1.
Hummer
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Hummer was a brand of trucks and SUVs, first marketed in 1992 when AM General began selling a civilian version of the M998 Humvee. By 2008, Hummers viability in the downturn was being questioned. Rather than being transferred to the Motors Liquidation Company as part of the GM bankruptcy in 2009, in 2009, a Chinese manufacturer, Sichuan Tengzhong Heavy Industrial Machinery Company, announced that it would acquire Hummer, pending government approvals, but later withdrew its bid. At the end of February, General Motors announced it would begin dismantling the Hummer brand, after filling a rental-car fleet order, the last Hummer H3 rolled off the line at Shreveport on May 24,2010. The original maker of Hummer, AM General, lost their bid to build the HMMWVs replacement for the U. S. military in 2015. The original Hummers were first designed by AM General Corporation, an owned subsidiary American Motors Corporation. In 1979, the United States Army was seeking contractors for a new High Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicle which could follow the tracks, among the four competitors for the contract, AM General designed an entirely new vehicle to meet the Armys requirements. In less than one year, it was the first to deliver a prototype vehicle, initial production versions were delivered to the Armys proving grounds in April 1982. After testing was completed AM General was awarded the contract to supply its HMMWV to the United States armed forces, the first models were built in a variety of military-based equipment and versions. The first contract was in 1983, worth US$1.2 billion to produce 55,000 Humvees by 1985, the first production vehicle was assembled by AM General on January 2,1985. The contract was increased for an additional 15,000 units. AM General had planned to sell a version of the Humvee as far back as the late-1980s. The civilian model began in part because of the persistence of Arnold Schwarzenegger, in 1992, AM General began selling a civilian version of the M998 Humvee vehicle to the public under the brand name Hummer. In December 1999, AM General sold the name to General Motors. GM was responsible for the marketing and distribution of all Hummers produced by AM General, shortly thereafter, GM introduced two of its own design models, the H2 and H3, and renamed the original vehicle H1. AM General continued to build the H1 until it was discontinued in 2006, the H3 was built in Shreveport, LA alongside the Chevrolet Colorado and GMC Canyon pickups, with which it shared the GMT-355 platform. Hummer dealership buildings featured an oversized half Quonset Hut style roof, by 2006, the Hummer began to be exported and sold through importers and distributors in 33 countries. On October 10,2006, GM began producing the Hummer H3 at its Port Elizabeth plant in South Africa for international markets, the Hummers built there at first were only left-hand drive, but right-hand drive versions were added and exported to Australia and other markets
2.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
3.
Saladin Governorate
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The Saladin or Salah ad Din Governorate is a governorate in Iraq, north of Baghdad. The governorate has an area of 24,363 square kilometres, the estimated population in 2003 was 1,042,200 people. The capital is Tikrit, the governorate contains the significantly larger city of Samarra. Before 1976 the governorate was part of Baghdad Governorate, the province is named after Saladin, a Muslim leader who defeated the Crusaders at Hattin, and who hailed from the province. Salah ad Din was the province of Saddam Hussein, he was born in Al-Awja. Saladin Governorate contains− a number of important religious and cultural sites, Samarra was also the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate in the 9th century CE, and today Abbasid Samarra is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The ancient Neo-Assyrian Empire Assyrian city of Assur is located in Al-Shirqat District on the banks of the Tigris River, other sites in the governorate include the Crusader Dome north of Samarra and the Al-Ashaq Palace. In January 2014, there were plans to make Tuz Khurmatu, however, these plans were announced by Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki and were not followed up by his successor, Haider al-Abadi, who replaced Maliki in August 2014. In October 2011, the government in Saladin governorate declared itself a region within Iraq. The government explained that the declaration was in response to the central governments domination over the council authorities. Saladin, which is a largely Sunni governorate, is hoping that by declaring themselves an autonomous region within Iraq. No data is available for Dujail District, Tigris River Official Website Article and vidéo on civilians massacre on BBC News. 3 U. S. soldiers charged with killing of Iraqis on CNN
4.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
5.
Military light utility vehicle
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A military light utility vehicle is a small, jeep-like four-wheel drive vehicle designed for military use. They are usually short and relatively light compared to other trucks and cars, are unarmored and have short body overhangs for all-terrain mobility and at least 4 passenger capacity. Civilian adaptations of the Willys MB Jeep and Land Rover were the first sport utility vehicles, similar vehicles are among the most common military vehicles in armies of most nations. The Willys MB Jeep of World War II used by the U. S. Army is perhaps the most widely known vehicle of this class, over 640,000 Jeeps were built for World War II, and they inspired many vehicles similar in layout, or function. The M38A1 Jeep was used in the Korean War and it was followed by the M151, which was designed with Ford. By the mid-1980s, this role would be taken over by the larger Humvee, the United States also purchased Commercial Utility Cargo Vehicles based on commercially available light trucks. In World War II, Germany used the Volkswagen Kübelwagen for a similar role and it had two-wheel drive, but took advantage of light weight and a rear-mounted engine for mobility. American dune buggies were also based on the Volkswagen, and the Desert Storm-era Desert Patrol Vehicle evolved from the dune buggy configuration for combat use, the Volkswagen Schwimmwagen incorporated a boat-like body and propulsion screw. The Soviet Union produced the GAZ-64 based largely on the US jeep design and that series was replaced by the UAZ-469 commander jeep which was introduced in 1973. In 1948, the British Land Rover was developed, the original Land Rover design evolved into the modern-day Land Rover Defender which is still in military service throughout the world. In the 1960s, Chinas Beijing Automobile Works produced its own jeep, often called the “Beijing Jeep”, the BJ121 was widely used in both military and civilian service in China, with over 200,000 produced by end of production in 1983. In May 1983, American Motors Corporation agreed to allow the updated BJ2020S to use the 85 hp engine of the XJ Jeep Cherokee, the latest Chinese light utility will be the BJ2022JC Brave Warrior, built by Beijing Benz-DaimlerChrysler Automobile Co. The HMMWV layout is larger and wider than the original jeep, gAZ-2975 Tigr - Russian Military HMMWV currently in service Toyota built a vehicle largely derived from the HMMWV design with a similar design and layout called the Mega Cruiser. Toyota produced a version of the Mega Cruiser, named the Koukidousya. Iveco LMV China produces three vehicles based on HMMWV with varying degrees of cooperation with the original manufacturer, uro of Spain builds the VAMTAC. Agrale Marruá VLEGA Gaucho Kharkiv Morozov Machine Building Design Bureau of the Ukraine builds the Dozor-A, MOWAG Eagle Marine Multi-Purpose Vehicle by Philippine Marine Corps
6.
Armored car (military)
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A military armored car is a lightweight wheeled armored fighting vehicle, historically employed for reconnaissance, internal security, armed escort, and other subordinate battlefield tasks. With the gradual decline of mounted cavalry, armored cars were developed for carrying out duties formerly assigned to horsemen, following the invention of the tank, the armored car remained popular due to its comparatively simplified maintenance and low production cost. It also found favor with several colonial armies as a weapon for use in underdeveloped regions. During World War II, most armored cars were engineered for reconnaissance and passive observation, some equipped with heavier armament could even substitute for tracked combat vehicles in favorable conditions—such as pursuit or flanking maneuvers during the North African Campaign. The Motor Scout was designed and built by British inventor F. R. Simms in 1898 and it was the first armed petrol engine-powered vehicle ever built. The vehicle was a De Dion-Bouton quadricycle with a mounted Maxim machine gun on the front bar, an iron shield in front of the car protected the driver. However, these were not armored cars as the term is understood today and they were also, by virtue of their small capacity engines, less efficient than the cavalry and horse-drawn guns that they were intended to complement. At the beginning of the 20th century, the first military armored vehicles were manufactured, by adding armor and weapons to existing vehicles. The vehicle had Vickers armour 6 mm thick and was powered by a four-cylinder 3. 3-litre 16-hp Cannstatt Daimler engine, the armament, consisting of two Maxim guns, was carried in two turrets with 360° traverse. Simms Motor War Car was presented at the Crystal Palace, London, another early armored car of the period was the French Charron, Girardot et Voigt 1902, presented at the Salon de lAutomobile et du cycle in Brussels, on 8 March 1902. The vehicle was equipped with a Hotchkiss machine gun, and with 7 mm armour for the gunner, one of the first operational armoured cars with four wheel drive and fully enclosed rotating turret, was the Austro-Daimler Panzerwagen built by Austro-Daimler in 1904. It was armoured with 3-3.5 mm thick curved plates over the body and had a 4mm thick dome-shaped rotating turret that housed one or two machine-guns and it had a 4-cylinder 35 hp 4.4 litre engine giving it average cross country performance. Of note, both the driver and co-driver had adjustable seats enabling them to them to see out of the roof of the drive compartment as needed. The Italians used armored cars during the Italo-Turkish War, a great variety of armored cars appeared on both sides during World War I and these were used in various ways. Generally, the cars were used by more or less independent car commanders. However, sometimes they were used in units up to squadron size. The cars were armed with light machine guns, but larger units usually employed a few cars with heavier guns. As air power became a factor, armored cars offered a platform for antiaircraft guns
7.
AM General
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AM General is an American heavy vehicle manufacturer based in South Bend, Indiana. It is best known for the civilian Hummer and the military Humvee, for a relatively brief period, 1974–1979, the company also manufactured transit buses, making more than 5,400. AM General traces its roots to the Standard Wheel Company of Terre Haute, Indiana, in 1908, John North Willys purchased the Overland company, then based in Indianapolis, Indiana, and renamed it Willys-Overland Motors, Inc. In 1953, Kaiser Motors purchased Willys-Overland, and changed the name to Kaiser-Willys Motor Company, in 1963 the companys name changed again to Kaiser-Jeep Corporation. S. auto manufacturing operations. At the time, Kaiser had been awarded a US$87 million Army truck contract, subsequently, American Motors Corporation purchased the Jeep Corporation from Kaiser in 1970 when Kaiser itself decided to leave the auto business. In 1971, AMC made the General Products Division of Jeep a wholly owned subsidiary, AM General produced buses, large trucks, and Jeeps for industrial, military, and government use. In the late-1970s, it developed the High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle for military use as a heavy-duty replacement for the jeep, the vehicle later became available in a civilian version sold under the Hummer brand name. Production of buses lasted only from 1974 until 1979, American Motors ended its history as an independent automaker in 1982 when controlling interest in the company was purchased by Frances Renault. U. S. government regulations at that time forbade ownership of defense contractors by foreign governments, therefore, in 1983, AM General was sold by AMC to the LTV Corporation and it became a wholly owned subsidiary of the LTV Aerospace and Defense Company. Renco Group bought the company in 1992, AM General, which remains an independent company and government and military contractor, sold the rights to the Hummer brand to General Motors in 1999. It continued production of the original civilian Hummer until June 2006 when it ceased production, AM General built a separate factory to build a new Hummer H2, designed by and marketed by General Motors. The vehicle went on the market in 2002, and was produced under contract to GM until January 2009, AM General did not build the Hummer H3, and the firm is not part of General Motors Corporation. GM was sued early in 2003 by DaimlerChrysler, owners of the Jeep brand, the lawsuit was dismissed due to the past corporate history involving AMC and Jeep. Actual production began in October 2011, the first vehicle off the line was presented to Marc Buoniconti, a former linebacker for The Citadel who was injured playing football in 1985. In May 2010, Azure Dynamics Corp. announced it had chosen AM General to assemble its electric drivetrain into Ford Transit Connect vehicles for the North American market and this product is being produced at AM Generals facility in Livonia, Michigan. September 2013, AM General reached an agreement to purchase the United States Department of Energys secured loan to the Vehicle Production Group, prior to this, AM General acted as sole vehicle assembler for VPG. As a result of this transaction, AM General created a wholly owned company, Mobility Ventures LLC, to operate the Mobility Vehicle-1 business, in 2015, production of Mercedes-Benz R class began at the Mishawaka assembly plant. Without this deal, the German automaker would likely have had to shut down production of the vehicle, AM General manufactured buses for city transit use from 1974 until 1979, producing a total of 5,431 buses
8.
