgo and CAF have developed dual-gauge axles which permit through running between broad gauge and standard gauge, in Japan the Gauge Change Train, built on Talgo patents, runs on standard and narrow 1,067 mm gauge
Break-of-gauge
–
Bogie changing in Ussuriisk (near
Vladivostok) at the Chinese–Russian border
Break-of-gauge
–
Track gauge
Break-of-gauge
–
One solution to the break-of-gauge problem – the
transporter car
Break-of-gauge
–
The break-of-gauge platform for the
Sydney–Melbourne railway at
Albury station;
SG on left;
BG on right.
35.
Huancavelica
–
Huancavelica or Wankawilka in Quechua is a city in Peru. It is the capital of the Huancavelica region and according to the 2007 census had a population of 40,004 people, the city was established on August 5,1572 by the Viceroy of Peru Francisco de Toledo. Indigenous peoples represent a percentage of the population. It has an altitude of 3,660 meters, the climate is cold. It is considered one of the poorest cities in Peru, the Huancavelica area features a rough geography with highly varied elevation, from 1,950 metres in the valleys to more than 5,000 metres on its snow-covered summits. They consist of the chain of the Andes, which includes the Chunta mountain range, formed by a series of hills. Among the rivers of the region there are the Mantaro, the Pampas, the Huarpa, the Mantaro River penetrates Huancavelica, forming Tayacajas Peninsula. Another river that shapes the relief is the Pampas River which is born in the lakes of the mountains of Huancavelica. In the pre-Incan era, Huancavelica was known as the Wankawillka region or the place where the grandsons of the Wankas live, the city itself was established on August 5,1572. The deposits of Huancavelica were disclosed in 1564, or 1566, the Spanish Crown appropriated them in 1570 and operated them until Peruvian independence in 1821. Considered the greatest jewel in the crown, they eliminated the need to ship mercury from Almadén, a miners guild, Gremio de Mineros, administered the mines from 1577 until 1782. Production stopped from 1813 through 1835, in 1915 E. E. Fernandini took over ownership. The area was the most prolific source of mercury in Spanish America, mercury was so essential that mercury consumption was the basis upon which the tax on precious metals, known as the quinto real, was levied. The extraction of the quicksilver in the socavones was extremely difficult, every day before the miners came down, a mass for the dead was celebrated. Due to the need of numerous hand-workers and the rate of mortality. The allotted concession were rectangular, about 67x33m, miners were divided in carreteros and barreteros. In 1648 the Viceroy of Peru, declared that Potosí and Huancavelica were the two pillars that support this kingdom and that of Spain. Moreover, the thought that Spain could, if necessary, dispense with the silver from Potosí
Huancavelica
–
Panorama of the city
Huancavelica
Huancavelica
–
In the Neolithic period the ancient inhabitants of this city began to domesticate some
camelidae s as
alpaca, the
Llama and
vicuña.
Huancavelica
–
Plaza de armas of Huancavelica at night.
36.
Universidad Peruana Los Andes
–
The Los Andes Peruvian University is an educational institution created on December 30,1983. The main campus is situated in Huancayo, Perú and it is one of the most prosperous universities in the central region of the country. It is named after the Andes mountains, which surround the city of Huancayo, on June 23,1987 a Complementary Law Nº24697 Civil Engineering was added to the program of studies. More recently, new faculties have been established with a view to affording opportunities in new professional careers, some of the original faculties have been upgraded, in accordance with technological and social requirements and in keeping with current innovations in tertiary education. Today it is called The Milk Plant of Mantaro - PLEMSA and is part of Los Andes Peruvian University and it produces pasteurized milk, double and triple cream cheese, fresh cheese, yogurt and butter by professionals and students. The University hosted its first marathon, the UPLA International Marathon, participants in this event include athletes from the surrounding regions as well as visiting athletes from other countries. Many of UPLAs alumni have had success in scientific research, public service, education. Recently Inés Melchor has become recognized as a runner and lawyer. List of universities in Peru Universidad Peruana Los Andes - Official site Statistics of the University - UPLA in numbers, Universidad Peruana Los Andes -History and general reference
Universidad Peruana Los Andes
–
The Faculty of Medicine in Chorrillos -
Huancayo.
