1.
Inuit
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Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada and Alaska. Inuit is a noun, the singular is Inuk. The Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo-Aleut family, Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate spoken in Nunavut. In the United States and Canada, the term Eskimo was commonly used to describe the Inuit and Alaskas Yupik, however, Inuit is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo is the only term that includes Yupik, Iñupiat and Inuit. However, aboriginal peoples in Canada and Greenlandic Inuit view Eskimo as pejorative, in Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classified the Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the Inuit Nunangat, in the United States, the Iñupiat live primarily on the Alaska North Slope and on Little Diomede Island. The Greenlandic Inuit are descendants of migrations from Canada. In the 21st century they are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union, Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 CE. They had split from the related Aleut group about 4,000 years ago and from northeastern Siberian migrants, possibly related to the Chukchi language group and they spread eastwards across the Arctic. They displaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture, Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as giants, people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as dwarfs, researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked the dogs, larger weapons and other technologies of the Inuit society, which gave the latter an advantage. By 1300, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled, faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded. They were thought to have become extinct as a people by about 1400 or 1500. But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at Native Point, the Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–03, when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as a people. In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples and it also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition. In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies, in Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the Arctic tree line, the effective southern border of Inuit society. The most southern officially recognized Inuit community in the world is Rigolet in Nunatsiavut, south of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of the southern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditional transhumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. The Nunatukavummuit people usually moved among islands and bays on a seasonal basis and they did not establish stationary communities
2.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
3.
Labrador Sea
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The Labrador Sea is an arm of the North Atlantic Ocean between the Labrador Peninsula and Greenland. The sea is flanked by continental shelves to the southwest, northwest and it connects to the north with Baffin Bay through the Davis Strait. It has been described as a sea of the Atlantic. The sea formed upon separation of the North American Plate and Greenland Plate that started about 60 million years ago, the Labrador Sea formed upon separation of the North American Plate and Greenland Plate that started about 60 million years ago and stopped about 40 million years ago. A sedimentary basin, which is now buried under the continental shelves, onset of magmatic sea-floor spreading was accompanied by volcanic eruptions of picrites and basalts in the Paleocene at the Davis Strait and Baffin Bay. Between about 500 BC and 1300 AD, the southern coast of the sea contained Dorset, Beothuk and Inuit settlements, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Labrador Sea as follows, On the North, the South limit of Davis Strait. On the East, a line from Cape St. Francis 47°45′N 52°27′W to Cape Farewell, thence a line joining this ledge with the East extreme of Cape St. Charles in Labrador. The Labrador Sea is about 3,400 m deep and 1,000 km wide where it joins the Atlantic Ocean and it becomes shallower, to less than 700 m towards Baffin Bay and passes into the 300 kilometres wide Davis Strait. A 100–200 m deep turbidity current channel system, which is about 2–5 km wide and 3,800 kilometres long, runs on the bottom of the sea and it is called the Northwest Atlantic Mid-Ocean Channel and is one of the worlds longest drainage systems of Pleistocene age. It appears as a river bed with numerous tributaries and is maintained by high-density turbidity currents flowing within the levees. The water temperature varies between −1 °C in winter and 5–6 °C in summer, the salinity is relatively low, at 31–34.9 parts per thousand. Two-thirds of the sea is covered in ice in winter, tides are semi-diurnal, reaching 4 m. There is a water circulation in the sea. It is initiated by the East Greenland Current and continued by the West Greenland Current, then, the Baffin Island Current and Labrador Current transport cold and less saline water southward along the Canadian coast. These currents carry numerous icebergs and therefore hinder navigation and exploration of the gas fields beneath the sea bed. The speed of the Labrador current is typically 0. 3–0.5 m/s, the Labrador Current maintains the water temperature at 0 °C and salinity between 30 and 34 parts per thousand. The NADW consists of three parts of different origin and salinity, and the top one, the Labrador Sea Water, is formed in the Labrador Sea. This part occurs at a depth and has a relatively low salinity, low temperature and high oxygen content compared to the layers above
4.
Hudson Bay
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Hudson Bay is a large body of saltwater in northeastern Canada with a surface area of 1,230,000 square kilometres. Hudson Bays southern arm is called James Bay, the Eastern Cree name for Hudson and James Bay is Wînipekw or Wînipâkw, meaning muddy or brackish water. Lake Winnipeg is similarly named by the local Cree, as is the location for the city of Winnipeg, Hudson Bay encompasses 1,230,000 square kilometres, making it the second-largest bay in the world. The bay is shallow and is considered an epicontinental sea. It is about 1,370 km long and 1,050 km wide, on the east it is connected with the Atlantic Ocean by Hudson Strait, on the north, with the Arctic Ocean by Foxe Basin, and Fury and Hecla Strait. Geographic coordinates, 78° to 95° W, 51° to 70° N. Hudson Bay is part of the North Atlantic Ocean, sometimes the Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait basins are considered part of the Arctic Ocean even though their waters flow predominantly to the Atlantic. Some sources describe Hudson Bay as a sea of the Atlantic Ocean. English explorers and colonists named Hudson Bay after Sir Henry Hudson who explored the bay beginning August 2,1610 on his ship Discovery. On his fourth voyage to North America, Hudson worked his way around Greenlands west coast and into the bay, Discovery became trapped in the ice over the winter, and the crew survived onshore at the southern tip of James Bay. When the ice cleared in the spring, Hudson wanted to explore the rest of the area and they left Hudson and others adrift in a small boat. No one knows the fate of Hudson or the crew members stranded with him, in 1668, Nonsuch reached the bay and traded for beaver pelts, leading to the creation of the Hudsons Bay Company which still bears the historic name. The HBC negotiated a trading monopoly from the British crown for the Hudson Bay watershed, called Ruperts Land, france contested this grant by sending several military expeditions to the region, but abandoned its claim in the Treaty of Utrecht. See Anglo-French conflicts on Hudson Bay, during this period, the Hudsons Bay Company built several forts and trading posts along the coast at the mouth of the major rivers. The strategic locations were bases for inland exploration, more importantly, they were trading posts with the indigenous peoples who came to them with furs from their trapping season. The HBC shipped the furs to Europe and continued to use these posts until the beginning of the 20th century, the port of Churchill is still an important shipping link for trade with Europe and Russia. HBCs trade monopoly was abolished in 1870, and it ceded Ruperts Land to Canada, starting in 1913, the Bay was extensively charted by the Canadian Governments CSS Acadia to develop it for navigation. This mapping progress led to the establishment of Churchill, Manitoba as a port for wheat exports in 1929. Due to a change in naming conventions, Hudsons Bay is now called Hudson Bay, as a result, the names of the body of water and the company are often mistaken for one another
5.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
6.