Four-wheel drive
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Four-wheel drive, 4×4, and 4WD, is a form of drivetrain capable of providing power to all wheel ends of a two-axled vehicle simultaneously. It may be full-time, or on-demand, and is linked via a transfer case which provides an additional output drive-shaft. When a four-wheeled vehicle has power supplied to axles, this is described as all-wheel drive. However, four-wheel drive typically refers to a set of components and functions, and/or intended offroad application. 4×4/4WD/AWD systems were developed in different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms. There is no universally accepted set of terminology to describe the various architectures, the terms used by various manufactures often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems. Four-by-four refers to the class of vehicles. The first figure represents the total wheels, and the second, syntactically, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine power to only two axle-ends, the front two in front-wheel drive or the rear two in rear-wheel drive. Alternatively, a 6×4 vehicle has three axles, two of which power to two wheel ends each. Four wheel drive refers to vehicles with two axles providing power to four wheel ends, in the North American market the term generally refers to a system that is optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term 4WD is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a transfercase which switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically. All wheel drive historically was synonymous with four-wheel drive on four-wheeled vehicles, and six-wheel drive on 6×6s, today in North America the term is applied to both heavy vehicles as well as light passenger vehicles. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use, some all wheel drive electric vehicles solve this challenge using one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating a mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the dual motor variant of the Tesla Model S, individual-wheel drive was coined to identify those electric vehicles whereby each wheel is driven by its own individual electric motor. This system essentially has inherent characteristics that would be attributed to four-wheel drive systems like the distribution of the available power to the wheels. However, because of the inherent characteristics of electric motors, torque can be negative, as seen in the Rimac Concept One and this can have drastic effects, as in better handling in tight corners. The term IWD can refer to a vehicle with any number of wheels, for example, the Mars rovers are 6-wheel IWD. Two wheels fixed to the same turn at the same speed as a vehicle goes around curves
9.
Military vehicle
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A military vehicle is a type of vehicle that includes all land combat and transportation vehicles, which are designed for or are significantly used by military forces. Many military vehicles have vehicle armour plate or off-road capabilities or both, a broad definition of the term may include naval vessels such as destroyers and military aircraft such as fighter jets & medevac helicopters. Under the Geneva Conventions, all non-combatant military vehicles such as field ambulances, in theory under the conventions, such vehicles are then legally immune from deliberate attack by all combatants. A subtype that has become prominent since the late 20th Century is the improvised fighting vehicle
10.
Willys MB
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The Willys MB and the Ford GPW are four-wheel drive utility vehicles that were manufactured during World War II. Produced from 1941 to 1945, it evolved post-war into the civilian Jeep CJ, advances in early 20th-century technology resulted in widespread mechanisation of the military during World War I. The United States Army deployed four-wheel drive trucks in that war, supplied by Four Wheel Drive Auto, by the eve of World War II the United States Department of War had determined it needed a light, cross-country reconnaissance vehicle. Marmon-Herrington presented five 4×4 Fords in 1937, and American Bantam delivered three Austin roadsters in 1938, recognizing the need to create standard specifications, the Army formalized its requirements on July 11,1940, and submitted them to 135 U. S. automotive manufacturers. By now the war was under way in Europe, so the Armys need was urgent and demanding, Bids were to be received by July 22, manufacturers were given 49 days to submit their first prototype and 75 days for completion of 70 test vehicles. Though Willys-Overland was the low bidder, Bantam received the bid, being the company committing to deliver a pilot model in 49 days. This presented Army officials with the first of what evolved into the World War II U. S. Army Jeeps. The contract for the new car was to be determined by trials. Moreover, in order to expedite production, the War Department forwarded the Bantam blueprints to Ford and Willys, Bantam did not dispute this move due to its precarious financial situation. By November 1940, Ford and Willys each submitted prototypes to compete with the Bantam in the Armys trials. The pilot models, the Willys Quad and the Ford Pygmy, turned out similar to each other and were joined in testing by Bantams entry. By then the U. S. and its forces were already under such pressure that all three cars were declared acceptable and orders for 1,500 units per company were given for field testing. At this time it was acknowledged the weight limit was unrealistic. For these respective pre-production runs, each vehicle received revisions and a new name, production began on March 31,1941, with a total of 2,605 built up to December 6. As the company could not meet the Armys demand for 75 Jeeps a day, production contracts were awarded to Willys. After reducing the weight by 240 pounds, Willys changed the designation to MA for Military model A. The Fords went into production as GP, with G for a Government type contract, by July 1941, the War Department desired to standardize and decided to select a single manufacturer to supply them with the next order for 16,000 vehicles. Willys won the contract due to its more powerful engine, which soldiers raved about
11.
Gama Goat
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The Gama Goat was a six-wheel drive semi-amphibious off-road vehicle originally developed for use by the US military in the Vietnam War. It was famous for its ability to travel over exceptionally rough, the vehicles nickname came from two sources, Gama from the name of the inventor of its powered articulated joint, Roger Gamaunt, and Goat for its mountain goat-like off-road ability. Its military designation was M561, 6×6 tactical 1¼-ton truck, there was also an ambulance version known as the M792. The Goat is prized among military vehicle collectors because it is so unusual, in 1959, ARPA funded a research project called Project Agile to develop a new tactical truck for the Southeast Asia theatre, as well as other projects of interest to the then-looming Vietnam War. Several companies bid for the contract, including Clark, General Motors and LeTourneau, final construction of the vehicles was conducted by the Consolidated Diesel Electric Company at their factory in Charlotte, North Carolina. CONDEC also had factories in Schenectady, New York, where the Gama Goat was originally manufactured, and in Greenwich, Connecticut, the Gama Goat was replaced by a variety of CUCVs and Humvees. Overall, some 14,274 Gama Goats were built at a cost of US$8,000 each,12,516 were slated for the US Army and 1,758 or the USMC. This meant that it could not be the general purpose vehicle the Army had hoped for and this is somewhat ironic, as some claim that the problems were largely due to cost-cutting modifications made at the request of the United States Army. The air-cooled engine used in the original prototypes overheated in use, due to the high-intensity noise from the two-stroke Diesel engine, the drivers required hearing protection. The double hull construction and complex articulated drivetrain made maintenance difficult, in service in Vietnam, Gama Goats would often be sent out ahead of other vehicles in order to arrive at their destination at the same time. Propulsion in the water was supplied by the six spinning wheels, drivers had to remember to close the hulls drain openings before swimming the vehicles. Some models had extra equipment installed that made them too heavy to swim, such as heavy-duty winches, communications shelters that made them top heavy and it was designed to be air-transportable and droppable by parachute. S. G. DiMarco collection Scottsdale, AZ. Displayed with the Desert Warriors of Arizona military vehicle group In Stripes, bill Murrays character drives one up to a Soviet base in Czechoslovakia dressed as a Soviet soldier to rescue his friends from captivity. In McHales Navy, several Gama Goats are seen driving back, movies showing brief views or scenes featuring Gama Goats, D-Tox Dreamcatcher Independence Day Patriot Games The Rock The Stand, part 1, time index 0,17,00. Gama goat with M60 mounted machine gun, terminator 3, Rise of the Machines X2 G-numbers List of M series military vehicles SNL G874 Doyle, David. The World Encyclopedia of Military Vehicles, M561 Gama Goat page on olive-drab. com
12.
Commercial Utility Cargo Vehicle
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The Commercial Utility Cargo Vehicle or CUCV/LSSV is a vehicle program instituted to provide the United States military with light utility vehicles based on civilian trucks. Initially, Dodge W/D series trucks were provided in the late 1970s with several military modifications, in the mid-1980s, Chevrolet C/Ks replaced the Dodge vehicles in CUCV I and CUCV II guise. GM CUCVs were heavily redesigned in 2000 and their name was changed to Light Service Support Vehicle, CUCVs are intended to perform background roles, providing support for frontline forces, such as cargo transport, troop transport, first aid, and communications. CUCVs are not built for direct frontline combat use, as evident by their lack of bulletproofing, like many of the vehicle parts, the windshield, cabin glass, and body panels are civilian-grade and offer no protection from firearms or explosives. As a result, some CUCVs were replaced in the 1980s and 1990s by the HMMWVs they were to augment, the U. S. military continued to keep CUCVs in active service long after their projected lifespan. CUCVs of all generations are still in U. S. service, though many M880/M890s, CUCVs and LSSVs are in use as support vehicles for military police, troop transport, range control, facilities, and maintenance. In 1973, Dodge began developing militarized adaptations of their current civilian trucks, in 1976, the M880/M890 series was put into production under a large contract. For almost a decade the Dodges were referred to as 880s, 890s, the term CUCV did not appear until the 1980s when GM was contracted to replace the M880/90s. The M8XXs were an attempt by the U. S. military to use commercial off-the-shelf vehicles with minor modifications in non-combat roles and they were intended to replace the M37, M715 and their related variants. The 1¼ ton M880-series was based on the Dodge W200, a ¾ ton capacity 4×4 civilian/commercial truck, the 880/90s had a 2500 lb cargo rating, enabling it to have a 5⁄4-ton load rating. The similar 1¼ ton M890-series was based on the Dodge D200, the M880/M890s had several failings, a gasoline powerplant, 12-volt electrical systems, and no power steering, due to the PS pump location being used for the 24V generator. The 318 gasoline engine proved to be a fatal flaw as the military moved increasingly to diesel engines during this time period, the lack of power steering was a hindrance in off-road, close quarters, and snow-plowing duties. Around 44,000 M880/M890s were produced during the 1976–1977 model years and faithfully served the Army, an armored variant was built by Cadillac Gage as the Ranger. All M880/M890s were powered by Chryslers 5. 2L318 gasoline engine with a two-barrel Carter or Holley Carburetor and these were rated at 150 hp and 230 lb/ft of torque. Most were equipped with the Torqueflite 727 3-speed automatic, a few left the factory with a 4-speed manual. The 880s used a 2-speed NP203 transfer case, a Dana 444.10,1 front axle and floating Dana 604,10.1 rear axle completed the setup. They were equipped with front wheel brakes and rear wheel drums. 880/890s had a Military rated top speed of 70 mph, replacing the M880/M890 series, the CUCV represented General Motors first major light-truck military vehicle production since World War II
13.
