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Anatomical terminology
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Anatomical terminology is a form of scientific terminology used by anatomists, zoologists, and health professionals such as doctors. Anatomical terminology uses many terms, suffixes, and prefixes deriving from Ancient Greek. These terms can be confusing to those unfamiliar with them, but can be more precise reducing ambiguity, also, since these anatomical terms are not used in everyday conversation, their meanings are less likely to change, and less likely to be misinterpreted. By using precise anatomical terminology such ambiguity is eliminated, an international standard for anatomical terminology, Terminologia Anatomica has been created. Anatomical terminology has quite regular morphology, the prefixes and suffixes are used to add meanings to different roots. The root of a term refers to an organ, tissue. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix hyper- means high or over, the roots, prefixes and suffixes are often derived from Greek or Latin, and often quite dissimilar from their English-language variants. Latin names of such as musculus biceps brachii can be split up and refer to, musculus for muscle, biceps for two-headed. The first word tells us what we are speaking about, the second describes it, when describing the position of anatomical structures, structures may be described according to the anatomical landmark they are near. These landmarks may include structures, such as the umbilicus or sternum, or anatomical lines, the cephalon or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is differentiated into the cranium, facies, frons, oculus, auris, bucca, nausus, oris. The neck area is called the cervicis or cervical region, examples of structures named according to this include the frontalis muscle, submental lymph nodes, buccal membrane and orbicularis oculi muscle. Sometimes, unique terminology is used to reduce confusion in different parts of the body, for example, different terms are used when it comes to the skull in compliance with its embryonic origin and its tilted position compared to in other animals. Here, Rostral refers to proximity to the front of the nose, similarly, in the arms, different terminology is often used in the arms, in part to reduce ambiguity as what is the front, back, inner and outer surfaces. For this reason, the terms below are used, Radial referring to the radius bone, ulnar referring to the ulna bone, medially positioned when in the standard anatomical position. Other terms are used to describe the movement and actions of the hands and feet. International morphological terminology is used by the colleges of medicine and dentistry and it facilitates communication and exchanges between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of research, teaching and medical care. The international morphological terminology refers to morphological sciences as a biological sciences branch, in this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or developments in the organism
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Human
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Modern humans are the only extant members of Hominina tribe, a branch of the tribe Hominini belonging to the family of great apes. Several of these hominins used fire, occupied much of Eurasia and they began to exhibit evidence of behavioral modernity around 50,000 years ago. In several waves of migration, anatomically modern humans ventured out of Africa, the spread of humans and their large and increasing population has had a profound impact on large areas of the environment and millions of native species worldwide. Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression and the exchange of ideas. Humans create complex structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families. Social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms, and rituals. These human societies subsequently expanded in size, establishing various forms of government, religion, today the global human population is estimated by the United Nations to be near 7.5 billion. In common usage, the word generally refers to the only extant species of the genus Homo—anatomically and behaviorally modern Homo sapiens. In scientific terms, the meanings of hominid and hominin have changed during the recent decades with advances in the discovery, there is also a distinction between anatomically modern humans and Archaic Homo sapiens, the earliest fossil members of the species. The English adjective human is a Middle English loanword from Old French humain, ultimately from Latin hūmānus, the words use as a noun dates to the 16th century. The native English term man can refer to the species generally, the species binomial Homo sapiens was coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae. The generic name Homo is a learned 18th century derivation from Latin homō man, the species-name sapiens means wise or sapient. Note that the Latin word homo refers to humans of either gender, the genus Homo evolved and diverged from other hominins in Africa, after the human clade split from the chimpanzee lineage of the hominids branch of the primates. The closest living relatives of humans are chimpanzees and gorillas, with the sequencing of both the human and chimpanzee genome, current estimates of similarity between human and chimpanzee DNA sequences range between 95% and 99%. The gibbons and orangutans were the first groups to split from the leading to the humans. The splitting date between human and chimpanzee lineages is placed around 4–8 million years ago during the late Miocene epoch, during this split, chromosome 2 was formed from two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes. There is little evidence for the divergence of the gorilla, chimpanzee. Each of these species has been argued to be an ancestor of later hominins