Baffin Island
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Baffin Island, in the Canadian territory of Nunavut, is the largest island in Canada and the fifth largest island in the world. Its area is 507,451 km2 and its population is about 11,000 and it is located 65.4215 N and 70.9654 W. Iqaluit, the capital of Nunavut, is located on the southeastern coast. Until 1987, the town shared the name Frobisher Bay with the bay on which it is located, to the south lies Hudson Strait, separating Baffin Island from mainland Quebec. South of the end of the island is the Fury. To the east are Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, with Greenland beyond, the Foxe Basin, the Gulf of Boothia and Lancaster Sound separate Baffin Island from the rest of the archipelago to the west and north. The Baffin Mountains run along the shore of the island and are a part of the Arctic Cordillera. Mount Odin is the highest peak, with an elevation of at least 2,143 m, another peak of note is Mount Asgard, located in Auyuittuq National Park, with an elevation of 2,011 m. Mount Thor, with an elevation of 1,675 m, is said to have the greatest purely vertical drop of any mountain on Earth, the two largest lakes on the island lie in the south-central part of the island, Nettilling Lake and Amadjuak Lake further south. Conversely, in the 1970s parts of Baffin Island failed to have the usual ice-free period in the summer, the island has been continuously inhabited by Inuit peoples for centuries. In September 2008, Nunatsiaq News reported that a team led by Dr, so you have to consider the possibility that as remote as it may seem, these finds may represent evidence of contact with Europeans prior to the Vikings arrival in Greenland. Dr Sutherlands research eventually led to a 2012 announcement that whetstones had been found remnants of alloys indicative of Viking presence. The archaeological site at Tanfield Valley is thought to have been a trading post, Baffin Island is part of the Qikiqtaaluk Region. Additionally, the communities of Qikiqtarjuaq and Cape Dorset are located on offshore islands, there are discussions to start the Baffinland Iron Mine, an iron ore mine with a 21-year life, at Mary River, and to build a railway and a port to transport the ore. This may create a mining community there. Baffin Island has both year-round and summer visitor wildlife, on land, examples of year-round wildlife are barren-ground caribou, polar bear, Arctic fox, Arctic hare, lemming and Arctic wolf. In 2012, a survey of caribou herds found that the population was only about 5000. Polar bears mate approximately every year with one to three cubs being born around March. Female polar bears may travel 10–20 km inland to find a large snow bank where they dig a den in which to spend the winter and later for giving birth, the polar bear population here is one of 19 genetically distinct demes of the circumpolar region
7.
Nunavik
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Nunavik comprises the northern third of the province of Quebec, Canada in Kativik, part of the Nord-du-Québec region. Covering a land area of 443,684.71 km2 north of the 55th parallel, Nunavik means great land in the local dialect of Inuktitut and the Inuit inhabitants of the region call themselves Nunavimmiut. Until 1912, the region was part of the District of Ungava of the Northwest Territories, negotiations for regional autonomy and resolution of outstanding land claims took place in the 2000s. The seat of government would be Kuujjuaq, negotiations on better empowering Inuit political rights in their land are still ongoing. A flag for Nunavik was proposed by Nunavik artist and graphic designer Thomassie Mangiok during an April 2013 Plan Nunavik consultation in Ivujivik, the proposal was announced in the meeting and then through Nunatsiaq News, the explanation of design was also made available on YouTube. Nunavik is a vast territory, larger than the U. S. state of California and it lies in both the Arctic and subarctic climate zones. All together, about 12,000 people live in Nunaviks communities, Nunavik is separated from the territory of Nunavut by Hudson Bay to the west and Hudson Strait and Ungava Bay to the north. Nunavik shares a border with the Côte-Nord region of Quebec and the Labrador region of the province of Newfoundland, the Ungava Peninsula forms the northern two-thirds of the region. Nunavik has fourteen villages, the vast majority of residents are Inuit. The village population ranges from 2,375 to 195, there is a year-round air link to all villages and seasonal shipping in the summer and autumn. Parts of the interior of southern Nunavik can be reached using several trails which head north from Schefferville, there are three meteor craters in Nunavik, Pingualuit crater, Couture crater, and La Moinerie crater. The climate of Nunavik is a severe one dominated by the long, since this moderation exists in summer when the surrounding sea thaws, even those temperatures are subdued. Inukjuak for example has summer highs averaging just 13 °C with January highs of −21 °C and this is exceptionally cold for a sea-level settlement more than 1/3 from the North Pole en route to the Equator. Annual temperatures are up to 15 °C colder than marine areas of Northern Europe on similar parallels, areas less affected by summertime marine moderation have somewhat warmer temperatures and unlike the west coast, features marginal taiga due to summers being warmer than 10 °C in mean temperatures. Federal government geopolitical manoeuvrings forced several Inuit families to leave Nunavik in the 1950s, eight Inuit families from Inukjuak were relocated after being promised homes and game to hunt, but the relocated people discovered no buildings and very little familiar wildlife. Eventually, the Inuit learned the local beluga whale migration routes and were able to survive in the area, in 1993, the Canadian government held hearings to investigate the relocation program. The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples issued a report the year entitled The High Arctic Relocation. The government paid $10 million CAD to the survivors and their families, the whole story is told in Melanie McGraths The Long Exile, A Tale of Inuit Betrayal and Survival in the High Arctic
8.
