1.
Cart
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A cart is a vehicle designed for transport, using two wheels and normally pulled by one or a pair of draught animals. A handcart is pulled or pushed by one or more people and it is different from a dray or wagon, which is a heavy transport vehicle with four wheels and typically two or more horses, or a carriage, which is used exclusively for transporting humans. Over time, the cart has come to mean nearly any small conveyance, from shopping carts to golf carts, without regard to number of wheels, load carried. The draught animals used for carts may be horses or ponies, mules, oxen, water buffalo or donkeys, carts have been mentioned in literature as far back as the second millennium B. C. The Indian sacred book Rigveda states that men and women are as equal as two wheels of a cart, hand-carts pushed by humans have been used around the world. In the 19th century, for instance, some Mormons travelling across the plains of the United States between 1856 and 1860 used handcarts, the history of the cart is closely tied to the history of the wheel. Larger carts may be drawn by animals, such as horses, mules and they have been in continuous use since the invention of the wheel, in the 4th millennium BC. Carts may be named for the animal that pulls them, such as horsecart or oxcart, in modern times, horsecarts are used in competition while draft horse showing. A dogcart, however, is usually a cart designed to carry hunting dogs, the term cart is also used for various kinds of lightweight, two-wheeled carriages, some of them sprung carts, especially those used as open pleasure or sporting vehicles. They could be drawn by a horse, pony or dog, the name survives today as a milkfloat. The seat is adjustable fore-and-aft to keep the vehicle balanced for two or four people, carts have many different shapes, but the basic idea of transporting material remains. Carts may have a pair of shafts, one each side of the draught animal that supports the forward-balanced load in the cart. The shafts are supported by a saddle on the horse, alternatively, the cart may have a single pole between a pair of animals. The draught traces attach to the axle of the vehicle or to the shafts, the traces are attached to a collar, to a yoke or to a harness on dogs or other light animals. Traces are made from a range of materials depending on the load, heavy draught traces are made from iron or steel chain. Lighter traces are often leather and sometimes rope, but plaited horse-hair. The dray is often associated with the transport of barrels, particularly of beer, of the cart types not animal-drawn, perhaps the most common example today is the shopping cart, which has also come to have a metaphorical meaning in relation to online purchases. Shopping carts first made their appearance in Oklahoma City in 1937, in golf, both manual push or pull and electric golf trolleys are designed to carry a golfers bag, clubs and other equipment
2.
Artillery wheel
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The artillery wheel was developed for use on gun carriages when it was found that the lateral forces involved in horse artillery manoeuvres caused normally constructed cart wheels to collapse. Rather than having its spokes mortised into a nave, it has them fitted together then bolted into a metal nave. Its tyre is shrunk onto the rim in the usual way, a normal wagon wheel is dished so that in its lowest part, the spokes are perpendicular to the ground thus supporting the weight. This is not done with artillery wheels, when higher speeds and consequently higher lateral forces were attained with the introduction of motor vehicles, the artillery wheel was used in those too. By the 1920s, motor cars used wheels that looked at a glance like artillery wheels and these too were usually called artillery wheels. After training as an engineer, Joseph Sankey founded a tea tray producer. A pioneer motorist, Sankey became personal friends with Herbert Austin, by 1914, Joseph Sankey and Sons Ltd. supplied sheet steel bodies to Austin, Daimler, Humber, Rover, Star and Argyll. Production started in 1908, with customers including Herbert Austin and, later, in addition to his original factory at Bilston a new plant was established near Wellington, Shropshire, which was devoted to wheel production. In 1920, GKN purchased steel company John Lysaght and their subsidiary, Joseph Sankey, by that time the plant was supplying wheels to many UK manufacturers. By the late 1920s the inadequacies of artillery wheels had brought about their sweeping replacement by the more expensive wire wheels
3.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
4.
Wheel
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A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle bearing. The wheel is one of the components of the wheel. Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved easily facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load, wheels are also used for other purposes, such as a ships wheel, steering wheel, potters wheel and flywheel. Common examples are found in transport applications, a wheel greatly reduces friction by facilitating motion by rolling together with the use of axles. In order for wheels to rotate, a moment needs to be applied to the wheel about its axis, cognates within Indo-European include Icelandic hjól wheel, tyre, Greek κύκλος kúklos, and Sanskrit chakra, the latter both meaning circle or wheel. The invention of the falls into the late Neolithic. Note that this implies the passage of several wheel-less millennia even after the invention of agriculture and of pottery, precursors of wheels, known as tournettes or slow wheels, were known in the Middle East by the 5th millennium BCE. These were made of stone or clay and secured to the ground with a peg in the center, but required effort to turn. True potters wheels were apparently in use in Mesopotamia by 3500 BCE and possibly as early as 4000 BCE, and the oldest surviving example, which was found in Ur, dates to approximately 3100 BCE. The earliest well-dated depiction of a vehicle is on the Bronocice pot. The oldest securely dated real wheel-axle combination, that from Stare Gmajne near Ljubljana in Slovenia is now dated in 2σ-limits to 3340–3030 BCE, the axle to 3360–3045 BCE. Two types of early Neolithic European wheel and axle are known, a type of wagon construction. They both are dated to c, in China, the wheel was certainly present with the adoption of the chariot in c.1200 BCE, although Barbieri-Low argues for earlier Chinese wheeled vehicles, c.2000 BC. In Britain, a wooden wheel, measuring about 1 m in diameter, was uncovered at the Must Farm site in East Anglia in 2016. The specimen, dating from 1, 100–800 years BCE, represents the most complete, the wheels hub is also present. A horses spine found nearby suggests the wheel may have part of a horse-drawn cart. The wheel was found in a settlement built on stilts over wetland and it is thought that the primary obstacle to large-scale development of the wheel in the Americas was the absence of domesticated large animals which could be used to pull wheeled carriages. The only large animal that was domesticated in the Western hemisphere, Nubians from after about 400 BCE used wheels for spinning pottery and as water wheels
5.
Alloy wheel
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Alloy wheels are wheels that are made from an alloy of aluminium or magnesium. Alloys are mixtures of a metal and other elements and they generally provide greater strength over pure metals, which are usually much softer and more ductile. Alloys of aluminium or magnesium are typically lighter for the strength, provide better heat conduction. Although steel, the most common used in wheel production, is an alloy of iron and carbon. The earliest light-alloy wheels were made of magnesium alloys, although they lost favor on common vehicles, they remained popular through the 1960s, albeit in very limited numbers. In the mid-to-late 1960s, aluminum-casting refinements allowed the manufacture of safer wheels that were not as brittle, until this time, most aluminum wheels suffered from low ductility, usually ranging from 2-3% elongation. Once these aluminum casting improvements were widely adopted, the aluminum wheel took the place of magnesium as low cost. Reduction in overall vehicle mass can also help to fuel consumption. Alloy wheels are also purchased for cosmetic purposes although the cheaper alloys used are usually not corrosion-resistant, alloys allow the use of attractive bare-metal finishes, but these need to be sealed with paint or wheel covers. Even if so protected the wheels in use will start to corrode after 3 to 5 years. The manufacturing processes also allow intricate, bold designs, in contrast, steel wheels are usually pressed from sheet metal, and then welded together and must be painted to avoid corrosion and/or hidden with wheel covers/hub caps. Alloy wheels are prone to corrosion, which can cause the tires to leak air if appropriate preventive measures are not taken. Also, alloy wheels are more difficult to repair than steel wheels when bent, alloy wheels have long been included as standard equipment on higher-priced luxury or sports cars, with larger-sized or exclusive alloy wheels being options. The high cost of alloy wheels makes them attractive to thieves, to counter this, most alloy wheels are manufactured using casting, but some are forged. Forged wheels are lighter, stronger, but much more expensive than cast wheels. There are two types of forged wheels, one piece and modular, Modular forged wheels may feature two- or three-piece design. Typical multi-piece wheels consist of the inner rim base, outer rim lip, all parts of a modular wheel are held with bolts. BBS RS is one of the most famous three-piece modular forged wheels, a sizable selection of alloy wheels are available to automobile owners who want lighter, more visually appealing, rarer, and/or larger wheels on their cars
6.
Center cap
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A center cap, or centercap is a decorative disk on an automobile wheel that covers a central portion of the wheel. Early center caps for automobiles were small and primarily served the purpose of keeping away from the spindle nut. Center caps are often found on new cars to hide the lug nuts, center caps are a type of hubcap, the other primary type being wheel covers. Some modern center caps are retained to the wheel using spring clips, early center caps were usually either very small, or very large. They started on cartwheels and wagons and slowly evolved into what we know them as today, many of the centercaps from the 1950s to the 1970s were made of stainless steel. The rest of the wheel was originally of wood or many fitted metal parts, in modern times, center caps are both metal and plastic, and are typically used with aluminum alloy or styled steel wheels. Some full wheel covers use removable center caps, typically those retained by lug nuts, often a center cap will bear the logo or trademark of the maker of the automobile or the maker of the center cap, but there are custom center caps without any trademark as well. Early center caps were often chrome plated, center caps that are found on trucks are baby moon center caps, that originated on Mack Trucks and are found on Freightliner Trucks
7.
Spare tire
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A spare tire or spare tyre is an additional tire carried in a motor vehicle as a replacement for one that goes flat, a blowout, or other emergency. However, some tires are not meant to be driven long distances. Space-savers have a speed of around 50 mph. When replacing a damaged tire, placing the compact spare on a non-drive axle will prevent damage to the drivetrain, if placed on a drivetrain axle, the smaller-diameter tire can put stress on the differential causing damage and reducing handling. The early days of motor travel took place on roads that were littered with stray horseshoe nails. Punctures were all too common, and required the motorist to remove the wheel from the car, demount the tire, patch the inner tube, re-mount the tire, inflate the tire, and re-mount the wheel. To alleviate this time-consuming process, Walter and Tom Davies of Llanelli, Wales, at the time, motor cars were made without spare wheels. Their company, Stepney Iron Mongers, had agents distributing the United States, Belgium, France, the pre-mounted spare tire and wheel combination proved so popular with motorists that carrying up to two spare tires became common. Automakers often equipped cars with one or dual sidemounts, the spares were mounted behind the front fenders as they blended into the running boards. In 1941, the U. S. government prohibited spare tires on new cars, shortages of resources caused by World War II led to quotas and laws designed to force conservation, including rubber that was produced overseas and difficult to get. A similar ban was implemented by the U. S. during the Korean War in 1951. Contemporary vehicles may come equipped with full-size spares, limited use minispares, the spare tire may be identical type and size to those on the vehicle. The spare may either be mounted on a steel rim or a matching road wheel as found on the vehicle. Additionally, a limited use spare may not be safe on a loaded truck or one that is towing a trailer. Due to the size of the spare, it is often mounted on the outside, such as the rear door of SUVs. These supposed benefits are debatable, a space-saver is typically only 7 kg lighter than a full-sized wheel. There is also the difficulty of transporting the full-sized wheel and tire once the space-saver has been fitted, the spare is usually mounted on a plain steel rim. They are typically smaller than the tires on the vehicle and can only be used for limited distances because of their short life expectancy
8.