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Blood
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Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma, plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water, and contains dissipated proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide, and blood cells themselves. Albumin is the protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood. The blood cells are red blood cells, white blood cells. The most abundant cells in blood are red blood cells. These contain hemoglobin, a protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas. In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma, vertebrate blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated. Some animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks, use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, insects and some mollusks use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a closed circulatory system. In most insects, this blood does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules such as hemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their system to suffice for supplying oxygen. Jawed vertebrates have an immune system, based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites, platelets are important in the clotting of blood. Arthropods, using hemolymph, have hemocytes as part of their immune system, Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. Medical terms related to blood often begin with hemo- or hemato- from the Greek word αἷμα for blood. In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered a form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones. The average adult has a volume of roughly 5 litres. These blood cells consist of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes, by volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54. 3%, and white cells about 0. 7%. Whole blood exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, if all human hemoglobin were free in the plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the circulatory fluid would be too viscous for the cardiovascular system to function effectively. One microliter of blood contains,4.7 to 6.1 million,4.2 to 5.4 million erythrocytes, Red blood cells contain the bloods hemoglobin, mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles in mammals
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Skull
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The skull is a bony structure that forms the head of the skeleton in most vertebrates. It supports the structures of the face and provides a cavity for the brain. The skull is composed of two parts, the cranium and the mandible, in the human these two parts are the neurocranium and the viscerocranium or facial skeleton that includes the mandible as its largest bone. The skull forms the anterior most portion of the skeleton and is a product of cephalisation—housing the brain, and several sensory structures such as the eyes, ears, nose, in the human these sensory structures are part of the facial skeleton. In some animals such as horned ungulates, the skull also has a function by providing the mount for the horns. The English word skull is probably derived from Old Norse skulle, while the Latin word cranium comes from the Greek root κρανίον, the skull is made up of a number of fused flat bones, and contains many foramina and processes, and several cavities or sinuses. For details and the constituent bones, see neurocranium and viscerocranium, the human skull is the bony structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain, like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury. The skull consists of two parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium and the facial skeleton, the neurocranium forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The facial skeleton is formed by the supporting the face. Except for the mandible, all of the bones of the skull are joined together by sutures—synarthrodial joints formed by bony ossification, sometimes there can be extra bone pieces within the suture known as wormian bones or sutural bones. The human skull is considered to consist of twenty-two bones—eight cranial bones. In the neurocranium these are the bone, two temporal bones, two parietal bones, the sphenoid, ethmoid and frontal bones. The bones of the skeleton are the vomer, two nasal conchae, two nasal bones, two maxilla, the mandible, two palatine bones, two zygomatic bones, and two lacrimal bones. Some of these bones—the occipital, parietal, frontal, in the neurocranium, and the nasal, lacrimal, the skull also contains sinus cavities and numerous foramina. The sinuses are lined with respiratory epithelium and their known functions are the lessening of the weight of the skull, the aiding of resonance to the voice and the warming and moistening of the air drawn through the nasal cavity. The foramina are openings in the skull, the largest of these is the foramen magnum that allows the passage of the spinal cord as well as nerves and blood vessels. The many processes of the include the mastoid process and the zygomatic process
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Adipose tissue
