1.
Order of Jamaica
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The Order of Jamaica is the fifth of the six orders in the Jamaican honours system. The Order was established in 1969, and it is considered the equivalent of a knighthood in the British honours system, membership in the Order can be conferred upon any Jamaican citizen of outstanding distinction. Honorary membership in the Order can be conferred upon any distinguished citizen of a other than Jamaica. Members and Honorary Members are entitled to, wear the insignia of the Order as a decoration, be styled The Honourable, the motto of the Order is For a covenant of the people. List of recipients of the Order of Jamaica Order of Jamaica
2.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
3.
Sir Donald Sangster
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Sir Donald Burns Sangster was a Jamaican solicitor and an old boy of the prestigious Munro College in St. Elizabeth, Jamaica. Politician and the second Prime Minister of Jamaica and he entered politics in 1933 at the age of 21 with his election to the council of the Parish of St Elizabeth, Jamaica. In 1944 he was elected to the House of Representatives of Jamaica as a member of the Jamaica Labour Party, becoming Minister of Social Welfare and Labour and and he became Acting Prime Minister in February 1964 when Prime Minister Sir Alexander Bustamante became ill. He succeeded Bustamante as Prime Minister on 23 February 1967 only to die in office on 11 April and his face appears on the Jamaican one hundred dollar banknote. He also has an airport in Jamaica named after him, Donald Sangster - Jamaicas shortest-serving PM at the Wayback Machine, The Jamaica Gleaner,3 September 2007
4.
Michael Manley
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Michael Norman Manley ON OCC was a Jamaican politician who served as the fourth Prime Minister of Jamaica from 1972 to 1980 and from 1989 to 1992. Coming from a background, Manley was a democratic socialist. According to opinion polls, he one of Jamaicas most popular Prime Ministers since independence. Manley, the son of politician Norman Washington Manley and Edna Manley, attended Jamaica College. In 1945, he enrolled at the London School of Economics and he graduated in 1949, and returned to Jamaica to serve as an editor and columnist for the newspaper Public Opinion. At about the time, he became involved in the trade union movement. In August 1953, he became an official of that union. When his father was elected premier of Jamaica in 1955, Manley resisted entering politics, however, in 1962 he accepted an appointment to the Senate of the Parliament of Jamaica. He won a close election to the Jamaican House of Representatives in 1967. After his fathers retirement in 1969, Manley was elected leader of the Peoples National Party and he then served as leader of the Opposition, until his party won in the general elections of 1972. In the election of 1972, Manley defeated the unpopular incumbent Prime Minister, Hugh Shearer, running on the slogans Better must come, Giving power to the people and he instituted a series of socio-economic reforms that produced mixed results. In this regard he started a revolution, often preferring the Kariba suit. Under Manley, Jamaica established a minimum wage for all workers, in 1974, Manley proposed free education from primary school to university. The introduction of free secondary education was a major step in removing the institutional barriers to private sector. The PNP government in 1974 also formed the Jamaica Movement for the Advancement of Literacy, Land reform expanded under his administration. Historically, land tenure in Jamaica has been rather inequitable, project Land Lease, attempted an integrated rural development approach, providing tens of thousands of small farmers with land, technical advice, inputs such as fertilizers and access to credit. An estimated 14 percent of land was redistributed through this program. The minimum voting age was lowered to 18 years, while pay for women was introduced
5.
Jamaica Labour Party
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The Jamaica Labour Party is one of the two major political parties in Jamaica, the other being the Peoples National Party. While its name suggests that it is a democratic party. However, it has longstanding ties to the Jamaican labour movement and it is the current governing party, having won 32 of the 63 parliamentary seats in the lower house of parliament in the 2016 general elections. In the November 2016 Local Government Elections, the party won eight of the fourteen municipal corporations. With a 5-5 tie in the St. Thomas Municipal Corporation and with the JLP winning the vote in St. Thomas, the JLP gets control and therefore the mayorship. The JLP uses the Liberty Bell, the sign. The JLP is a member of the Caribbean Democrat Union, the party was founded on 8 July 1943 by Alexander Bustamante as the political wing of the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union. Bustamante had previously been a member of the PNP and it won the 1944 general elections with 22 of the 32 seats. It went on to win the 1949 elections with a reduced majority and it remained in opposition following the 1959 elections, but was victorious in 1962 and was therefore the Government when Jamaica gained its political independence from Great Britain on 6 August 1962. Bustamante suffered a stroke in 1964 and largely withdrew from politics, however, he did not relinquish the title of party leader for another decade. Donald Sangster took over as acting prime minister after Bustamantes stroke and he was named First Deputy Leader in 1967, and led the party to victory at of the 21 February 1967 elections. Sangster suffered a hemorrhage and died about six weeks after the elections. Hugh Shearer succeeded Sangster as First Deputy Leader and Prime Minister, Tavares had come out on top in the first ballot, with Shearer and Robert Lightbourne being the other candidates. Under Shearer, the JLP lost power for the first time to the Peoples National Party, Shearer served as Opposition Leader until 1974. Bustamante finally gave up the post of party leader in 1974, the party lost the 1976 elections, but Seaga became Prime Minister after victory in 1980 when the party won by a landslide, capturing 51 of the then 60 parliamentary seats. The JLP suffered defeat in the 1989 elections and went on to lose elections in 1993,1997 and 2002, in 2005 Bruce Golding succeeded Seaga as leader of the party, and led it to victory in the 2007 elections. Golding resigned as head of the party and Prime Minister in October 2011 and was succeeded by current leader Andrew Holness. Soon after becoming leader, Holness called an election over a year before it was due
6.
Edward Seaga
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Edward Philip George Seaga is a former Jamaican politician and statesman. He was the fifth Prime Minister of Jamaica, from 1980 to 1989, and he served as leader of the opposition from 1974 to 1980, and again from 1989 until January 2005. His retirement from political life marked the end of Jamaicas founding generation in active politics and he was the last serving politician to have entered public life before independence in 1962, as he was appointed to the Legislative Council in 1959. Seaga is credited with building the financial and planning infrastructure of the country after independence, as well as developing its arts and crafts, as a record producer and record company owner, Seaga also played a major role in the development of the Jamaican music industry. Edward Philip George Seaga was born on 28 May 1930, in Boston, Massachusetts, to Philip George Seaga and Erna, Jamaican parents of Lebanese and Scottish descent and his parents returned to Jamaica with Edward when the boy was three months old. He was baptised in Kingstons Anglican Parish Church on 5 December 1930, Erna was the daughter of Elizabeth Campbell, daughter of John Zungaroo Campbell. The young Seaga was educated at Wolmer’s Boys School in Jamaica and he went to the United States for college, graduating from Harvard University in 1952 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in the Social Sciences. Before he began his political career Edward Seaga was a producer and promoter. He subsequently took a research post at the University of the West Indies, seagas research led to an interest in popular Jamaican music. In 1955, he supervised the recording of an album of ethnic Jamaican music, beginning in 1961, Seaga lived in West Kingston. He became deeply involved in its music scene and recorded some of its artists, WIRL became the most successful record company in the West Indies. After being elected in 1962 as a Member of Parliament, representing the Jamaica Labour Party, over 16 years, Seaga worked on compiling a collection of Jamaican music covering the period from the mid-1950s to the early 1970s. This anthology, Reggae Golden Jubilee Origins of Jamaican Music, was released on 6 November 2012 in celebration of the anniversary of Jamaican independence. His appointment at the age of 29 made him the youngest member appointed to the Legislative Council. In 1961, he participated in drafting the Jamaican Constitution, in April 1962, Seaga was elected Member of Parliament for West Kingston, the waterfront area in the capital city. Historically, it has been the oldest settlement in Kingston for poor, working-class residents, employment is largely petty trading with some semi-skilled craftsmen. He held that seat for 43 consecutive years, until he retired, making him the longest-serving Member of Parliament in the history of Jamaica and he is the only person elected as Member of Parliament for West Kingston for more than one term, and has won 10 consecutive terms. Immediately after winning his seat in 1962, Seaga was appointed to the Cabinet as Minister of Development and Welfare, with responsibility for all areas of planning, social development and he also used his position to continue to promote Jamaican music
7.