Universidad Peruana Los Andes
–
Seal of "Los Andes" Peruvian University, Huancayo
Universidad Peruana Los Andes
–
The Library in Chorrillos -
Huancayo.
37.
National University of San Marcos
–
The National University of San Marcos is the most important and respected higher-education institution in Peru. It consistently ranks among the top two universities in the country and its main campus, the University City, is located in Lima. San Marcos has 60 academic-professional schools, organized into 20 faculties, all the faculties offer undergraduate and graduate degrees. The student body consists of over 30,000 undergraduate and 4,000 graduate students from all the country, the university has a number of public institutions under its government such as the San Marcos Cultural Center and the Museum of Natural History of Lima. San Marcos prestige in Latin America mainly arises from its renowned faculty and it is the only university in Peru with a Nobel Prize laureate among its alumni, Mario Vargas Llosa. San Marcos is also recognized for the quality of its contents, its very competitive admission process. San Marcos was officially established by a decree on May 12,1551. Hence, it is known as the Dean of America, the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico was chartered the same year as San Marcos as the Royal University of Mexico, making it the second oldest in the Americas. The Peruvian institution also states that the document in question was discredited by Pope Paul III, the university was originally headed by members of the clergy. During the Enlightenment, Bourbon reforms transformed it into a secular institution, nowadays, the university is governed by, The University Council The University Assembly. The Rector Two Vice-Rectors, Academic Vice-Rector Vice-Rector of investigation, the original faculties at San Marcos were Theology, Arts and Law, Jurisprudence, and Medicine were added later in the colonial period. The Faculty of Natural Sciences and the Faculty of Economics and Commerce were created in the mid-19th century, the Faculty of Science was subdivided by specialities in the 20th century. The Faculty of Theology was closed in 1935, in the mid-1990s San Marcos departments were grouped into four academic blocks. Nowadays, San Marcos faculties are grouped into 6 academic areas, as shown below, laura Esther Rodriguez Dulanto, the first female physician in Peru. Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo, engineer and scientist, josé María Arguedas, novelist and anthropologist. Luis Bedoya Reyes, attorney, congressman, Mayor of Lima and founder of the Christian Peoples Party G. E. Berrios, daniel Alcides Carrión, medical student and pioneer in medical research. Ramiro Castro de la Mata Caamaño, scientist, víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, revolutionary thinker, founder of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance Cayetano Heredia, physician. Francisco Miró Quesada Cantuarias, philosopher and logician, bernardo OHiggins, military officer and first President of Chile
National University of San Marcos
–
Department of Chemistry at San Marcos.
National University of San Marcos
–
National University of San Marcos
National University of San Marcos
–
Class of
Jurisprudence and Law of 1896 posing in front of department's
water fountain.
National University of San Marcos
–
Oil painting commemorating the foundation of the University of Lima (later named San Marcos), officially the first university in Peru and America, and his manager Friar Tomas of San Martin.
38.
Damaris (singer)
–
Damaris Mallma Porras, is a Peruvian folk singer. She is a representative of contemporary Andean music, which consists of a mix of the traditional Indian language Quechua, Damaris was born on 26 January 1986 in Huancayo. She is the daughter of singer Victoria de Ayacucho, better known as Saywa and she started her music career in 1993 at the age of 7 in the music workshop Yawar. Later she studied singing, music, theater and dance in Peru and her debut as a singer was in 1994 at various institutions, such as the Teatro Segura in Lima, the Miraflores amphitheater and the Universidad Mayor de San Marcos. Damaris also took part in Peruvian groups, such as Yawar, Saywa, Tupay, between 1995 and 1997, she joined to the musical group of Saywa, improved her musical knowledge by taking personal tutor classes. She studied Peruvian Dance with the Tupay group and began to travel abroad, in 2001, Damaris won the Pepsi Charts Contest for her composition Porque no estas aqui, she traveled to the United States to record an album and then returned to Peru to finish High School. In 2002, she studies in piano, harmony and composition at the Kodaly Music Institute of Lima. She joined to the Coro Andino Juvenil which incorporated 20 young representatives from five Latin American countries and that same year, Damaris released a demo with two promotional songs, Triste y sola and Imillitay which both had a good response from the public. Because of this success, she started the production of a CD and she also began to appear as a soloist in places like Lima, Huancayo, Ica, Pucallpa and other cities. In 2003, she presented her first production Dame una señal and went on tours in Peru, in 2004, she postulated to the Theatrical School at Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Perú. In 2005, she began to work on her second musical production that explores different rhythms and genres of Peru and this new album shows a new phase in Damariss career, artistic and personal maturity in her compositions. The singles Vida, Tusuykusun and Mil Caminos were promoted in