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In biology, adipose tissue /ˈædᵻˌpoʊs/, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes and its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from being hormonally inert, adipose tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as an endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as leptin, estrogen, resistin. The two types of tissue are white adipose tissue, which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene, Adipose tissue – more specifically brown adipose tissue – was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551. In humans, adipose tissue is located beneath the skin, around internal organs, in bone marrow, intermuscular, Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, which are referred to as adipose depots. Apart from adipocytes, which comprise the highest percentage of cells within adipose tissue, other types are present. SVF includes preadipocytes, fibroblasts, adipose tissue macrophages, and endothelial cells, Adipose tissue contains many small blood vessels. In the integumentary system, which includes the skin, it accumulates in the deepest level, around organs, it provides protective padding. Adipose depots in different parts of the body have different biochemical profiles, under normal conditions, it provides feedback for hunger and diet to the brain. Mice have eight major adipose depots, four of which are within the abdominal cavity, the mesenteric depot forms a glue-like web that supports the intestines and the omental depot and - when massive - extends into the ventral abdomen. Both the mesenteric and omental depots incorporate much lymphoid tissue as lymph nodes and milky spots, the layer of brown adipose tissue in this depot is often covered by a frosting of white adipose tissue, sometimes these two types of fat are hard to distinguish. The inguinal depots enclose the inguinal group of lymph nodes, minor depots include the pericardial, which surrounds the heart, and the paired popliteal depots, between the major muscles behind the knees, each containing one large lymph node. Of all the depots in the mouse, the depots are the largest. In an obese person, excess adipose tissue hanging downward from the abdomen is referred to as a panniculus, a panniculus complicates surgery of the morbidly obese individual. It may remain as an apron of skin if a severely obese person quickly loses large amounts of fat. This condition cannot be corrected through diet and exercise alone, as the panniculus consists of adipocytes and other supporting cell types shrunken to their minimum volume. Reconstructive surgery is one method of treatment, visceral fat or abdominal fat is located inside the abdominal cavity, packed between the organs
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Mineral
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A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, usually of crystalline form and abiogenic in origin. A mineral has one specific chemical composition, whereas a rock can be an aggregate of different minerals or mineraloids, the study of minerals is called mineralogy. There are over 5,300 known mineral species, over 5,070 of these have been approved by the International Mineralogical Association, the silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earths crust. The diversity and abundance of species is controlled by the Earths chemistry. Silicon and oxygen constitute approximately 75% of the Earths crust, which translates directly into the predominance of silicate minerals, minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species, changes in the temperature, pressure, or bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in its minerals. Minerals can be described by their various properties, which are related to their chemical structure. Common distinguishing characteristics include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting, more specific tests for describing minerals include magnetism, taste or smell, radioactivity and reaction to acid. Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents, the two dominant systems are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification, the silicate class of minerals is subdivided into six subclasses by the degree of polymerization in the chemical structure. All silicate minerals have a unit of a 4− silica tetrahedron—that is, a silicon cation coordinated by four oxygen anions. These tetrahedra can be polymerized to give the subclasses, orthosilicates, disilicates, cyclosilicates, inosilicates, phyllosilicates, other important mineral groups include the native elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates. The first criterion means that a mineral has to form by a natural process, stability at room temperature, in the simplest sense, is synonymous to the mineral being solid. More specifically, a compound has to be stable or metastable at 25 °C, modern advances have included extensive study of liquid crystals, which also extensively involve mineralogy. Minerals are chemical compounds, and as such they can be described by fixed or a variable formula, many mineral groups and species are composed of a solid solution, pure substances are not usually found because of contamination or chemical substitution. Finally, the requirement of an ordered atomic arrangement is usually synonymous with crystallinity, however, crystals are also periodic, an ordered atomic arrangement gives rise to a variety of macroscopic physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and cleavage. There have been recent proposals to amend the definition to consider biogenic or amorphous substances as minerals. The formal definition of an approved by the IMA in 1995, A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline. However, if geological processes were involved in the genesis of the compound, Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science
7.