P. J. Patterson
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Percival Noel James Patterson, ON, PC, QC, is a former Jamaican politician who served as the sixth Prime Minister of Jamaica from 1992 to 2006. Following a constituency reorganization, he served as the MP for Westmoreland Eastern from 1993 to 2006 and he retired from all of these positions in March 2006. He was married to Shirley Field-Ridley with whom he had two children, Richard and Sharon and it was also at university that he developed a commitment to Caribbean regionalism as well as to the causes of the countries of the developing world. His time as a Law student of the London School of Economics consolidated the foundation in international politics than his university experience in Jamaica had provided. During his enrolment at the Inns of Court he again came in contact with a number of leaders of the countries of the developing world who were fellow students in England. Patterson entered the Parliament of Jamaica as an Opposition Senator in 1969 and he was elected the youngest ever Vice President of the Peoples National Party later that year at age 33. This was the beginning of a partnership which endured over the next 23 years, Patterson was elected the Member of Parliament for Westmoreland South Eastern in the constituencys by-election of 1970. This led to his first appointment to the Jamaican Cabinet and he also ended Jamaica’s 18-year borrowing relationship with the International Monetary Fund, allowing the country greater latitude in pursuit of its economic policies. Patterson had long supported moves to make Jamaica a republic, but he was unsuccessful in this aim, Patterson arranged for Aristide to take up temporary residence in Jamaica during Aristides lawsuit against the United States and France accusing the countries of kidnapping him. In addition, Patterson presided over a significant decline in poverty during his time in office, Patterson has contributed to numerous Conventions and Statements in the international arena including the Valletta Statement on Multilateral Trade and the Gozo Statement on Vulnerable Small States. These have helped to shape north-south relationship and influence the position of developing countries. It does so by making available, discreetly and in confidence and he played a seminal role in the process that marked the transition from the first steps in integration of the Caribbean region to the founding of CARIFTA and its evolution into CARICOM. During his tenure as Jamaica’s Foreign Minister he served as President of the ACP/EU Ministerial Council and he has served as President and Spokesman of the ACP Ministerial Council on a number of occasions. A passionate opponent of apartheid, he was an ardent proponent of South Africas liberation movement. Upon becoming the Prime Minister of Jamaica in 1992 Patterson was invested with the Order of the Nation, allowing him to be known as The Most Honourable, in 2006 he was invested with the Order of Excellence of Guyana, allowing him to use the post-nominal letters OE
8.
Trelawny Parish
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Trelawny is a parish in Cornwall County in northwest Jamaica. It is bordered by the parishes of Saint Ann in the east, Saint James in the west, in 1770, the wealthy planters in St James and St Ann succeeded in having sections of those parishes become the parish of Trelawny as they were too far from administrative centres. Trelawny was named after William Trelawny, the then Governor of Jamaica, the first capital was Martha Brae, located 3 kilometres inland from Rock Bay. Trelawny is best known for its estates and sugar cane mills. It had more sugar estates than any other parish, so there was need for a sea coast town to export it, Falmouth became a thriving seaport and social centre. The town had two of its own newspapers, The Falmouth Post and The Falmouth Gazette, Trelawny was also home to the largest group of Maroons in the island. A1739 treaty between the Maroons and the English gave the Maroons freedom and land, which put a stop to their raids on the plantations. However, a second Maroon uprising in 1795 led to over 600 Maroons being exiled to Nova Scotia, Canada, in 2007, the opening ceremony for the ICC Cricket World Cup was held in Trelawny Parish. Trelawny is located at latitude 18°15N, longitude 77°46W and it has an area of 874 km², making it the fifth largest parish on the island. It has a population of 75,558 as of 2012, most of the parish is flat, with wide plains such as Queen of Spains Valley,230 metres above sea level, and Windsor,180 metres above sea level. Most of southern Trelawny is around 230 metres above sea level, the highest point in the parish is Mount Ayr which is 910 metres above sea level. The southern section of Trelawny is part of the Cockpit Country, most of the parish has the typical limestone features of cockpits, sinkholes, caves, and underground passages. There are about 48 caves, most with phosphate gatherings and these include the Windsor Cave and Carambi Cave. There are several caves which have Taino carvings on the walls. There are also several underground conduits, with the longest running for 24 kilometres, the main rivers are the Martha Brae, Rio Bueno, Cane and Quashie Rivers. Trelawnys sources of employment are based on agriculture, manufacturing, rum and sugar are Trelawnys principal products. Other crops include bananas, yams, strawberries, vegetables, pimento, coffee, ginger, though the fishing industry is declining, Trelawny still produces a large amount of fish. There are ten beaches along the coast, with more than 30 boats each, there are 25 factories in the parish
9.
Jamaica
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Jamaica is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles. The island,10,990 square kilometres in area, lies about 145 kilometres south of Cuba, Jamaica is the fourth-largest island country in the Caribbean, by area. Inhabited by the indigenous Arawak and Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494, Many of the indigenous people died of disease, and the Spanish imported African slaves as labourers. Named Santiago, the island remained a possession of Spain until 1655, under British colonial rule Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with its plantation economy highly dependent on slaves imported from Africa. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British imported Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations, the island achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962. With 2.8 million people, Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas, Kingston is the countrys capital and largest city, with a population of 937,700. Jamaicans predominately have African ancestry, with significant European, Chinese, Hakka, Indian, due to a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, Jamaica has a large diaspora around the world, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Jamaica is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch and her appointed representative in the country is the Governor-General of Jamaica, an office held by Sir Patrick Allen since 2009. Andrew Holness has served as the head of government and Prime Minister of Jamaica from March 2016, the indigenous people, the Taíno, called it Xaymaca in Arawakan, meaning the Land of Wood and Water or the Land of Springs. Colloquially Jamaicans refer to their island as the Rock. Slang names such as Jamrock, Jamdown, or briefly Ja, have derived from this, the Arawak and Taíno indigenous people, originating in South America, settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC. When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494, there were more than 200 villages ruled by caciques, the south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour. The Taino still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655, the Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino/Arawak. Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494 and his probable landing point was Dry Harbour, now called Discovery Bay, although there is some debate that it might have been St. Anns Bay. St. Anns Bay was named Saint Gloria by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land, the capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around 1534. Spanish Town has the oldest cathedral of the British colonies in the Caribbean, the Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. In 1655, the English, led by Sir William Penn and General Robert Venables, the English continued to import African slaves as labourers
10.