the best radios of Lima, the same song was chosen to be used as a hymn to the ALC-UE economic summit which took place in Peru. Also in 2008, Damaris was nominated to compete in the ninth annual Latin Grammy Awards in the category of Folk Album for her album Mil Caminos, in February 2009, she took part again in the Festival of Viña del Mar competing for the Lira de Oro. In July 2009, Damaris competed in the Peruvian version of the reality show El Show de los sueños, at the beginning of 2010, she began some presentations in Peru with the name Volver a mi tierra together with her mother Saywa. They were accompanied by invited artists, in September 2010, Damaris took over the presentation of the television Folk program Miski Takiy, which is dedicated to spreading the traditional and contemporary Andean music by TVPeru. Damaris and Saywa were featured in a 2010 television documentation by the German channel Phoenix, Dame una señal Mil Caminos Official website Club Fans of Damaris Damaris on Facebook Damaris on Facebook
Damaris (singer)
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Damaris
39.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
Wayback Machine
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Wayback Machine
40.
Trains (magazine)
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Trains is a monthly US magazine dedicated to trains and railroads, and is one of the two flagship publications of Kalmbach Publishing. The magazine is both by railroad enthusiasts, commonly referred to as railfans, and those within the railroad industry. The magazine was founded in 1940 by Al C, Kalmbach, and is based in Waukesha, Wisconsin. It is the largest and oldest North American consumer magazine on rail transportation, primarily, Trains covers the railroad happenings in the United States and Canada, and sometimes Mexico. However, there are articles on subjects on railroading around the world on occasion, the current editor is Jim Wrinn, formerly of the Charlotte Observer. The magazine also includes a column from International Herald Tribune reporter Don Phillips, well-known past editors include David P. Morgan and J. David Ingles, the former having served as editor-in-chief from 1953 to 1987, being succeeded by Ingles upon retirement
Trains (magazine)
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Trains
41.
Arequipa
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Arequipa is the capital and largest city of the Arequipa Region and the seat of the Constitutional Court of Peru. Its industrial activity includes manufactured goods and camelid wool products for export, the city has close trade ties with Chile, Bolivia and Brazil. The city was founded on August 15,1540, by Garcí Manuel de Carbajal as Villa Hermosa de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción, during the Colonial period, Arequipa became highly important for its economic prosperity and for its loyalty to the Spanish Crown. After Peru gained its independence from Spain in 1821, Arequipa acquired greater political significance, the historic center of Arequipa spans an area of 332 hectares and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Its historic heritage, natural scenery and cultural sites make the city a major tourist destination and its religious, colonial, and republican architectural styles blend European and native characteristics into a unique style called Escuela Arequipeña. A local tradition states that Inca Mayta Capac received a petition from his subjects to reach the valley of the River Chili and they asked him for permission to stay in the region as they were impressed by the beauty of the landscape and the mild climate. However, another tale states that when the first Europeans arrived to the valley, they pointed at the ground. The local chief, not understanding the question, assumed they were asking for a permission to sit down and gave a positive answer, which sounded like Arequipa. Another possible origin of the name comes from the Aymara language phrase qhipaya ari or Ari qipa. The early inhabitants of the Arequipa City area were people who relied on activities such as hunting, fishing and gathering for survival. Later, pre-Inca cultures domesticated llamas and became sedentary with the development of agriculture, during this time, major irrigation channels were built within the valley of the Chili river, which allowed the development of agriculture by means of terraces built on both sides of the valley. The Yarabaya and Chimbe tribes settled in the current location. Lands were then distributed among three families who founded the towns of Yanahuara, Cayma, Tiabaya, Socabaya, Characato and others. At the time of its foundation, Arequipa had already a city council, because the foundation of the town occurred in part as a relocation of Villa Hermosa de Camana, the name was partially conserved as Villa Hermosa de Arequipa. Charles V of Germany and I of Spain gave the town a status of city by Royal Decree on 22 September 1541, the relocation efforts were led by Garci Manuel de Carbajal, who was selected as the political authority for the foundation of the new town. Among the first public works carried out in the city are the Main Church, the City Hall, the bridge on the Chili River and the monastery of Nuestra Señora de Gracia. Since its Spanish founding and over three centuries, the population of the city was mostly of Spanish origin, which represented a strong following of Spain. One aspect that distinguished Arequipa from the rest of the country was the explicit and public commitment of the city to the Spanish Crown
Arequipa
Arequipa
Arequipa
Arequipa
42.