Rambler Marlin
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The Rambler Marlin is a two-door fastback automobile produced in the United States by American Motors Corporation from 1965 to 1967. A halo model for the company, it was marketed as a luxury car. In 1965, the car was marketed as Rambler Marlin, for 1966, the car featured Marlin identification only, named AMC Marlin, as was the 1967 model. Its fastback roof design was previewed on the 1964 Rambler Tarpon show car and this version had a longer hood and numerous improvements including more interior room and new V8 engines. As consumer per capita income increased in the early 1960s, the U. S. automobile market expanded, the idea was that the new car would be a distinctive, low-volume model symbolizing a new Rambler look and spearheading a full product line. Initially, in response to a proposal for a sporty youth-oriented car, a fastback design study. Management at the small automaker wanted to change its tune with a reasonably sporty upsized response of sorts to Fords Mustang, the fastback appearance was a revival of sedans built after World War II, as demonstrated by the 1940s Nash Ambassador. Ultimately, and in line with Roy Abernethys new marketing strategy, the development team, under distinguished American designer Richard A. Teague, had to work with considerably smaller budgets than their counterparts at Detroits Big Three to create the new Marlin. They created a large, roomy and luxurious fastback which incorporated a number of features from the Tarpon show car. The signature roof line from the windshield with the Marlins skylight permits carrying through the true fastback line in an unbroken sweep. However, the roof was raised over the passenger area when Abernethy. As the car was targeted at the personal luxury segment. American Motors billed the Marlin as a new addition to the companys self-styled Sensible Spectaculars model line, backed by extensive advertising and merchandising, the car was officially announced on 10 February 1965, and unveiled in Rambler dealer showrooms on 19 March. New car introductions, more significant in the 1960s than today, were accompanied by special invitations. The Marlin was advertised in 2,400 newspapers on its launch day and this contrasted it with the smaller Barracuda and Mustang fastbacks that had arrived a year earlier. AMCs first model following the car launches of the 1960s. A book on American muscle cars says V8-powered Marlins provided appropriate performance for the streamlined appearance, the new model met with a mixed reception in the press. Popular Mechanics magazine recorded 0 to 60 mph in 10.8 seconds by manually shifting the automatic transmission, tom McCahills road test in Mechanics Illustrated recorded 0 to 60 mph in 9.7 seconds with the 327 engine
9.
Wire wheel
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Wire wheels, wire-spoked wheels, tension-spoked wheels, or suspension wheels are wheels whose rims connect to their hubs by wire spokes. Although these wires are generally stiffer than a wire rope, they function mechanically the same as tensioned flexible wires. The term suspension wheel should not be confused with vehicle suspension, wire wheels are used on most bicycles and are still used on many motorcycles. They were invented by aeronautical engineer George Cayley in 1808, although Cayley first proposed wire wheels, he did not apply for a patent. The first patent for wire wheels was issued to Theodore Jones of London, eugène Meyer of Paris, France was the first person to receive, in 1869, a patent for wire wheels on bicycles. Bicycle wheels were not strong enough for cars until the development of tangentially spoked wheels and they rapidly became well established in the bicycle and motor tricycle world but were not common on cars until around 1907. This was encouraged by the Rudge-Whitworth patented detachable and interchangeable wheels designed by John Pugh and these wheels owed their resistance to braking and accelerative stresses to their two inner rows of tangential spokes. An outer row of radial spokes gave lateral strength against cornering strains and these wheels were deeply dished so that steering pivot pins might lie as near as possible to the center-line of the tires. Their second feature was that they were easily detachable being mounted on splined false hubs, a process of assembling wire wheels is described as wheelbuilding. From the earliest days automobiles used either wire wheels or heavy wooden or pressed steel spoked artillery type, the development of the quick detachable hubs of either Rudge-Whitworth or Riley design did much to popularise wire wheels and incidentally led to the fitting of spare wheels. After their wooden spoked artillery wheels proved inadequate many US manufacturers paid John Pugh of Rudge-Whitworth royalties to manufacture wire wheels using his patents, some jurisdictions, including West Germany, prohibited eared hubcaps. Some manufacturers preferred to hold the wheel on the hub by capping with a single conventional unwinged nut requiring a special large spanner. In the 1960s even lighter cast alloy wheels became usual—at first with splined hubs, new versions of wire wheels are still made but often with standard hub bolt patterns covered by a center cap to fit without adapters. At one time, motorcycles used wire wheels built up from separate components, the first commercially successful use of wired wheels was on bicycles. They were introduced early on in the development of the bicycle and this development marked a major improvement over the older wooden wheels, both in terms of weight and comfort. Bicycle manufacturers build millions of wheels annually, using the common crossed-spoke patterns whose crossings of adjacent spokes are governed by the number of spokes in the wheel, wheelbuilders of racing teams and in good bicycle shops build wheels to other patterns such as two-cross, one-cross, or no-cross. The reaction to a load of a well-tensioned wire spoked wheel. The rest of the wheel remains approximately circular, the tension of all the spokes does not increase significantly
10.
Cord (automobile)
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Cord was the brand name of an American automobile company from Connersville, Indiana, manufactured by the Auburn Automobile Company from 1929 to 1932 and again in 1936 and 1937. The Cord Corporation was founded and run by E. L. Cord as a company for his many transportation interests. Cord was noted for its technology and streamlined designs. Cord had a philosophy to build truly different, innovative cars, believing they would sell well. This did not always work well in practice, Cord innovations include front-wheel drive on the L-29 and hidden headlamps on the 810 and 812. Hidden headlamps did not become common as a feature until the 1960s. The early Oldsmobile Toronados, whose GM stylists later stated they were trying to capture the feel of the Cords design, servo shifting was accomplished through a bendix electro-vacuum pre-selector mechanism. This was the first American front-wheel drive car to be offered to the public, beating the Ruxton automobile by several months, in 1929. The brainchild of former Miller engineer Carl Van Ranst, its drive system borrowed from the Indianapolis 500-dominating racers, using the same de Dion layout and this allowed it to be much lower than competing cars. Both stock cars and special bodies built on the Cord chassis by American and European coachbuilders won prizes in contests worldwide, still, the styling was lovely, and despite the 137.5 in wheelbase and steering demanding fully four turns lock-to-lock, handling was reportedly superb. Priced around US$3,000, it was competitive with Cadillac, Marmon, Lincoln, Packard, Franklin, and Stutz and it could not outrun the Great Depression, and by 1932, it was discontinued, with just 4,400 sold. Wheelbase was 137.5 and the height of the sedan was 61, the Model 810/812 are probably the best-known of the companys products. Styled by Gordon M. Buehrig, they featured front-wheel drive and independent front suspension, powered by a 4,739 cc Lycoming V8 of the same 125 hp horsepower as the L-29, the 810 had a four-speed electrically-selected semi-automatic transmission, among other innovative features. The car caused a sensation at the New York Auto Show in November 1935, orders were taken at the show with Cord promising Christmas delivery, expecting production of 1,000 per month. Production delays pushed the delivery date to February 1936. This proved optimistic, the first production vehicles were not delivered until April, in all, Cord managed to sell only 1,174 of the new 810 in its first model year. The car is known for the flat front nose with a louvered grille design. The front was so similar in look to a coffin, the car was often called Coffin Nose, early reliability problems, including slipping out of gear and vapor lock, cooled initial enthusiasm, and the dealer base shrank rapidly
11.
Hudson Motor Car Company
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The Hudson Motor Car Company made Hudson and other brand automobiles in Detroit, Michigan, from 1909 to 1954. In 1954, Hudson merged with Nash-Kelvinator Corporation to form American Motors, the Hudson name was continued through the 1957 model year, after which it was discontinued. A total of eight Detroit businessmen formed the company on February 20,1909, one of the chief car men and organizer of the company was Roy D. Chapin, Sr. a young executive who had worked with Ransom E. Olds. The company quickly started production, with the first car out of a small factory in Detroit on July 3,1909 at Mack Avenue and Beaufait Street. The new Hudson Twenty was one of the first low-priced cars on the American market, the land was the former farm of D. J. Campau. On 1 July 1926, Hudsons new $10 million body plant was completed where the automaker could now build the all-steel closed bodies for both the Hudson and Essex models. It was designed by the firm of renowned industrial architect Albert Kahn with 223,500 square feet, production in 1911 increased to 6,486. For 1914 Hudsons for the American market were now left hand drive, the Super Six was the first engine built by Hudson, previously Hudson had developed engine designs and then had them manufactured by Continental Motors Company. Most Hudsons until 1957 had straight-6 engines, Hudson transmissions also used an oil bath and cork clutch mechanism that proved to be as durable as it was smooth. Hudson was the third largest U. S. car maker that year, after Ford Motor Company and Chevrolet. The Essex found great success by offering one of the first affordable sedans, in 1932, Hudson began phasing out its Essex nameplate for the modern Terraplane brand name. The new line was launched on July 21,1932, with a promotional christening by Amelia Earhart, for 1932 and 1933, the restyled cars were named Essex-Terraplane, from 1934 as Terraplane, until 1938 when the Terraplane was renamed the Hudson 112. Hudson also began assembling cars in Canada, contracting Canada Top and Body to build the cars in their Tilbury, Ontario, in England Terraplanes built at the Brentford factory were still being advertised in 1938. This took the place of the shift lever, but required conventional clutch actions. Cars equipped with Electric Hand also carried a conventional shift lever in clips under the dash, Hudson was also noted for offering an optional vacuum-powered automatic clutch, starting in the early 1930s. For the 1930 model year Hudson debuted a new flathead inline eight cylinder engine with block and Crankcase cast as a unit and fitted with two cylinder heads. A2.75 inch bore and 4.5 inch stroke displaced 218.8 cubic inches developing 80 HP at 3,600 RPM with the standard 5.78,1 Compression ratio. The 5 Main bearing Crankshaft had 8 integral counterweights, an industry first, four rubber blocks were used at engine mount points
12.
Terraplane
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The Terraplane was a car brand and model built by the Hudson Motor Car Company of Detroit, Michigan, between 1932 and 1938. In its maiden year, the car was branded as the Essex-Terraplane and they were inexpensive, yet powerful vehicles that were used in both town and country, as both cars and trucks bore the Terraplane name. Hudson had manufactured the inexpensive Essex from 1919 as a vehicle line. The Essex is generally credited with helping to make the fully enclosed automobile an affordable model for inexpensive automobiles, the low-priced closed model Essex coach had promoted the sensational recovery of Hudson as an automaker in 1922. Roy D. Chapin decided to repeat the successful strategy in 1932 by producing a light car in the bottom price class, a vehicle which would combine style, comfort. The Terraplane contributed greatly to Hudson Motors sales during the Depression 1930s, one unique feature was Duo-Automatic brakes. Terraplanes had two brake systems—hydraulic and mechanical, should the hydraulic brakes fail, the mechanical brakes would be used to stop the car. The new Essex-Terraplane was launched on July 21,1932, with sensational vigor that accounts of the affair appeared in throughout the United States. The special event included over 2,000 dealers who came from 40 states to Detroit, Hudson also had famous aviator Amelia Earhart helping to introduce the first Essex-Terraplane. It was a small, but very powerful, car with a frame, built to exacting standards. The 1932 model bore a resemblance to its Essex predecessors. The 1932 and 1933 models still had the name Essex-Terraplane on the radiator ornament, in 1932, only the Model K on the 106-inch wheelbase with a 193 cu in 6-cylinder engine was available. The Essex-Terraplanes were available in all the common U. S. automobile body styles, a Model KU 6-cylinder on 113 in wheelbase was added. Also a Model KT with a244 cu in straight-8-cylinder was offered on the 113-inch wheelbase, there were Standard and Deluxe trim levels for the KU and KT. A limited selection of commercial vehicles were offered starting in 1933. Only the 1933 Essex-Terraplanes were made with an optional eight-cylinder engine, the Hudson had the identical basic engine, but with earlier style updraft carburetor carried over, and a displacement of 254 cu in due to a larger cylinder bore than the Essex-Terraplane Eight. The Terraplane Eight engines featured more efficient downdraft carburetion, both engines had the same crankshaft and stroke. The Essex-Terraplane Eight was distinguished by having vent doors on the hood as opposed to all versions that had stamped hood louvers
13.