Kingston, Jamaica
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Kingston is the capital and largest city of Jamaica, located on the southeastern coast of the island. It faces a natural harbour protected by the Palisadoes, a sand spit which connects the town of Port Royal. In the Americas, Kingston is the largest predominantly English-speaking city south of the United States. The local government bodies of the parishes of Kingston and St. Andrew were amalgamated by the Kingston and St. Andrew Corporation Act of 1923, to form the Kingston and St. Andrew Corporation. Greater Kingston, or the Corporate Area refers to areas under the KSAC, however, it does not solely refer to Kingston Parish. Kingston Parish had a population of 96,052, and St. Andrew parish had a population of 555,828 in 2001, Kingston is only bordered by Saint Andrew to the east, west and north. The city proper is bounded by Six Miles to the west, Stony Hill to the north, Papine to the northeast and Harbour View to the east, communities in urban and suburban Saint Andrew. Communities in rural St. Andrew such as Gordon Town, Mavis Bank, Lawrence Tavern, Mt. Airy, two parts make up the central area of Kingston, the historic Downtown, and New Kingston. Both are served by Norman Manley International Airport and also by the smaller, Kingston was founded in July 1692 as a place for survivors of the 1692 earthquake that destroyed Port Royal. Before the earthquake, Kingston’s functions were purely agricultural, the earthquake survivors set up a camp on the sea front. Approximately two thousand people died due to mosquito-borne diseases, initially the people lived in a tented camp on Colonel Barrys Hog Crawle. The town did not begin to grow until after the destruction of Port Royal by fire in 1703. Surveyor John Goffe drew up a plan for the town based on a grid bounded by North, East, West, by 1716 it had become the largest town and the centre of trade for Jamaica. The government sold land to people with the regulation that they no more than the amount of the land that they owned in Port Royal. Gradually wealthy merchants began to move their residences from above their businesses to the lands north on the plains of Liguanea. The first free school, Wolmerss, was founded in 1729 and there was a theatre, first on Harbour Street, in 1755 the governor, Sir Charles Knowles, had decided to transfer the government offices from Spanish Town to Kingston. It was thought by some to be a location for the Assembly in proximity to the moral distractions of Kingston. By the end of the 18th century, the city contained more than 3,000 brick buildings, the harbour fostered trade, and played part in several naval wars of the 18th century
11.
Prime Minister of Jamaica
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The Prime Minister of Jamaica is Jamaicas head of government, currently Andrew Holness. Holness, as leader of the governing Jamaica Labour Party, was sworn in as Prime Minister on 3 March 2016 and this was a result of the JLPs victory in Jamaicas 25 February 2016 general election. The Prime Minister is formally appointed into office by the Governor General of Jamaica, who represents Elizabeth II, the Prime Minister of Jamaicas official residence is Vale Royal. The property was constructed in 1694 by the planter Sir William Taylor, Taylor was one of the richest men in Jamaica at the time, in 1928 the property was sold to the government and became the official residence of the British Colonial Secretary. Vale Royal has subsequently become the residence of the Prime Minister. Vale Royal is not open to the public, note, Died in office Governor-General of Jamaica Government of Jamaica - Office of the Prime Minister - Official website
12.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
13.
Banana
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The banana is an edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called plantains, in contrast to dessert bananas. The fruit is variable in size, color and firmness, but is elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind which may be green, yellow, red, purple. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant, almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from two wild species – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana, the old scientific name Musa sapientum is no longer used. Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea. They are grown in 135 countries, primarily for their fruit, worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between bananas and plantains. Especially in the Americas and Europe, banana usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the Cavendish group, by contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called plantains. In other regions, such as Southeast Asia, many kinds of banana are grown and eaten. The term banana is used as the common name for the plants which produce the fruit. This can extend to members of the genus Musa like the scarlet banana, pink banana. It can also refer to members of the genus Ensete, like the snow banana, both genera are classified under the banana family, Musaceae. The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant, all the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a corm. Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are mistaken for trees. Bananas grow in a variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is not compacted. The leaves of plants are composed of a stalk and a blade. The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath, the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, the edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart, cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions
14.
Howard University School of Law
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Howard University School of Law is one of the professional graduate schools of Howard University. Located in Washington, D. C. it is one of the oldest law schools in the country, Howard University School of Law was accredited by the American Bar Association and the Association of American Law Schools in 1931. According to Howard Laws 2013 ABA-required disclosures, 50% of 2013 graduates obtained full-time, long-term, Howard University opened its legal department, led by John Mercer Langston, on January 6,1869. The first class consisted of six students who met three evenings a week in the homes and offices of the four teachers. Classes were held in locations throughout the years before the law school settled into its current location at 2900 Van Ness Street N. W. in 1974. At the time, the LL. B program required two years of study. Ten students were awarded degrees at the first commencement ceremony, which was held on February 3,1871, the school was accredited by the American Bar Association and the Association of American Law Schools in 1931. Howard Law was the first school in the nation to have an admissions policy. It was a policy at the time to admit women. The nation’s first black lawyer, Charlotte E. Ray, was admitted to Howards law program in 1869 and graduated in 1872. ”Another woman, Mary Ann Shadd Cary, claimed to have been admitted to Howard’s law program in September 1869. However, Carey claims she was barred from graduating on time because of her gender and ultimately graduated in 1883. Eliza A. Chambers, a white female graduate of Howard’s law program, was admitted in 1885. Former HUSL Dean Charles Hamilton Houstons work for the NAACP earned him the title of The Man Who Killed Jim Crow, students must also take courses on evidence and professional responsibility and fulfill the schools scholarly writing requirement. The school offers more than 90 courses beyond the first year curriculum, Howard University School of Law offers the Juris Doctor and the Master of Laws. Additionally, students can enroll in the four-year J. D. /M. B. A, dual degree program with the Howard University School of Business. HUSL students can earn a certificate in family law. As of Fall 2013, Howard Law employed 56 faculty and administrators, the schools student-faculty ratio was 16.52 to 1. Howard Law boasts three institutes and centers, the Education Rights Center, the Institute of Intellectual Property and Social Justice, the schools Clinical Law Center also offers seven in-house legal clinics that provide students with first-hand legal experience as well as an Externship and Equal Justice Program
15.
Trade union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
16.