Light truck
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Light truck or light-duty truck is a US classification for trucks or truck-based vehicles with a payload capacity of less than 4,000 pounds. Similar sized goods vehicles in the European Union are known as commercial vehicles. ”Light trucks includes vans, pickups. The United States government uses light truck as a class in regulating fuel economy through the Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard. The class includes vans, minivans, sport utility vehicles, light trucks have lower fuel economy standards than cars, under the premise that these vehicles are used for utilitarian purposes rather than personal transportation. Since light trucks sold in the US are increasingly being used for personal use, US production of light trucks are protected by the Chicken Tax, a 25% tariff on imported light trucks. California Air Resources Board Commercial vehicle Emission standard Regulatory Announcement on EPA changing definitions of the light and heavy-duty trucks
14.
United States Armed Forces
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
15.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
16.
Humvee replacement process
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The Humvee replacement process, undertaken by the U. S. Military is an effort to replace the current AM General Humvee multi-purpose motor vehicle, the Humvee has evolved several times since its introduction in 1984, and is now used in tactical roles for which it was not originally intended. Military is currently pursuing several initiatives to replace it, both in the short and long term, in the short term, Humvees that were in service in Iraq were replaced by Category 1 MRAP armored vehicles, primarily the Force Protection Cougar H and the International MaxxPro. The United States Marine Corps replaced all Humvees patrolling outside the wire with MRAP vehicles, the U. S. military began procuring a lighter vehicle under the MRAP All Terrain Vehicle program in 2009. The Joint Light Tactical Vehicle will replace around 55,000 Humvees and traces back to 2005, military was seeking a long term replacement for the Humvee under the Future Tactical Truck Systems program, which was seeking to introduce a Maneuver Sustainment Vehicle and a Utility Vehicle. Navistar International and Lockheed Martins proposals for the Utility Vehicle were selected for competition as well as the Armor Holdings proposal for the Maneuver Sustainment Vehicle, in August 2006 they were tested at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds. Following this evaluation they were parked in The Pentagon courtyard for evaluation by higher-ranking military officials, the JLTV program incorporated lessons learned from the earlier and now halted Future Tactical Truck Systems program and other associated efforts. The challenge specifically aimed for a Combat Reconnaissance and Combat Delivery & Evacuation vehicle, the design entries were open for voting on March 4. On June 27, a Local Motors XC2V was premiered at Carnegie Mellon Universitys National Robotics Engineering Center in Pittsburgh with President Obama attending, on June 28,2011, DARPA announced the selection of Local Motors’ XC2V FLYPMode as the winner of the competition. It was selected among 162 entries, the XC2V went on to compete with vehicles from TARDECs FED program such as British Ricardos FED ALPHA which appears to have been selected over FED BETA. The JLTV program evolved considerably as the developed and requirements stabilized. Oshkoshs L-ATV was selected as the winner of the JLTV program on 25 August 2015, the company was awarded a $6.75 billion low rate initial base contract with eight options to procure the first 16,901 vehicles for both the Army and Marines. Oshkosh CEO, Charles Szews, said the contract award would involve more than 300 suppliers in 31 states across the country. On 8 September it was disclosed that losing JLTV bidder Lockheed Martin would protest the award to Oshkosh, the Government Accountability Office had 100 days to review the program and issue a decision on the protest. On December 15 the GAO dismissed Lockheed Martins protest because the company on December 11 decided to file a “Notice of Post-Award Bid Protest” with the U. S. Court of Federal Claims, the company filed its official protest on December 17. Lockheed Martin withdrew its protest in the Court of Federal Claims on 17 February 2016, around the time Lockheed Martin withdrew its protest some potentially crucial data from JLTV testing was revealed. The Oshkosh offer achieved 7,051 Mean Miles Between Operational Mission Failure, the target for JLTV is 2400 MMBOMF, the current up-armored HMMWV achieving 2,968 MMBOMF. Information on protection levels was also released and it was found in testing that both Oshkosh and Lockheed prototypes met all threshold force protection requirements and some objective-level requirements
17.
Joint Light Tactical Vehicle
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The Joint Light Tactical Vehicle is a United States military program to part-replace the Humvee with a family of more survivable vehicles with greater payload. The JLTV program was approved in 2006 to begin early studies, the JLTV program incorporates lessons learned from the earlier and now halted Future Tactical Truck Systems program and other associated efforts. JLTV complies with the US Armys Long Term Armor Strategy, the JLTV program evolved considerably as the program developed. Oshkoshs L-ATV was selected as the winner of the JLTV program on 25 August 2015, Lockheed Martin filed a protest of the award in September 2015 and later withdrew its protest in February 2016. The first JLTV order was placed in March 2016 with the U. S. Army ordering 657 trucks, JLTV was originally reported as a one-for-one HMMWV replacement, however, US DOD officials now emphasize that JLTVs are not intended to replace all HMMWVs. The JLTV publicly emerged in 2006, the Concept Refinement phase also includes an Analysis of Alternatives. He denied the request and instructed the Army and the Marine Corps to develop a more vigorous Technology Development phase, the US DOD released a Request for Proposal for the TD phase of the JLTV program on 5 February 2008. Industry proposals were due no later than 7 April, TD phase contract award was postponed in July 2008. The following companies and partnerships responded to the TD phase RFP, Boeing, Textron and Millenworks General Dynamics and AM General Force Protection Inc and DRS Technologies. BAE Systems and Navistar Northrop Grumman, Oshkosh Truck and Plasan Lockheed Martin, BAE Systems Land & Armaments Global Tactical Systems, Alcoa Defense, blackwater and Raytheon On 28 October 2008, the Pentagon narrowed the field of vendors to Lockheed Martin, General Tactical Vehicles and BAE Systems/Navistar. Each team were awarded contracts worth between $35.9 million and $45 million to begin the phase of the program. The Northrop Grumman/Oshkosh group contested the awards but, their protest was denied by the Government Accountability Office on 17 February 2009, australia signed an agreement in February 2009 to fund nine of the first 30 JLTV prototypes. India is currently pursuing an indigenous solution, israel and the UK have also expressed interest in the program. On 1 June 2010, it was confirmed that all three contractors had delivered seven JLTV platforms for TD phase evaluation. The U. S. Army appeared to have reduced its support for the program at this time, however, the U. S. Army clarified that JLTVs are slated to both replace and complement the Humvee. JLTVs TD phase lasted 27 months and in May 2011 it was completed, upon exiting the TD phase CDD version 3.3 was published. By the time CDD version 3.3 was published, payload options had been reduced to only two, CDD version 3.3 dropped payload verbiage and replaced it with variants. The Combat Support Vehicle, which would replace the previous Category C configuration, the two variants that appeared in CDD version 3.3 now had requirements for configurations
18.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
19.
Volkswagen Beetle
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Hitler contracted Ferdinand Porsche in 1934 to design and build it. Porsche and his team took until 1938 to finalise the design, the influence on Porsches design of other contemporary cars, such as the Tatra V570 and the work of Josef Ganz remains a subject of dispute. The result was one of the first rear-engined cars since the Brass Era, with 21,529,464 produced, the Beetle is the longest-running and most-manufactured car of a single platform ever made. Although designed in the 1930s, the Beetle was only produced in significant numbers from 1945 on when the model was designated the Volkswagen Type 1. Later models were designated Volkswagen 1200,1300,1500,1302 or 1303, the model became widely known in its home country as the Käfer and was later marketed as such in Germany, and as the Volkswagen in other countries. For example, in France it was known as the Coccinelle, the original 25 hp Beetle was designed for a top speed around 100 km/h, which would be a viable speed on the Reichsautobahn system. As Autobahn speeds increased in the years, its output was boosted to 36, then 40 hp. The Beetle ultimately gave rise to variants, including the Karmann Ghia, Type 2, the 1948 Citroën 2CV and other European models marked a later trend to front-wheel drive in the European small car market, a trend that would come to dominate that market. In 1974, Volkswagens own front-wheel drive Golf model succeeded the Beetle and it remained in production through 2010, being succeeded in 2011 by the more aggressively styled Beetle. In the 1999 Car of the Century competition, to determine the worlds most influential car in the 20th century, the Type 1 came fourth, after the Ford Model T, the Mini, and the Citroën DS. In April 1934, Adolf Hitler gave the order to Ferdinand Porsche to develop a Volkswagen, the epithet Volks- literally, peoples- had been applied to other Nazi-sponsored consumer goods such as the Volksempfänger. The engine had to be powerful for sustained cruising on Germany’s new Autobahnen, everything had to be designed to ensure parts could be quickly and inexpensively exchanged. The engine had to be air-cooled because, as Hitler explained, the Peoples Car would be available to citizens of Nazi Germany through a savings scheme, or Sparkarte, at 990 Reichsmark, about the price of a small motorcycle. Ferdinand Porsche developed the Type 12, or Auto für Jedermann for Zündapp in 1931, Porsche already preferred the flat-four engine, and selected a swing axle rear suspension, while Zündapp insisted on a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine. In 1932, three prototypes were running, all of those cars were lost during World War II, the last in a bombing raid in Stuttgart in 1945. The Zündapp prototypes were followed by the Porsche Type 32, designed in 1933 for NSU Motorenwerke AG, the Type 32 was similar in design to the Type 12, but it had a flat-four engine. NSUs exit from car manufacturing resulted in the Type 32 being abandoned at the prototype stage, initially designated Type 60 by Porsche, the design team included Erwin Komenda and Karl Rabe. In October 1935, the first two Type 60 prototypes, known as the V1 and V2, were ready, in 1936, testing began of three further V3 prototypes, built in Porsches Stuttgart shop
20.