Spinner (wheel)
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The spinner on automobile wheels historically refers to knock-off hubs or center caps. They may be the actual, or intended to simulate, the used on antique vehicles or vintage sports cars. The spinner cap was introduced into the vehicle and passenger automobile market in the 1930s. The spinner or knock-off was designed to keep the wheel on the automobile and they were screwed on and knocked on tightly using hammers and tools, hence the name knock-offs. The knock-off spinners were used until the development of the lug nut method attaching the wheel and these spinner-wheel covers were available on standard as well as featured on custom cars, and lowriders quickly adapted them for their own vehicles. During the early-1960s, the wire wheel covers returned, but with new look designed to emphasize sportiness with their radiating spokes. These classic center spinner caps feature a rigidly mounted propeller-like center element and these spinner hubcaps were most often an optional appearance upgrade to the standard equipment hubcaps or full wheel covers that attached to stamped steel wheels. In the late 1960s, U. S. Federal safety standards banned the use of protruding bar spinners on automobiles, the mid-1950s Dodge four-bladed “spinner” wheel covers became an icons for the era and also became an item popular to owners to customize their cars. Spinners were add on accessory marketed during the 1950s to decorate regular wheel covers for a custom look, center spinner hubcaps were also available as original equipment from automakers. Custom wheels for lowriders also used naked ladies on wheel covers, a bracket was used to mount to the spindle so while the lady stood still the wheel spun around. The hubometers used on trucks, buses, and trailers that appear to be stationary while the wheel is turning to accurately measure the actual distance covered. They are actually enclosed and float in a liquid with anti-freeze as to be functional in severe low temperatures without freezing, the modern spinner device is a decorative kinetic attachment to the wheel of an automobile. Spinners were popular during the early-2000s within the community of the United States. Since the mid-2000s, they are gradually fading out of vogue in popular culture, the spinner-type automobile hubcaps were the inspiration for a Detroit-area R&B/soul group, The Domingoes, to rename themselves The Spinners in the late 1950s. In 1960, Pat Davis recorded the song Spinner Hub Caps
14.
Rim (wheel)
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The rim is the outer edge of a wheel, holding the tire. It makes up the circular design of the wheel on which the inside edge of the tire is mounted on vehicles such as automobiles. For example, on a wheel the rim is a large hoop attached to the outer ends of the spokes of the wheel that holds the tire. The term rim is also used non-technically to refer to the entire wheel, in the 1st millennium BC an iron rim was introduced around the wooden wheels of chariots. Diameter, distance between the seats, as measured in the plane of the rim and through the axis of the hub which is or will be attached. Width, separation distance between opposed rim flanges, the flange-to-flange width of a rim should be a minimum of three-quarters of the tire section width. And the maximum rim width should be equal to the width of the tire tread, type, Depends on the type of vehicle and tire. There are various rim profiles, as well as the number of rim components, modern passenger vehicles and tubeless tires typically use one-piece rims with a safety rim profile. Heavy vehicles and some trucks may have a removable multi-piece rim assembly consisting of a base that mounts to the wheel and they then have either a side ring or a side and lock ring combination. These parts are removable from one side for tire mounting, while the opposite side attached to the base has a fixed flange, oversized rims may cause the tire to rub on the body or suspension components while turning. Overly narrow rims in relation to the width may cause poor handling as the tire may distort sideways under fast cornering. On motorcycles, a narrow rim will alter the tire profile, concentrating tire wear in a small area during cornering. On bicycles, the tire width is approximately twice the rims internal width or one-and-a-half times the rims external width. A standard automotive steel wheel rim is made from a sheet metal. The metal plate is bent to produce a cylindrical sleeve with the two edges of the sleeve welded together. To support the rim structure, a disc is made by stamping a metal plate. It has to have holes for the center hub and lug nuts. The radial outer surface of the disk has a cylindrical geometry to fit inside the rim
15.
Lug nut
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A lug nut or wheel nut is a fastener, specifically a nut, used to secure a wheel on a vehicle. Typically, lug nuts are found on automobiles, trucks, a lug nut is a nut with one rounded or conical end, used on steel and most aluminum wheels. A set of lug nuts are used to secure a wheel to threaded wheel studs. Some designs use lug bolts instead of nuts, which screw into a hole in the wheels hub or drum brake or disc. This configuration is known as a bolted joint. Honda uses a rather than a tapered seat, but the nut performs the same function. Older style alloy wheels have a 1/2 to 1 inch cylindrical shank slipping into the wheel to center it, wheel lug nuts may have different shapes. Aftermarket alloy and forged rims often require specific lug nuts to match their mounting holes, there are 4 common lug nut types, Cone Seat, Bulge Cone Seat, Under Hub Cap, and Spline Drive. Lug nuts may be removed using a lug, socket or impact wrench, if the wheel is to be removed then an automotive jack to raise the vehicle and some wheel chocks would be used as well. Wheels that have hubcaps or hub covers need these removed beforehand, typically with a screwdriver, flatbar, lug nuts can be difficult to remove, as they may become frozen to the wheel stud. In such cases a breaker bar or repeated blows from a wrench can be used to free them. Alternating between tightening and loosening can free especially stubborn lug nuts, lug nuts must be installed in an alternating pattern, commonly referred to as a star pattern. This ensures a uniform distribution of load across the wheel mounting surface, when installing lug nuts, it is recommended to tighten them with a calibrated torque wrench. While a lug, socket or impact wrench may be used to tighten lug nuts the final tightening should be performed by a torque wrench, torque specifications vary by vehicle and wheel type. Both vehicle and wheel manufacturers provide recommended torque values which should be consulted when an installation is done, failure to abide by the recommended torque value can result in damage to the wheel and brake rotor/drum. Additionally, under tightened lug nuts may come loose with time, in order to allow early detection of loose lug nuts, some large vehicles are fitted with loose wheel nut indicators. The indicator spins with the nut, so that it can be detected with a visual inspection, the key is normally unique to each set of nuts. Only one locking nut per wheel is used, so they are sold in sets of four
16.
Mitsubishi Lancer
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The Mitsubishi Lancer is a compact car produced by the Japanese manufacturer Mitsubishi since 1973. It has also sold as Mitsubishi Lancer Fortis in Taiwan with a different facelift than the Galant Fortis. In Japan, it was sold at a retail chain called Car Plaza. The Lancer derives its name from the given to a soldier of cavalry regiment armed with a lance. Between its introduction in 1973 and 2008, over six units had been sold. According to Mitsubishi, there were nine generations of development before the current model, Mitsubishi is ending production of the Lancer in August 2017. The first Lancer was launched in February 1973 and it served to fill the gap between the Minica kei car and the larger Galant. The sporting 1600 GSR model began the Lancers long and successful history, winning the Safari Rally twice. There were four styles, two- and four-door sedans, a two-door hardtop coupe. Engines were different 1. 2-liter,1. 4-liter, and 1. 6-liter fours, in February 1975 the Lancer was complemented by a hatchback called the Lancer Celeste, succeeding the Galant FTO. Four-door Lancer assembly began in New Zealand in 1975, supplementing the larger English Hillman Avengers also built locally by importer Todd Motors. The Celeste was imported built-up from Japan initially and assembly of a single 1. 6- liter, the Celeste was originally available with 1. 4- and 1. 6-liter options, while a bigger 2. 0-liter model was added later. An even larger 2. 6-liter four was available in the US-market Plymouth Fire Arrow, the Celeste was facelifted in 1978, receiving square headlights and bigger squarer bumpers. Production of the Lancer Celeste ended in July 1981 and it was replaced by the front-wheel drive Cordia in early 1982, in 1979, the all new Lancer EX was unveiled in Japan. Its new, clean and aerodynamic styling with integrated plastic bumpers reflected that of the recently introduced Galant and it was of a more European appearance than earlier Mitsubishis. Considerably more spacious, it grew in all dimensions, only two engines were offered at first, a 1. 4-liter MCA-JET equipped engine paired with Mitsubishis Silent Shaft Technology, which generated 80 PS and a 1. 6-liter engine that generated 85 PS. The MCA-JET system was a new concept when compared with the previously used carburetor system. This reduced both engine noise and vibration, and provided a driving experience
17.
Trademark
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The trademark owner can be an individual, business organization, or any legal entity. A trademark may be located on a package, a label, for the sake of corporate identity, trademarks are often displayed on company buildings. A trademark identifies the owner of a particular product or service. The unauthorized usage of trademarks by producing and trading counterfeit consumer goods is known as brand piracy, the owner of a trademark may pursue legal action against trademark infringement. Most countries require formal registration of a trademark as a precondition for pursuing this type of action, the United States, Canada and other countries also recognize common law trademark rights, which means action can be taken to protect an unregistered trademark if it is in use. Still, common law trademarks offer the holder in general less legal protection than registered trademarks. A trademark may be designated by the symbols, ™ ℠ ® A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these categories, such as those based on colour, smell. Trademarks which are considered offensive are often rejected according to a nations trademark law, the term trademark is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such as the well-known characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used in relation to services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a service mark, in other words, trademarks serve to identify a particular business as the source of goods or services. The use of a trademark in this way is known as trademark use, certain exclusive rights attach to a registered mark. Different goods and services have been classified by the International Classification of Goods, in trademark treatises it is usually reported that blacksmiths who made swords in the Roman Empire are thought of as being the first users of trademarks. Other notable trademarks that have used for a long time include Löwenbräu. The first trademark legislation was passed by the Parliament of England under the reign of King Henry III in 1266, the first modern trademark laws emerged in the late 19th century. In France the first comprehensive system in the world was passed into law in 1857 with the Manufacture. In Britain, the Merchandise Marks Act 1862 made it an offense to imitate anothers trade mark with intent to defraud or to enable another to defraud. In 1875 the Trade Marks Registration Act was passed which allowed formal registration of marks at the UK Patent Office for the first time. Registration was considered to comprise prima facie evidence of ownership of a trade mark, in the United States, Congress first attempted to establish a federal trademark regime in 1870
18.
Symbol
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A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences, all communication is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas or visual images and are used to other ideas. For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for STOP, on a map, a blue line might represent a river. Alphabetic letters may be symbols for sounds, personal names are symbols representing individuals. A red rose may symbolize love and compassion, the variable x, in a mathematical equation, may symbolize the position of a particle in space. In cartography, a collection of symbols forms a legend for a map The word derives from the Greek symbolon meaning token or watchword. It is an amalgam of syn- together + bole a throwing, a casting, the sense evolution in Greek is from throwing things together to contrasting to comparing to token used in comparisons to determine if something is genuine. The meaning something which stands for something else was first recorded in 1590, later, expanding on what he means by this definition Campbell says, a symbol, like everything else, shows a double aspect. We must distinguish, therefore between the sense and the meaning of the symbol. The term meaning can only to the first two but these, today, are in the charge of science – which is the province as we have said, not of symbols. The ineffable, the unknowable, can be only sensed. Heinrich Zimmer gives an overview of the nature, and perennial relevance. Concepts and words are symbols, just as visions, rituals, through all of these a transcendent reality is mirrored. They are so many metaphors reflecting and implying something which, though thus variously expressed, is ineffable, though thus rendered multiform, Symbols hold the mind to truth but are not themselves the truth, hence it is delusory to borrow them. Each civilisation, every age, must bring forth its own, in the book Signs and Symbols, it is stated that A symbol. Is a visual image or sign representing an idea -- a deeper indicator of a universal truth, Symbols are a means of complex communication that often can have multiple levels of meaning. This separates symbols from signs, as signs have only one meaning, human cultures use symbols to express specific ideologies and social structures and to represent aspects of their specific culture
19.