Alexander Bustamante
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Sir William Alexander Clarke Bustamante GBE PC was a Jamaican politician and labour leader who in 1962 became the first prime minister of Jamaica. He founded the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union following the 1938 labour riots, Bustamante is honoured in Jamaica with the title National Hero of Jamaica in recognition of his achievements. He was born as Alexander Clarke to Mary, a woman of mixed race, and her husband Robert Constantine Clarke and he said that he took the surname Bustamante to honour a Spanish sea captain who befriended him in his youth. Bustamente travelled the world and worked in different places. His occupations included working as a policeman in Cuba and as a dietician in a New York City hospital, at the age of 48, he returned to Jamaica in 1932. He became a leader in activism against colonial rule and he gained recognition by writing frequent letters on the issues to the Daily Gleaner newspaper. In 1937 he was elected as treasurer of the Jamaica Workers Union, during the 1938 labour rebellion, he quickly became identified as the spokesman for striking workers, who were mostly of African and mixed-race descent. Coombs JWU became the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union after the revolt, in 1940, he was imprisoned on charges of subversive activities. The widespread anti-colonial activism finally resulted in Parliaments granting universal suffrage in 1944 to residents in Jamaica, released from prison in 1943, Bustamante founded the Jamaica Labour Party the same year. Previously he had belonged to the Peoples National Party, bustamantes party won 22 of 32 seats in the first House of Representatives elected by universal suffrage. He became the government leader, representing his party as Minister for Communications. He held this position until the JLP was defeated in 1955, in 1947 and 1948, he was elected as mayor of Kingston. In 1952 he was arrested by the American authorities while he was on business in Puerto Rico. Though initially a supporter of the Federation of the West Indies, during the 1950s and he agitated for Jamaica to become independent of Great Britain. He said that the JLP would not contest a by-election to the federal parliament and his rival and cousin, Premier Norman Manley, called a referendum on the issue in 1961. Jamaicans voted for the withdrawal from the Federation. After Jamaica was granted independence in 1962, Bustamante served as the first Prime Minister until 1967, in 1965, after suffering a stroke, he withdrew from active participation in public life. The true power was held by his deputy, Donald Sangster, Bustamante married Gladys Longbridge on 7 September 1962
17.
Jamaican Labour Party
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The Jamaica Labour Party is one of the two major political parties in Jamaica, the other being the Peoples National Party. While its name suggests that it is a democratic party. However, it has longstanding ties to the Jamaican labour movement and it is the current governing party, having won 32 of the 63 parliamentary seats in the lower house of parliament in the 2016 general elections. In the November 2016 Local Government Elections, the party won eight of the fourteen municipal corporations. With a 5-5 tie in the St. Thomas Municipal Corporation and with the JLP winning the vote in St. Thomas, the JLP gets control and therefore the mayorship. The JLP uses the Liberty Bell, the sign. The JLP is a member of the Caribbean Democrat Union, the party was founded on 8 July 1943 by Alexander Bustamante as the political wing of the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union. Bustamante had previously been a member of the PNP and it won the 1944 general elections with 22 of the 32 seats. It went on to win the 1949 elections with a reduced majority and it remained in opposition following the 1959 elections, but was victorious in 1962 and was therefore the Government when Jamaica gained its political independence from Great Britain on 6 August 1962. Bustamante suffered a stroke in 1964 and largely withdrew from politics, however, he did not relinquish the title of party leader for another decade. Donald Sangster took over as acting prime minister after Bustamantes stroke and he was named First Deputy Leader in 1967, and led the party to victory at of the 21 February 1967 elections. Sangster suffered a hemorrhage and died about six weeks after the elections. Hugh Shearer succeeded Sangster as First Deputy Leader and Prime Minister, Tavares had come out on top in the first ballot, with Shearer and Robert Lightbourne being the other candidates. Under Shearer, the JLP lost power for the first time to the Peoples National Party, Shearer served as Opposition Leader until 1974. Bustamante finally gave up the post of party leader in 1974, the party lost the 1976 elections, but Seaga became Prime Minister after victory in 1980 when the party won by a landslide, capturing 51 of the then 60 parliamentary seats. The JLP suffered defeat in the 1989 elections and went on to lose elections in 1993,1997 and 2002, in 2005 Bruce Golding succeeded Seaga as leader of the party, and led it to victory in the 2007 elections. Golding resigned as head of the party and Prime Minister in October 2011 and was succeeded by current leader Andrew Holness. Soon after becoming leader, Holness called an election over a year before it was due
18.
House of Representatives of Jamaica
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The Parliament of Jamaica is the legislative branch of the government of Jamaica. It is a body, composed of an appointed Senate. The House of Representatives, the Lower House, is made up of 63 Members of Parliament, the Parliament meets at George William Gordon House at 81 Duke Street, Kingston. It was built in 1960 and named in memory of Jamaican patriot George William Gordon, the House of Representatives is the Lower House. It is the group of elected members of parliament, prime Minister Andrew Holness, St. Andrew West Central(snap election Hon. Pearnel Charles, Sr. Clarendon North Central - Speaker Hon. The Hon. Christopher Tufton, St. Catherine West Central Hon. Audley Shaw, Manchester North Eastern Hon. Karl Samuda, Senator Matthew Samuda Senator Delroy Williams Senator Kerensia Morrison Senator Dr. Sapphire Longmore-Dropinski Opposition Senator Mark Golding - Leader of Opposition Business Senator Keith D
19.
Election
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An election is a formal decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office. Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has operated since the 17th century, Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the executive and judiciary, and for regional and local government. This process is used in many other private and business organizations. Electoral reform describes the process of introducing fair electoral systems where they are not in place, psephology is the study of results and other statistics relating to elections. To elect means to choose or make a decision, and so other forms of ballot such as referendums are referred to as elections. Elections were used as early in history as ancient Greece and ancient Rome, and throughout the Medieval period to select rulers such as the Holy Roman Emperor, in Vedic period of India, the raja of a gana was apparently elected by the gana. The raja belonged to the noble Kshatriya varna, and was typically a son of the previous raja, however, the gana members had the final say in his elections. The Pala king Gopala in early medieval Bengal was elected by a group of feudal chieftains, such elections were quite common in contemporary societies of the region. In Chola Empire, around 920 CE, in Uthiramerur, palm leaves were used for selecting the village committee members, the leaves, with candidate names written on them, were put inside a mud pot. To select the members, a young boy was asked to take out as many leaves as the number of positions available. This was known as the Kudavolai system, ancient Arabs also used election to choose their caliph, Uthman and Ali, in the early medieval Rashidun Caliphate. Questions of suffrage, especially suffrage for minority groups, have dominated the history of elections, males, the dominate cultural group in North America and Europe, often dominated the electorate and continue to do so in many countries. Early elections in such as the United Kingdom and the United States were dominated by landed or ruling class males. However, by 1920 all Western European and North American democracies had universal male suffrage. Despite legally mandated universal suffrage for males, political barriers were sometimes erected to prevent fair access to elections. The question of who may vote is an issue in elections. In Australia Aboriginal people were not given the right to vote until 1962, suffrage is typically only for citizens of the country, though further limits may be imposed. However, in the European Union, one can vote in municipal elections if one lives in the municipality and is an EU citizen, the nationality of the country of residence is not required
20.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
21.