Cape Chidley
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Cape Chidley is a headland located on the eastern shore of Killiniq Island, Canada at the northeastern tip of the Labrador Peninsula. Cape Chidley was named by English explorer John Davis on August 1,1587 after his friend, on October 22,1943, the German submarine U-537 landed just south of Cape Chidley and set up Weather Station Kurt to collect data about the weather. Originally, Cape Chidley was meant to be the site for a radar station called N-30. It was to fall within plans for the Pinetree Line, a series of stations across the 50th parallel. Supplies were moved to the site by ship during 1951-52, Cape Chidley is located on the interprovincial boundary between the province of Newfoundland and Labrador and the territory of Nunavut. It forms the northernmost point of Labrador, sometimes spelled Cape Chudleigh, Cape Chidley is sometimes misrepresented as being located on the interprovincial border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador. As such, the northern and western part of Killiniq Island under Nunavuts jurisdiction drains into Ungava Bay, thus Cape Chidley is also the terminus of the Northern Divide, which separates the Arctic Ocean watershed from the Atlantic Ocean watershed. The cape marks the end of the entrance to the Hudson Strait. The closest community to Cape Chidley was Port Burwell, Nunavut, Killiniq Island itself is separated from mainland North America by the narrow McLelan Strait. The Torngat Mountains run along the coast of Labrador and terminate at Killiniq Island, the top of the knoll forming the headland at Cape Chidley has an elevation of 350 m making the cape considerably higher than either of its two flanking headlands. The Cape Chidley Islands lie at the end of the cape
9.
Resolution Island (Nunavut)
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Resolution Island is one of the many uninhabited Canadian Arctic islands in Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut. It is a Baffin Island offshore island located in Hudson Strait and it has an area of 1,015 km2. The Lower Savage Islands lie between Resolution Island and Baffin Island, while Graves Strait separates Resolution Island from the more northern Edgell Island, english explorer Martin Frobisher landed on the island on July 28,1576, while on a voyage to discover the fabled Northwest Passage. However it appears to have been named Resolution in 1612 by Sir Thomas Button, after his own ship, the island was home to an American military base, now CFS Resolution Island, that became operational in 1954 as part of the Distant Early Warning line. The base was vacated in 1973 and turned over to the Canadian government in 1974, the Canadian cargo ship named MINNA was wrecked on the east side of the island, on 18 August 1974. The vessel was then under charter by the Bedford Institute of Oceanography and was doing scientific surveys at the time of the accident, badly damaged, the crew and scientific equipments were removed. Bad weather swept the vessel in waters where she sank on October 2,1974. This vessel with a length of 275 feets and displacement of 4280 tons was based in Halifax and was on charter with the BIO for hydrographic surveys on the Labrador Coast. The MINNA was built in 1962 and had a crew of 21 men +18 scientists and it was during site investigations between 1987 and 1990 that contamination at the site was first discovered. The contamination originates largely from spills from the equipment, which used polychlorinated biphenyls as insulators. Other pollutants include unused transformer fluids, hydrocarbons, asbestos and heavy metals in the buildings, Resolution Island has been identified as having the highest level of PCB contamination of all former military sites that fall under Indian and Northern Affairs Canada’s responsibility in the North. In 1993 and 1994, a site assessment of the area was completed. As a result, temporary barriers were placed across drainage paths to stop the migration of PCBs into the water, further investigations were done and, in 1997, INAC initiated remediation work with Qikiqtaaluk Corporation. A large-scale remediation plan was developed, in cooperation with Environment Canada, QC, steps were taken at that time to ensure that the contaminants were not posing a risk to humans and wildlife
10.
Martin Frobisher
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Sir Martin Frobisher was an English seaman and privateer who made three voyages to the New World to look for the Northwest Passage. All landed in northeastern Canada, around todays Resolution Island and Frobisher Bay. On his second voyage, Frobisher found what he thought was gold ore, encouraged, Frobisher returned to Canada with an even larger fleet and dug several mines around Frobisher Bay. He carted 1,350 tons of the ore back where, after years of smelting, as an English privateer/pirate, he collected riches from French ships. He was later knighted for his service in repelling the Spanish Armada in 1588,1538, the son of merchant Bernard Frobisher of Altofts, Yorkshire. He was raised in London by a relative, Sir John York, however, some records question the parentage of Frobisher being Bernard, suggesting instead that his father was actually Gregory Frobisher, Esq. also of Altofts, Yorkshire, by his wife, Ann. He first went to sea as a boy in 1544. In 1554 he was captured by the Portuguese and spent some time in captivity and he later became a pirate, operating from a port in southern Ireland. As early as 1560 or 1561, Frobisher had formed a resolution to undertake a voyage in search of a Northwest Passage as a route to India. It took him 5 years to gain funding for his project. He weighed anchor at Blackwall, and, after having received a word from Queen Elizabeth I of England at Greenwich, set sail on 7 June 1576. In a storm, the pinnace was lost and Michael was abandoned, Baffin Island was reached on 18 August 1576, where the expedition met some local Inuit. The boats crew disobeyed, however, and five of Frobishers men were taken captive, after days of searching Frobisher could not recover them, and eventually took hostage the man who had agreed to guide them to see if an exchange for the missing boats crew could be arranged. Frobisher turned homewards, and reached London on 9 October, assayers in London were unimpressed with the ore. Only one out of four experts consulted believed the ore to be gold-bearing, nevertheless, Frobishers backers, led by Michael Lok and the Muscovy Company, used this assessment to lobby for investment for another voyage. The next year, a bigger expedition than the former was fitted out. The Queen sold the Royal Navy ship Ayde to the Company of Cathay, the Company of Cathay was granted a charter from the crown, giving the company the sole right of sailing in every direction but the east. Frobisher was appointed admiral of all lands and waters that might be discovered by him
11.
John Davis (English explorer)
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John Davis or Davys was one of the chief English navigators of Elizabeth I. He led several voyages to discover the Northwest Passage and served as pilot and he discovered the Falkland Islands in August 1592. It is important that Captain John Davis of Sandridge should not be confused with a contemporary, both served in the fleet of Captain James Lancaster during the first voyage of the East India Company to the East Indies. Davis was born in the parish of Stoke Gabriel in Devon circa 1550 and it has been suggested that he learned much of his seamanship as a child while plying boats along the river Dart, and went to sea at an early age. His childhood neighbours included Adrian Gilbert and Humphrey Gilbert and their half-brother Walter Raleigh, from early on, he also became friends with John Dee. He began pitching a voyage in search of the Northwest Passage to the queens secretary Francis Walsingham in 1583. Two years later, in 1585, the secretary relented and funded the expedition, which traced Frobishers route to Greenlands east coast, around Cape Farewell, sunshine attempted to circumnavigate the island from the east. His ships were attacked by Inuit in Hamilton Inlet. A third expedition in 1587 reached 72°12N and Disko Island before being repulsed by unfavorable winds, on his return, he charted the Davis Inlet in the coast of Labrador. The log of this remained a textbook model for later captains for centuries. In 1588, he seems to have commanded Black Dog against the Spanish Armada, in 1589, he joined the Earl of Cumberland as part of the Azores Voyage of 1589. In 1591 he accompanied Thomas Cavendish on the mans last voyage and his crew was forced to kill hundreds of penguins for food on the islands, but the stored meat spoiled in the tropics and only fourteen of his 76 men made it home alive. He narrowly escaped destruction from treachery at Achin on Sumatra, from 1601 to 1603, he accompanied Sir James Lancaster as Pilot-Major on the first voyage of the English East India Company. For his part Davis was to receive if the voyage doubled its original investment. Before departure, Davis had told London merchants that pepper could be obtained in Aceh at a price of four reals of eight per hundredweight whereas it was actually 20, when the voyage returned, Lancaster complained that Davis had been wrong about both the price and availability of pepper. On this journey, he was killed off Bintan Island near Singapore by one of his captive Japanese pirates whose vessel he had just seized, Daviss explorations in the Arctic were published by Richard Hakluyt and appeared on his world map. Davis himself published a treatise on practical navigation called The Seamans Secrets in 1594. The account of Daviss last voyage was written by Michelborne on his return to England in 1606 and his invention of the backstaff and double quadrant remained popular among English seamen until long after Hadleys reflecting quadrant had been introduced
12.