Dodge WC series
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The Dodge WC series was a range of light military trucks produced by Dodge and Fargo during World War II. The series included weapon carriers, telephone installation trucks, ambulances, reconnaissance vehicles, mobile workshops and they were replaced after the war by the Dodge M-series vehicles. WC was a Dodge model code, W for 1941 and C for half-ton rating, the C code was retained for the ¾ ton and 1½ ton 6×6 Dodges. Dodge began producing light trucks immediately upon its formation in 1914, for the first few years these were based largely on the existing passenger cars, later specific chassis and body designs were used. Light- and medium-duty models were offered first, then a heavy-duty range was added during the 1930s and 1940s, Dodge produced its first prototypes of dedicated military trucks in late 1939, the 1/2 ton 4x4 VC series. Production of the VC series started in 1940, the WC ½ ton trucks replaced the 1940 VC-1 to VC-6 ½ton Dodge trucks which were also part of the G505 series. 79,771 of the ½ ton trucks were produced during late 1940–1942 under War Department contracts, WC models 1 to 50 were part of the 1/2 ton range and were 80% interchangeable in service parts with the later 3/4 ton models. Standard vehicles in the ¾ ton 4×4 class were the WC-51 / WC-52 Weapons Carrier, Telephone Installation Trucks, WC-53 Carryall, in the cargo trucks, the WC51 was identical to the WC52 but did not have the front bumper-mounted winch. The table includes data on the relation between numbers and types of body fitted. For comparison, earlier Dodge military trucks of the 1/2 ton range are included, in the case of vehicle identifications separated by a slash, the first number refers to a vehicle not fitted with a winch, and the second to a vehicle fitted with a winch. Numbers separated by a comma indicate similar models but with different secondary details, closed cab, two seater pickups with a nominal carrying capacity of a 1,000 lb. Weapon carriers, two seater pickups with open cab, the open cab pickups could be fitted with an optional M24 machine gun mount, which bolted across the front of the bed. The mount could carry the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle, as well as the M1919 Browning machine gun, and this type was usually issued to early tank destroyer units. These early variants are distinguishable from the ones by having a curved radiator grille, while the later ones featured a flat grille. These versions were given a longer 123 in wheelbase, Command car with radio 12 volt Command car with winch These models were built as signals trucks, designed to install and repair telephone lines, and were also known by the U. S. Signals Corps as the K-50 truck, mostly employed as an emergency repair truck whose purpose was to provide mobile facilities for emergency ordnance repair. Other types of bodies were produced, such as an oil service vehicle,902 of these chassis were built. WC51 Truck, Cargo, 3/4 ton, 4x4 w/o Winch Dodge Weapons Carrier, the open cab pickup could be fitted with an optional M24A1 machine gun mount, which bolted across the front of the bed
21.
Dodge M37
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The Dodge M37 3⁄4-ton 4x4 truck was Dodges follow-up to their sucessfull WC Series from WWII. Introduced in 1951 it was used extensively by the United States armed forces during the Korean war, during the 1970s they were replaced by the commercial truck based 1 1⁄4-ton M715 and M880 series. Many of the components on the M37 are similar or identical to the World War II vehicle, notably, a conventional pickup truck style bed replaced the platform on the World War II vehicle, simplifying production. There was significant drivetrain and powerplant commonality with the WDX series civilian Power Wagons, outside of the fenders, there were sheet metal differences between all the vehicles. Production of the M37 began in earnest in January 1951, with approximately 11,000 vehicles made by the end of that year, by mid-195463,000 of the vehicles had been produced. In 1958 a number of modifications to the design resulted in the new vehicles being designated as M37B1, from mid-1958 until the end of production 47,600 M37B1 vehicles were produced. Approximately 4,500 Canadian M37CDNs were also produced between 1951 and 1955 and these vehicles continued in service worldwide in the Israeli and Greek militaries. In total, between 1951 and 1968,115,000 M37s were produced and it was common in the 1970 and 1980s to encounter these vehicles in government auctions. Many of the vehicles were transferred to civilian agencies and some are still in use today in rural areas and they were out of significant military service by the late 1970s, replaced by the M715 and M880 series of military trucks. The straight-six cylinder engine was derived from a 1930s era passenger vehicle engine that was widely produced and this was in line with a long-standing military procurement strategy that attempted to use commercially produced vehicle variants in military service. Many deficiencies with aging design became apparent in the 1960s, including a tendency of the rods to fail at high rpms due to the long cylinder stroke of the engine. TM 9-2320-212-10 M37 Series Operators Manual, Dodge M37 Resource Dodge M37 Registry M37B1 3⁄4 Ton Gun Truck V-126 radar truck
22.
Kaiser Jeep M715
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The Kaiser Jeep M715 is an American wheeled military vehicle based upon the civilian Jeep Gladiator. In 1965 the design and developing for the M715 began, the U. S. government purchased these trucks to replace the M37. Between 1967 and 1969 over 33,000 trucks were produced at the Toledo, Ohio, the overhead cam 6 cyl engines were not very reliable due to lack of knowledge on the overhead cam design and lack of maintenance. They had been dropped from civilian models by 1968, the trucks were replaced by the Dodge M880 series. Kia currently produces an M715-type vehicle named the KM450 for the South Korean Army on license from the U. S. government, indias Tata/Vectra is also entering an M715 type vehicle as a candidate for the Indian Armys LSV requirement. In 2010 Mopar developed the concept vehicle Jeep NuKizer 715 and it was a tribute to the original M715. It was built for the U. S. military based on the civilian Jeep Gladiator, the M715 family saw service in Vietnam, Korean DMZ and European bases The M715 family was produced from 1967 through 1969. In the 2013 video game Grand Theft Auto V, one of the protagonists, Trevor Philips, for the 2016 50th annual Easter Jeep Safari in Moab, Utah FCA showed the Jeep Crew Chief 715 concept, a nod to the Kaiser 715. G-numbers The M715Zone www. steelsoldiers. com Olive-Drab. com KIA KM450 video
23.
FMC Corporation
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FMC Corporation is an American chemical manufacturing company headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The company was founded by chemist John Bean in 1883 as the Bean Spray Pump Company in Los Gatos, California, in 1928, Bean Spray Pump purchased two companies, the Anderson-Barngrover Co. and Sprague-Sells Co. At this time the changed its name to Food Machinery Corporation. FMC employed 5,500 people worldwide, and had revenues of US$3.4 billion in 2011. Founded in 1883 as the Bean Spray Pump Company in Los Gatos, the companys first product was a piston pump. Bean invented the pump to spray insecticide on the fruit orchards in the area. A Bean sprayer was on display at the Forbes Mill museum in Los Gatos until its closure in 2014, Bean Avenue in downtown Los Gatos is named after John Bean. In 1928, Bean Spray Pump purchased two companies, the Anderson-Barngrover Co. and Sprague-Sells Co, the Anderson-Barngrover Co. manufactured a sealed can rotary pressure sterilizer and the Sprague-Sells Co. manufactured canning machinery. At this time the changed its name to Food Machinery Corporation. FMC received a contract to design and build landing vehicles tracked vehicles for the United States War Department in 1941. FMC ranked 64th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts. In 1961, the U. S. Navys Bureau of Ships issued bids for a high performance amphibious ship-to-shore cargo carrier capable of moving water at 35 knots. It had to carry five tons of cargo across water, through the surf, across the beach, the vehicle also had to be quickly loaded and unloaded under combat conditions. FMCs Ordnance Division in San José, California built and tested two prototypes named LVHX2 Landing Vehicle, Hydrofoil for the U. S. Marine Corps and these were the first amphibious landing vehicles to make use of hydrofoils for high speed ship-to-shore operation. Although the LVHX2 never went into production, the Marine Corps used the prototypes in their continuous research, FMC later built the M113 Armored Personnel Carrier, the Bradley Fighting Vehicle, and the XR311 at its former facility in Santa Clara, California. It also purchased the rights to some foreign military hardware, including the Brazilian EE-9 Cascavel. Bean also manufactured fire fighting equipment in the 1960s through the 1980s under the FMC, in 1972, personnel were transferred from ordnance to designing and building RVs. The oil crisis and high prices led production to end after five years, FMC also producedfire truck fire pumps and pumper bodies
24.
FMC XR311
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The XR311 was a prototype military vehicle of US origin that was procured in limited numbers during the 1970s. It was originally developed as the High Mobility Combat Vehicle, or HMCV, development of the XR311 commenced as a private venture in 1969 with the first of two prototypes being completed in 1970. The vehicle was developed as a competitor to the AM General HMMWV and Lamborghini Cheetah, as a result of the trials of these two prototypes the US Army purchased ten improved or second generation models in 1971. These trials were completed in 1972 and they were then tested by the 2nd Armored Division. In 1974 they were tested in the 2nd Armored Reconnaissance Scout Vehicle competition along with a number of vehicles including the original FMC Technologies. These weapons could also be mounted on the model on the ring mount. The XR311 is built around a frame safety roll-cage which protects the passenger compartment if the vehicle rolls over. This cage is covered by a sheet metal forming the skin of the vehicle. The glass halves are stored in a bracket on the hood until needed again. The passenger compartment is in the center of the vehicle with the driver on the left, there is space for 0.93 cubic metres of cargo behind the passenger seats. The engine and transmission are at the rear of the hull, the minimum ground clearance is 11 inches, and a full length skid pan protects the hull and drivetrain, which allows the vehicle to slide over obstacles. The transmission is a Chrysler A-727 TorqueFlite torque converter automatic, with three forward and one reverse gears, the XR311 is a full-time 4WD vehicle. Trak-lok limited-slip differentials with a 5.89,1 drive ratio are used front and rear, a stabilizer bar is provided for the rear suspension to limit body roll. Maximum speed is 80-90 mph for vehicles with the 318ci engine, acceleration was 12 seconds 0-60 mph time, falling to 10 seconds with the 360ci engine. The tires are self-cleaning, meaning mud and other materials are free from the tread grooves by centrifugal force. Disc brakes are fitted on all four wheels, the electrical system is 24V DC, and two batteries with a capacity of 45 Amp/Hr are provided. The alternator is of the rectifier and regulator type. The XR311 is provided with a heavy duty towing pintle as well as a trailer wiring harness receptacle and it is air-transportable and can be air-dropped
25.
Lamborghini
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Automobili Lamborghini S. p. A. is an Italian brand and manufacturer of luxury sports cars and SUVs based in SantAgata Bolognese, Italy. The company is owned by the Volkswagen Group through its subsidiary Audi, Ferruccio Lamborghini, an Italian manufacturing magnate, founded Automobili Ferruccio Lamborghini S. p. A. in 1963 to compete with established marques, including Ferrari. The company gained wide acclaim in 1966 for the Miura sports coupé, Lamborghini grew rapidly during its first decade, but sales plunged in the wake of the 1973 worldwide financial downturn and the oil crisis. The firms ownership changed three times after 1973, including a bankruptcy in 1978, American Chrysler Corporation took control of Lamborghini in 1987 and sold it to Malaysian investment group Mycom Setdco and Indonesian group VPower Corporation in 1994. In 1998, Mycom Setdco and VPower sold Lamborghini to the Volkswagen Group where it was placed under the control of the groups Audi division, New products and model lines were introduced to the brands portfolio and brought to the market and saw an increased productivity for the brand Lamborghini. In the late 2000s, during the financial crisis and the subsequent economic crisis, Lamborghinis sales saw a drop of nearly 50 percent. Lamborghini produces sports cars and V12 engines for powerboat racing. Lamborghini currently produces the V12-powered Aventador and the V10-powered Huracán, the companys first models, such as the 350 GT, were released in the mid-1960s and were noted for their refinement, power and comfort. Lamborghini gained wide acclaim in 1966 for the Miura sports coupé, Lamborghini grew rapidly during its first ten years, but sales plunged in the wake of the 1973 worldwide financial downturn and the oil crisis. Ferruccio Lamborghini sold ownership of the company to Georges-Henri Rossetti and René Leimer, the company went bankrupt in 1978, and was placed in the receivership of brothers Jean-Claude and Patrick Mimran in 1980. The Mimrans purchased the company out of receivership by 1984 and invested heavily in the companys expansion, under the Mimrans management, Lamborghinis model line was expanded from the Countach to include the Jalpa sports car and the LM002 high performance off-road vehicle. The Mimrans sold Lamborghini to the Chrysler Corporation in 1987, in 1998, Mycom Setdco and VPower sold Lamborghini to the Volkswagen Group where it was placed under the control of the groups Audi division. New products and model lines were introduced to the portfolio and brought to the market. In the late 2000s, during the financial crisis and the subsequent economic crisis, Lamborghinis sales saw a drop of nearly 50 percent. As of the 2015 model year, Lamborghinis automobile product range consists of two lines, both of which are mid-engine two-seat sports cars. The V12-powered Aventador line consists of the LP 700–4 coupé and roadster, the V10-powered Huracán line currently includes the all-wheel-drive LP 610-4 coupé and roadster, as well as the less powerful rear-wheel-drive LP 580-2 coupé. Lamborghini intends to double its car production by producing as many SUVs by 2018 as sports cars, motori Marini Lamborghini produces a large V12 marine engine block for use in World Offshore Series Class 1 powerboats. A Lamborghini branded marine engine displaces approximately 8,171 cc, in the mid-1980s, Lamborghini produced a limited-production run of a 1,000 cc sports motorcycle
26.