Clarendon Parish, Jamaica
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Clarendon is a parish in Jamaica. It is located on the south of the island, roughly halfway between the eastern and western ends. Located in the county of Middlesex, it is bordered by Manchester on the west, Saint Catherine in the east, Clarendon was named in honour of the Lord Chancellor Sir Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon. The most recent parish was formed from a combination of three parishes, St. Dorothys, Vere and the old parish of Clarendon, before the merger, the capital was Chapelton. Clarendon Parish was one of the original seven Anglican parishes of Jamaica set up by Sir Thomas Modyford in 1664, covering an area of 1,196 km², Clarendon ranks as Jamaicas third largest parish. The parish is predominantly a wide plain, marked by rivers, including the Rio Minho River. Toward the northern end of the lies the Mocho Mountain, and Bull Head Mountain range. The Vere plain is another significant geographical feature, Portland Point, the southernmost point of Jamaica, is on a peninsula in Clarendon which also hosts Portland Point Lighthouse. With a population at an estimated 246,322, Clarendon is one of the most populous parishes in the island, may Pen, the capital, has a population estimated at around 60,000. Chapelton Hayes May Pen Frankfield Lionel Town Palmers Cross Race Course Rocky Point Bauxite, Jamaicas major mineral source, Bauxite mining has been established in the parish by JAMALCO and ALCOA. Most of the tobacco is also grown in Clarendon, along with cotton, allspice, ginger, livestock, indigo, bananas, coffee. May Pen is also an important citrus packing centre, famous for Trout Hall oranges, additionally, dairy farming, fish farming, and copper mining have been carried on intermittently, and the sugar-cane production contributes significantly to the amount of sugar exported annually. The Denbigh agricultural showground is on the outskirts of May Pen, one of the top ten credit unions in Jamaica, GSB Co-operative Credit Union has a branch here. Clarendon is the location of the Milk River Bath, a mineral spa famous for the value of its waters. The oldest church on the island is in Alley, the old capital of Vere, Halse Hall Great House is one of the islands historic houses. The land on which the stands was given to an English officer, Major Thomas Halse, in 1655. Halse played a role in the Maroon Wars. The Denbigh Agricultural Show Grounds – once a year, on the prior to Independence celebrations
22.
Donald Sangster
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Sir Donald Burns Sangster was a Jamaican solicitor and an old boy of the prestigious Munro College in St. Elizabeth, Jamaica. Politician and the second Prime Minister of Jamaica and he entered politics in 1933 at the age of 21 with his election to the council of the Parish of St Elizabeth, Jamaica. In 1944 he was elected to the House of Representatives of Jamaica as a member of the Jamaica Labour Party, becoming Minister of Social Welfare and Labour and and he became Acting Prime Minister in February 1964 when Prime Minister Sir Alexander Bustamante became ill. He succeeded Bustamante as Prime Minister on 23 February 1967 only to die in office on 11 April and his face appears on the Jamaican one hundred dollar banknote. He also has an airport in Jamaica named after him, Donald Sangster - Jamaicas shortest-serving PM at the Wayback Machine, The Jamaica Gleaner,3 September 2007
23.
Jamaica Defence Force
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The Jamaica Defence Force is the combined military of Jamaica, consisting of an Army, Air Wing and Coast Guard. The JDF is based upon the British military model, with similar organisation, training, once chosen, officer candidates are sent to one of several British or Canadian basic officer courses depending upon the arm of service. Enlisted soldiers are given basic training at JDF Training Depot Newcastle, as on the British model, NCOs are given several levels of professional training as they rise up the ranks. Additional military schools are available for speciality training in Canada, the United States, the JDF is directly descended from the British West India Regiment formed during the colonial era. The West India Regiment was used extensively by the British in policing the empire from 1795 to 1926, other units in the JDF heritage include the early colonial Jamaica Militia, the Kingston Infantry Volunteers of WWI and reorganised into the Jamaican Infantry Volunteers in WWII. The West India Regiment was reformed in 1958 as part of the West Indies Federation, the dissolution of the Federation resulted in the establishment of the JDF. The Jamaica Defence Force comprises an infantry Regiment and Reserve Corps, an Air Wing, a Coast Guard fleet, the infantry regiment contains the 1st, 2nd and 3rd battalions. The JDF Air Wing is divided into three units, a training unit, a support unit and the JDF Air Wing. The Coast Guard element is divided between seagoing crews and support crews and it conducts maritime safety and maritime law enforcement as well as defence-related operations. The support battalion contains a Military Police platoon as well as vehicle, armourers, the 1st Engineer Regiment provides military engineering support to the JDF. The Headquarters JDF contains the JDF commander, command staff as well as intelligence, judge advocate office, administrative, JDF units actively conduct armed patrols with the JCF in high-crime areas and known gang neighbourhoods. There has been controversy as well as support of this JDF role. In early 2005, a leader, Edward Seaga, called for the merger of the JDF. This move has not garnered support in either organisation nor among the majority of citizens, Headquarters, Jamaica Defence Force - divided into the Operations Branch and Adjutant Quartermasters Branch, this is the main command of the entire JDF. Headquarters, Jamaica Defence Force Intelligence Unit - provides intelligence to the JDF, 1st Battalion, The Jamaica Regiment - raised in 1962, one of the two light infantry battalions comprising the main formation of the JDF. 2nd Battalion, The Jamaica Regiment - raised in 1979, second of the two infantry battalions comprising the main formation of the JDF. 3rd Battalion, The Jamaica Regiment - this is an infantry battalion. 1 Engineer Regiment - this unit provides engineering support to all units of the JDF, JDF Coast Guard - this is the naval arm of the JDF, and has responsibility for maritime law enforcement and maritime safety
24.
Working class
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The working class are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled, industrial work. Working-class occupations include blue-collar jobs, some jobs, and most service-work jobs. As with many terms describing social class, working class is defined and used in different ways. The most general definition, used by Marxists and socialists, is that the class includes all those who have nothing to sell but their labor-power. When used non-academically in the United States, however, it refers to a section of society dependent on physical labor. For certain types of science, as well as scientific or journalistic political analysis, for example. Working-class occupations are then categorized into four groups, Unskilled laborers, artisans, outworkers, a common alternative, sometimes used in sociology, is to define class by income levels. The cut-off between working class and middle class here might mean the line where a population has discretionary income, some researchers have suggested that working-class status should be defined subjectively as self-identification with the working-class group. This subjective approach allows people, rather than researchers, to define their own social class, in feudal Europe, the working class as such did not exist in large numbers. Instead, most people were part of the class, a group made up of different professions, trades. A lawyer, craftsman and peasant were all considered to be part of the social unit. Similar hierarchies existed outside Europe in other pre-industrial societies, the social position of these laboring classes was viewed as ordained by natural law and common religious belief. This social position was contested, particularly by peasants, for example during the German Peasants War, wealthy members of these societies created ideologies which blamed many of the problems of working-class people on their morals and ethics. In The Making of the English Working Class, E. P, starting around 1917, a number of countries became ruled ostensibly in the interests of the working class. Since then, four major states have turned towards semi-market-based governance. Other states of this sort have either collapsed, or never achieved significant levels of industrialization or large working classes, since 1960, large-scale proletarianisation and enclosure of commons has occurred in the third world, generating new working classes. Additionally, countries such as India have been slowly undergoing social change, karl Marx defined the working class or proletariat as individuals who sell their labour power for wages and who do not own the means of production. He argued that they were responsible for creating the wealth of a society and he asserted that the working class physically build bridges, craft furniture, grow food, and nurse children, but do not own land, or factories
25.