Ayacucho
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Ayacucho, is the capital city of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru. Ayacucho is famous for its 33 churches, which represent one for year of Jesus life. Ayacucho has large religious celebrations, especially during the Holy Week of Easter and these celebrations include horse races featuring Peruvian Caballos de Paso and the traditional running of the bulls, known locally as the jalatoro or pascuatoro. The jalatoro is similar to the Spanish encierro, except that the bulls are led by horses of the Morochucos, the name is derived from the Quechua words aya and kuchu, referring to a major battle for independence. Another possible interpretation is soul or spirit corner, in reference to the devotion of its people. Vestiges of human settlements more than 15,000 years old have been found in the site of Pikimachay, from 500 to 900, the region became occupied by the Wari culture, which became known as the first expansionist empire based in the Andes before the Inca Empire. The Ayacucho region was inhabited by varying indigenous cultures for thousands of years, including the Wari, Chanka people, the Spanish colonial founding of Ayacucho was led by conqueror Francisco Pizarro on April 25,1540, who named it San Juan de la Frontera de Huamanga. On May 17,1544, by Royal decree, Ayacucho was titled La Muy Noble y Leal Ciudad de Huamanga, the citys main University was founded on July 3,1677 as San Cristóbal of Huamanga University. On February 15,1825, Simón Bolívar changed the name to Ayacucho. The city is named after the historical Battle of Ayacucho, upon seeing so many casualties on the battlefield, citizens called the area Ayakuchu, aya meaning dead and kuchu meaning corner in Ayacucho Quechua. The Battle of Ayacucho was the last armed clash between Spanish armies and patriots during the Peruvian War of Independence, the battle developed in the nearby pampas of La Quinua on December 9,1824. Independentist forces were led by Antonio José de Sucre, Simón Bolívars lieutenant, viceroy José de la Serna e Hinojosa was wounded, and after the battle second commander-in-chief José de Canterac signed the final capitulation of the Royalist army. The patriot victory sealed the independence of Peru and South America, La Paz, now the seat of government of Bolivia, was similarly renamed La Paz de Ayacucho following this battle. The citys economy is based on agriculture and light manufacturing, including textiles, pottery, leather goods, and filigree ware. It is a tourism destination, known for its 33 churches built in the colonial period, and for the nearby battlefield of La Quinua. In 1980, the insurgent organization known as the Shining Path used Ayachucho as its base for its campaign against the Peruvian government, the campaign faded after the leader Abimael Guzmán Reynoso was captured in 1992 and put in prison. The region headed by Ayacucho is rural and one of the poorest of all the country, with the peace of the last 15 years, the citizens work hard to improve the living conditions and attract jobs. María Parado de Bellido, heroine in War of Independence, efraín Morote Best, anthropologist and university president
Ayacucho
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Ayacucho's cathedral by night
Ayacucho
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Cathedral of Vilcashuaman, built on remains of Inca temple.
Ayacucho
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Arch of the triumph and San Francisco de Asís church.
Ayacucho
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Mariscal Sucre Monument in the Plaza Mayor de Ayacucho.
43.
