1.
Risley, Derbyshire
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Risley is a small village and parish in Erewash in the English county of Derbyshire. The population of the parish as of the 2011 census was 711. It is just over four miles south of Ilkeston, sandiacre is adjacent to the east. It is almost midway between Derby and Nottingham and is near junction 25 of the M1 motorway and the A52, in 1870 it had a population of 203 when there was a grammar school that served seven neighbouring parishes. All Saints Church was built in Elizabethan times by members of the Willoughby family, who had acquired Risley in 1350 AD, apparently this is rare in that it belongs to a period when most churches were being pulled down rather than being built. Risley is a long thin village with most properties lying on either side of the main road, with the village hall standing on one side of the church and the school on the other, this is the closest one can get to the village centre. The church belongs to the Stanton group of churches with Dale Abbey, the village pub is the Risley Park formerly the Blue Ball on Derby Road Risley Manor originally belonged to the Mortimers. It passed to the Sheffields and then the Willoughbys and, in 1870 and it is now a country house hotel. A silver vessel known as the Risley Park Lanx,20 inches by 15, sir Hugh Willoughby, the navigator, owned the manor here. Teresa Hooley, poet, was here in 1888
2.
Derbyshire
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Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire, in 2003 the Ordnance Survey placed Church Flatts Farm at Coton in the Elms as the furthest point from the sea in Great Britain. The city of Derby is a unitary authority area, but remains part of the county of Derbyshire. The non-metropolitan county contains 30 towns with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants, there is a large amount of sparsely populated agricultural upland, 75% of the population live in 25% of the area. Further occupation came with the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age when Mesolithic hunter gatherers roamed the hilly tundra, evidence of these nomadic tribes has been found in limestone caves located on the Nottinghamshire border. Deposits left in the date the occupancy at around 12,000 to 7,000 BCE. Burial mounds of Neolithic settlers are also situated throughout the county and these chambered tombs were designed for collective burial and are mostly located in the central Derbyshire region. There are tombs at Minninglow and Five Wells that date back to between 2000 and 2500 BCE, three miles west of Youlgreave lies the Neolithic henge monument of Arbor Low, which has been dated to 2500 BCE. It is not until the Bronze Age that real signs of agriculture, in the moors of the Peak District signs of clearance, arable fields and hut circles were discovered after archaeological investigation. However this area and another settlement at Swarkestone are all that have been found, during the Roman invasion the invaders were attracted to Derbyshire because of the lead ore in the limestone hills of the area. They settled throughout the county with forts built near Brough in the Hope Valley, later they settled around Buxton, famed for its warm springs, and set up a fort near modern-day Derby in an area now known as Little Chester. Several kings of Mercia are buried in the Repton area, following the Norman Conquest, much of the county was subject to the forest laws. To the northwest was the Forest of High Peak under the custodianship of William Peverel, the rest of the county was bestowed upon Henry de Ferrers, a part of it becoming Duffield Frith. In time the area was given to the Duchy of Lancaster. Meanwhile, the Forest of East Derbyshire covered the county to the east of the River Derwent from the reign of Henry II to that of Edward I. The main rivers in the county are the River Derwent and the River Dove which both join the River Trent in the south. The varied landscapes within Derbyshires have been formed mainly as a consequence of the underlying geology, the oldest rocks occur in the northern, more upland half of the county, and are mostly of Carboniferous age, comprising limestones, gritstones, sandstones and shales. In its north-east corner to the east of Bolsover there are also Magnesian Limestone rocks of Permian age, across both regions can be found drift deposits of Quaternary age – mainly terrace and river gravel deposits and boulder clays
3.
Kingdom of England
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In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
4.
Arctic
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The Arctic is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places, the Arctic region is a unique area among Earths ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold, in recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic. The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός, near the Bear, northern, there are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle, the southern limit of the midnight sun. The Arctics climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers and its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm. High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall, average winter temperatures can be as low as −40 °C, and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C. Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures, the Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws. Due to the migration of the planets isotherms, the Arctic region is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most spectacular result of Arctic shrinkage is sea ice loss, there is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100. Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of available for plant growth decreases considerably. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease, trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m in height, sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare, non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses, herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear
5.