University of the West Indies
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The aim of the university is to help unlock the potential for economic and cultural growth in the West Indies, thus allowing for improved regional autonomy. The University was originally instituted as an independent external college of the University of London, since the Universitys inception, students and faculty have been recognized in fields ranging from the arts and sciences, to business, politics, and sports. Notable alumni and faculty include three U. W. I, nobel Laureates, sixty-one Rhodes Scholars,18 current or former Caribbean Heads of Government, and an Olympic medalist. The universitys cricket team participated in West Indian domestic cricket. This university consists of three campuses at Mona in Jamaica, St. Augustine in Trinidad and Tobago, Cave Hill in Barbados. There are satellite campuses in Mount Hope, Trinidad and Tobago and Montego Bay, Jamaica, the other contributing countries are served by the Open Campus which has a physical presence and Heads of Sites in each of the 18 countries. The university was founded in 1948, on the recommendation of the Asquith Commission through its sub-committee on the West Indies chaired by Sir James Irvine, the Asquith Commission had been established in 1943 to review the provision of higher education in the British colonies. Initially in a relationship with the University of London, the then University College of the West Indies was seated at Mona, about five miles from Kingston. The university was based at a used by evacuated Gibraltarians during the war. The University College achieved independent university status in 1962, the St Augustine Campus in Trinidad, formerly the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, was established in 1960, followed by the Cave Hill Campus in Barbados in 1963. Before the establishment of the Open Campus, University Centres, headed by a Resident Tutor, were established in each of the other thirteen contributing territories, each of the physical campuses has faculties common to all of the campuses, such as Humanities & Education and Social Sciences. Cave Hill, Barbados and Mona, Jamaica and St. Augustine, Trinidad, both Mona, Jamaica, and St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago, have the Faculty of Medicine. In 2008 Cave Hill accepted the first students at their Faculty of Medicine, previously, they only accommodated students in the final two years in the medical program at their School of Medicine which was located at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital. St. Augustine also has the Faculty of Engineering, in 1950, HRH Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone, the last surviving granddaughter of Queen Victoria, became the first Chancellor of the University College of the West Indies. Sir William Arthur Lewis was the first Vice-Chancellor under the UWI’s independent Charter, a native of St Lucia, he served as the first West Indian Principal of the UCWI from 1958 to 1960 and as Vice-Chancellor from 1960 to 1963. He was succeeded by Sir Philip Sherlock who served as Vice-Chancellor from 1963 to 1969, Sir Roy Marshall, a Barbadian, was the next Vice-Chancellor, serving from 1969 to 1974. He was succeeded by Dr Aston Zachariah Preston, a Jamaican, the fifth Vice-Chancellor was Sir Alister McIntyre, who served from 1988 to 1998, followed by alumnus and Professor Emeritus Rex Nettleford who served from 1998 to 2004. The current Vice-Chancellor is Professor Sir Hilary Beckles, who succeeded Professor E. Nigel Harris in May 2015, current enrollment across the four campuses is 56,000
26.
Cuba
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Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
27.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
28.
Pan-Africanism
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Pan-Africanism is a worldwide intellectual movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all people of African descent. It is based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, the ideology asserts that the fate of all African peoples and countries are intertwined. At its core Pan-Africanism is a belief that African peoples, both on the continent and in the diaspora, share not merely a common history, but a common destiny. The African Union Commission has its seat in Addis Ababa and the Pan-African Parliament has its seat in Johannesburg, Pan-Africanism stresses the need for collective self-reliance. Pan-Africanism exists as a governmental and grassroots objective, du Bois, and others in the diaspora. Solidarity will enable self-reliance, allowing the potential to independently provide for its people to be fulfilled. Crucially, an alliance would empower African people globally. that would unsettle social and political structures. in the Americas. United, African nations will have the economic, political and social clout to act and compete on the stage as do other large entities, such as the European Union. Pan-Africans or Pan-Africanists—often champion socialist principles and tend to be opposed to external political, critics accuse the ideology of homogenizing the experience of people of African descent. They also point to the difficulties of reconciling current divisions within countries on the continent, as a philosophy, Pan-Africanism represents the aggregation of the historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, and philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to the present. Another important political form of a religious Pan-Africanist worldview appeared in the form of Ethiopianism, in London, the Sons of Africa was a political group addressed by Quobna Ottobah Cugoano in the 1791 edition of his book Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery. The group addressed meetings and organised letter-writing campaigns, published campaigning material and they wrote to figures such as Granville Sharp, William Pitt and other members of the white abolition movement, as well as King George III and the Prince of Wales, the future George IV. Modern Pan-Africanism began around the start of the 20th century, the African Association, later renamed the Pan-African Association, was established around 1897 by Henry Sylvester-Williams, who organized the First Pan-African Conference in London in 1900. With the independence of Ghana in March 1957, Kwame Nkrumah was elected as the first Prime Minister, Nkrumah emerged as a major advocate for the unity of Independent Africa. The Ghanaian President embodied a political activist approach to pan-Africanism as he championed the “quest for regional integration of the whole of the African continent”, Nkrumah’s pan-African principles, intended for a union between the Independent African states, upon a recognition their commonality, suppression under imperialism. The Conference invited delegates of political movements and major political leaders, with the exception of South Africa, all Independent States of the Continent attended, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Liberia, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia and Sudan. The Conference signified a monumental event in the movement, as it revealed a political and social union between the those considered Arabic states and the black African regions. Further, the Conference espoused a common African Nationalist identity, among the States, of unity, frantz Fanon, journalist, freedom fighter and a member of the Algerian, FLN Party attended the conference as a delegate for Algeria
29.
Aluminium oxide
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Aluminium oxide or aluminum oxide is a chemical compound of aluminium and oxygen with the chemical formula Al2O3. It is the most commonly occurring of several aluminium oxides, and it is commonly called alumina, and may also be called aloxide, aloxite, or alundum depending on particular forms or applications. It occurs naturally in its crystalline polymorphic phase α-Al2O3 as the mineral corundum, varieties of form the precious gemstones ruby. Al2O3 is significant in its use to produce metal, as an abrasive owing to its hardness. Corundum is the most common naturally occurring form of aluminium oxide. Rubies and sapphires are gem-quality forms of corundum, which owe their characteristic colors to trace impurities, rubies are given their characteristic deep red color and their laser qualities by traces of chromium. Sapphires come in different colors given by various other impurities, such as iron, Al2O3 is an electrical insulator but has a relatively high thermal conductivity for a ceramic material. Aluminium oxide is insoluble in water, in its most commonly occurring crystalline form, called corundum or α-aluminium oxide, its hardness makes it suitable for use as an abrasive and as a component in cutting tools. Aluminium oxide is responsible for the resistance of aluminium to weathering. Metallic aluminium is very reactive with oxygen, and a thin passivation layer of aluminium oxide forms on any exposed aluminium surface. This layer protects the metal from further oxidation, the thickness and properties of this oxide layer can be enhanced using a process called anodising. A number of alloys, such as bronzes, exploit this property by including a proportion of aluminium in the alloy to enhance corrosion resistance. Aluminium oxide was taken off the United States Environmental Protection Agencys chemicals lists in 1988, aluminium oxide is on EPAs Toxics Release Inventory list if it is a fibrous form. Al2O3 +6 HF →2 AlF3 +3 H2O Al2O3 +2 NaOH +3 H2O →2 NaAl4 The most common form of aluminium oxide is known as corundum. The oxygen ions form a hexagonal close-packed structure with aluminium ions filling two-thirds of the octahedral interstices. In terms of its crystallography, corundum adopts a trigonal Bravais lattice with a group of R-3c. The primitive cell contains two units of aluminium oxide. Each has a crystal structure and properties
30.