George Weymouth
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George Weymouth was an English explorer of the area now occupied by the state of Maine. George Weymouth was a native of Cockington, Devon, who spent his youth studying shipbuilding, in 1602 Weymouth was hired to seek a northwest passage to India by the recently formed East India Company. He sailed the ship Discovery 300 miles into Hudson Strait but turned back on July 26, as the year was far spent, Weymouth reached Dartmouth on September 5,1602. Weymouth sailed from England on March 31,1605 on the ship Archangel, on the verge grow Gooseberries, Strawberries, Wild pease, and Wilde rose bushes. Weymouth named the island Saint George after the saint of England. In Britain, the North American tree species Pinus strobus is referred to as the Weymouth Pine, in July 2005 the Historical Society of Thomaston, Maine celebrated the 400 anniversary of Weymouths voyage to Maine. A TRUE RELATION OF CAPTAIN GEORGE WEYMOUTH HIS VOYAGE
13.
Discovery (1602 ship)
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Discovery or Discoverie was a small 20-ton,38 foot long fly-boat of the British East India Company, launched before 1602. It was one of the three ships on the 1606-1607 voyage to the New World for the English Virginia Company of London, the journey resulted in the founding of Jamestown in the new Colony of Virginia. When Captain Newport returned to London, England, he left Discovery behind for the use of the colonists and these explorations were commemorated in the Captain John Smith Chesapeake National Historic Trail, established in 2006. In 1610, Admiral Sir George Somers, proposed a trip to Bermuda aboard Patience accompanied by Captain Samuel Argall on Discovery with the intention of gathering more local supplies for Jamestown, blown north towards Newfoundland, the ships became separated in fog. Argall attempted fishing before turning back and she then took part in six expeditions in search of the Northwest Passage. Replicas of Discovery and her sisters, the larger Susan Constant, a new Discovery, built in Boothbay Harbor, Maine, was launched in September 2006. The previous replica, built in 1984 in Jamestown, was shipped to the United Kingdom for a tour of the UK as part of the celebrations of the 400th anniversary of Virginias founding. After its tour, which finished in September 2007, the ship was laid up in Ipswich Marina awaiting a move to a permanent home. The ship is currently on permanent display at the castle, in May 2007, the United States Postal Service issued the first 41 cent denomination first class stamp. The stamp had an image of Susan Constant, Godspeed, Discovery was also depicted on Virginias coin of the 50 State Quarters, in celebration of the quadricentennial of Jamestown. Ship replica Discovery replica at Museum in Docklands, London Jamestown settlement ships
14.
Thomas Button
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Born about 1575, he was the fourth son of Miles Button of Worlton, Glamorgan, and his wife Margaret, daughter of Edward Lewis. His fathers family had been landowners, originally at Bitton in Gloucestershire, around 1595 he married Elizabeth, daughter of landowner Sir Walter Rice of Newton House, Llandeilo, and his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Edward Mansell of Margam. This made him a nephew of the prominent naval officer Sir Robert Mansell, in April 1612 he was given command of two navy ships, Resolution and Discovery, to lead an expedition in search of the North-West Passage. Sailing from England about the beginning of May 1612, they reached the mouth of a river which he named the Nelson after the ships master and they wintered at what is now known as Port Nelson and the next year headed north to search for the Northwest Passage. They lost the Resolution to sea ice and continued on to 65° North and he discovered and named Mansel Island and returned to England in September 1613. He is credited with exploring and securing the west coast of Hudson Bay for his country, the region would again be visited twelve years later in 1631 by Captains Thomas James and Luke Foxe. Supposedly, upon discovering a cross erected by Button at Port Nelson, Captain Foxe christened the shore north of the Nelson River as New North Wales, the first maps of areas near Hudson Bay were struck from his explorations and from those of his predecessor, Henry Hudson. On his return, he was appointed Admiral of the Irish coasts and he was buried on 8 April 1634 at the church of St Margarets, Westminster, survived by his wife and five of their seven children. He left no will and his Welsh lands passed to his eldest son, Miles, after waiting three years, his widow received 650 pounds from the government in settlement of pay and expenses he was owed. Manitoba Historical Society Biography of Button
15.