Rough Wooing
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The Rough Wooing was a war between Scotland and England. Edward VI, crowned king in 1547, continued the war until changing circumstances made it irrelevant in 1550, in Scotland, the war was called the Eight or Nine Years War. The idea of the war as a Wooing was popularised many years later by Sir Walter Scott, more recently, Marcus Merriman titled his book The Rough Wooings to emphasise the division of the conflict into two or three distinct phases. In 1542, a Scottish army came to grief at the Battle of Solway Moss and James V died soon after, the English marriage for Mary proposed by the Treaty of Greenwich was conditionally accepted by the Scottish government led by Regent Arran. However, Arran was slow to advance the marriage due to strong internal factions favouring alliance with France, twenty years later, the English diplomat Ralph Sadler reported Adam Otterburns words to him on the Scottish opinion of the marriage, Our people do not like of it. And though the Governor and some of the nobility have consented to it, yet I know that few or none of them do like of it, and our common people do utterly mislike of it. I pray you give me leave to ask you a question, if your lad was a lass, and lykewise I assure you that our nation will never agree to have an Englishman king of Scotland. And though the whole nobility of the realm would consent, yet our common people, in Scotland civil war ensued with the Regent opposed by the Douglas faction in the East and Matthew, Earl of Lennox in the West at Glasgow. With this internal background, the Scots then faced the anger of Henry VIII, five days later, on 20 December, war was declared in Edinburgh by the messenger Henry Ray, Berwick Pursuivant. Henry had released a number of Scottish noblemen captured at the battle of Solway Moss on licence, in March 1544, he sent his Richmond Herald to the Privy Council of Scotland to demand their return. Major hostilities began with an attack on Edinburgh on 3 May 1544, led by the Earl of Hertford, Hertford had instructions to burn Edinburgh and issue Henrys proclamation of 24 March 1544, which laid the blame on Cardinal Beatons sinister enticement of Regent Arran. Hertford had also considered establishing an English garrison at Leith but the Privy Council had vetoed this plan, Henry VIII had also asked him to destroy St Andrews, but Hertford pointed out the extra distance would be troublesome. After burning St Mynettes on the side of the Forth and taking fishing boats for landing-craft. Hertford parleyed with Adam Otterburn who was Provost of Edinburgh but he had been instructed not to make terms, the next day the troops entered Edinburghs Canongate, and set the city on fire. Edinburgh Castle was defended by cannon fire commanding the Royal Mile, Hertford decided not to lay siege but thoroughly burn the city. According to the English contemporary account, all the houses within the suburbs and city walls were burnt including Holyroodhouse, the English ships at Leith were loaded with looted goods and sailed with the captured Unicorn and Salamander. The army returned to England by land, burning towns and villages along the way, soon after the English force landed, Regent Arran released the Earl of Angus and George Douglas of Pittendreich who had been imprisoned in Blackness Castle. Although they had been supporters of the English marriage, Arran now needed the support of the Douglas family against an English invasion
6.