Cajamarca
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Cajamarca is the capital and largest city of the Cajamarca Region as well as an important cultural and commercial center in the northern Andes. It is located in the highlands of Peru at approximately 2,750 m above sea level in the valley of the Mashcon river. Cajamarca had an population of about 226,031 inhabitants in 2015. Cajamarca has a highland climate, and the area has a very fertile soil. The city is known for its dairy products and mining activity in the surroundings. The history of the city is highlighted by the Battle of Cajamarca, the etymology of Cajamarca may mean town of thorns or cold place depending on the source. All sources agree that the word has quechua origin, the city and its surroundings have been occupied by several cultures for more than 2000 years. Traces of pre-Chavín cultures can be seen in archaeological sites, such as Cumbe Mayo. During the period between 1463 and 1471, Tupac Inca conquered the area and brought Cajamarca into the Tawantinsuyu, at the time, it was ruled by Tupac Incas father Pachacuti. In 1532 Atahualpa defeated his brother Huáscar in a battle for the Inca throne in Quito, on his way to Cusco to claim the throne with his army, he stopped at Cajamarca. Francisco Pizarro and his 168 soldiers met Atahualpa here after weeks of marching from Piura, as the two leaders faced off, the young captain Hernando De Soto, rode on horseback directly up to Atahualpa to intimidate him. Having taken Atahualpa captive, they held him in Cajamarcas main temple, Atahualpa offered his captors a ransom for his freedom, a room filled with gold and silver, within two months. Although having complied with the offering, Atahualpa was brought to trial, Pizarro, De Soto, and others shared in the ransom. In 1986 the Organization of American States designated Cajamarca as a site of Historical and Cultural Heritage of the Americas, the style of ecclesiastical architecture in the city differs from other Peruvian cities due to the geographic and climatic conditions. Cajamarca is further north with a climate, the colonial builders used available stone rather than the clay of used in the coastal desert cities. Cajamarca has six Christian churches of Spanish colonial style, San Jose, La Recoleta, La Immaculada Concepcion, San Antonio, although all were built in the seventeenth century, the latter three are the most outstanding due to their sculpted facades and ornamentation. The facades of three churches were left unfinished, most likely due to lack of funds. The façade of the Cathedral is the most elegantly decorated, to the extent that it was completed, El Belen has a completed façade of the main building, but the tower is half finished
Cajamarca
Cajamarca
Cajamarca
Cajamarca
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Ransom Room of
Atahualpa.
44.
Callao
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El Callao is the chief seaport of Peru. The city is also called Provincia Constitucional, the province of the Callao Region. The Historic Centre of Callao is located 15 km west of Historic Centre of Lima, the countrys capital, Callao borders Lima Province on the north, east and south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. El Callao was founded by Spanish colonists in 1537, just two years after Lima and it soon became the main port for Spanish commerce in the Pacific. The origin of its name is unknown, both Indian and Spanish sources are credited, but it is certain that it was known by name since 1550. Other sources point to the similarity with the Portuguese word calhau, on 20 August 1836, during the Peru-Bolivian Confederacy, President Andrés de Santa Cruz mandated the creation of the Callao Littoral Province, which had political autonomy in its internal affairs. During the government of President Ramón Castilla, Callao was given the name of Constitutional Province, on 22 April 1857, before that, all of the other Peruvian provinces had been given their names by law, while Callao was given it by constitutional mandate. Callao was never part of the Lima Department nor of any other departments, the provinces first mayor was Col. Manuel Cipriano Dulanto. By 1949, Callao was known as one of the biggest centers of coca-based products, on 28 October 1746, a tsunami caused by the 1746 Lima–Callao earthquake destroyed the entire port of Callao. On 22 January 22,1826, besieged by nationalist forces backed by Simón Bolívar, on 2 May 1866, during the Battle of Callao, the Spanish fleet tried to reconquer independent Peru. Kon-Tiki left Callao, Peru, on the afternoon of April 28,1947, on 19 June 1986, dozens of Sendero Luminoso terrorists tried to escape but encountered the governments naval forces on El Frontón, resulting in the so-called Peruvian prison massacres. Callao is built on and around a peninsula, the district of La Punta, a historical fortress, the Castillo de Real Felipe, stands on the promontory overlooking the harbor. A large naval base is sited in Callao and its prison holds Abimael Guzmán, the leader of the Shining Path terrorist organization, and Vladimiro Montesinos, the ex-director of internal security during the Fujimori regime. Jorge Chávez International Airport is located in Callao, on a bluff overlooking the harbor sits Colegio Militar Leoncio Prado, the military high school. The city also has a university, the National University of Callao, the main Naval Hospital, Centro Medico Naval is located on Avenida Venezuela in Bellavista. It contains the U. S. Navy command Naval Medical Research Unit Six, residents of Callao are known as chalacos. Callaos professional football teams are Sport Boys and Atlético Chalaco, Callao has several islands, San Lorenzo, El Frontón, the Cavinzas Islands, and the Palomino Islands, where numerous sea lions and sea birds live in a virtually untouched ecosystem. There are proposed plans to build a naval, terrestrial
Callao
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Mozaico Callao
Callao
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Aero Cóndor and
LAN Airlines planes
45.