Spoke
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A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a wheel, connecting the hub with the round traction surface. The term originally referred to portions of a log that had split lengthwise into four or six sections. The radial members of a wagon wheel were made by carving a spoke into their finished shape, a spokeshave is a tool originally developed for this purpose. Eventually, the spoke was more commonly applied to the finished product of the wheelwrights work. The spoked wheel was invented to allow the construction of lighter and swifter vehicles, the earliest known examples are in the context of the Sintashta culture, dating to ca.2000 BC. Soon after this, horse cultures of the Caucasus region used horse-drawn spoked-wheel war chariots for the part of three centuries. Celtic chariots introduced an iron rim around the wheel in the 1st millennium BC, the spoked wheel was in continued use without major modification until the 1870s, when wire wheels and rubber tires were invented. Spokes can be made of wood, metal, or synthetic fiber depending on whether they will be in tension or compression, the original type of spoked wheel with wooden spokes was used for horse-drawn carriages and wagons. In early motor cars, wooden spoked wheels of the type were normally used. In a simple wooden wheel, a load on the hub causes the wheel rim to flatten slightly against the ground as the lowermost wooden spoke shortens, the other wooden spokes show no significant change. They are also dished, usually to the outside of the vehicle, also, the dishing allows the wheel to compensate for expansion of the spokes due to absorbed moisture by dishing more. For use in bicycles, heavy wooden-spoked wheels were replaced by wheels with spokes made of tensioned, adjustable metal wires. These are also used in wheelchairs, motorcycles, and automobiles, some types of wheels have removable spokes that can be replaced individually if they break or bend. These include bicycle and wheelchair wheels, high quality bicycles with conventional wheels use spokes of stainless steel, while cheaper bicycles may use galvanized or chrome plated spokes. While a good quality spoke is capable of supporting about 225 kgf of tension, since bicycle and wheelchair wheel spokes are only in tension, flexible and strong materials such as synthetic fibers, are also occasionally used. Metal spokes can also be ovalized or bladed to reduce aerodynamic drag, a variation on the wire-spoked wheel was Tiogas Tension Disk, which appeared superficially to be a solid disk but was in fact constructed using the same principles as a normal tension-spoked wheel. Instead of individual spokes, a continuous thread of Kevlar was used to lace the hub to the rim under high tension. The threads were encased in a translucent disk for protection and some aerodynamic benefit, Wire spokes can be radial to the hub but are more often mounted tangentially to the hub
20.
Art Deco
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Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. It featured rare and expensive materials such as ebony and ivory, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York were the most visible monuments of the new style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic, a more sleek form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco became one of the first truly international architectural styles, with examples found in European cities, the style came to an end with the beginning of World War II. Deco was replaced as the dominant global style by the functional and unadorned styles of modernism. The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858, in 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de lOpéra. In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and it took its present name of ENSAD in 1927. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times, describing the different styles at the exhibit. Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major book on the style. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times, in 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco. The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, the term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs, or SAD, was founded in 1901, a similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the arts, the Esposizione international dArte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration, Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon dautomne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, in 1911 the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912
21.
Frieze
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In architecture the frieze /ˈfriːz/ is the wide central section part of an entablature and may be plain in the Ionic or Doric order, or decorated with bas-reliefs. Even when neither columns nor pilasters are expressed, on a wall it lies upon the architrave and is capped by the moldings of the cornice. A frieze can be found on many Greek and Roman buildings, the Parthenon Frieze being the most famous and this style is typical for the Persians. In interiors, the frieze of a room is the section of wall above the picture rail, by extension, a frieze is a long stretch of painted, sculpted or even calligraphic decoration in such a position, normally above eye-level. Frieze decorations may depict scenes in a sequence of discrete panels, the material of which the frieze is made of may be plasterwork, carved wood or other decorative medium. In an example of a frieze on the façade of a building. A pulvinated frieze is convex in section, such friezes were features of 17th-century Northern Mannerism, especially in subsidiary friezes, and much employed in interior architecture and in furniture. The concept of a frieze has been generalized in the construction of frieze patterns. Media related to Friezes at Wikimedia Commons Frieze
22.
Chrysler Building
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At 1,046 feet, the structure was the worlds tallest building for 11 months before it was surpassed by the Empire State Building in 1931. It is the tallest brick building in the world, with a steel structure, in addition, The New York Times Building, which opened in 2007, is exactly level with the Chrysler Building in height. The Chrysler Building is an example of Art Deco architecture. In 2007, it was ranked ninth on the List of Americas Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects and it was the headquarters of the Chrysler Corporation from 1930 until the mid-1950s. Although the building was built and designed specifically for the car manufacturer, Chrysler decided to pay for it himself, so that his children could inherit it. The Chrysler Building was designed by architect William Van Alen for a project of Walter P. Chrysler, when the ground breaking occurred on September 19,1928, there was an intense competition in New York City to build the worlds tallest skyscraper. Despite a frantic pace, no workers died during the construction of this skyscraper, Van Alens original design for the skyscraper called for a decorative jewel-like glass crown. It also featured a base in which the windows were tripled in height and topped by 12 stories with glass-wrapped corners. The height of the skyscraper was originally designed to be 246 meters. However, the proved to be too advanced and costly for building contractor William H. Reynolds. The design and lease were then sold to Walter P. Chrysler, construction commenced on September 19,1928. In total,391,881 rivets were used and approximately 3,826,000 bricks were manually laid, contractors, builders and engineers were joined by other building-services experts to coordinate construction. Prior to its completion, the building stood about even with a project at 40 Wall Street. Severance increased the height of his project and then claimed the title of the worlds tallest building. In response, Van Alen obtained permission for a 38-meter long spire and had it secretly constructed inside the frame of the building, the spire was delivered to the site in four different sections. On October 23,1929, the section of the spire was hoisted to the top of the buildings dome. The other remaining sections of the spire were hoisted and riveted to the first one in order in just 90 minutes. It was the first man-made structure to stand taller than 1,000 feet, Van Alens satisfaction in these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chryslers later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee
23.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
24.
Cable tie
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A cable tie is a type of fastener, for holding items together, primarily electric cables or wires. Because of their low cost and ease of use, cable ties are ubiquitous, stainless steel versions, either naked or coated with a rugged plastic, cater for exterior applications and hazardous environments. Some ties include a tab that can be depressed to release the ratchet so that the tie can be loosened or removed, the most common cable tie consists of a flexible nylon tape with an integrated gear rack, and on one end a ratchet within a small open case. Once the pointed tip of the tie has been pulled through the case and past the ratchet, it is prevented from being pulled back. This allows several cables to be bound together into a cable bundle and/or to form a cable tree, a cable tie tensioning device or tool may be used to apply a cable tie with a specific degree of tension. The tool may cut off the tail flush with the head in order to avoid a sharp edge which might otherwise cause injury. Blue cable ties are supplied to the industry and contain a metal additive so they can be detected by industrial metal detectors. Cable ties made of ETFE are used in radiation-rich environments, red cable ties made of ECTFE are used for plenum cabling. There are self-locking loops, based on the construction of the cable tie. The device is intended for purposes and enabled a shortened duration of surgery. By compressing tissue hemorrhage is prevented, the same material is used as in surgical suture, therefore the implant can be left in the body where after the material is resorbed by the tissue. Traditional cable ties, due to their material, may not be left in the body permanently due to the risk of development of chronic granulomas. Stainless steel cable ties are available for flameproof applications—coated stainless ties are available to prevent galvanic attack from dissimilar metals. PlastiCuffs are handcuffs based on the tie design and are used by law enforcement to restrain prisoners. Cable ties are sometimes used to prevent hubcaps from falling off a moving vehicle. Cable ties were first invented by Thomas & Betts, an electrical company, initially they were designed for airplane wire harnesses. The original design used a tooth, and these can still be obtained. Manufacturers later changed to the nylon/plastic design, the design has over the years been extended and developed into numerous spin-off products
25.
Medical glove
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Medical gloves are disposable gloves used during medical examinations and procedures that help prevent cross-contamination between caregivers and patients. Cornstarch replaced tissue-irritating Lycopodium powder and talc, but even cornstarch can impede healing if it gets into tissues, as such, unpowdered gloves are used more often during surgery and other sensitive procedures. Special manufacturing processes are used to compensate for the lack of powder, there are two main types of medical gloves, examination and surgical. Surgical gloves have more precise sizing with a precision and sensitivity and are made to a higher standard. Examination gloves are available as either sterile or non-sterile, while surgical gloves are generally sterile, caroline Hampton became the chief nurse of the operating room when Johns Hopkins Hospital opened in 1889. In 1894 Halsted implemented the use of sterilized medical gloves at Johns Hopkins, the first disposable latex medical gloves were manufactured in 1964 by Ansell. They based the production on the technique for making condoms and these gloves have a range of clinical uses ranging from dealing with human excrement to dental applications. Criminals have also known to wear medical gloves during commission of crimes. These gloves are often chosen because their thinness and tight fit allow for dexterity, however because of the thinness of these gloves, fingerprints may actually pass through the material as glove prints, thus transferring the wearers prints onto the surface touched or handled. The participants of the Watergate burglaries infamously wore rubber gloves in an effort to hide their fingerprints. To facilitate donning of gloves, powders have been used as lubricants, early powders derived from pines or club moss were found to be toxic. Talcum powder was used for decades but linked to postoperative granuloma, corn starch, another agent used as lubricant, was also found to have potential side effects such as inflammatory reactions and granuloma and scar formation. To make them easier to don without the use of powder, chlorination affects some of the beneficial properties of latex, but also eliminates soluble proteins that cause allergic reactions. With the availability of non-powdered medical gloves that were easy to don, by 2016, healthcare systems in Germany and the United Kingdom had eliminated their use. In March 2016, the FDA issued a proposal to ban their use as well. Powder-free medical gloves are used in medical environments, where the need for cleanliness is often similar to that in a sensitive medical environment. Chemical processes may be employed to reduce the amount of protein in Hevea latex. It has no latex protein content and is resistant to tearing
26.
Custom car
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Although the two are related, custom cars are distinct from hot rods. The extent of this difference has been the subject of debate among customizers and rodders for decades, additionally, a street rod can be considered a custom. A development of hot rodding, the change in name corresponded to the change in the design of the cars being modified, the first hot rods were pre-World War II cars, with running boards and simple fenders over the wheels. Early model cars were modified by removing the running boards and either removing the fenders entirely or replacing them with very light cycle fenders, later models usually had fender skirts installed. The firm was started by ex-employees of Howard Dutch Darrin, who had designed, strother MacMinn called the Yankee Doodle Roadster by Coachcraft the “first American custom sports car. Engine swaps were done, the object of which was to put the most powerful engine in the lightest possible frame, initially this involved lowering the rear end as much as possible with the use of lowering blocks on the rear springs. Later cars were given a job either adding a dropped front axle or heating front coil springs to make the front end of the car much lower than the rear. Much later some hot rods and custom cars swapped the old solid rear axle for an independent rear axle, sometimes the grille of one make of car replaced by another, the 1937 Buick grille was often used on a Ford. In the 1950s and 1960s, the swap of choice was the 1953 De Soto. With the change in design to encase the wheels in fenders and to extend the hood to the full width of the car. In addition, there was tremendous automotive advertising and subsequent public interest in the new models in the 1950s. Hence custom cars came into existence, swapping headlamp rings, grilles, bumpers, chrome side strips, and tail lights, as well as frenching and tunnelling head- and taillights. The bodies of the cars were changed by cutting through the metal, removing bits to make the car lower, welding it back together. By this means, chopping made the lower, sectioning made the body thinner from top to bottom. Channeling was cutting notches in the floorpan where the body touches the frame to lower the whole body, fins were often added from other cars, or made up from sheet steel. In the custom car culture, someone who changed the appearance without also substantially improving the performance was looked down upon. More recently, Juxtapoz Magazine, founded by the artist Robert Williams, has covered Kustom Kulture art, Custom cars are distinct from cars in stock condition. Builders may adopt the visual and performance characteristics of some relevant modification styles, there are now several different custom themes, including, Rat rod, imitates the unfinished and amateur-built appearance of hot rods of the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s Restomod - restored and modernized
27.