William Baffin
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William Baffin was an English navigator and explorer. He is primarily known for his attempt to discover a Northwest Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific and he was also responsible for exceptional surveys of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf on behalf of the East India Company. Nothing is known about Baffins early life and it has been conjectured that he was born to a humble station in London and gradually raised himself through his diligence and perseverance. In printing his journals, Samuel Purchas wrote of him as a learned-unlearned Mariner, wanting art of words who really employed himself to those industries, whereof here you see so evident fruits. His earliest mention occurs in 1612, when he was pilot on Captain James Halls 4th expedition to Greenland. Halls three earlier explorations had been underwritten by Christian IV, a king of Denmark anxious to reëstablish contact with the Norse settlements there and it was still unknown that they had been overrun by the Inuit centuries before, but after the third failed expedition, Christian abandoned the project. Hall then successfully interested four English merchants—Thomas Smythe, James Lancaster, William Cockayne, Baffin and Hall sailed from the Humber aboard the Patience on 22 April, accompanied by the Hearts Ease. During this voyage, Captain Hall was killed by the Inuit on the west coast of Greenland, over the next two years, Baffin served in the Muscovy Company-controlled whale-fishery off Spitzbergen. Icy conditions precluded exploration to the north, but Baffin examined a considerable portion of Spitzbergens coast, in 1615, he entered the service of the Company of Merchants of London, Discoverers of the North-West Passage, which had been established in 1612. Its first governor was Thomas Smythe, one of the underwriters of Halls fourth voyage, Baffin served as pilot of Discovery, which left England under Captain Robert Bylot on 15 March. It carefully explored Hudson Strait in search of a Northwest Passage from the North Atlantic to the Far East, the accuracy of Baffins tidal and astronomical observations on this voyage was confirmed in a remarkable manner when William Edward Parry passed over the same ground in 1821. Baffin again sailed as pilot of Discovery the next year, with the abandonment of projects for the Northwest Passage, Baffin took service with the East India Company, possibly with the intent of eventually discovering the passage from the western end. He left as masters mate to Andrew Shilling, captain of Anne Royal, the fleet—under the command of Captain Martin Pring—reached Saldanha Bay on 21 June and Surat in British India in September. Baffins ship then performed separate service on runs to Mocha in Yemen and other ports of the Red Sea, upon his return to London in September,1619, the company granted him special recognition for the valuable charts he had made during the course of his voyage. In 1620, he sailed east again as master of the London on the recommendation of Capt. Shilling. Baffin left the Downs on 25 March and reached Swally Roads on 9 November. Hearing of a joint Portuguese and Dutch fleet searching for them, Shilling went in search of them, he was wounded in battle in the Gulf of Oman on 28 December and died on 6 January. A year later, the East India Company agreed to join the Persian assaults on the Portuguese fortresses on Qeshm and Hormuz islands in exchange for certain trade concessions
16.
Manitoba
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Manitoba is a province at the longitudinal centre of Canada. It is one of the three provinces and Canadas fifth-most populous province with its estimated 1.3 million people. Manitoba covers 649,950 square kilometres with a varied landscape. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited what is now Manitoba for thousands of years, in the late 17th century, fur traders arrived in the area when it was part of Ruperts Land and owned by the Hudsons Bay Company. In 1869, negotiations for the creation of the province of Manitoba led to an uprising of the Métis people against the Government of Canada. The rebellions resolution led to the Parliament of Canada passing the Manitoba Act in 1870 that created the province, Manitobas capital and largest city, Winnipeg, is Canadas eighth-largest census metropolitan area. Winnipeg is the seat of government, home to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, four of the provinces five universities and all four of its professional sports teams are in Winnipeg. The name Manitoba is believed to be derived from the Cree, the name derives from Cree manitou-wapow or Ojibwa manidoobaa, both meaning straits of Manitou, the Great Spirit, a place referring to what are now called The Narrows in the centre of Lake Manitoba. It may also be from the Assiniboine for Lake of the Prairie, the lake was known to French explorers as Lac des Prairies. Thomas Spence chose the name to refer to a new republic he proposed for the south of the lake. Métis leader Louis Riel also chose the name, and it was accepted in Ottawa under the Manitoba Act of 1870 and it adjoins Hudson Bay to the northeast, and is the only prairie province to have a saltwater coastline. The Port of Churchill is Canadas only Arctic deep-water port and the shortest shipping route between North America and Asia, Lake Winnipeg is the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. Hudson Bay is the worlds second-largest bay, Manitoba is at the heart of the giant Hudson Bay watershed, once known as Ruperts Land. It was a area of the Hudsons Bay Company, with many rivers. The province has a saltwater coastline bordering Hudson Bay and more than 110,000 lakes, Manitobas major lakes are Lake Manitoba, Lake Winnipegosis, and Lake Winnipeg, the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. Some traditional Native lands and boreal forest on Lake Winnipegs east side are a proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site. Manitoba is at the centre of the Hudson Bay drainage basin, with a volume of the water draining into Lake Winnipeg. This basins rivers reach far west to the mountains, far south into the United States, major watercourses include the Red, Assiniboine, Nelson, Winnipeg, Hayes, Whiteshell and Churchill rivers
17.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
18.
Northwest Passage
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For centuries explorers sought a navigable passage as a possible trade route. Until 2009, the Arctic pack ice prevented regular marine shipping throughout most of the year, Arctic sea ice decline has rendered the waterways more navigable. If, as has been claimed, parts of the end of the Passage are barely 15 metres deep. Fully loaded, Nordic Orion was too large to sail through the Panama Canal, between the end of the 15th century and the 20th century, colonial powers from Europe dispatched explorers in an attempt to discover a commercial sea route north and west around North America. The Northwest Passage represented a new route to the trading nations of Asia. England called the northern route the Northwest Passage. The desire to establish such a route motivated much of the European exploration of both coasts of North America, when it became apparent that there was no route through the heart of the continent, attention turned to the possibility of a passage through northern waters. There was a lack of knowledge about conditions, for instance. Explorers thought that a water route close to the North Pole must exist. The belief that a route lay to the far north persisted for several centuries, many ended in disaster, including that by Sir John Franklin in 1845. While searching for him the McClure Arctic Expedition discovered the Northwest Passage in 1850, in 1906, the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen first successfully completed a passage from Greenland to Alaska in the sloop Gjøa. Since that date, several fortified ships have made the journey, from east to west, the direction of most early exploration attempts, expeditions entered the passage from the Atlantic Ocean via the Davis Strait and through Baffin Bay. Five to seven routes have taken through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, via the McClure Strait, Dease Strait, and the Prince of Wales Strait. From there ships passed through waterways through the Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, on August 21,2007, the Northwest Passage became open to ships without the need of an icebreaker. According to Nalan Koc of the Norwegian Polar Institute, this was the first time the Passage has been clear since they began keeping records in 1972, the Northwest Passage opened again on August 25,2008. Thawing ocean or melting ice simultaneously opened up the Northwest Passage, awaited by shipping companies, this historic event will cut thousands of miles off their routes. We are going to see more and more as the years go by. Due to Arctic shrinkage, the Beluga group of Bremen, Germany, however, Canadas Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that ships entering the North-West passage should first report to his government
19.