Organ (anatomy)
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In biology, an organ or viscus is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In anatomy, a viscus is an organ, and viscera is the plural form. Organs are composed of main tissue, parenchyma, and sporadic tissues, the main tissue is that which is unique for the specific organ, such as the myocardium, the main tissue of the heart, while sporadic tissues include the nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissues. The main tissues that make up an organ tend to have common embryologic origins, functionally related organs often cooperate to form whole organ systems. Organs exist in all biological organisms, in particular they are not restricted to animals. In single-cell organisms like bacteria, the analogue of an organ is called organelle. A hollow organ is an organ that forms a hollow tube or pouch, such as the stomach or intestine, or that includes a cavity. Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, the functions of organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via an organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system, the same is true for the musculoskeletal system because of the relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems. Mammals such as humans have a variety of organ systems and these specific systems are also widely studied in human anatomy. Cardiovascular system, pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, digestive system, digestion and processing food with salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, colon, rectum and anus. Excretory system, kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in balance, electrolyte balance. Integumentary system, skin, hair and nails, nervous system, collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord and nerves. Reproductive system, the sex organs, such as ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vulva, vagina, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, respiratory system, the organs used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and diaphragm. Skeletal system, structural support and protection with bones, cartilage, ligaments, the organ level of organisation in animals can be first detected in flatworms and the more advanced phyla. The less-advanced taxa do not show consolidation of their tissues into organs, the study of plant organs is referred to as plant morphology, rather than anatomy, as in animal systems. Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and reproductive, vegetative plant organs are roots, stems, and leaves
8.
Sesamoid bone
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In anatomy, a sesamoid bone is a bone embedded within a tendon or a muscle. It is derived from the Latin word sesamum, due to the size of most sesamoids. Often, these form in response to strain. Sesamoids act like pulleys, providing a surface for tendons to slide over. Sesamoid bones can be found on joints throughout the body, including and this is the largest sesamoid bone. In the hand — two sesamoid bones are found in the distal portions of the first metacarpal bone. There is also commonly a sesamoid bone in distal portions of the metacarpal bone. In the wrist - The pisiform of the wrist is a sesamoid bone and it is not present at birth and generally develops in children ages 9–12. In the foot - the first metatarsal bone usually has two sesamoid bones at its connection to the big toe, one is found on the lateral side of the first metatarsal while the other is found on the medial side. In some people, only a single sesamoid is found on the first MTP, in the neck - Although the hyoid bone is free floating, it is not technically a sesamoid bone. All sesamoid bones form directly from the connective tissue found in tendons, by contrast, the hyoid bone forms from a cartilaginous precursor like most other bones in the body. In the ear - the lenticular process of the incus is a sesamoid bone, a common foot ailment in dancers is sesamoiditis. This is a form of tendinitis which results from the surrounding the sesamoid becoming inflamed or irritated. A bi-partite sesamoid bone is when the sesamoids are in 2 separate entities — usually congenital, sesamoid bones have a very limited blood supply. They are very difficult to heal when not treated early and often lead to avascular necrosis, in equine anatomy, the term sesamoid bone usually refers to the two sesamoid bones found at the back of the fetlock or metacarpophalangeal/metatarsophalangeal joints in both hindlimbs and forelimbs. Strictly these should be termed the proximal sesamoid bones whereas the navicular bone should be referred to as the distal sesamoid bone, the patella is also a form of sesamoid bone in the horse. In both the giant panda and the red panda, the radial sesamoid is larger than the bone in counterparts such as bears. It is primarily a bony support for the pad above it, the pandas thumb is often cited as a classical example of exaptation, where a trait evolved for one purpose is commandeered for another
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Vertebral column
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The vertebral column, also known as the backbone or spine, is part of the axial skeleton. The vertebral column houses the spinal canal, a cavity that encloses, there are about 50,000 species of animals that have a vertebral column. The human vertebral column is one of the most-studied examples, the articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae, the number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the region however is only rarely changed. There are ligaments extending the length of the column at the front and the back, the vertebrae in the human vertebral column are divided into different regions, which correspond to the curves of the spinal column. The articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine, vertebrae in these regions are essentially alike, with minor variation. These regions are called the spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, sacrum. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae, the number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the region however is only rarely changed. The vertebrae of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spines are independent bones, the vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are usually fused and unable to move independently. Two special vertebrae are the atlas and axis, on which the head rests, a typical vertebra consists of two parts, the vertebral body and the vertebral arch. The vertebral arch is posterior, meaning it faces the back of a person, together, these enclose the vertebral foramen, which contains the spinal cord. Because the spinal cord ends in the spine, and the sacrum and coccyx are fused. Two transverse processes and one process are posterior to the vertebral body. The spinous process comes out the back, one transverse process comes out the left, the spinous processes of the cervical and lumbar regions can be felt through the skin. Above and below each vertebra are joints called facet joints and these restrict the range of movement possible, and are joined by a thin portion of the neural arch called the pars interarticularis. In between each pair of vertebrae are two small holes called intervertebral foramina, the spinal nerves leave the spinal cord through these holes
10.