Tourism
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Tourism is travel for pleasure or business, also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours. Tourism may be international, or within the travellers country, Tourism can be domestic or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a countrys balance of payments. Today, tourism is a source of income for many countries. International tourism receipts grew to US$1.03 trillion in 2011, the ITB Berlin is the worlds leading tourism trade fair. The word tourist was used by 1772 and tourism by 1811. It is formed from the tour, which is derived from Old English turian, from Old French torner, from Latin tornare, to turn on a lathe. Tourism is an important, even vital, source of income for many regions and it also creates opportunities for employment in the service sector of the economy associated with tourism. This is in addition to goods bought by tourists, including souvenirs, in 1936, the League of Nations defined a foreign tourist as someone traveling abroad for at least twenty-four hours. Its successor, the United Nations, amended this definition in 1945 and it includes movements for all purposes. In 1981, the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism defined tourism in terms of particular activities chosen and undertaken outside the home, in this context, travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited, by contrast, traveler is often used as a sign of distinction. The sociology of tourism has studied the values underpinning these distinctions. International tourist arrivals reached 1.035 billion in 2012, up from over 996 million in 2011, the World Tourism Organization reports the following ten destinations as the most visited in terms of the number of international travellers in 2016. International tourism receipts grew to US$1.2 trillion in 2014, based upon air traffic, the MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index reports the following cities as the top ten most popular destinations of international tourism worldwide. MasterCard reports the following cities as the top ten biggest earners on international tourism worldwide in 2015, as early as Shulgi, however, kings praised themselves for protecting roads and building waystations for travelers. During the Roman Republic, spas and coastal resorts such as Baiae were popular among the rich, pausanias wrote his Description of Greece in the 2nd century AD. In ancient China, nobles sometimes made a point of visiting Mount Tai and, on occasion, the Islamic hajj is still central to its faith and Chaucers Canterbury Tales and Wu Chengens Journey to the West remain classics of English and Chinese literature. The 10th- to 13th-century Song dynasty also saw secular travel writers such as Su Shi, under the Ming, Xu Xiake continued the practice
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Resort
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A resort is a self-contained commercial establishment that endeavors to provide most of a vacationers wants, such as food, drink, lodging, sports, entertainment, and shopping, on the premises. The term resort may be used for a property that provides an array of amenities, typically including entertainment. A hotel is frequently a central feature of a resort, such as the Grand Hotel at Mackinac Island, some resorts are also timeshare or fractionally owned, or wholly owned condominium complexes. A resort is not always a commercial establishment operated by a single company, commonly these facilities are of higher quality than would be expected if one were to stay at a hotel or eat in a towns restaurants. Closely related to these resorts are convention and large meeting sites, generally these occur in cities where special meeting halls, together with ample accommodations as well as varied dining and entertainment, are provided. An all-inclusive resort charges a price that includes most or all items. At a minimum, most inclusive resorts include lodging, unlimited food, drink, sports activities, all-inclusive resorts are found in the Caribbean, particularly in Dominican Republic, Egypt, and elsewhere. Many also offer sports and other included in the price as well. They are often located in warmer regions, the all-inclusive model originated in the Club Med resorts, which were founded by the Belgian Gérard Blitz. Some all-inclusive resorts are designed for specific vacation interests, for example, certain resorts cater to adults, while even more specialized properties accept couples only. Other all-inclusive resorts are geared toward families, with facilities like craft centers, game rooms, all-inclusive resorts are also very popular locations for destination weddings. A spa resort is a short term residential/lodging facility with the purpose of providing individual services for spa-goers to develop healthy habits. Historically many such spas were developed at the location of natural hot springs or sources of mineral waters, golf resorts are resorts that cater specifically to the sport of golf, and include access to one or more golf course and or clubhouse. Golf resorts typically provide golf packages that provide visitors with all greens and cart fees, range balls, accommodations, in North America a ski resort is generally a destination resort in a ski area. Ski resort is less likely to refer to a town or village, a megaresort is a type of destination resort which is of an exceptionally large size, such as those along the Las Vegas Strip. In Singapore integrated resort is a euphemism for a destination resort. A holiday village is a type of self-contained resort in Europe, a holiday camp in the United Kingdom refers to a resort where the accommodation is in chalets. The term holiday park is used for a resort where the accommodation includes static caravans, there are 1500+ timeshare resorts in the U. S. that are operated by major hospitality, timeshare-specific, or independent companies
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Law of the Sea
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It is the public law counterpart to admiralty law, which concerns private maritime intercourse. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, or UNCLOS, concluded in 1982, disputes are resolved at the International Tribunal of the Law of the Sea, a court in Hamburg. In 2017, ITLOS celebrated 20 years of existence, during time it had settled some 25 cases. The judge are derived from a variety of nations. The result, A1982 oceanic constitution, called the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, between New York, USA and Geneva, Switzerland, ambassadors from 165+ countries sat down to trade and barter for their nations rights. The conference created the standard for a 12-mile territorial sea around a land, within these limits, states are free to enforce any of their own laws or regulations or use any resources. Furthermore, each signatory coastal state is granted an Exclusive Economic Zone, in which state has exclusive rights to fisheries, mineral rights. Military ships do NOT have the right to pass through another nations EEZ unless permission is granted and this can cause difficulties for Russia, whose Baltic fleet and Black Sea fleet do not have unobstructed access to the great oceans. By contrast, the USA has free access to the Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic oceans, because the EEZ is so extensive, ITLOS may need to determine the ocean boundaries between states, as they did in 2012 between Bangladesh and Burma. As the Arctic Ocean becomes increasingly important for navigation and resources, the USA may find it necessary to submit to UNCLOS to clarify the Alaska/Canada border. The Law of the Sea should be distinguished from Maritime Law, in maritime law disputes, normally at least one party is a private litigant, such an individual or a corporation. Custom of the Sea Nansen Institute
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People's National Party