Thirlestane Castle
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Thirlestane Castle is a castle set in extensive parklands near Lauder in the Borders of Scotland. The site is aptly named Castle Hill, as it stands upon raised ground, however, the raised land is within Lauderdale, the valley of the Leader Water. The land has been in the ownership of the Maitland family since 1587, the castle was substantially extended in the 1670s by the first and only Duke of Lauderdale. Further additions were made in the 19th century, the castle is now cared for by a charitable trust, and is open to the public. Before the 13th century, a fort or castle was built on Castle Hill near the Leader Water. Upon its redundancy in the early 16th century, it passed to Robert Lauder of that Ilk and this couple, and their son, were all murdered in feuds, Alison in 1547. Records are wanting but presumably the lands reverted to her parents and they both died in the second half of 1567 leaving only young grandchildren as heirs. The Cranstouns sold Castle Hill on 27 January 1587 to Sir John Maitland, during the war with England called the Rough Wooings the site had been occupied by a large English artillery fort and garrison. The fort was begun on 5 April 1548 by Sir Robert Bowes and was estimated to cost £296, by the 22 March 1587, Maitland was busily occupied with his masons at the building of his house in the Fort of Lauder. The Maitlands came to Britain from Normandy with William the Conqueror in 1066 and they gained power and influence as a result of military service but largely due to their contributions to law and the arts in the 16th century. William Maitland of Lethington, was Secretary to Mary, Queen of Scots, his brother was Sir John Maitland, Secretary of Scotland. In the same year he built a square keep or tower house upon the foundations. In 1590, Sir John was appointed Lord Chancellor of Scotland and this new nouse near Lauder was to replace the Maitlands original but now decaying Thirlestane Castle, a peel tower situated a mile to the south. Its ruins are extant, and are shown on the Ordnance Survey map of the area. Lord Maitlands son was created the 1st Earl of Lauderdale in 1624 and he employed the architect Sir William Bruce to transform the castle into a residence suitable for conducting the affairs of state. Lauderdale had Bruce retain much of the earlier fabric giving it an external aura of antiquity. This allowed Lauderdale to revere the antiquity of his residence at the same time as living in high contemporary fashion. By the 19th century, in peaceful times, the castle took on the role of a Scottish country mansion for the Earls of Lauderdale
7.
Richard Chancellor
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Richard Chancellor was an English explorer and navigator, the first to penetrate to the White Sea and establish relations with Russia. Chancellor, a native of Bristol, acquired geographical and maritime proficiency from the explorer Sebastian Cabot and they hoped not only to discover a North-east passage but also to find a market for English woollen cloth. Sir Hugh Willoughby was given three ships for the search, and Chancellor went as second-in-command and their orders from the King included behaving peacably towards any people they met and keeping a regular journal. The bodies and journals were discovered by Russian hunters in the spring, however continuing eastwards they found the entrance to the White Sea and after obtaining directions from local people dropped anchor at the port of Archangel. When Tsar Ivan the Terrible heard of Chancellors arrival, he invited the exotic guest to visit Moscow for an audience at the royal court. Chancellor made the journey of over 600 miles to Moscow by horse-drawn sleigh through snow and he found Moscow large and primitively built, most houses being constructed of wood. However, the palace of the tsar was very luxurious, as were the dinners he offered Chancellor, in addition, the Hanseatic League had a monopoly on the trade between Russia and Central and Western Europe. Chancellor was no less optimistic, finding a market for his English wool. The Tsar gave him letters for England inviting English traders and promising trade privileges, when Chancellor returned to England in the summer of 1554, King Edward was dead, and his successor, Mary, had executed Northumberland for attempting to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne. No stigma attached to Chancellor, and the Muscovy Company, as the association was now called, on this voyage he learned what had happened to Willoughby, recovered his papers, and found out about the discovery of Novaya Zemlya. Chancellor spent the summer of 1555 dealing with the Tsar, organising trade, in 1556 Chancellor departed for England, taking with him the first Russian ambassador to his country, Osip Nepeya. They left Archangel in autumn, the fleet was Willoughbys ships, the Philip and Mary, in October/November the fleet tried to winter in Trondheim. The Bona Esperanza sank, the Bona Confidentia appeared to enter the fjord but was never heard of again, the Edward did not attempt to enter, instead reaching the Scottish coast and being wrecked at Pitslago on 7 November. Chancellor lost his life, although the Russian envoy survived to reach London, Chancellor had found a way to Russia, and though in time it was superseded by a better one it remained for years the only feasible route for the English. He died at Pitsligo Bay on 10 November 1556, Chancellor appears as a major character in the novel The Ringed Castle, fifth of the six novels in Dorothy Dunnetts historical fiction series, The Lymond Chronicles. Company of Merchant Adventurers Society of Merchant Venturers Muscovy Company Richard Chancellor,1997, in Encyclopedia of World Biography, Detroit, Gale Dunnett, the Ringed Castle,1971, New York, Vintage Books. Howarth, David,2003, British Seapower, Robinson, London, readers Guide to British History 1, 245-46, historiography McDermott, James
8.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Wood, James, ed. (1907). "Willoughby, Sir Hugh". The Nuttall Encyclopædia. London and New York: Frederick Warne.