Cadillac
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Cadillac /ˈkædᵻlæk/, formally the Cadillac Motor Car Division, is a division of the U. S. -based General Motors that markets luxury vehicles worldwide. Its primary markets are the United States, Canada, and China, historically, Cadillac automobiles have always held a place at the top of the luxury field within the United States. In 2016, Cadillacs U. S. sales were 170,006 vehicles, Cadillac is among the oldest automobile brands in the world, second in America only to fellow GM marque Buick. The firm was founded from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company in 1902 and it was named after Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, who founded Detroit, Michigan. The Cadillac crest is based on his coat of arms, by the time General Motors purchased the company in 1909, Cadillac had already established itself as one of Americas premier luxury carmakers. The complete interchangeability of its parts had allowed it to lay the foundation for the modern mass production of automobiles. It was at the forefront of advances, introducing full electrical systems, the clashless manual transmission. The brand developed three engines, with its V8 setting the standard for the American automotive industry and it won the trophy again in 1912 for incorporating electric starting and lighting in a production automobile. Cadillac was formed from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company, after a dispute between Henry Ford and his investors, Ford left the company along with several of his key partners in March 1902. Instead, Leland persuaded the pair to continue manufacturing automobiles using Lelands proven single-cylinder engine, a new company called the Cadillac Automobile Company was established on 22 August 1902, re-purposing the Henry Ford Company factory at Cass Street and Amsterdam Avenue. It was named after French explorer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, Cadillacs first automobiles, the Runabout and Tonneau, were completed in October 1902. They were two-seat horseless carriages powered by a 10 hp single-cylinder engine and they were practically identical to the 1903 Ford Model A. Cadillac displayed the new vehicles at the New York Auto Show in January 1903, Cadillacs biggest selling point was precision manufacturing, and therefore, reliability, a Cadillac was simply a better-made vehicle than its competitors. Runabout Rear-entrance tonneau Special bodies The Cadillac Automobile Company merged with Leland & Faulconer Manufacturing, forming The Cadillac Motor Company in 1905. From its earliest years, Cadillac aimed for precision engineering and stylish luxury finishes, Cadillac was the first volume manufacturer of a fully enclosed car in 1906. Cadillac participated in the 1908 interchangeability test in the United Kingdom, in 1912, Cadillac was the first automobile manufacturer to incorporate an electrical system enabling starting, ignition, and lighting. Cadillac was purchased by the General Motors conglomerate in 1909, Cadillac became General Motors prestige division, devoted to the production of large luxury vehicles. It was positioned at the top of GMs vehicle hierarchy, above Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland, in 1915, Cadillac introduced a 90-degree flathead V8 engine with 70 horsepower at 2400 rpm and 180 pound force-feet of torque, allowing its cars to attain 65 miles per hour
28.
Sombrero
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Sombrero in English refers to a type of wide-brimmed hat popularly worn in Mexico, used to shield from the sun. It usually has a pointed crown, an extra-wide brim. Cowboys generalized the word to mean just about any wide broad-brimmed hat, sombreros, like the cowboy hats invented later, were designed in response to the demands of the physical environment. The concept of a hat worn by a rider on horseback can be seen as far back as the Mongolian horsemen of the 13th century. In hot, sunny climates hats evolved to have wide brims, the Spanish developed a flat-topped sombrero, which they brought to Mexico. It was modified by the vaquero into the round-crowned Mexican sombrero, other types of hats known as sombrero can be found in South America and Spain, including the sombrero calañés, sombrero cordobés and sombrero de catite, sombrero vueltiao. Many early Texan cowboys adopted the Spanish and Mexican sombrero with its crown and wide. Also called the poblano, these came from Spain. The Mexican variation of the added an even wider brim. These are the hats worn by musicians and charros. Both types of sombreros usually include a barboquejo or chin strap, in the Western United States, the sombrero had a high conical or cylindrical crown with a saucer-shaped brim, highly embroidered and made of plush felt. Sombreros are also present in Philippine history, due to the influence from Spain brought about by the Manila galleon trade, the term has been assimilated into the Tagalog language in the form of sumbrero and now refers to any hat – from actual sombreros to baseball caps. The galaxy Messier 104 is known as the Sombrero Galaxy due to its appearance, in 2016, colleges and other venues criticized students for wearing sombreros, along with other ethnic clothing and traditions, citing cultural appropriation. Boss of the plains Chupalla Ranch Vaquero Western wear Sun hat
29.
Oldsmobile
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Oldsmobile was a brand of American automobiles produced for most of its existence by General Motors. Olds Motor Vehicle Co. was founded by Ransom E. Olds in 1897, in its 107-year history, it produced 35.2 million cars, including at least 14 million built at its Lansing, Michigan factory. When it was phased out in 2004, Oldsmobile was the oldest surviving American automobile marque, though it was discontinued in 2004, it still remains an active trademark of the General Motors Company. The closing of the Oldsmobile division presaged a larger consolidation of GM brands, Oldsmobiles were first manufactured by the Olds Motor Vehicle Co. in Lansing, Michigan, a company founded by Ransom E. Olds in 1897. In 1901, the company produced 425 cars, making it the first high-volume gasoline-powered automobile manufacturer, Oldsmobile became the top selling car company in the United States for a few years around 1903-4. Ransom Olds left the company in 1904 because of a dispute, the 1901 to 1904 Oldsmobile Curved Dash was the first mass-produced car, made from the first automotive assembly line, an invention that is often miscredited to Henry Ford and the Ford Motor Company. By March 1901, the company had a line of models ready for mass production. However, a mistake by a worker caused the factory to catch fire, the only car that survived the fire was a Curved Dash prototype, which was wheeled out of the factory by two workers while escaping the fire. A new factory was built in Lansing, and production of the Curved Dash commenced, officially, the cars were called Olds automobiles, but were colloquially referred to as Oldsmobiles. It was this moniker, as applied especially to the Curved Dash Olds, the last Oldsmobile Curved Dash was made in 1907. General Motors purchased the company in 1908, the 1910 Limited Touring was a high point for the company. Riding atop 42-inch wheels, and equipped with white tires. The Limited retailed for US$4,600, an amount greater than the purchase of a new, buyers received goatskin upholstery, a 60 hp 707 CID straight-six engine, Bosch Magneto starter, running boards and room for five. Options included a speedometer, clock, and a glass windshield. A limousine version was priced at $5,800, in 1926, the Oldsmobile Six came in five body styles, and ushered in a new GM bodystyle platform called the GM B platform, shared with Buick products. In 1929, as part of General Motors companion make program, Oldsmobile introduced the higher standard Viking brand, Viking was discontinued already at the end of the 1930 model year although an additional 353 cars were marketed as 1931 models. This transmission features a conventional clutch pedal, which the driver presses before selecting either low or high range, in low, the car shifts between first and second gears. In high, the car shifts among first, third and fourth gears, for the 1940 model, Oldsmobile was the first auto manufacturer to offer a fully automatic transmission, called the Hydramatic, which features four forward speeds
30.
BBS Kraftfahrzeugtechnik
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BBS Kraftfahrzeugtechnik AG is a high-performance automobile wheel design company headquartered in Schiltach, Germany. BBS serves North America through BBS of America, located in Braselton, Georgia, BBS produces wheels for motorsport, OEM, and aftermarket applications. The company employs approximately 1,200 employees worldwide, the initials BBS are based on the last names of the two founders and the city in which the company was founded. In 2007 BBS went bankrupt and was taken over by the Belgian firm Punch International, as of July 1st 2015, Nice Corp became the majority owner. In 1972 BBS pioneered the development of a racing wheel. This innovation earned BBS Kraftfahrzeugtechnik the Automechanika Innovation Award 2006 in the tuning segment, BBS entered into a technical cooperation agreement in 1990 with ASA, a Korean company that was starting wheel production. Ltd manufactures the BBS F1 Magnesium wheel and All racing Aluminum wheels, since BBS is a customer of Washibeam, manufacture of the wheel will not be discontinued if BBS goes bankrupt. BBS has and continues to supply OEM wheel applications to a number of automobile brands, lexus began using BBS wheels on its IS-F when launched in 2008, updating the design for the 2010 model year and again for 2012. The cross-spoke design, which resembles a wire wheel and was common on sports cars produced from the 1980s to the early 1990s. This design is light in weight compared to other styles of the time. One of the most popular BBS produced wheels was the three-piece RS released in 1977, another popular and commonly replicated wheel design is the RG, the companys first wheel produced. The company also supplies motorsports applications and is also the largest supplier of wheels for Indy Racing League Series, official website BBS promotional video showing manufacturing processes
31.
2006 FIA Formula One World Championship
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The 2006 Formula One season was the 60th season of FIA Formula One motor racing. It featured the 2006 FIA Formula One World Championship which began on 12 March, the Drivers Championship was won by Fernando Alonso of Renault F1 for the second year in a row, with Alonso becoming the youngest ever double world champion at the time. Then-retiring multiple world champion Michael Schumacher of Scuderia Ferrari finished runner-up,13 points behind, the Constructors Championship was won by Mild Seven Renault F1 Team, which defeated Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro by five points. The season was highlighted by the rivalry between Alonso and Schumacher, who won seven races. Renault and Ferrari drivers dominated the field, victorious in all but one race, during this season for the first time since the 1956 season no British constructor won any race and like 1956, only factory teams won all the races during this year. This season marked the beginning of the usage of 2. 4L V8 engines in Formula One from the 3. 0L V10 engines that were used in the previous seasons, which continued till the end of the 2013 season. The season saw several changes occurring in the market starting already in December 2005 as Alonso sealed a move to McLaren for 2007. Among other notable departures included Juan Pablo Montoya, who left McLaren mid-season to pursue a career in NASCAR, the following teams and drivers competed in the 2006 FIA Formula One World Championship. Four prominent names in the sport disappeared for this season, with Minardi, Sauber, BAR and Jordan withdrawing, Minardi were taken over by Red Bull, and named after the Italian for Red Bull, becoming Toro Rosso. The Sauber name remained, although largely as a sentiment, as BMW owned 80% of the team to Peter Saubers 20%, Jordan became MF1 Racing, as Midland started afresh after a disappointing first season under the Jordan name. Late in the season, the team was bought by Spyker, Honda, who already owned a 45% stake in the BAR team, completed their takeover of the team and changed its name to Honda Racing F1 Team at the start of the season. Super Aguri F1 also entered their first season after having problems entering and they received backing from Honda Racing F1 including technology and engines, due to them running Honda driver Takuma Sato. Williams introduced numerous changes for 2006, particularly changing to Cosworth V8 engines after they, Red Bull Racing had Ferrari engines, replacing the Cosworth power which gained them seventh in the standings in 2005. Williams and Toyota changed tyre suppliers to Bridgestone, due to Michelins desire to supply fewer teams in the championship, despite this Toro Rosso who under the Minardi name ran Bridgestone tyres switched to Michelin in line with parent team RBR. Ferrari replaced Michael Schumachers longtime teammate Rubens Barrichello with fellow Brazilian Felipe Massa, Massa had previously tested with Ferrari in 2003. Massa was replaced at the newly renamed BMW Sauber team by Nick Heidfeld, polands Robert Kubica took up the third drivers role at BMW Sauber. Barrichello moved to Honda where he replaced the outgoing Takuma Sato, the Honda-backed Super Aguri team started the season with Sato and Yuji Ide, an all-Japanese driver line up. Franck Montagny moved from his Renault testing role to become Super Aguris third driver and his position at Renault was taken by the GP2 runner-up Heikki Kovalainen
32.