American Motors
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American Motors Corporation was an American automobile company formed by the 1954 merger of Nash-Kelvinator Corporation and Hudson Motor Car Company. At the time, it was the largest corporate merger in U. S. history, after periods of intermittent but unsustained success, Renault acquired a major interest in AMC in 1979 — and the company was ultimately acquired by Chrysler. At its 1987 demise, The New York Times said AMC was never a company with the power or the cost structure to compete confidently at home or abroad. Within a year, George W. Romney, future governor of Michigan, took over, reorganizing the company, by the end of 1957 the legacy Nash and Hudson brands were completely phased out. The company struggled at first, but Rambler sales took off, a Rambler won the 1959 Mobil Economy Run and by 1960, was the third most popular brand of automobile in the United States, behind Ford and Chevrolet. After two model years of only producing compact cars, AMC focused back to larger and more cars like the Ambassador line from the perceived negative of the Ramblers economy car image. While prices and costs were cut, new and more sporty automobiles were introduced, AMC purchased Kaisers Jeep utility vehicle operations in 1970 to complement its existing passenger car business. Beginning in the early 1970s, the company moved towards all-new compact car based on the Hornet, including the Hornet itself. Other new models in the 1970s included the Matador and Pacer, from 1980, AMC partnered with Frances Renault to help finance their manufacturing operations, obtain much-needed capital, and source subcompact vehicles. By 1983 Renault had a controlling interest in AMC, in the 1983 model year, the AMC brand focused entirely on AWD autos, the company stopped producing two wheel drive cars. AMC facilities were used to produce Renault Alliance and Encore compact and subcompact cars, in 1985 Chrysler entered an agreement with AMC to produce Dodge Diplomats and Plymouth Furys as well as Dodge Omnis and Plymouth Horizons in AMCs Kenosha, Wisconsin plant. At the time, AMC had excess manufacturing capacity, thus contract manufacturing for Chrysler made sense, Chrysler made a public offer to purchase all the remaining outstanding shares of AMC stock on the NYSE. Renault left the US market completely as a brand in 1987, the Renault Medallion was sold through the newly formed Jeep Eagle Division of Chrysler as an Eagle, not a Renault. AMCs badge would be used on the Eagle Sports Wagon through the 1988 model year, the Jeep/Eagle division of Chrysler Corporation was formed from the AMC Jeep Renault dealer network. The Jeep and Eagle vehicles were marketed primarily by former AMC dealers, ultimately, the Eagle Brand of car would be phased out like Chryslers DeSoto, Plymouth, and Imperial by 1998. In January 1954, Nash-Kelvinator Corporation began acquisition of the Hudson Motor Car Company, the new corporation would be called American Motors Corporation. The new company retained Hudson CEO A. E. Barit as a consultant, Nashs George W. Mason became President and CEO. The frantic 1953–54 Ford/GM price war had a impact on the remaining independent automakers
27.
United States invasion of Panama
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The United States Invasion of Panama, code named Operation Just Cause, was an invasion of Panama by the United States between mid-December 1989 and late January 1990. During the invasion, de facto Panamanian leader, general, and dictator Manuel Noriega was deposed, president-elect Guillermo Endara sworn into office, and the Panamanian Defense Force dissolved. Although the canal was destined for Panamanian administration, the bases remained. Noriega received upwards of $100,000 per year from the 1960s until the 1980s, in the mid-1980s, relations between Noriega and the United States began to deteriorate. Later negotiations involved dropping the drug-trafficking indictments, in March 1988, Noriegas forces resisted an attempted coup against the government of Panama. As relations continued to deteriorate, Noriega appeared to shift his Cold War allegiance towards the Soviet bloc, soliciting and receiving aid from Cuba, Nicaragua. American military planners began preparing plans to invade Panama. Their tally showed their candidate, Guillermo Endara, defeating Carlos Duque, candidate of a pro-Noriega coalition, Endara was beaten up by Noriega supporters the next day in his motorcade. Noriega declared the election null and maintained power by force, making him unpopular among Panamanians, Noriegas government insisted that it had won the presidential election and that irregularities had been on the part of U. S. -backed candidates from opposition parties. Bush called on Noriega to honor the will of the Panamanian people, the United States reinforced its Canal Zone garrison, and increased the tempo of training and other activities intended to put pressure on Noriega. In October 1989, Noriega foiled a coup attempt by members of the Panamanian Defense Forces. Pressure mounted on Bush as the media labeled him a wimp for failing to aid Panama, on 15 December, the Panamanian general assembly passed a resolution declaring that the actions of the United States had caused a state of war to exist between Panama and the United States. The next day, four U. S. military personnel were stopped at a roadblock around 9,00 PM outside PDF headquarters in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City, the PDF asserted later that the Americans were armed and on a reconnaissance mission. The PDF opened fire and Lieutenant Paz was fatally wounded by a round that entered the rear of the vehicle, captain Hadded, the driver of the vehicle, was also wounded in the foot. Paz was rushed to Gorgas Army Hospital but died of his wounds and he received the Purple Heart posthumously. According to U. S. military sources, a U. S. Naval officer, while in police custody, they were assaulted by the PDF. The U. S. Naval officer spent two weeks in hospital recovering from the beating, PDF soldiers sexually threatened his wife. The next day, President Bush ordered the execution of the Panama invasion plan, the military set H-Hour as 0100 on 20 December
28.
Panama
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Panama, officially called the Republic of Panama, is a country usually considered to be entirely in North America or Central America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, the capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the countrys 4.1 million people. Panama was inhabited by indigenous tribes prior to settlement by the Spanish in the 16th century. Panama broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, when Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada remained joined, eventually becoming the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, in 1977 an agreement was signed for the total transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama by the end of the 20th century, which culminated on 31 December 1999. Revenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panamas GDP, although commerce, banking, in 2015 Panama ranked 60th in the world in terms of the Human Development Index. Since 2010, Panama remains the second most competitive economy in Latin America, covering around 40 percent of its land area, Panamas jungles are home to an abundance of tropical plants and animals – some of them to be found nowhere else on the planet. There are several theories about the origin of the name Panama, some believe that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree. Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies abound, the best-known version is that a fishing village and its nearby beach bore the name Panamá, which meant an abundance of fish. Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmán, while exploring the Pacific side in 1515, in 1517 Don Gaspar De Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to settle a post there. In 1519 Pedrarias Dávila decided to establish the Empires Pacific city in this site, the new settlement replaced Santa María La Antigua del Darién, which had lost its function within the Crowns global plan after the beginning of the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the Pacific. Blending all of the above together, Panamanians believe in general that the word Panama means abundance of fish and this is the official definition given in social studies textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education in Panama. However, others believe the word Panama comes from the Kuna word bannaba which means distant or far away, at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the known inhabitants of Panama included the Cuevas and the Coclé tribes. These people have disappeared, as they had no immunity from European infectious diseases. The earliest discovered artifacts of indigenous peoples in Panama include Paleo-Indian projectile points, later central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making in the Americas, for example the cultures at Monagrillo, which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials at the Monagrillo archaeological site, the monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures. Before Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, the largest group were the Cueva. The size of the population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain
29.
Weapon of mass destruction
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The scope and usage of the term has evolved and been disputed, often signifying more politically than technically. Who can think without horror of another widespread war would mean. At the time, nuclear weapons had not been developed, japan conducted research on biological weapons, and chemical weapons had seen wide battlefield use in World War I. They were outlawed by the Geneva Protocol of 1925, Italy used mustard gas against civilians and soldiers in Ethiopia in 1935–36. Following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki that ended World War II and during the Cold War, the application of the term to specifically nuclear and radiological weapons is traced by William Safire to the Russian phrase Оружие массового поражения – oruzhiye massovogo porazheniya. That exact phrase, says Safire, was used by Bernard Baruch in 1946. The resolution also created the Atomic Energy Commission, an exact use of this term was given in a lecture Atomic Energy as an Atomic Problem by J. Robert Oppenheimer. The lecture was delivered to the Foreign Service and the State Department, the lecture is reprinted in The Open Mind. The term was used in the introduction to the hugely influential U. S. government document known as NSC-68 written in April 1950. During a speech at Rice University on 12 September 1962, President John F. Kennedy spoke of not filling space with weapons of mass destruction, but with instruments of knowledge and understanding. The following month, during a presentation about the Cuban Missile Crisis on 22 October 1962. An early use of the phrase in an international treaty was in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. During the Cold War, the weapons of mass destruction was primarily a reference to nuclear weapons. This policy of action against real or perceived weapons of mass destruction became known as the Begin Doctrine. Reagans successor, George H. W. Bush, used the term in an 1989 speech to the United Nations, the end of the Cold War reduced U. S. reliance on nuclear weapons as a deterrent, causing it to shift its focus to disarmament. With the 1990 invasion of Kuwait and 1991 Gulf War, Iraqs nuclear, biological, following the war, Bill Clinton and other western politicians and media continued to use the term, usually in reference to ongoing attempts to dismantle Iraqs weapons programs. After the 11 September 2001 attacks and the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, however, American forces found none in Iraq. Iraq, however, declared a chemical weapons stockpile in 2009, the stockpile contained mainly chemical precursors, but some warheads remained usable
30.