International Hydrographic Organization
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The International Hydrographic Organization is the inter-governmental organisation representing hydrography. A principal aim of the IHO is to ensure that the seas, oceans. It does this through the setting of standards, the co-ordination of the endeavours of the worlds national hydrographic offices. The IHO enjoys observer status at the United Nations where it is the competent authority on hydrographic surveying. When referring to hydrography and nautical charting in Conventions and similar Instruments, it is the IHO standards, the IHO was established in 1921 as the International Hydrographic Bureau. The present name was adopted in 1970 as part of a new international Convention on the IHO adopted by the member nations. The former name International Hydrographic Bureau was retained to describe the IHO secretariat until 8 November 2016, there were substantial differences in hydrographic procedures charts, and publications. In 1889, an International Maritime Conference was held at Washington, D. C. similar proposals were made at the sessions of the International Congress of Navigation held at Saint Petersburg in 1908 and the International Maritime Conference held at Saint Petersburg in 1912. In 1919 the hydrographers of Great Britain and France cooperated in taking the steps to convene an international conference of hydrographers. London was selected as the most suitable place for this conference, and on 24 July 1919 and this is still the major purpose of the IHO. As a result of the conference, a permanent organization was formed, the IHB, now the IHO, began its activities in 1921 with 18 nations as members. The Principality of Monaco was selected as the seat of the organization as a result of the offer of Albert I, the IHO develops hydrographic and nautical charting standards. These standards are adopted and used by its 86 member countries and others in their surveys, nautical charts. Much has been done in the field of standardisation since the Bureau was founded, the IHO has encouraged the formation of Regional Hydrographic Commissions. Each RHC coordinates the national surveying and charting activities of countries within each region, the 15 RHCs plus the IHO Hydrographic Commission on Antarctica effectively cover the world. The IHO, in partnership with the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, directs the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans programme, in 2010 the IHO introduced a new, contemporary hydrographic geospatial standard for modelling marine data and information, known as S-100. S-100 and any dependent product specifications are underpinned by an on-line registry accessible via the IHO website, S-100 is aligned with the ISO19100 series of geographic standards, thereby making it fully compatible with contemporary geospatial data standards. Because S-100 is based on ISO19100, it can be used by other providers for their maritime-related data
20.
Southampton Island
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Southampton Island is a large island at the entrance to Hudson Bay at Foxe Basin. One of the members of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Southampton Island is part of the Kivalliq Region in Nunavut. The area of the island is stated as 41,214 square kilometres by Statistics Canada and it is the 34th largest island in the world and Canadas ninth largest island. The only settlement on Southampton Island is Coral Harbour, called in Inuit Salliq, Southampton Island is one of the few Canadian areas, and the only area in Nunavut, that does not use daylight saving time. Historically speaking, Southampton Island is famous for its inhabitants, the Sadlermiut. The Tuniit, a culture, officially went ethnically and culturally extinct in 1902-03 when infectious disease killed all of the Sallirmiut in a matter of weeks. The islands first recorded visit by Europeans was in 1613 by Welsh explorer Thomas Button, at the beginning of the 20th century, the island was repopulated by Aivilingmiut from Repulse Bay and Chesterfield Inlet, influenced to do so by whaler Capt. George Comer and others. Baffin Islanders arrived 25 years later, john Ell, who as a young child travelled with his mother Shoofly on Comers schooners, eventually became the most famous of Southampton Islands re-settled population. The Native Point archaeological site at the mouth of Native Bay is the largest Sadlermiut site on the island, Southampton Island does have geological resources that are of scientific and industrial interest. However, full knowledge of the island is still lacking according to the Nunavut government, the current level of basic geoscience available for the Southampton region is inadequate to meet current exploration demands. Regional scale mapping of the geology of Southampton Island has not occurred since 1969. Only the most general of rock distinctions are made on the geological map. Currently there is no publicly available, regional-scale surficial geochemical data which is essential for understanding exploration potential for metals and it is separated from the Melville Peninsula by Frozen Strait. Hansine Lake is located in the far north, bell Peninsula is located in the southeastern part of the island. Mathiasen Mountain, a member of the Porsild Mountains, is the islands highest peak, the islands shape is vaguely similar to that of Newfoundland. East Bay Migratory Bird Sanctuary and Harry Gibbons Migratory Bird Sanctuary are located on the island and are important breeding sites for the snow goose. The island is also the site of two Important Bird Areas, the Boas River wetlands in the southwest and East Bay/Native Bay in the southeast. Both host large colonies of the lesser snow goose, together comprising over 10% of the worlds snow goose population
21.
Labrador
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Labrador /ˈlæbrədɔːr/ LAB-rə-dor is the distinct northerly region of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It comprises the portion of the province, separated from the island of Newfoundland by the Strait of Belle Isle. It is the largest and northernmost geographical region in Atlantic Canada, Labrador occupies the eastern part of the Labrador Peninsula. It is bordered to the west and the south by the Canadian province of Quebec, Labrador also shares a small land border with the Canadian territory of Nunavut on Killiniq Island. Though Labrador covers 71 percent of the land area, it has only 8 percent of the provinces population. The aboriginal peoples of Labrador include the Northern Inuit of Nunatsiavut, the Southern Inuit-Métis of Nunatukavut, many of the non-aboriginal population in Labrador did not permanently settle in Labrador until the natural resource developments of the 1940s and 1950s. Before the 1950s, very few people lived in Labrador year-round. The few European immigrants who worked seasonally for foreign merchants and brought their families were known as Settlers, Labrador has a roughly triangular shape that encompasses the easternmost section of the Canadian Shield, a sweeping geographical region of thin soil and abundant mineral resources. Its western border with Quebec is the divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands that drain into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, Northern Labradors climate is classified as polar, while Southern Labradors climate is classified as subarctic. Labrador can be divided into four regions, the North Coast, Central Labrador, Western Labrador. Each of those regions is described below, from Cape Chidley to Hamilton Inlet, the long thin northern tip of Labrador holds the Torngat Mountains, named after an Inuit spirit believed to inhabit them. The mountains stretch along the coast from Port Manvers to Cape Chidley, the Torngat Mountain range is also home to Mount Caubvick, the highest point in the province. This area is predominantly Inuit, with the small Innu community of Natuashish being the exception, the north coast is the most isolated region of Labrador, with snowmobiles, boats, and planes being the only modern modes of transportation. The largest community in this region is Nain, Nunatsiavut is an Inuit self-government region in Labrador created on June 23,2000. The Settlement area comprises the majority of Labradors North Coast, while the area also includes land farther to the interior. Nain is the center of Nunatsiavut. The most populous region of Labrador, Central Labrador extends from the shores of Lake Melville into the interior and it contains the Churchill River, the largest river in Labrador and one of the largest in Canada
22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
23.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
24.