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
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Carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic, is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers. The spelling fibre is common in British Commonwealth countries, the binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used. The composite may contain other fibers, such as an aramid, aluminium, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene or glass fibers, the properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix. The most frequent additive is silica, but other such as rubber. The material is referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer. In product advertisements, it is referred to simply as graphite fiber for short. In this case the composite consists of two parts, a matrix and a reinforcement, in CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a resin, such as epoxy. Because CFRP consists of two elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity, measured by stress, unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber, the following equation, E c = V m E m + V f E f is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0. 5% strain to failure, although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material, One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive, despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, a design limitation of CFRP is its lack of a definable fatigue endurance limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out, environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum. The primary element of CFRP is a filament, this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile, rayon. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers, after drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms, producing the final carbon fiber
33.
Formula One
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Formula One is the highest class of single-seat auto racing that is sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile. The FIA Formula One World Championship has been the form of racing since the inaugural season in 1950. The formula, designated in the name, refers to a set of rules, the F1 season consists of a series of races, known as Grands Prix, held worldwide on purpose-built F1 circuits and public roads. The results of each race are evaluated using a system to determine two annual World Championships, one for drivers, one for constructors. The racing drivers are required to be holders of valid Super Licences, the races are required to be held on tracks graded 1, the highest grade a track can receive by the FIA. Most events are held in locations on purpose-built tracks, but there are several events in city centres throughout the world. Formula One cars are the fastest road racing cars in the world. Formula One cars race at speeds of up to approximately 375 km/h with engines currently limited in performance to a maximum of 15,000 RPM, the cars are capable of lateral acceleration in excess of five g in corners. The performance of the cars is very dependent on electronics – although traction control and other driving aids have been banned since 2008 – and on aerodynamics, suspension, the formula has radically evolved and changed through the history of the sport. F1 had a global television audience of 425 million people during the course of the 2014 season. Grand Prix racing began in 1906 and became the most popular internationally in the second half of the twentieth century. The Formula One Group is the holder of the commercial rights. Its high profile and popularity have created a major merchandising environment, since 2000 the sports spiraling expenditures and the distribution of prize money favoring established top teams have forced complaints from smaller teams and led several teams to bankruptcy. On 23 January 2017 it was confirmed that Liberty Media had completed its $8 billion acquisition of Delta Topco, the Formula One series originated with the European Grand Prix Motor Racing of the 1920s and 1930s. The formula is a set of rules that all cars must meet. Formula One was a new formula agreed upon after World War II during 1946, the first world championship race was held at Silverstone, United Kingdom in 1950. A championship for constructors followed in 1958, national championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s. Non-championship Formula One events were held for years, but due to the increasing cost of competition
34.
Scuderia Ferrari
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Scuderia Ferrari S. p. A. competing as Scuderia Ferrari is the official name of the racing division of luxury Italian auto manufacturer, Ferrari, and competes in Formula One racing. It is the oldest surviving and most successful Formula One team, the team was founded by Enzo Ferrari, initially to race cars produced by Alfa Romeo, though by 1947 Ferrari had begun building its own cars. As a constructor, Ferrari has a record 16 Constructors Championships, Alberto Ascari, Juan Manuel Fangio, Mike Hawthorn, Phil Hill, John Surtees, Niki Lauda, Jody Scheckter, Michael Schumacher and Kimi Räikkönen have won a record 15 Drivers Championships for the team. Since Räikkönens title in 2007 the team narrowly lost out on the 2008 drivers title with Felipe Massa, Schumacher is the teams most successful driver. Joining the team in 1996 and departing in 2006 he won five titles and 72 Grands Prix for the team. His titles came consecutively between 2000 and 2004, including the constructors title of 1999 consecutively being won until the end of 2004, this was the teams most successful period. Currently, World Champions Kimi Räikkönen and Sebastian Vettel are the two race drivers. The team is known for its passionate support base known as the tifosi. The Italian Grand Prix at Monza is regarded as the home race. The Scuderia Ferrari team was founded by Enzo Ferrari on 16 November 1929 and became the team of Alfa Romeo. In 1938, Alfa Romeo management made the decision to enter racing under its own name, establishing the Alfa Corse organisation, Enzo Ferrari disagreed with this change in policy and was finally dismissed by Alfa in 1939. The terms of his leaving forbade him from motorsport under his own name, in 1939 Ferrari started work on a racecar of his own, the Tipo 815. The 815s, designed by Alberto Massimino, were thus the first Ferrari cars, World War II put a temporary end to racing, and Ferrari concentrated on an alternative use for his factory during the war years, doing machine tool work. After the war, Ferrari recruited several of his former Alfa colleagues and established a new Scuderia Ferrari, the team owns and operates a test track on the same site, the Fiorano Circuit built in 1972, which is used for testing road and race cars. The team is named after its founder, Enzo Ferrari, Scuderia is Italian for a stable reserved for racing horses and is also commonly applied to Italian motor racing teams. In 1947 Ferrari constructed the 12-cylinder,1.5 L Tipo 125, a Formula One version of the Tipo 125, the Ferrari 125 F1 was developed in 1948 and entered in several Grand Prix, at the time a World Championship had not yet been established. In 1950, the Formula One World Championship was established, and it is the only team to have competed in every season of the World Championship, from its inception to the current day. The company later switched to the large-displacement naturally aspirated formula for the 275,340, after the 1951 Formula One season the Alfa team withdrew from F1, causing the authorities to adopt the Formula Two regulations due to the lack of suitable F1 cars
35.
2006 Turkish Grand Prix
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The 2006 Turkish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race, held on 27 August 2006. The 58-lap race, which was the round of the 2006 Formula One season. It marked the first race victory, and also the first pole position, for Felipe Massa, Fernando Alonso, who drove for Renault finished the race in second position and Massas teammate Michael Schumacher occupied the final position on the podium. The race was also the first Grand Prix meeting for future world champion Sebastian Vettel. As a consequence of the race, Fernando Alonso extended his lead in the Drivers Championship to 12 points from Michael Schumacher and this basically created a two-horse race for the title in the four remaining rounds. In the Constructors Championship, Ferrari closed the gap to leaders Renault to just two points, McLaren remained in third position, a huge 69 points behind the top two teams. Prior to the Grand Prix weekend, Renaults Fernando Alonso led the Formula One World Drivers Championship on 100 points and he held a ten-point lead over main rival Michael Schumacher, despite retiring from the preceding race in Hungary. Renault led the Constructors Championship with 149 points, seven clear of Ferrari and they were ahead of Honda F1, who sat in fourth with 52 after picking up their first and to be only victory since their return, three weeks before in Hungary. BMW Sauber completed the top five with 26 points, the bottom 6 teams in the 2005 Constructors Championship and Super Aguri were entitled to run a third car in free practice on Friday. These drivers drove on Friday but did not compete in qualifying or the race, in the bottom half of the order, Felipe Massa finished the session 17th and Fernando Alonso 23rd. Neither of the Williams left the garage during the session, Sebastian Vettel impressed many as he set the fastest time in the second free practice session, on his first Grand Prix weekend appearance. The following day however, in qualifying, it was Felipe Massa who set the fastest time, taking the first pole position of his career, the two Renaults occupied the next row with Alonso in front of Fisichella again. Fifth spot was taken up by Ralf Schumachers Toyota, before he was demoted to fifteenth for a gearbox change. This was also true for Christijan Albers, who was taken from a sixteenth place qualifying for the Midland team. Only four hundredths of a second separated Nick Heidfeld, Button, robert Kubica and Mark Webber completed the top ten fastest times, with Christian Klien completing the top ten on the starting grid. The start of the race was affected by a multi-car accident entering the first corner, Massa, Michael Schumacher, Alonso and Fisichella all battled for position entering the first corner, with Fisichella spinning, causing a chain reaction behind him. During the chain reaction, Scott Speed collided with the McLaren of Räikkönen, causing one of Räikkönens rear tyres to puncture. Räikkönen pitted for a new set of tyres, but soon faced a problem due to damaged bodywork, because of this he went straight off the outside of turn 4 and into a barrier
36.
1994 PPG Indy Car World Series
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The 1994 PPG Indy Car World Series season was the 16th national championship season of American open wheel racing sanctioned by CART. The season consisted of 16 races, Al Unser, Jr. was the national champion, his second CART title, and the rookie of the year was Jacques Villeneuve. The 1994 Indianapolis 500 was sanctioned by USAC, but counted towards the CART points championship, Al Unser, Jr. won the Indy 500 from the pole position, his second career victory in that event. Marlboro Team Penske dominated the 1994 CART season, winning 12 of 16 events including the Indianapolis 500. The three-car team of Al Unser, Jr. Emerson Fittipaldi, the Penske Team also made headlines during the month of May, when they unveiled the new Ilmor Mercedes-Benz 500I engine. The secretly-built,209 in³ displacement purpose-built pushrod engine, which was capable of nearly 1,000 horsepower was constructed specifically for the Indy 500, the season opener was won by Michael Andretti on his return to IndyCar racing after his unsuccessful season in Formula One. The rest of the 1994 season was dominated by Team Penskes PC-23 chassis, Penske driver Al Unser, Jr. took the title. The Rookie of the Year title was taken by young Canadian Jacques Villeneuve, veteran Mario Andretti retired at the end of the season. Another major story started before the season and this was nearly identical to NASCAR, which at the time had all American drivers and just two races on road courses. The 1994 IndyCar season schedule featured six oval track races and eleven full-time drivers were from the United States, ABC Sports Paul Page said during the broadcast of the race at Surfers Paradise that this announcement, could drastically affect what we know as IndyCar racing in the future. Newman/Haas Nigel Mansell was expected to once again. He was viewed as the greatest racer in the world at the time and his teammate Mario Andretti announced before the season that it would be his last, though he would later attempt Le Mans a few times. Newman-Haas would continue to be the leading Lola team, using the new T9400, defecting from Galles Racing after a disappointing 1993 campaign left him with just one win and 7th in the standings. Penske changed to the new Ilmor engine in association with Mercedes-Benz rather than Chevrolet, customer team Bettenhausen Motorsports with driver Stefan Johansson received the year-old PC-22 chassis as Penske began to utilise the new PC-23. Rahal-Hogan Racing tackled a project, the new Honda engine. Team leader Bobby Rahal and teammate Mike Groff would face a great challenge enduring the growing pains of the new engine. Fledging Comptech Racing with rookie Parker Johnstone would be the other entrant in 1994 to use the Honda engine, so Rahal. Dick Simon Racing had a successful 1993 campaign with veteran Raul Boesel and his new teammate would be Japanese Hiro Matsushita, replacing Scott Brayton who joined Team Menard
37.