Chiclayo
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Chiclayo is the principal city of the Lambayeque region in northern Peru. It is located 13 kilometers inland from the Pacific coast and 770 kilometers from the nations capital, founded by Spanish explorers as Santa María de los Valles de Chiclayo in the 16th century, it was declared a city on 15 April 1835 by president Felipe Santiago Salaverry. He named Chiclayo the Heroic City to recognize the courage of its citizens in the fight for independence, other nicknames for Chiclayo include The Capital of Friendship and the Pearl of the North. Chiclayo is Perus fourth-largest city, after Lima, Arequipa, and Trujillo, the Lambayeque region is the fourth most populous metropolitan area of Peru, with a population of 972,713 in 2009. The city was founded near an important prehistoric site, the Northern Wari ruins. Many different historical accounts tell of the naming of Chiclayo, some attribute it to an indigenous man known as chiclayoc or chiclayep who transported plaster between the ancient cities of Zaña, Lambayeque and Morrope. Another version claims that around the time that the city was founded, the area was home to a fruit called chiclayep or chiclayop. In some towns in the highlands of Cajamarca, squashes are known as chiclayos, another source indicates that the word is a translation from the extinct Moche language and is derived from the word Cheqta which means half and yoc which means property of. Others say the Mochican language had words similar to the name, such as Chiclayap or Chekliayok, tumi the tumi is a ceremonial knife used by the Lambayeque culture, represents Naylamp. Sea the sea was very important for its marine resources. Huerequeque is the bird of the region, is so called because in his song seems to say Huere-que-que-que. This civilization developed a knowledge of hydraulic engineering, its people constructed canals to create an irrigation system in order to support agriculture. They produced surpluses, which supported population density and an economy for development. The culture was characterized by use of copper in the manufacture of ornamental objects, tools. During the Moche times, Pampa Grande, near Chiclayo, was a regional capital. The Mochicans produced ceramics with designs, representing religious themes, humans, animals. They were famous for huaco-portraits, which are preserved in museums around the country, highlighting amazing expressiveness, perfection, the civilization disappeared as a result of disasters caused by El Niño. The Sican culture existed between 700 and 1375AD and occupied the territory that is now the department of Lambayeque, including present-day Chiclayo and this culture formed towards the end of the Moche civilization and assimilated much of the Moche knowledge and cultural traditions
Chiclayo
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Plaza de Armas of Chiclayo
Chiclayo
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Flag
Chiclayo
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Parade of the Muses
Chiclayo
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Chiclayo.
46.
Chimbote
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Chimbote is the largest city in the Ancash Region of Peru, and the capital of both Santa Province and Chimbote District. The city is located on the coast in Chimbote Bay,130 km south of Trujillo and 420 kilometers north of Lima on the North Pan-American highway and it is the start of a chain of important cities on the Peruvian north coast like Trujillo, Chiclayo and Piura. The advantages of this location made Chimbote into a transshipment junction for the Santa River valley. In 1835, when General Santa Cruz granted Chimbotes first official acknowledgement, in 1871, an agreement was made with Henry Meiggs to build a railroad towards the interior of the country. Chimbote was classified as a port, even though its population remained around 1,000, the opening of the Pan-American Highway created easy access to Lima in the 1930s. In 1881, there was an attempt to cede a naval base to the U. S. in Chimbote Bay by Peru. The deal was blocked by Chile who sent its marines to occupy Chimbote after learning of the deal to cede a naval base to the U. S. Navy. In 1940, Chimbote was still a fishing port, with only 2,400 inhabitants in an urbanized area of 80 hectares. In 1943, the government created the Corporación Peruana del Santa and this entity assumed ownership of the railroad, made improvements to the port, and began work on a hydroelectric power station on the Río Santa. The first stage of the station was inaugurated in 1958, also that year. By 1943, the