Nunavut
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Nunavut is the newest, largest, and northernmost territory of Canada. The creation of Nunavut resulted in the first major change to Canadas political map since the incorporation of the province of Newfoundland, Nunavut comprises a major portion of Northern Canada, and most of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Its vast territory makes it the fifth-largest country subdivision in the world, the capital Iqaluit, on Baffin Island in the east, was chosen by the 1995 capital plebiscite. Other major communities include the regional centres of Rankin Inlet and Cambridge Bay and it is Canadas only geo-political region that is not connected to the rest of North America by highway. Nunavut is the largest in area and the second least populous of Canadas provinces and territories. One of the worlds most remote, sparsely settled regions, it has a population of 35,944, mostly Inuit, spread over an area of just over 1,750,000 km2, Nunavut is also home to the worlds northernmost permanently inhabited place, Alert. A weather station farther down Ellesmere Island, Eureka, has the lowest average temperature of any Canadian weather station. Nunavut means our land in Inuktitut, Nunavut covers 1,877,787 km2 of land and 160,935 km2 of water in Northern Canada. This makes it the fifth largest subnational entity in the world, if Nunavut were a country, it would rank 15th in area. It also shares borders with Greenland and the provinces of Quebec, Ontario. Nunavuts highest point is Barbeau Peak on Ellesmere Island, the population density is 0.019 persons/km2, one of the lowest in the world. By comparison, Greenland has approximately the area and nearly twice the population. Nunavut experiences a climate in most regions, owing to its high latitude. In more southerly continental areas very cold climates can be found. The region now known as Nunavut has supported an indigenous population for approximately 4,000 years. Most historians identify the coast of Baffin Island with the Helluland described in Norse sagas, the materials were collected in five seasons of excavation at Cape Tanfield. Scholars determined that these provide evidence of European traders and possibly settlers on Baffin Island and they seem to indicate prolonged contact, possibly up to 1450. So you have to consider the possibility that as remote as it may seem, the ore turned out to be worthless, but Frobisher made the first recorded European contact with the Inuit
25.
Kitikmeot Region
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Kitikmeot Region is an administrative region of Nunavut, Canada. The regional seat is Cambridge Bay, before 1999, Kitikmeot Region existed under slightly different boundaries as Kitikmeot Region, Northwest Territories. Access to the capital of Iqaluit is difficult and expensive as there are no direct flights from any community in the region. For example, Iqaluit is approximately 1,069 km from Kugaaruk, in total a trip of about 3,627 km. Like the rest of Nunavut there is no access to the region. All five hamlets have certified airports, Cambridge Bay Airport, Gjoa Haven Airport, Kugaaruk Airport, Kugluktuk Airport and Taloyoak Airport, with scheduled flights by Canadian North, there are also five registered aerodromes in the region. Cambridge Bay Water Aerodrome is a floatplane base open in the summer only, Doris Lake Aerodrome, a 7,894 ft ice runway, the longest in the region which serves the Doris Lake mine. George Lake Aerodrome, an ice runway, like Doris Lake is only open from January to April, goose Lake Aerodrome also serves the Back River Gold Project and has both an ice and gravel runway. Hope Bay Aerodrome serves the Hope Bay mine site and is a gravel runway, none of the aerodromes have scheduled flights and are charter only. Bathurst Inlet and Umingmaktok have landing strips and no scheduled flights, seaplanes may land there in the summer. The region forms part of the Northwest Passage and has hosted several cruise ships, although the waterways are open in the summer there are no scheduled general passenger ships and only private yachts, such as the Octopus owned by Paul Allen, and cruise ships pass through. The region is home to the two communities in Nunavut that voted no in the 1982 division plebiscite, Cambridge Bay and Kugluktuk. The region has four districts, Cambridge Bay, which covers Bathurst Inlet, Cambridge Bay. The seat is held by Keith Peterson, Gjoa Haven, which covers the community of Gjoa Haven and is held by Tony Akoak. The seat is held by Peter Taptuna the Premier of Nunavut, netsilik, which covers Taloyoak and Kugaaruk. The seat is held by Emilino Qirngnuq, former districts include Akulliq, which covered Kugaaruk and Naujaat in the Kivalliq Region. It was the ony electoral district in Nunavut to cross two regions, nattilik, which covered Gjoa Haven and Taloyoak. The previous incumbent was the former federal Minister of Health, Leona Aglukkaq, however, the party was not formed and consequently no members ran for a seat in the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut which continues to run as a consensus government
26.
Bellot Strait
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Bellot Strait is a passage of water in Nunavut separating Somerset Island on the north from the Boothia Peninsula on the south. At its eastern end is the Murchison Promontory, the northernmost part of mainland North America, the 2 km wide 25 km long strait connects the Gulf of Boothia and Prince Regent Inlet on the east with Peel Sound and Franklin Strait on the west. The north side of the strait rises steeply to approximately 450 m, the current in the strait can run at up to 8 kn and often changes its direction. It is also filled with small icebergs which pose a danger to ships in the strait. The first Europeans to see the strait were Captain William Kennedy and this proved that Somerset Island was an island and that Prince Regent Inlet had a difficult westward exit. In 1858 Francis Leopold McClintock tried to pass the strait and gave up, the strait was first crossed from west to east by the Hudsons Bay Company ship Aklavik in 1937, piloted by Scotty Gall. Henry Larsen crossed it in 1942 on the first west-east transit of the Northwest Passage
27.
Dolphin and Union Strait
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Dolphin and Union Strait lies in both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, Canada, between the mainland and Victoria Island. It links Amundsen Gulf, lying to the northwest, with Coronation Gulf, the southeastern end of the strait is marked by Austin Bay. It gets its name from the two used by John Richardson who first explored it in 1826. This is partly why the first explorers who ventured into this awe-inspiring, there are several islands within the strait, including the Liston and Sutton Islands, historically home to the Noahonirmiut band of Copper Inuit. The strait is about 161 km long and ranges from 32 to 64 km in width, when frozen, it is used by Barren-ground caribou, known the Dolphin and Union herd, to reach Victoria Island for the summer and to return to the mainland for the winter. Eider ducks are found in the strait. The caribou are known locally as tuktu which is understood across the circumpolar world, conversely, eider ducks are called kingalik which means, simply, big-nose. In recent decades, the local Inuvialuit have seen the reduction in average winter sea-ice thickness from roughly 6 to 7 ft in the early 1960s to about 110 to 120 cm even in the dead of winter today. There is also a preponderance of new species from flies to wasps, and new birds arriving that have never been seen before, grizzlies roam where they were once that most rare curiosity
28.