Oval track racing
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Oval track racing is a form of closed-circuit automobile racing that is contested on an oval-shaped track. An oval track differs from a course in that the layout resembles an oval with turns in only one direction. Oval tracks are dedicated motorsport circuits, used predominantly in North America and they often have banked turns and some, despite the name, are not precisely oval, and can have unique variances in shape. Oval track racing is the predominant form of racing in the United States. Major forms of track racing include stock car racing, open-wheel racing, sprint car racing, modified car racing, midget car racing. Among the most famous tracks in North America are the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. Oval tracks are classified based upon their size, surface, and their size can range from only a few hundred feet to over two and a half miles. Track surfaces can be dirt, concrete, asphalt, or a combination of concrete, some ovals in the early twentieth century had wood surfaces. The definitions used to differentiate track sizes have changed over the years, while some tracks use terms such as speedway or superspeedway in their name, they may not meet the specific definitions used in this article. A typical oval track consists of two parallel straights, connected by two 180° turns, although most ovals generally have only two radii curves, they are usually advertised and labeled as four 90° turns. A short track is a track less than one mile long. Drivers seeking careers in track racing generally serve their apprenticeship on short tracks before moving up to series which compete on larger tracks. Due to their length and fast action, these tracks are often nicknamed bullrings. Professional-level NASCAR races on short tracks usually utilize a 500-lap or 400-lap distance, short tracks in many cases have lights installed and routinely host night races. Synonymous with the name, a 1-mile oval is a popular, the exact measurements, however, can vary by as much as a tenth of a mile and still fall into that category. Most mile ovals are relatively flat-banked, with Dover being a notable exception, also referred to with the general term of speedway, these courses are 1 to 2 miles in length, but the term is particularly reserved for 1. 5-mile tracks. Since their size allows them to high speeds with sightlines. During the race track construction boom of the 1990s, these began to be labeled with the rather derogatory term cookie cutter tracks
38.
Team Penske
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Team Penske is an American professional stock car racing and open wheel racing team that currently competes in the IndyCar Series, the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series, and the Xfinity Series. Debuting at the 196624 Hours of Daytona, the team has competed in various other types of professional racing such as Can Am, Trans Am. Team Penske is a division of Penske Corporation, and is owned and chaired by Roger Penske, the team president is Tim Cindric. Penske has been involved with IndyCar racing since 1968, when they first fielded a stock block-powered Eagle with Mark Donohue, the team first competed at Indianapolis in 1969, and within three years had become the team to beat, winning the race with Donohue in 1972. Penske Racing has 1,463 starts in IndyCar races,231 pole positions,71 wins from pole,47 double wins of which 8 are 1–2–3 finishes from the Pocono race on June 26,1977, to January 1,2015. In 2001, team Penske marked its return to the Indy 500 after an absence due to the open wheel split. Later, in 2001 Roger Penske announced he would leave CART for the IRL IndyCar Series, Castroneves has won the Indianapolis 500 three times, as well as other CART and IRL races with Team Penske. Sam Hornish Jr. is the 2006 Indianapolis 500 winner and the IndyCar Series Champion and his 2001 and 2002 championships were with Panther Racing, prior to joining Team Penske. Juan Pablo Montoya is the 2015 Indianapolis 500 winner and the leader in the championship with 2 wins in the season. Since 2007, the IndyCar Series cars have carried Team Penske insignia, for 2009, Cellco Partnership, a joint venture of Verizon and Vodafone, joined Exxon Mobil as associate sponsors, and the team will be billed as Verizon Championship Racing. In 2010, Phillip Morris USA discontinued their relationship with Team Penske, the team subsequently changed their livery to black and white, reflecting Verizon sponsorship. Team Penske became a team for the first time since 1994. Roger Penske announced a switch to Chevrolet powerplants for the 2012 IndyCar Series season, Briscoe would have struggles throughout the season, but managed to find victory lane at Sonoma. However, Power would come up short in the championship after a crash at the season finale, Briscoe left the team after 2012 for other opportunities. In 2014, Will Power took the IndyCar Championship for Team Penske after 3 concurrent runner up finishes in 2011-2013. Power got a win at the Grand Prix of Indianapolis in the 5th race of the season and just 2 weeks later, Juan Pablo Montoya would loose the championship in the final race on a tie-breaker to Scott Dixon. Team Penske would go on to dominate 2016, filling the top 3 positions in the final standings, capping the season with a dominating race victory, Simon Pagenaud won his first IndyCar championship, becoming the ninth Penske driver to be crowned champion. Roger Penske’s organization claimed its 14th such title and its second in three years, Penskes 1994 IndyCar World Series Championship was one of, if not the most dominating performance from a race team in history of American open wheel racing
39.
2007 British Grand Prix
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The 2007 British Grand Prix was the ninth race of the 2007 Formula One season. It was held on 8 July 2007 at the Silverstone Circuit, the race was won by Kimi Räikkönen after overtaking pole position driver Lewis Hamilton during the first round of pit stops. Second place was taken by Fernando Alonso and Hamilton was third, following British driver Lewis Hamiltons win at the 2007 Canadian Grand Prix, circuit director Richard Phillips reported that ticket sales had gone through the roof. Phillips added, we havent seen this level of interest since Mansell-mania in the late 80s, the FIA are launching their own investigation into the matter, but stress that their investigation will only involve matters of the Formula One rules and regulations. In another element of the activities, the Red Bull cars of David Coulthard. More than 30,000 fans pledged money and uploaded images to the teams website, the goal was to raise €1 million. This would be repeated again at the 2012 British Grand Prix, preparations for the race began on 19 June, when the teams began testing at Silverstone. During the first days testing Ralf Schumacher set the fastest time, in contrast the two top constructors, McLaren and Ferrari, set about testing new parts and developments on their cars. This testing was undertaken by their respective test drivers, Pedro de la Rosa, spyker brought a new chassis to the test and raced it for the first time, with Adrián Vallés and Giedo van der Garde taking the car around the track for 64 laps. Nick Heidfeld ended his test session early after complaining of back problems, in day two of testing it was Jarno Trullis turn to take the Toyota car around Silverstone, and managed to set the fastest time before the session was slowed down by showers. While Ferrari continued to test new parts to their car, this time with Kimi Räikkönen taking to the seat, McLaren stuck with Pedro de la Rosa and worked on the set up. Day three saw Toyota drop down from taking the fastest times to take the fifth fastest time on a damp track. Felipe Massa was the fastest man on the track after 87 laps of the British circuit testing various aerodynamic, the leading GP2 driver Timo Glock took to the circuit with BMW Sauber up against ex-rival Nelson Piquet Jr. who was driving with Renault. Piquet Jr. made the fourth fastest time, more than a second faster than Glock, the first Friday practice was dominated as per many of the previous Grand Prix of the season, with Ferrari and McLaren taking the top 4 times. Lewis Hamilton took the top time at his home Grand Prix, both McLaren drivers spun their cars at different parts of the test, and they were not the only to do so. Other such drivers included Robert Kubica, David Coulthard, Adrian Sutil, Trulli and Massa, who all spun their vehicles on the greasy, Davidson outpaced his British counterpart Jenson Button in the works Honda by half a second. Button, who suffered a back injury in a shunt in the United States Grand Prix. Toyota returned to previous testing form in the session, putting their drivers in with the McLaren drivers
40.
2010 FIA Formula One World Championship
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The 2010 Formula One season was the 64th season of FIA Formula One motor racing. In doing so, Vettel became the youngest World Drivers Champion in the sports sixty-year history and this was Bridgestones final season as the sole tyre supplier in Formula One as the company announced that it would not renew its contract at the end of the season. After several months of deliberation, Pirelli was chosen as the supplier for the 2011 season at the FIA World Motor Sport Council meeting in Geneva. The points system was changed, with 25 points being awarded for first place,18 for second,15 for third, the technical and sporting regulations applicable for the season were the subject of much debate. The 2010 season saw the return of the most successful driver in Formula One history, the seasons first race was held on 14 March in Bahrain and the season concluded on 14 November in the United Arab Emirates after 19 motor races held in 18 countries on five continents. The following teams and drivers competed in the 2010 FIA Formula One World Championship, with the withdrawal of BMW and Toyota, engine diversity in Formula One dropped to a 30-year low, with just four engine producers powering the entire grid, the lowest since 1980. Four new teams joined the grid, Mercedes, Lotus Racing, Virgin Racing, the existing F1 teams, under the FOTA organisation, are understood to have agreed a system of technical support to assist new teams. This compromise proposal would involve the supply of parts and design knowledge to the new entrants, following the withdrawal of BMW Sauber, Lotus Racing was accepted to the grid. Experienced sports car and touring car entrant Ray Mallock Limited had intended to submit an entry bid, of the most interest to the media was Stefan Grand Prix, created by Zoran Stefanovic and hailed as Serbias first Formula 1 team. Stefan claimed to have acquired the remains of Toyotas abandoned TF110 chassis and engine and had access to Toyota Motorsports former headquarters in Cologne, Stefan was finally rejected on 4 March when the FIA stated that it was not possible to issue entries so close to the season opener. BMW announced on 29 July 2009 their withdrawal from Formula One at the end of the 2009 Formula One season, after a failed buy out from Qadbak Investments, the team was sold back to Peter Sauber. The FIA officially accepted the team to the 2010 grid under the name BMW Sauber on 3 December, Toyota withdrew from Formula One on 4 November 2009, due to economic hardship. After announcing they would not sell the team on, their grid slot went to the Sauber team, then, Stefan Grand Prix claimed that they had acquired rights to the Toyota Motorsports former headquarters in Cologne and the TF110 that was renamed Stefan S-01. Scuderia Toro Rosso became an independent constructor in 2010, after having their chassis supplied by the Red Bull Technologies design studio for the first years of racing and this had allowed the team to purchase customer chassis, despite the concept being banned by the FIA. Daimler AG, parent company of Mercedes-Benz, bought a 75. 1% controlling stake in the 2009 champions Brawn GP, renaming the team Mercedes Grand Prix. Mercedess former 40% stake in the McLaren Group will be purchased back by McLaren, although Mercedes will continue to supply McLaren engines and sponsorship until the end of the 2014 season. Mercedes signed a deal with Petronas, with the Malaysian petroleum company ending its association with BMW Sauber. Renault had sold Gerard Lopez and his Genii Capital investment company a 75% majority shareholding, the team will continue to operate under the Renault name and the engine department remains under full Renault ownership
41.
2011 FIA Formula One World Championship
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The 2011 Formula One season was the 65th season of FIA Formula One motor racing. Pirelli returned to the sport as tyre supplier for all teams, Red Bull Racing was the reigning Constructors Champion. Red Bull Racings Sebastian Vettel was the defending Drivers Champion, one of five World Champions appearing on the grid, Vettel won his second World Championship at the 2011 Japanese Grand Prix, becoming the youngest driver, at 24 years and 98 days, to do so. Red Bull Racing won the Constructors Championship, the new agreement provides for a continuation of the terms of the 1998 agreement, and runs until 31 December 2012. The FIA published an entry list on 30 November 2010. The team was subsequently renamed Sahara Force India Hispania announced several partnerships in November 2010. In July 2011, Thesan Capital, a Madrid-based investment company purchased a stake in the team from owner José Ramón Carabante. Thesan Capital announced the operations would continue as they had before the purchase. The use of the Team Lotus name led to a dispute with Lotus Cars. The team announced that they had terminated their contract with engine supplier Cosworth. In March 2011, it was announced that Infiniti, the brand of Japanese car manufacturer Nissan of whom Renault own a 44% stake. However, contradictory to early reports, the arrangement with Infiniti had not extended to an engine re-branding, BMW Sauber announced in July 2010 that it will revert to the name Sauber in 2011. The team was forced to retain the BMW naming for 2010 due to issues involving television rights money that would not have paid had the team changed their name. AirAsia officially left Williams F1 to concentrate on Team Lotus, further reports confirmed that Marussia had purchased a controlling stake in the team, securing their future until 2014. The team split with Wirth Research mid-season after a review by former Renault F1 Team engineering director Pat Symonds found that Virgins CFD-only approach had failed. DAMS GP2 driver Jérôme dAmbrosio replaced Lucas di Grassi at Virgin Racing, having driven for the team during Friday practice sessions at selected events in 2010. Di Grassi did not have his contract with Virgin Racing renewed, DTM champion Paul di Resta replaced Vitantonio Liuzzi at Force India, having previously driven for the team during Friday practice sessions at selected events in 2010. Nico Hülkenberg was dropped by Williams on the eve of the 2010 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, after turning down offers from several teams, including HRT and Virgin, Hülkenberg joined Force India as test and reserve driver
42.