first companies dedicated to the extraction of liver from the Pacific bonito fish arrived and this liver was sold for a high price abroad due to World War II. Chimbotes climate is comfortable, despite being located in the tropics, on average, the warmest month is February with temperatures a little over 26 °C. September is considered the average coolest month, at around 13 °C, the annual average temperature ranges between 13 to 28 °C. The city gets little to no precipitation, however, thick fog predominates through the months of May to November, a large number of people migrated to Chimbote in the early 1970s. By that time, less than 5 percent of the people from Chimbote would truly consider themselves native, in 1900, the population of the port was 1,400, after 1970, it was 170,000. As of 2005, its population was 324,398, together, these multiplied the commercial and productive activities of the port. At the beginning of 1996, as Peruvian public companies were privatized, the city of Chimbote, being a district itself, comprises 7 more districts, Santa, Coishco, Samanco, Nepeña, Macate, Moro, Cáceres del Perú, and Nuevo Chimbote. The neighborhoods of El Barrio de Acero, Barrio Bolivar, El Progreso, Miraflores Alto, during the 1970s, the El Niño climate pattern, an earthquake, and overfishing drastically affected the fishing industry, and restrictions were imposed to ensure its survival
Chimbote
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Satellite image of Chimbote
Chimbote
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View of the city of Chimbote from the Cerro de la Paz.
47.
Chincha Alta
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Chincha Alta is a Peruvian city located in the Ica Region. It is the capital of Chincha Province, the City of Chincha Alta is located 200 kilometers south of Lima, in the Chincha Province of the Ica Region of Peru. The city covers an area of 2988 km² and has a population of 56,085, the first inhabitants of the area arrived at the beginning of the ninth century. These people are known as the Pre-Chincha, the historian Luis Cánepa Pachas puts the date of the arrival of the Pre-Chincha at sometime in the tenth century. The rudimentary Pre-Chincha culture was centered on fishing and shell gathering, the origin of the Pre-Chincha people is still uncertain. In the eleventh century, an advanced and warlike people known as the Chincha arrived in the coastal area. The Chincha had developed systems of architecture, agriculture and irrigation, the Chincha came to dominate the original inhabitants of the area. Some aspects of the original Pre-Chincha culture were absorbed by the newcomers, the word Chincha is derived from Chinchay or Chinchas or Cinca which mean jaguar in Chincha Quechua. The Chincha worshiped a god, and believed themselves to be descended from jaguars. The Chincha fertilized their fields with dead birds and guano, the Chincha learned seafaring skills from the Pre-Chincha, and may have traveled as far as Central America by boat. Between 1458 and 1460, the Chincha were conquered by the armies of the Inca Empire led by Tupac Inca Yupanqui during the reign of his father, Pachacuti. The Chincha area became an important part of the Inca Empire, the Chincha region was then conquered by the Spanish, and the people of the region began to mix with Africans brought by the Spanish. In the early 19th Century, Chincha was known to British mariners as Chinka, the Chincha Islands, which are off the coast of Peru near Chincha and Pisco, were the focal point of the Chincha Islands War between Peru and Spain between 1864 and 1866. The city, along with others near the Pacific coast, was damaged during the 2007 Peru earthquake, Afro-Peruvian culture has thrived in Chincha Alta, and the Afro-Peruvian residents of El Carmen district practice many traditional dances. The use of the Cajón drum, maracas and other traditional instruments figure prominently in Afro-Peruvian music, traditional dances are performed during the Christmas season. During February the Verano Negro festival is held, celebrating Afro-Peruvian food, music, culture, the cuisine of the Chincha Alta area is considered distinct from other parts of Peru, because of its African background. It has a chorus and three verses which commend and exalt the beauty of the Chincha region as well as the courage and heroism of its people
Chincha Alta
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Panorama of the city center
Chincha Alta
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A bay in Chincha, 1863
Chincha Alta
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Drummers playing the Cajón
48.