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The Peoples National Party is a social-democratic political party in Jamaica founded in 1938 under the leadership of Norman Manley. It holds 31 of 63 seats in the House of Representatives, the party is democratic socialist by constitution. The PNP uses the head, the rising sun, the fist, the trumpet. The PNP was founded in 1938 and is the oldest political party in the Anglophone Caribbean and it is one of the main two political parties in Jamaica and is considered more to the left than its main rival, the Jamaica Labour Party. The PNP held a majority of seats in the parliament of colonial Jamaica from 1955 until 1962, following independence in 1962 it held the majority of seats in the Jamaican Parliament from 1972 to 1980, from 1989 to 2007, and from 2011 to 2016. The PNP was defeated in the first universal elections held in Jamaica in 1944 and it came to office again in 1955, and held office until just before independence in 1962. The party was defeated that year by its rival, the JLP. During this period of government, it promoted actively reformist social democratic policies, Manley led the party in a boycott of the snap election called in 1983. The party was absent from parliament for more than five years, in 1989, it was returned to office under Manleys leadership. Manley retired from politics in 1992, and was replaced as party leader by P. J. Patterson, Patterson led the PNP to victory in 1993,1997, and 2002, becoming the first political leader in Jamaican history to win three successive general elections. In the 2002 election, held on 16 October 2002, the party won 52. 2% of the vote and 34 out of the 60 seats in the House of Representatives. On 26 February 2006, Portia Simpson-Miller was elected as Pattersons successor, becoming the first female president of the PNP, the PNP lost the August 2007 election to the JLP and its leader Bruce Golding. In the 29 December 2011 general election, the PNP was returned to power with 42 of the 63 seats in Jamaicas parliament, at first,41 seats were counted in favour of the PNP. A recount with official results cost the agriculture minister, Christopher Tufton, his seat, putting the PNP at 42. On January 5,2012, PNP president Portia Simpson-Miller was sworn in as Prime Minister for the time in her political career. On the following day, she assigned 20 cabinet ministers to various ministries, the party is a member of the Socialist International. Since its return to office in 1989, it has pursued policies intended to take advantage of globalisation and it has substantially moderated or abandoned the socialist rhetoric of the 1970s. Norman Manley Michael Manley Percival James Patterson Portia Simpson-Miller Peter Phillips Official PNP website Jamaica New 2012 Cabinet Ministers Party manifesto History of the PNP and the JLP
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Bank of Jamaica
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The Bank of Jamaica is the central bank of Jamaica located in Kingston. It was established by the Bank of Jamaica Act 1960 and was opened on May 1,1961 and it is responsible for the monetary policy of Jamaica on the instruction of the Minister of Finance. The Bank of Jamaica, established by the Bank of Jamaica Law, began operations in May 1961 and this initiative was aimed at more effective intermediation, through the encouragement of market forces and the strengthening of the Central Banks capacity to implement monetary policies. The Bank of Jamaica is run by a Board of Directors headed by the Governor of the Bank of Jamaica, the Board of Directors is composed of the Governor who is also Chairman of the Board, the Senior Deputy Governor, the Financial Secretary and six other directors. All are appointed by the Minister of Finance for five year terms, don Wehby, chief operating officer at GraceKennedy Limited and a former senator, has called for the separation of the positions of governor and chairman. Brian Wynter, a deputy governor, has been named as the new Governor of the Bank. Until then, Audrey Anderson, senior deputy governor, is in charge of the Bank, the most recent Governor of the Bank of Jamaica was Derick Milton Latibeaudiere who took up that post on 1 April 1996 and who resigned on October 30,2009. Economy of Jamaica Jamaican dollar Bank of Jamaica official site
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Jamaican dollar
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The dollar has been the currency of Jamaica since 1969. It is often abbreviated J$, the J serving to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies and it is divided into 100 cents. The history of currency in Jamaica should not be considered in isolation of the picture in the British West Indies as a whole. The earliest money in Jamaica was Spanish copper coins called maravedíes and this relates to the fact that for nearly four hundred years Spanish dollars, known as pieces of eight were in widespread use on the worlds trading routes, including the Caribbean Sea region. However, following the wars in Latin America, the source of these silver trade coins dried up. The last Spanish dollar was minted at the Potosí mint in 1825, the United Kingdom had adopted a very successful gold standard in 1821, so 1825 was an opportune time to introduce the British sterling coinage into all the British colonies. An imperial order-in-council was passed in that year for the purposes of facilitating this aim by making sterling coinage legal tender in the colonies at the rating of $1 = 4s 4d. It had the effect of actually driving sterling coinage out, rather than encouraging its circulation, remedial legislation had to be introduced in 1838 so as to change over to the more realistic rating of $1 = 4s 2d. In 1834, silver coins of threepence and three halfpence were introduced, valued at ½ real and ¼ real, the three-halfpence coins came to be called quartiles or quatties. These in particular were used in collections due to a feeling by the black population that copper coins were inappropriate for that purpose. Hence, they came to be called Christian quatties, Coins in use were thus the farthing, halfpenny, penny, three halfpence, threepence, sixpence, shilling, florin, half crown, and crown. The emancipation of the slaves in 1838 increased the need for coinage in Jamaica, particularly low-denomination coins, the solution was to use cupronickel, adopted in 1869. Pennies and halfpennies were minted for use in Jamaica, becoming the first truly Jamaican coins, beginning in 1880, the farthing was also minted in cupronickel. In 1904, the first government-authorized banknotes were produced in the denomination of 10s, Banknotes of £1 and £5 were also being circulated by chartered banks. In 1918, denominations of 2s 6d and 5s were authorized, the 2s 6d note proved to have a short life, being withdrawn in 1922. In 1940, the government bank began producing £1 and £5 notes, in October 1960, the Bank of Jamaica was given the sole right to mint coins and produce banknotes in Jamaica. Their notes were released on May 1,1961, in the denominations of 5s, 10s, £1, on January 30,1968, the Jamaican House of Representatives voted to decimalize the currency by introducing the dollar, worth 10 shillings, to replace the Jamaican pound. Coins and banknotes went into circulation on September 8,1969, the introduction of a decimal currency provided the opportunity for the introduction of a complete Jamaican coinage as formerly, the coins, were the same as those used in the United Kingdom
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Ebony (magazine)
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Ebony is a monthly magazine for the African-American market. It was founded by John H. Johnson and has published continuously since the autumn of 1945, a digest-sized sister magazine, Jet, was founded by the Johnson Publishing Company. After 71 years, in 2016, Johnson sold the publications to private equity firm Clear View Group, the new publisher will be known as Ebony Media Corporation. Ebony was founded by John H. Johnson in 1945, the magazine has evolved over the years, in 1985 Ebony Man was started. In 2010 it began a process to update its longtime brand. In the past, the magazine was persistently upbeat, much like its postwar contemporary Life, Ebony, edited by John H. Johnson, has striven always to address African-American issues, personalities and interests in a positive and self-affirming manner. S. Senator Carol Moseley Braun of Illinois, U. S. President Barack Obama, Zoe Saldana, Tyrese Gibson, for decades, advertisers created ads specifically for Ebony, which featured black models using their products. In the 21st century, many ads in widespread publications already feature black people, in November 2010, the magazine featured a special 65th-anniversary edition cover featuring Taraji P. Henson, Samuel L. Jackson, Usher and Mary J. Blige. A second cover showcased Nia Long atop a birthday cake – Marilyn Monroe-style, the issue included eight cover recreations from historic and iconic previous covers of Ebony. Blair Underwood posed inside, as did Omar Epps and Jurnee Smollett, Mary J. Blige used her 1940s-style image from Ebony to update her Twitter profile picture. National Public Radio marked this anniversary edition as the beginning of redesign of Ebony, former White House Social Secretary Desiree Rogers, of the Obama administration, had become the CEO of the magazine. In August 2008 the magazine had published a special edition featuring the 25 Coolest Brothers of All Time. The lineup featured Jay-Z, Barack Obama, Prince, Samuel L. Jackson, Denzel Washington, Marvin Gaye, Muhammad Ali, in the 21st century, Ebony frequently makes headlines in the blogosphere and in the mainstream press. The November 2011 cover featured a pregnant Nia Long, reminiscent of the image of actress Demi Moore featured naked while pregnant on a magazine cover two decades before. Some of Ebony′s more conservative readers disagreed with the choice, stating it inappropriate to feature an unwed. The cover was featured in US Weekly and in a segment on CNN. Zoe Saldana was featured on the August 2011 issue, and some readers questioned a Black latina cover star, however, the Avatar actress seemed to open Ebony to a new segment, Americans of mixed African-American and Hispanic ancestry. Recent issues question whether President Obama is still right for black America, in December 2008, Google announced that it was scanning back issues for Google Book Search, all issues from November 1959 to December 2008 are available for free
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