Advertising
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Advertising is an audio or visual form of marketing communication that employs an openly sponsored, nonpersonal message to promote or sell a product, service or idea. Sponsors of advertising are often businesses who wish to promote their products or services, Advertising is differentiated from public relations in that an advertiser usually pays for and has control over the message. It is differentiated from personal selling in that the message is nonpersonal, the actual presentation of the message in a medium is referred to as an advertisement or ad. Commercial ads often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through branding, on the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as direct response advertising. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations. Non-profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a service announcement. Advertising may also be used to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful, in 2015, the world spent an estimate of US$592.43 billion on advertising. Its projected distribution for 2017 is 40. 4% on TV,33. 3% on digital, internationally, the largest advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP. In Latin, ad vertere means to turn toward, egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii, lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, the tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC. In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry of bamboo flutes played to sell candy, advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons, the first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in Les Crieries de Paris, a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve. In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in newspapers in England. However, false advertising and so-called quack advertisements became a problem, thomas J. Barratt from London has been called the father of modern advertising. Working for the Pears Soap company, Barratt created an advertising campaign for the company products. One of his slogans, Good morning, have you used Pears soap. was famous in its day and into the 20th century. Barratt introduced many of the ideas that lie behind successful advertising
43.
Taxicab
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A taxicab, also known as a taxi or a cab, is a type of vehicle for hire with a driver, used by a single passenger or small group of passengers, often for a non-shared ride. A taxicab conveys passengers between locations of their choice, Taxicab is a compound word formed from contractions of taximeter and cabriolet. Taximeter is an adaptation of the German word taxameter, which was itself a variant of the earlier German word, taxe is a German word meaning tax, charge, or scale of charges. The Medieval Latin word, taxa, also means tax or charge, meter is from the Greek metron meaning measure. A cabriolet is a type of carriage, from the French word cabrioler, from Italian capriolare. Both instituted fast and reliable postal services across Europe, the taxicabs of Paris were equipped with the first meters beginning on March 9,1898. They were originally called taxamètres, then renamed taximètres on October 17,1904, horse-drawn for-hire hackney carriage services began operating in both Paris and London in the early 17th century. The first documented public hackney coach service for hire was in London in 1605, in 1625 carriages were made available for hire from innkeepers in London and the first taxi rank appeared on the Strand outside the Maypole Inn in 1636. In 1635 the Hackney Carriage Act was passed by Parliament to legalise horse-drawn carriages for hire, coaches were hired out by innkeepers to merchants and visitors. A further Ordinance for the Regulation of Hackney-Coachmen in London and the places adjacent was approved by Parliament in 1654, a similar service was started by Nicolas Sauvage in Paris in 1637. His vehicles were known as fiacres, as the vehicle depot apparently was opposite a shrine to Saint Fiacre. The hansom cab was designed and patented in 1834 by Joseph Hansom, Hansoms original design was modified by John Chapman and several others to improve its practicability, but retained Hansoms name. These soon replaced the hackney carriage as a vehicle for hire and they quickly spread to other cities in the United Kingdom, as well as continental European cities, particularly Paris, Berlin, and St Petersburg. The cab was introduced to other British Empire cities and to the United States during the late 19th century, being most commonly used in New York City. The first cab service in Toronto, The City, was established in 1837 by Thornton Blackburn, Electric battery-powered taxis became available at the end of the 19th century. Bersey designed a fleet of cabs and introduced them to the streets of London on 19 August 1897. They were soon nicknamed Hummingbirds’ due to the idiosyncratic humming noise they made, in the same year in New York City, the Samuels Electric Carriage and Wagon Company began running 12 electric hansom cabs. The company ran until 1898 with up to 62 cabs operating until it was reformed by its financiers to form the Electric Vehicle Company, the modern taximeter was invented and perfected by a trio of German inventors, Wilhelm Friedrich Nedler, Ferdinand Dencker and Friedrich Wilhelm Gustav Bruhn
44.
Bus
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A bus is a road vehicle designed to carry many passengers. Buses can have a capacity as high as 300 passengers, many types of buses, such as city transit buses and inter-city coaches, charge a fare. Other types, such as elementary or secondary school buses or shuttle buses within a post-secondary education campus do not charge a fare, in many jurisdictions, bus drivers require a special licence above and beyond a regular drivers licence. Horse-drawn buses were used from the 1820s, followed by steam buses in the 1830s, the first internal combustion engine buses, or motor buses, were used in 1895. Recently, interest has been growing in hybrid electric buses, fuel cell buses, as of the 2010s, bus manufacturing is increasingly globalised, with the same designs appearing around the world. Bus is a form of the Latin word omnibus. The first horse-drawn omnibus service was started by a businessman named Stanislas Baudry in the French city of Nantes in 1823, Nantes citizens soon gave the nickname omnibus to the vehicle. The omnibus in Nantes was a success and Baudry moved to Paris, a similar service was introduced in London in 1829. The first mechanically propelled omnibus appeared on the streets of London on 22 April 1833, in parallel to the development of the bus was the invention of the electric trolleybus, typically fed through trolley poles by overhead wires. The Siemens brothers, William in England and Ernst Werner in Germany, sir William first proposed the idea in an article to the Journal of the Society of Arts in 1881 as an. arrangement by which an ordinary omnibus. The first such vehicle, the Electromote, was made by his brother Dr. Ernst Werner von Siemens and presented to the public in 1882 in Halensee, Germany. Although this experimental vehicle fulfilled all the criteria of a typical trolleybus. Max Schiemann opened a trolleybus in 1901 near Dresden, in Germany. Although this system operated only until 1904, Schiemann had developed what is now the standard trolleybus current collection system, in the early days, a few other methods of current collection were used. Leeds and Bradford became the first cities to put trolleybuses into service in Great Britain on 20 June 1911, in Siegerland, Germany, two passenger bus lines ran briefly, but unprofitably, in 1895 using a six-passenger motor carriage developed from the 1893 Benz Viktoria. Another commercial bus line using the same model Benz omnibuses ran for a time in 1898 in the rural area around Llandudno. Daimler also produced one of the earliest motor-bus models in 1898, the vehicle had a maximum speed of 18 kph and accommodated up to 20 passengers, in an enclosed area below and on an open-air platform above. With the success and popularity of bus, Daimler expanded production, selling more buses to companies in London and, in 1899, to Stockholm
45.
Golf cart
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A golf cart is a small vehicle designed originally to carry two golfers and their golf clubs around a golf course or on desert trails with less effort than walking. They are generally around 4 feet wide ×8 feet long ×6 feet high and weigh 900 pounds to 1,000 pounds, most are powered by 4-stroke engines. The price of a cart can range anywhere from under US$1,000 to well over US$20,000 per cart. These factors may include whether or not a fleet of carts is being purchased for a course or a country club, for example. Other factors may include such as equipment requirements, and how many people the cart is meant to transport. With the rise in popularity of golf carts, many golf clubs or country clubs offer storage and this has led to the modification of golf carts to suit use at the particular golf course. Typical modification includes windshields, ball cleaners, cooler trays, upgraded motor or speed controller, originally golf carts were electrically powered, but in time gasoline-powered variants started to occur. The electric variety is now used in communities where their lack of pollutants, lack of noise. These may resemble the golf carts shown above, although some are now being made with all-weather car-like bodies, the minimum age to drive a golf cart is 13 in Georgia, Alabama, California, Kansas, Kentucky, Rhode Island, Vermont, and South Carolina. Other US states, such as Florida, have an age of 14–15 years. Later, he purchased a cart and found that it worked poorly on a golf course, the first electric golf cart was custom made in 1932, but did not gain widespread acceptance. In the 1930s until the 1950s the most widespread use of carts were for those with disabilities who could not walk far. By the mid 1950s the golf cart had gained acceptance with golfers. Merle Williams of Long Beach, California was an innovator of the electric golf cart. He started with knowledge gained from production of electric cars due to World War II gasoline rationing, in 1951 his Marketeer Company began production of an electric golf cart in Redlands, California. E-Z-Go began producing cars in 1954, Cushman in 1955, Club Car in 1958, Taylor-Dunn in 1961, Harley-Davidson in 1963, Yamaha Golf Car in 1979. Max Walker created the first gasoline-powered golf cart The Walker Executive in 1957 and this three-wheeled vehicle was shaped with a Vespa-style front end and, like any golf cart, carried two passengers and bags. In 1963, the Harley Davidson Motor Company began producing golf cars, over the years they manufactured and distributed thousands of three and four-wheeled gas and electric vehicles that are still highly sought after
46.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
47.
Powertrain
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In a motor vehicle, the term powertrain or powerplant describes the main components that generate power and deliver it to the road surface, water, or air. This includes the engine, transmission, drive shafts, differentials, more recently in hybrid Powertrains the battery, the electric motor and the control algorithm are also seen as elements of the Powertrain. Usually powertrain is used to refer to simply the engine and transmission, a motor vehicles driveline or drivetrain consists of the parts of the powertrain excluding the engine and transmission. It is the portion of a vehicle, after the transmission, in a wider sense, the power-train includes all of its components used to transform stored energy into kinetic energy for propulsion purposes. This includes the utilization of power sources and non–wheel-based vehicles. The most recent developments in powertrain are driven by the electrification of it in multiple components, electrical energy needs to be provided, usually this leads to larger batteries. Electrical engines can be found as isolated component or as part of other elements, in hybrid Powertrains the torque generated by the combustion engine and the electric motor have to be brought together and distributed to the wheels. The control of process can be quite involved but the reward are greatly improved acceleration values as well as much better emissions. Powertrain development for diesel engines involves the following, exhaust gas recirculation, changes also include new fuel qualities to allow new combustion concepts. So-called combined combustion systems or diesotto cycles are based on synthetic fuels, bEVs, FCEVs and PHEV powertrains are expected to reach parity with ICE powertrains in 2025. The manufacturing of components and systems is important to industry, including the automotive. In turn these requirements have led to designs involving higher internal pressures, greater instantaneous forces, the resulting designs in turn impose significantly more severe requirements on parts shape and dimension, and material surface flatness, waviness, roughness, and porosity. Quality control over these parameters is achieved through metrology technology applied to all of the steps in powertrain manufacturing processes, in automotive manufacturing, the frame plus the running gear makes the chassis. Later, a body, which is not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. Commercial vehicle manufacturers may have only and cowl and chassis versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies. These include buses, motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, the frame plus the body makes a glider. The final drive is the last in the set of components which delivers torque to the drive wheels, in a road vehicle, it incorporates the differential. In a railway vehicle, it incorporates the reversing gear
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