Battle of Mogadishu (1993)
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The Battle of Mogadishu or Day of the Rangers, was part of Operation Gothic Serpent. The battle is referred to as the First Battle of Mogadishu. Task Force Ranger was dispatched to seize two of Aidids high-echelon lieutenants during a meeting in the city, the goal of the operation was achieved, though conditions spiraled into the deadly Battle of Mogadishu. The initial operation of 3 October 1993, intended to last an hour, became an overnight standoff, Task Force Ranger was created in August 1993, and deployed to Somalia in September. It consisted of elite special operations units from Army, Air Force and Navy special services. As a multi-disciplinary joint special forces operation, Task Force Ranger reported to Joint Special Operations Command, the assault force consisted of nineteen aircraft, twelve vehicles, and 160 men. The operation was intended to last no longer than one hour, shortly after the assault began, Somali militia and armed civilian fighters shot down two UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters. The subsequent operation to secure and recover the crews of both helicopters extended the operation into an overnight standoff and daylight rescue operation on 4 October. The battle resulted in 18 deaths,73 wounded, and one pilot captured among the U. S. raid party. At least one Pakistani soldier and one Malaysian soldier were killed as part of the forces on day two of the battle. American sources estimate between 1,500 and 3,000 Somali casualties, including civilians, the Somali National Alliance claims 315 dead, during the operation, two U. S. Black Hawk helicopters were shot down by RPGs and three others were damaged. Some of the survivors were able to evacuate to the compound. An urban battle ensued and continued throughout the night, early the next morning, a combined task force was sent to rescue the trapped soldiers. It contained soldiers from the Pakistan Army, the Malaysian Army and they assembled over one hundred vehicles, including Pakistani tanks and Malaysian Condor armoured personnel carriers and were supported by U. S. MH-6 Little Bird and MH-60L Black Hawk helicopters. This task force reached the first crash site and rescued the survivors, the second crash site had been overrun by hostile Somalis during the night. Delta snipers Gary Gordon and Randy Shughart volunteered to hold them off until ground forces arrived, a Somali mob with thousands of combatants eventually overran the two men. That sites lone surviving American, pilot Michael Durant, had taken prisoner but was later released. The exact number of Somali casualties is unknown, but estimates range from several hundred to over a thousand militiamen and others killed, with injuries to another 3, 000–4,000
31.
Machine gun
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A machine gun is a fully automatic mounted or portable firearm designed to fire bullets in quick succession from an ammunition belt or magazine, typically at a rate of 300 to 1800 rounds per minute. Note that not all fully automatic firearms are machine guns, submachine guns, rifles, assault rifles, shotguns, pistols or cannons may be capable of fully automatic fire, but are not designed for sustained fire. Many machine guns also use belt feeding and open bolt operation, unlike semi-automatic firearms, which require one trigger pull per round fired, a machine gun is designed to fire for as long as the trigger is held down. Nowadays the term is restricted to heavy weapons, able to provide continuous or frequent bursts of automatic fire for as long as ammunition lasts. Machine guns are used against personnel, aircraft and light vehicles, or to provide suppressive fire. Some machine guns have in practice sustained fire almost continuously for hours, because they become very hot, practically all machine guns fire from an open bolt, to permit air cooling from the breech between bursts. They also usually have either a barrel cooling system, slow-heating heavyweight barrel, although subdivided into light, medium, heavy or general-purpose, even the lightest machine guns tend to be substantially larger and heavier than standard infantry arms. Medium and heavy guns are either mounted on a tripod or on a vehicle, when carried on foot. Medium machine guns use full-sized rifle rounds and are designed to be used from fixed positions mounted on a tripod. 50in, the M249 automatic rifle is operated by an automatic rifleman, but its ammunition may be carried by other Soldiers within the squad or unit. The M249 machine gun is a crew-served weapon, Machine guns usually have simple iron sights, though the use of optics is becoming more common. Many heavy machine guns, such as the Browning M2.50 caliber machine gun, are enough to engage targets at great distances. During the Vietnam War, Carlos Hathcock set the record for a shot at 7382 ft with a.50 caliber heavy machine gun he had equipped with a telescopic sight. This led to the introduction of.50 caliber anti-materiel sniper rifles, selective fire rifles firing a full-power rifle cartridge from a closed bolt are called automatic rifles or battle rifles, while rifles that fire an intermediate cartridge are called assault rifles. Unlocking and removing the spent case from the chamber and ejecting it out of the weapon as bolt is moving rearward Loading the next round into the firing chamber. Usually the recoil spring tension pushes bolt back into battery and a cam strips the new round from a feeding device, cycle is repeated as long as the trigger is activated by operator. Releasing the trigger resets the trigger mechanism by engaging a sear so the weapon stops firing with bolt carrier fully at the rear, the operation is basically the same for all autoloading firearms, regardless of the means of activating these mechanisms. Most modern machine guns use gas-operated reloading, a recoil actuated machine gun uses the recoil to first unlock and then operate the action. Machine guns such as the M2 Browning and MG42, are of this type, a cam, lever or actuator demultiplicates the energy of the recoil to operate the bolt
32.
Rocket-propelled grenade
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A rocket-propelled grenade is a shoulder-fired, anti-tank weapon system that fires rockets equipped with an explosive warhead. These warheads are affixed to a motor and stabilized in flight with fins. Some types of RPG are reloadable, while others are single-use, RPGs, with some exceptions, are generally loaded from the muzzle. RPGs with high explosive warheads are very effective against armored vehicles such as armoured personnel carriers. However, heavily armored vehicles, such as main battle tanks, are too well armored to be penetrated by an RPG. Various warheads are also capable of causing damage to vulnerable systems. The RPG has its roots in the 20th century with the development of the explosive shaped charge. Before the adoption of the charge, anti-tank guns and tank guns relied primarily on kinetic energy to defeat armor. Armies found that they needed to give infantry the means to defeat enemy armor when no anti-tank guns were available, initial attempts to put such weapons in the hands of the infantry resulted in weapons like the Soviet RPG-40 blast effect hand grenade. What was needed was a means of delivering the shaped charge warhead from a distance, different approaches to this goal would lead to the anti-tank spigot mortar, the recoilless rifle and, from the development of practical rocketry, the rocket propelled grenade. Research occasioned by World War II produced such weapons as the American Bazooka and German Panzerfaust, the Soviet-developed RPG-7 is the most widely distributed, recognizable and used RPG in the world. In the 2000s, they were still being used widely in conflict areas such as Chechnya, Iraq, the RPG has a design that is comparable to a shaped charge explosive. A shaped charge is an explosive charge shaped to focus the effect of the explosives energy, various types are used to penetrate tank armour. A typical modern lined shaped charge can penetrate armor to a depth of seven or more times the diameter of the charge, though greater depths of 10 CD. An RPG comprises two parts, the launcher and a rocket equipped with a warhead. The most common types of warheads are high explosive and high explosive anti-tank rounds and these warheads are affixed to a rocket motor and stabilized in flight with fins. Some types of RPG are single-use disposable units, such as the RPG-22 and M72 LAW, others are reloadable, such as the Soviet RPG-7, the launcher is designed so that the rocket exits the launcher without discharging an exhaust that would be dangerous to the operator. In the case of the RPG-7, the rocket is launched by a booster charge
33.
Asymmetric warfare
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Asymmetric warfare is war between belligerents whose relative military power differs significantly, or whose strategy or tactics differ significantly. This is typically a war between a standing, professional army and an insurgency or resistance movement, Asymmetric warfare can describe a conflict in which the resources of two belligerents differ in essence and in the struggle, interact and attempt to exploit each others characteristic weaknesses. Such struggles often involve strategies and tactics of warfare, the weaker combatants attempting to use strategy to offset deficiencies in quantity or quality. Such strategies may not necessarily be militarized and this is in contrast to symmetric warfare, where two powers have similar military power and resources and rely on tactics that are similar overall, differing only in details and execution. Asymmetric warfare is a form of irregular warfare, power, in this sense, is broadly understood to mean material power, such as a large army, sophisticated weapons, an advanced economy, and so on. Macks analysis was largely ignored in its day, but the end of the Cold War sparked renewed interest among academics, academic authors tend to focus on explaining two puzzles in asymmetric conflict. First, if power determines victory in conflict, then why would weaker actors decide to fight stronger actors, evolution of asymmetric rivals attitudes towards time Asymmetric conflicts include both interstate and civil wars, and over the past two hundred years have generally been won by strong actors. Since 1950, however, weak actors have won a majority of all asymmetric conflicts, there are times where this is not true because the composition or strategy of the forces makes it impossible for either side to close in battle with the other. In the words of Admiral Jervis during the campaigns of 1801, I do not say, my Lords, I say only they will not come by sea, and a confrontation that Napoleon Bonaparte described as that between the elephant and the whale. Technological superiority usually is cancelled by more vulnerable infrastructure which can be targeted with devastating results, training and tactics as well as technology can prove decisive and allow a smaller force to overcome a much larger one. For example, for centuries the Greek hoplites use of phalanx made them far superior to their enemies. The Battle of Thermopylae, which also involved good use of terrain, is a well-known example, if the inferior power is in a position of self-defense, i. e. Perhaps the classical examples of this doctrine may be found in the American Revolutionary War, movements in World War II, such as the French Resistance and Soviet. Against democratic aggressor nations, this strategy can be used to play on the electorates patience with the conflict provoking protests, and consequent disputes among elected legislators. If the inferior power is in a position, however, and/or turns to tactics prohibited by the laws of war. Terrain can be used as a multiplier by the smaller force. Such terrain is called difficult terrain, the contour of the land is an aid to the army, sizing up opponents to determine victory, assessing dangers and distance. Those who do battle without knowing these will lose, ― Sun Tzu, The Art of War The guerrillas must move amongst the people as a fish swims in the sea
34.
Low intensity conflict
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Low intensity conflict is the use of military forces applied selectively and with restraint to enforce compliance with the policies or objectives of the political body controlling the military force. The term can be used to describe conflicts where at least one or both of the opposing parties operate along such lines, low-intensity operations consist of the deployment and use of soldiers in situations other than war. For states, these operations are conducted against non-state actors and are given terms like counter-insurgency, anti-subversion. Violent non-state actors often conduct low-intensity operations against states, often in insurgencies, low-intensity conflict is defined by the US Army as. A political-military confrontation between contending states or groups below conventional war and above the routine, peaceful competition among states and it frequently involves protracted struggles of competing principles and ideologies. Low-intensity conflict ranges from subversion to the use of the armed forces and it is waged by a combination of means, employing political, economic, informational, and military instruments. Low-intensity conflicts are often localized, generally in the Third World, successful LIC operations, consistent with US interests and laws, can advance US international goals such as the growth of freedom, democratic institutions, and free market economies. US policy recognizes that indirect, rather direct, applications of US military power are the most appropriate. The principal US military instrument in LIC is security assistance in the form of training, equipment, services, when LIC threatens friends and allies, the aim of security assistance is to ensure that their military institutions can provide security for their citizens and government. The United States will also employ combat operations in exceptional circumstances when it cannot protect its interests by other means. When a US response is called for, it must be in accordance with the principles of international and these principles affirm the inherent right of states to use force in individual or collective self-defense against armed attack. For example, the use of air power, pivotal in modern warfare, is relegated to transport. Artillery is often not used when LIC occurs in populated areas, the role of the armed forces is dependent on the stage of the insurrection, whether it has progressed to armed struggle or is in an early stage of propaganda and protests. Intelligence gathering is essential to an efficient basis of LIC operation instructions, electronic and signal gathering intelligence, ELINT and SIGINT, proves largely ineffective against low intensity opponents. LIC generally requires more hands-on HUMINT methods of information retrieval, Low intensity warfares main opponent is the guerrilla, or irregular fighter. This opponent may be sponsored, or private non-state actors driven by religious or other ideology in urban, semi-urban. Modern guerrilla warfare at its fullest elaboration is a process, complete with sophisticated doctrine, organization, specialist skills. Based on their level of sophistication and organization, they can shift between all modes as the situation demands
35.