Tissue (biology)
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In biology, tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an ensemble of similar cells from the origin that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the grouping together of multiple tissues. The study of tissue is known as histology or, in connection with disease, the classical tools for studying tissues are the paraffin block in which tissue is embedded and then sectioned, the histological stain, and the optical microscope. In the last couple of decades, developments in microscopy, immunofluorescence. With these tools, the appearances of tissues can be examined in health and disease. Animal tissues are grouped into four types, connective, muscle, nervous. Collections of tissues joined in structural units to serve a common function compose organs, while all animals can generally be considered to contain the four tissue types, the manifestation of these tissues can differ depending on the type of organism. For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular type may differ developmentally for different classifications of animals. By contrast, a true epithelial tissue is present only in a layer of cells held together via occluding junctions called tight junctions. This tissue covers all surfaces that come in contact with the external environment such as the skin, the airways. It serves functions of protection, secretion, and absorption, and is separated from other tissues below by a basal lamina and they are made up of cells separated by non-living material, which is called an extracellular matrix. This matrix can be liquid or rigid, for example, blood contains plasma as its matrix and bones matrix is rigid. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place, blood, bone, tendon, ligament, adipose and areolar tissues are examples of connective tissues. One method of classifying tissues is to divide them into three types, fibrous connective tissue, skeletal connective tissue, and fluid connective tissue. Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the known as muscle tissue or muscular tissue. Muscle tissue functions to force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Cells comprising the nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as nervous tissue
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Red blood cell
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RBCs take up oxygen in the lungs, or gills of fish, and release it into tissues while squeezing through the bodys capillaries. The cytoplasm of erythrocytes is rich in hemoglobin, a biomolecule that can bind oxygen and is responsible for the red color of the cells. In humans, mature red cells are flexible and oval biconcave disks. They lack a nucleus and most organelles, in order to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin, they can be viewed as sacks of hemoglobin. Approximately 2.4 million new erythrocytes are produced per second in human adults, the cells develop in the bone marrow and circulate for about 100–120 days in the body before their components are recycled by macrophages. Each circulation takes about 60 seconds, approximately a quarter of the cells in the human body are red blood cells. Nearly half of the volume is red blood cells. Red blood cells are known as RBCs, red cells, red blood corpuscles, haematids. Packed red blood cells are red blood cells that have donated, processed. Almost all vertebrates, including all mammals and humans, have red blood cells, red blood cells are cells present in blood in order to transport oxygen. The only known vertebrates without red blood cells are the crocodile icefish, they live in very cold water. While they no longer use hemoglobin, remnants of hemoglobin genes can be found in their genome, oxygen can easily diffuse through the red blood cells cell membrane. Myoglobin, a related to hemoglobin, acts to store oxygen in muscle cells. The color of red cells is due to the heme group of hemoglobin. However, blood can appear bluish when seen through the vessel wall, pulse oximetry takes advantage of the hemoglobin color change to directly measure the arterial blood oxygen saturation using colorimetric techniques. Hemoglobin also has a high affinity for carbon monoxide, forming carboxyhemoglobin which is a very bright red in color. Flushed, confused patients with a reading of 100% on pulse oximetry are sometimes found to be suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning. The red blood cells of mammals are typically shaped as disks, flattened and depressed in the center, with a dumbbell-shaped cross section