James Ross Strait
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James Ross Strait, an arm of the Arctic Ocean, is a channel between King William Island and the Boothia Peninsula in the Canadian territory of Nunavut. 180 km long, and 48 km to 64 km wide, Islands in the channel include the Clarence Islands, Tennent Islands, Beverley Island, and Matty Island. A number of polar explorers searching for the Northwest Passage sailed through the strait, the strait is named after British polar explorer James Clark Ross. James Ross Strait - Entry in the Columbia Gazetteer of North America on Bartleby. com
29.
Victoria Strait
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Victoria Strait is a strait in northern Canada that lies in Nunavut off the mainland in the Arctic Ocean. It is between Victoria Island to the west and King William Island to the east, from the north the strait links the MClintock Channel and the Larsen Sound with the Queen Maud Gulf to the south. The strait is about 100 mi long and anywhere from 50 to 80 mi wide, the strait is wide, with almost no islands, save for the rather large Royal Geographical Society Island near the Queen Maud Gulf at the extreme south of the strait. The strait has never been surveyed, however charted potions indicate several patches where the water is only 30 feet of depth. Ships drawing up to 30 feet have navigated the strait, most of the year the strait is covered with rough, heavy ice. Much of this is polar ice which has flowed down the McClintock Channel from the Viscount Melville Sound, large-scale breakup of the ice in the strait begins by late July and continues into late September when it begins to freeze again. Near the entrance of Victoria Strait was where HMS Terror and HMS Erebus became trapped during John Franklins expedition and were abandoned in 1848, due to the hazards of the strait, a longer route was used which went around King William Island. This route was easier despite having an even shallower bottom, in 1967, the Victoria Strait was used for the first time by an icebreaker, the John A. Macdonald, when travelling to the western Arctic to assist shipping. It was crossed again by the same icebreaker in 1975, and later in 1976 by the icebreakers CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent and CCGS J. E. Bernier
30.
Kivalliq Region
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The Kivalliq Region is an administrative region of Nunavut, Canada. It consists of the portion of the mainland to the west of Hudson Bay together with Southampton Island, the regional seat is Rankin Inlet. The population was 10,413 in the 2016 Census, an increase of 16. 3% from the 2011 Census, before 1999, Kivalliq Region existed under slightly different boundaries as Keewatin Region, Northwest Territories. Although the Kivalliq name became official in 1999, Statistics Canada has continued to refer to the area as Keewatin Region, the Kivalliq Region is experiencing the worlds highest rate of post-glacial rebound. The remainder of the region is referred to as Unorganized Keewatin by Statistics Canada
31.
Qikiqtaaluk Region
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The Qikiqtaaluk Region, Qikiqtani Region or Baffin Region is the easternmost administrative region of Nunavut, Canada. Qikiqtaaluk is the traditional Inuktitut name for Baffin Island, although the Qikiqtaaluk Region is the most commonly used name in official contexts, several notable public organisations, including Statistics Canada prefer the older term Baffin Region. With a population of 18,988 and an area of 989,879.35 km2 it is the largest and most populated of the three regions, the regional seat, and territorial capital, is Iqaluit. The Qikiqtaaluk Region spans the northernmost, easternmost, and southernmost areas of Nunavut, before 1999, the Qikiqtaaluk Region existed under slightly different boundaries as the Baffin Region, District of Keewatin, Northwest Territories. Canada claims Hans Island as part of Qikiqtaaluk, while Denmark considers it to be part of the Greenlandic municipality of Qaasuitsup, all of Qikiqtaaluks thirteen communities are located on tidal water and just under half of its residents live in Nunavuts capital and only city, Iqaluit. The majority of the rest live in twelve hamlets—Arctic Bay, Cape Dorset, Clyde River, Grise Fiord, Hall Beach, Igloolik, Kimmirut, Pangnirtung, Pond Inlet, Qikiqtarjuaq, Resolute, alert and Eureka are part of the Baffin, Unorganized areas in Qikiqtaaluk. Formerly there was a town at Nanisivik. However, it and the Nanisivik Mine closed in 2002, with Nanisivik Airport closing in 2010, like the majority of Canadas Inuit communities, the regions traditional country food includes seal, Arctic char, walrus, polar bear and caribou-which are abundant. Iqaluit has the Astro Hill Complex, the Nunatta Sunakkutaangit Museum and the Legislative Building of Nunavut, according to anthropologists and historians, the Inuit are the descendants of the Thule people who displaced the Dorset culture. By 1300 the Inuit had trade routes with more southern cultures, about 1910 Europeans markets increased their interest in white fox pelts. The distribution and mobility of Inuit changed as the expanded their traditional hunting and fishing routes to participate in the fox fur trade. Traditional food staples—such as seal and caribou—were not always found in the regions as white fox. The Hudsons Bay Company—which was chartered in 1670—had been opening fur trading posts throughout Inuit, by 1910, the HBC was restructured into a lands sales department, retail and fur trade. The HBC dominated the fur trade under minimal supervision from the Canadian government, by 1922 most of imported goods acquired by Inuit were from the HBC. Between 1950 and 1975 thirteen northern communities were relocated, in the 1950s and 1960s the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and others in authority undertook the widespread killing of sled dogs. Canada 2016 Census Population,18,988 Population change, +12. 1% Private dwellings,6,556 Area,989,879.35 km2 Density,0
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Barrow Strait
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Barrow Strait is a shipping waterway in Northern Canadas territory of Nunavut. The first 30 mi of its eastern section has no islands, commonly does not freeze until the end of November, garrett Island, Lowther Island, Young Island, Hamilton Island, and Russell Island lay south of Bathurst Island. Browne Island, Somerville Island, and Griffith Island lay southwest of Cornwallis Island, beechy Island lays off of Devon Island. From its eastern junction with Lancaster Sound to its junction with Viscount Melville Sound. Its eastern mouth, between Prince Leopold Island, and Cape Hurd on Devon Island, is 28 mi wide and its western mouth, at Cape Cockburn, southwestern Bathurst Island, is 66 mi wide