Cusco
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Cuzco, often spelled Cusco, is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cusco Province, in 2013, the city had a population of 435,114. Located on the end of the Knot of Cuzco, its elevation is around 3,400 m. The site was the capital of the Inca Empire from the 13th until the 16th-century Spanish conquest. In 1983 Cusco was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and it has become a major tourist destination, hosting nearly 2 million visitors a year. The Constitution of Peru designates it as the Historical Capital of Peru, the indigenous name of this city is Qusqu. Although the name was used in Quechua, its origin is found in the Aymara language, the word is derived from the phrase qusqu wanka, related to the citys foundation myth of the Ayar Siblings. According to this legend, Ayar Awqa acquired wings and flew to the site of the future city, there he was transformed into a rock to mark the possession of the land by his ayllu. Then Ayar Oche stood up, displayed a pair of large wings, then they went up on top of the hill. Now at the site where he was to remain as an idol and he returned and told Ayar Manco that from then on he was to be named Manco Capac. Ayar Oche came from where the Sun was and the Sun had ordered that Ayar Manco take that name, after this had been stated by the idol, Ayar Oche turned into a stone, just as he was, with his wings. Later Manco Capac went down with Ayar Auca to their settlement. he liked the place now occupied in this city Cuzco, Manco Capac and his companion, with the help of the four women, made a house. Having done this, Manco Capac and his companion, with the four women and it is said that they took the maize from the cave, which this lord Manco Capac named Pacaritambo, which means those of origin because. they came out of that cave. The Spanish conquistadors adopted the name, transliterating it into Spanish phonetics as Cuzco or, less often. Cuzco was the spelling on official documents and chronicles in colonial times. Cuzco, pronounced as in 16th-century Spanish, seems to have been an approximation to the Cusco Quechua pronunciation of the name at the time. As both Spanish and Quechuan pronunciation have evolved since then, the Spanish pronunciation of z is no longer close to the Quechuan pronunciation of the consonant represented by z in Cuzco. In 1976, the city signed an ordinance banning the traditional spelling and ordering the use of a new one, Cusco
Cusco
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The first image of Cuzco in Europe.
Pedro Cieza de León. Cronica del Peru, 1553.
Cusco
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Cristo Blanco in the surrounding mountains of Cusco
Cusco
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Night view of Plaza Regocijo, Cusco
Cusco
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Night view of the
Qurikancha and Convent of
St. Dominic
49.
Huacho
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Huacho is a city in Peru, capital of the Huaura Province and capital of the Lima Region. It is located 223 feet above sea level and 148 km north of the city of Lima, the city is located on the Pan-American Highway, and close to the Lomas de Lachay National Park so it has extensive vegetation and wildlife. Settled on the bottom of a bay, its climate is wet. In the surrounding areas there are rice, cotton, sugarcane and this fact has allowed the rise of a rather important cotton industry, as well as cotton and oil factories. Within its natural landscape, its mines and its beaches are of great interest. Huacho was one of the trade centers of northern Lima. Under the viceroy of Francisco de Toledo, who decided to group the ayllus of the Indians who were established in that area into reductions, the site chosen was that of Gaucho Bay. Consequently, on 25 August 1571, the reduction was named San Bartolomé de Guachu, during the Viceroyalty of Peru, the city belonged to the province of Huara and was established as a trading and fishing port. In 1774 the Viceroy José Antonio de Mendoza granted Huacho the category of pueblo and with it, on 12 February 1821, Huacho was elevated to district, belonging to the province of Chanchay, in the department of Lima. The Congress conceded the titale of Fidelísima Villa on 11 April 1828, on 24 January 1830, the province of Chanchay was unified with the province of Lima and Santa in the department of Ancash. Huaura was established as the capital of the province of Chanchay, thirty years before, on January 23,1866, Huacho was established as the capital of Chanchay. Due to its advances, in 1892, the city began a city tram service, an animal transportation service called tranvías de sangre. This service extended to Huara, and was electrified in 1920, beginning in 1911, it was the main hub of the Ferrocarril Noroeste del Perú, which connected Huacho with Ancón, Sayan, and Barranca. On November 10,1874, Huacho was elevated to the category of city and was capital of the province even when it was separated from Chanchay. Actually, the city of Huacho was also the capital of the Governal Region of Lima, south of the city of Huacho is located a large archaeological site of Bandurria, Peru. Its history goes back to 4,000 BC, Huacho is home to the annual Guinea Pig Festival
Huacho
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Huacho
Huacho
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Flag
Huacho
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Street view.
Huacho
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Lomas de Lachay.
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Peruvian cities with a population of over 100,000