Unified Task Force
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The Unified Task Force was a US-led, United Nations-sanctioned multinational force, which operated in Somalia between 5 December 1992 –4 May 1993. However, the intransigence of the local faction leaders operating in Somalia. The mission never reached its mandated strength, over the final quarter of 1992, the situation in Somalia continued to worsen. Factions were splintering into smaller factions, and then splintered again, agreements for food distribution with one party were worthless when the stores had to be shipped through the territory of another. Some elements were actively opposing the UNOSOM intervention, troops were shot at, aid ships attacked and prevented from docking, cargo aircraft were fired upon and aid agencies, public and private, were subject to threats, looting and extortion. In the face of mounting pressure and frustration, UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali presented several options to the Security Council. Diplomatic avenues having proved largely fruitless, he recommended that a significant show of force was required to bring the groups to heel. Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations allows for action by air, sea or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace, Boutros-Ghali believed the time had come for employing this clause and moving on from peacekeeping. However, Boutros-Ghali felt that action would be difficult to apply under the mandate for UNOSOM. Moreover, he realised that solving Somalia’s problems would require such a deployment that the UN Secretariat did not have the skills to command. Accordingly, he recommended that an intervention force be constituted under the command of member states. The goal of deployment was to prepare the way for a return to peacekeeping. The Security Council urged the Secretary-General and member states to make arrangements for the unified command, UNITAF has been considered part of a larger state building initiative in Somalia, serving as the military arm to secure the distribution of humanitarian aid. However, UNITAF cannot be considered a building initiative due to its ‘specific, limited and palliative aims. The primary objective of UNITAF was security rather than larger institution building initiatives, prior to Resolution 794, the United States had approached the UN and offered a significant troop contribution to Somalia, with the caveat that these personnel would not be commanded by the UN. CIA Paramilitary Officer Larry Freedman from their Special Activities Division became the first US casualty of the conflict in Somalia when his vehicle struck an anti-tank mine. Freedman was a former Army Delta Force operator and Special Forces soldier and had served in every conflict that the US was involved in both officially and unofficially since Vietnam, Freedman was awarded the Intelligence Star for extraordinary heroism. The first Marines of UNITAF landed on the beaches of Somalia on 9 December 1992 amid a media circus, the press seemed to know the exact time and place of the Marines arrival and waited on the airport runway and beaches to capture the moment
36.
Somalia
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Somalia, officially the Federal Republic of Somalia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, Somalia has the longest coastline on Africas mainland, and its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands. Climatically, hot conditions prevail year-round, with monsoon winds. Somalia has an population of around 12.3 million. Around 85% of its residents are ethnic Somalis, who have inhabited the northern part of the country. Ethnic minorities are largely concentrated in the southern regions, the official languages of Somalia are Somali and Arabic, both of which belong to the Afroasiatic family. Most people in the country are Muslim, with the majority being Sunni, in antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial centre. It is among the most probable locations of the fabled ancient Land of Punt, during the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the Ajuran Empire, the Adal Sultanate, the Warsangali Sultanate, and the Geledi Sultanate. The toponym Somalia was coined by the Italian explorer Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti, Italian occupation lasted until 1941, yielding to British military administration. British Somaliland would remain a protectorate, while Italian Somaliland in 1949 became a United Nations Trusteeship under Italian administration, in 1960, the two regions united to form the independent Somali Republic under a civilian government. The Supreme Revolutionary Council seized power in 1969 and established the Somali Democratic Republic, led by Mohamed Siad Barre, this government later collapsed in 1991 as the Somali Civil War broke out. Various armed factions began competing for influence in the power vacuum, during this period, due to the absence of a central government, Somalia was a failed state, and residents returned to customary and religious law in most regions. A few autonomous regions, including the Somaliland and Puntland administrations emerged in the north, the early 2000s saw the creation of fledgling interim federal administrations. The Transitional National Government was established in 2000, followed by the formation of the Transitional Federal Government in 2004, in 2006, the TFG, assisted by Ethiopian troops, assumed control of most of the nations southern conflict zones from the newly formed Islamic Courts Union. The ICU subsequently splintered into more radical groups such as Al-Shabaab, by mid-2012, the insurgents had lost most of the territory that they had seized. In 2011–2012, a political process providing benchmarks for the establishment of permanent democratic institutions was launched, within this administrative framework a new provisional constitution was passed in August 2012, which reformed Somalia as a federation. Somalia has maintained an informal economy, mainly based on livestock, remittances from Somalis working abroad, Somalia has been inhabited since at least the Paleolithic. During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here, the oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BCE
37.
Balkans
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The Balkan Peninsula, or the Balkans, is a peninsula and a cultural area in Eastern and Southeastern Europe with various and disputed borders. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch from the Serbia-Bulgaria border to the Black Sea, the highest point of the Balkans is Mount Musala 2,925 metres in the Rila mountain range. In Turkish, Balkan means a chain of wooded mountains, the name is still preserved in Central Asia with the Balkan Daglary and the Balkan Province of Turkmenistan. A less popular hypothesis regarding its etymology is that it derived from the Persian Balā-Khāna, from Antiquity through the Middle Ages, the Balkan Mountains had been called by the local Thracian name Haemus. According to Greek mythology, the Thracian king Haemus was turned into a mountain by Zeus as a punishment, a reverse name scheme has also been suggested. D. Dechev considers that Haemus is derived from a Thracian word *saimon, a third possibility is that Haemus derives from the Greek word haema meaning blood. The myth relates to a fight between Zeus and the monster/titan Typhon, Zeus injured Typhon with a thunder bolt and Typhons blood fell on the mountains, from which they got their name. The earliest mention of the name appears in an early 14th-century Arab map, the Ottomans first mention it in a document dated from 1565. There has been no other documented usage of the word to refer to the region before that, there is also a claim about an earlier Bulgar Turkic origin of the word popular in Bulgaria, however it is only an unscholarly assertion. The word was used by the Ottomans in Rumelia in its meaning of mountain, as in Kod̲j̲a-Balkan, Čatal-Balkan, and Ungurus-Balkani̊. The concept of the Balkans was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808, during the 1820s, Balkan became the preferred although not yet exclusive term alongside Haemus among British travelers. Among Russian travelers not so burdened by classical toponymy, Balkan was the preferred term, zeunes goal was to have a geographical parallel term to the Italic and Iberian Peninsula, and seemingly nothing more. The gradually acquired political connotations are newer and, to a large extent, after the dissolution of Yugoslavia beginning in June 1991, the term Balkans again received a negative meaning, especially in Croatia and Slovenia, even in casual usage. A European Union initiative of 1999 is called the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, and its northern boundary is often given as the Danube, Sava and Kupa Rivers. The Balkan Peninsula has an area of about 470,000 km2. It is more or less identical to the known as Southeastern Europe. As of 1920 until World War II, Italy included Istria, the current territory of Italy includes only the small area around Trieste inside the Balkan Peninsula. However, the regions of Trieste and Istria are not usually considered part of the Balkans by Italian geographers, the Western Balkans is a neologism coined to describe the countries of ex-Yugoslavia and Albania
38.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
39.
Turbocharger
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Turbochargers were originally known as turbosuperchargers when all forced induction devices were classified as superchargers. Nowadays the term supercharger is usually applied only to mechanically driven forced induction devices, compared to a mechanically driven supercharger, turbochargers tend to be more efficient, but less responsive. Twincharger refers to an engine with both a supercharger and a turbocharger, turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment engines. They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines and they have also been found useful in automotive fuel cells. Forced induction dates from the late 19th century, when Gottlieb Daimler patented the technique of using a pump to force air into an internal combustion engine in 1885. During World War I French engineer Auguste Rateau fitted turbochargers to Renault engines powering various French fighters with some success, in 1918, General Electric engineer Sanford Alexander Moss attached a turbocharger to a V12 Liberty aircraft engine. Turbochargers were first used in aircraft engines such as the Napier Lioness in the 1920s. Ships and locomotives equipped with turbocharged diesel engines began appearing in the 1920s, turbochargers were also used in aviation, most widely used by the United States. During World War II, notable examples of U. S. aircraft with turbochargers include the B-17 Flying Fortress, B-24 Liberator, P-38 Lightning, and P-47 Thunderbolt. Turbochargers are widely used in car and commercial vehicles because they allow smaller-capacity engines to have improved fuel economy, reduced emissions, higher power, in contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are mechanically driven by the engine. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are common methods of powering a supercharger, for example, on the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger uses about 150 horsepower. Yet the benefits outweigh the costs, for the 150 hp to drive the supercharger the engine generates an additional 400-horsepower, a net gain of 250 hp. This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent, another disadvantage of some superchargers is lower adiabatic efficiency as compared to turbochargers. Adiabatic efficiency is a measure of an ability to compress air without adding excess heat to that air. Even under ideal conditions, the compression process always results in elevated temperature, however. Roots superchargers impart significantly more heat to the air than turbochargers, thus, for a given volume and pressure of air, the turbocharged air is cooler, and as a result denser, containing more oxygen molecules, and therefore more potential power than the supercharged air. In practical application the disparity between the two can be dramatic, with turbochargers often producing 15% to 30% more power based solely on the differences in adiabatic efficiency. By comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine, although turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, in contrast to supercharging, the primary disadvantage of turbocharging is what is referred to as lag or spool time
40.
Air conditioning
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Air conditioning is the process of removing heat from a confined space, thus cooling the air, and removing humidity. Air conditioning can be used in domestic and commercial environments. Air conditioners often use a fan to distribute the air to an occupied space such as a building or a car to improve thermal comfort. The cooling is achieved through a refrigeration cycle, but sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used. Air conditioning systems can also be based on desiccants and subterraneous pipes that can distribute the heated refrigerant to the ground for cooling. In the most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology that modifies the condition of air, in common usage, though, air conditioning refers to systems which cool air. In construction, a system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as heating, ventilation. Since prehistoric times, snow and ice were used for cooling, the business of harvesting ice during winter and storing for use in summer became popular towards the late 17th century. This practice was replaced by mechanical ice-making machines, the basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt, where reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing through the window and this process also made the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate. In Ancient Rome, water from aqueducts was circulated through the walls of houses to cool them. Other techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season. The 2nd-century Chinese inventor Ding Huan of the Han Dynasty invented a fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m in diameter. During the subsequent Song Dynasty, written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used, in the 17th century, Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated Turning Summer into Winter for James I of England by adding salt to water. The introduction of air conditioning in the 1920s helped enable the great migration to the Sun Belt in the United States. In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a professor at Cambridge University. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that evaporation of volatile liquids could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury thermometer as their object and they lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C while the ambient temperature was 18 °C
41.
Suspension (vehicle)
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This article is primarily about four-wheeled vehicle suspension. For information on two-wheeled vehicles suspensions see the motorcycle suspension, motorcycle fork, bicycle suspension, Suspension is the system of tires, tire air, springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion between the two. Suspension systems must support both roadholding/handling and ride quality, which are at odds with each other, the tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. The suspension also protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from damage, the design of front and rear suspension of a car may be different. An early form of suspension on ox-drawn carts had the swing on iron chains attached to the wheeled frame of the carriage. This system remained the basis for all suspension systems until the turn of the 19th century, no modern automobiles use the strap suspension system. Automobiles were initially developed as self-propelled versions of horse-drawn vehicles, however, horse-drawn vehicles had been designed for relatively slow speeds, and their suspension was not well suited to the higher speeds permitted by the internal combustion engine. The first workable spring-suspension required advanced metallurgical knowledge and skill, within a decade, most British horse carriages were equipped with springs, wooden springs in the case of light one-horse vehicles to avoid taxation, and steel springs in larger vehicles. These were often made of steel and usually took the form of multiple layer leaf springs. Leaf springs have been around since the early Egyptians, ancient military engineers used leaf springs in the form of bows to power their siege engines, with little success at first. The use of springs in catapults was later refined and made to work years later. Springs were not only made of metal, a tree branch could be used as a spring. Horse-drawn carriages and the Ford Model T used this system, and it is used today in larger vehicles. This was the first modern system and, along with advances in the construction of roads. In 1901 Mors of Paris first fitted an automobile with shock absorbers, with the advantage of a damped suspension system on his Mors Machine, Henri Fournier won the prestigious Paris-to-Berlin race on 20 June 1901. Fourniers superior time was 11 hrs 46 min 10 sec, while the best competitor was Léonce Girardot in a Panhard with a time of 12 hrs 15 min 40 sec. Coil springs first appeared on a vehicle in 1906 in the Brush Runabout made by the Brush Motor Company. Today, coil springs are used in most cars, in 1920, Leyland Motors used torsion bars in a suspension system
42.
Vehicle armor
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Military vehicles are commonly armoured to withstand the impact of shrapnel, bullets, missiles or shells, protecting the personnel inside from enemy fire. Such vehicles include armoured fighting vehicles like tanks, aircraft and ships, civilian vehicles may also be armoured. These vehicles include cars used by reporters, officials and others in conflict zones or where violent crime is common, armoured cars are also routinely used by security firms to carry money or valuables to reduce the risk of highway robbery or the hijacking of the cargo. Armour may also be used in vehicles to protect from other than a deliberate attack. Some spacecraft are equipped with specialised armour to protect them against impacts from micrometeoroids or fragments of space junk, the design and purpose of the vehicle determines the amount of armour plating carried, as the plating is often very heavy and excessive amounts of armour restrict mobility. In order to decrease this problem, some new materials and material compositions are being researched which include buckypaper, rolled homogeneous armour is strong, hard, and tough. Steel with these characteristics is produced by processing cast steel billets of appropriate size, rolling and forging irons out the grain structure in the steel, removing imperfections which would reduce the strength of the steel. Aluminium is used when weight is a necessity. It is most commonly used on APCs and armoured cars, wrought iron was used on ironclad warships. Early European iron armour consisted of 10 to 13 cm of wrought iron backed by up to one meter of solid wood, titanium is roughly the weight of aluminium, but as strong as iron. So despite being rather expensive, it finds an application in areas where weight is a concern, such as personal armour, because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armour, sandwiched between sheets of steel armour plate. Plastic metal was a type of vehicle armour originally developed for merchant ships by the British Admiralty in 1940, the original composition was described as 50% clean granite of half-inch size, 43% of limestone mineral, and 7% of bitumen. It was typically applied in a two inches thick and backed by half an inch of steel. Plastic armour could be applied by pouring it into a cavity formed by the backing plate. Bulletproof glass is a term for glass that is particularly resistant to being penetrated when struck by bullets. The industry generally refers to it as bullet-resistant glass or transparent armour, bullet-resistant glass is usually constructed using a strong but transparent material such as polycarbonate thermoplastic or by using layers of laminated glass. The desired result is a material with the appearance and light-transmitting behaviour of standard glass, the polycarbonate layer, usually consisting of products such as Armormax, Makroclear, Cyrolon, Lexan or Tuffak, is often sandwiched between layers of regular glass. The use of plastic in the laminate provides impact-resistance, such as physical assault with a hammer, the plastic provides little in the way of bullet-resistance
43.
Bulletproof glass
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Bulletproof glass is a type of strong but optically transparent material that is particularly resistant to being penetrated when struck. Like any material, however, it is not completely impenetrable and it is usually made from a combination of two or more types of glass, one hard and one soft. The softer layer makes the glass more elastic, so it can instead of shatter. The index of refraction for both of the used in the bulletproof layers must be almost the same to keep the glass transparent and allow a clear. Bulletproof glass varies in thickness from 3⁄4 to 3 1⁄2 inches, bulletproof glass is used in windows of buildings that require security, such as jewelry stores and embassies, as well as military and private vehicles. Bullet-resistant glass is constructed using layers of laminated glass, the more layers the higher the protection. When a weight reduction is needed 3mm of polycarbonate is laminated onto the safe side, the aim is to make a material with the appearance and clarity of standard glass but with effective protection from small arms. Polycarbonate designs usually consist of such as Armormax, Makroclear, Cyrolon, Lexan or Tuffak. The polycarbonate usually has one of two types of coating to resist abrasion, a coating that heals after being scratched or a hard coating that prevents scratching. The plastic in laminate designs also provides resistance to impact from physical assault from blunt, the plastic provides little in the way of bullet-resistance. The glass, which is harder than plastic, flattens the bullet. The ability of the layer to stop projectiles with varying energy is directly proportional to its thickness. Laminated glass layers are built from glass sheets bonded together with polyvinyl butyral, polyurethane, when treated with chemical processes, the glass becomes much stronger. This design has been in use on combat vehicles since World War II. It is typically thick and is extremely heavy. Bullet-resistant materials are tested using a gun to fire a projectile from a set distance into the material, levels of protection are based on the ability of the target to stop a specific type of projectile traveling at a specific speed. When projectiles do not penetrate, the depth of the dent left by the impact can be measured and related to the projectile’s velocity and thickness of the material. Some researchers have developed models based on results of this kind of testing to help them design bulletproof glass to resist specific anticipated threats. S
44.
September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
_assigned_to_the_amphibious_dock_landing_ship_USS_Whidbey_Island_(LS.jpg)
Afghanistan – Afghanistan has ordered 3,334 more in 2010 and 2011 for its National Police, National Guard and other military.[73] 950 M1114 vehicles delivered to the army by November 2012.[74]
Albania – 248 on order, gifted by US[75][76]
Argentina[77]
Azerbaijan – 100+ HMMWV use by Azerbaijani army and peacekeeping force[78]
Bahrain – Vehicles sold under the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.[77]
Bolivia[77]
Bosnia and Herzegovina – 25 in 2010[79] and 44 donated by the U.S. in 2017.[80]
Bulgaria – 52 vehicles, 50 are the up-armored M1114 variant, and two are ambulances.[81]
Canada – small numbers (M1113 and M1117) in use by Joint Task Force 2 (JTF-2) and Special Operations Regiment (CSOR).[82] Used in Afghanistan.[83]
Chad – Vehicles sold under the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.[77]
Chile[77] 565 in the Chilean Army and 100 in Chilean Marine Corps.
Colombia[77]
Czech Republic – Mainly 601st Special Forces Group.[84]
Denmark – 30[85]
Djibouti – Vehicles sold under the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.[77]
Ecuador[77]
Egypt[77]
Ethiopia – Vehicles sold under the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.[77]
Georgia[86][87]
Honduras – Vehicles procured via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.[77]
Iraq – During the Iraq War, stockpiled U.S. military HMMWVs were given to the Iraqi Army, Iraqi Security Forces. The Iraqi Military has more than 10,000+ Humvees.[88] Some of these have been captured by the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant in the 2014 uprising.[89][90][91][92]
Israel[93]
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant – 2,300[94]
Kataib Hezbollah[95]
Kazakhstan[96]
Kenya – Several vehicles in use by security forces.[97]
Kuwait – Vehicles sold via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.[77]
Lebanon – 1,300+ vehicles[98]
Libya – 200 donated by the U.S. Army in July 2013.[99]
Lithuania – 200 vehicles[100]
Macedonia - 10 to 90, modified at Eurokompozit, armed with PK[citation needed]
Moldova – 90 vehicles[101]
Mexico – Vehicles sold via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.[77] 3,000 vehicles in service.[102]
Montenegro[103][content verification needed]
New Zealand – Borrowed U.S. vehicles in Afghanistan were modified by Special Air Service replaced by Pinzgauer. The Army used a small number of U.S. either free/leased vehicles in Afghanistan until 2013.[104]
Oman – Vehicles sold via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.[77]
Peru – 34 vehicles (12 M-1151A1 deployed in Haiti as part of the UN peacekeeping contingent, 22 M-1165A1 Special Ops operated by the 19th Commando Battalion). Possible upcoming purchase of 100 additional vehicles.[105]
Philippines[77]
Poland
Romania M1113: 100, M1114: 22[citation needed]
Russia – Limited number of USMC vehicles which were stationed at Georgian port of Poti and were waiting to be shipped to US, were stolen by Russian troops.[106]
Saudi Arabia – Vehicles were sold to Saudi Arabia by the U.S. under the Foreign Military Sales program.[77]
Senegal – 23 vehicles donated by the U.S. seen in action as recently as 2017.[107][108]
Spain - 123 vehicles, used only by the Infantería de Marina[109] and the Guardia Civil. The Spanish Army, the Spanish Air Force and the Spanish National Police they use the URO VAMTAC, a similar vehicle, produced in Spain.
Serbia – 40 vehicles, 17 unarmored and 4 armored vehicles, donated to the Serbian Armed Forces by the US government in 2013, 19 more donated in 2017.[110][111]
Sudan – Vehicles sold by the U.S. under the Foreign Military Sales program.[77]
Syria – Captured from ISIS[citation needed]
Taiwan – Vehicles sold via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.[77] 7,000+ vehicles[112]
Tanzania – Vehicles sold by the U.S. under the Foreign Military Sales program.[77]
Trinidad and Tobago – 6+ Dongfeng EQ2050[113]
Tunisia – 52 vehicles donated by the U.S. in May 2015 and some sold via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.[77]
Ukraine – ~110 vehicles (since 2001) at the 95th Airmobile Brigade,[114] 10 vehicles were donated to the Polish–Ukrainian Peace Force Battalion (POLUKRBAT). Reports say that after the Battle of Debaltseve insurgents were seen driving around in 'Humvee-like' vehicle.[115][116]
United States - 230,000 [3]
Uganda[77]
Thailand: Royal Thai Army[citation needed]
