1.
Western Europe
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Western Europe, or West Europe, is the region comprising the western part of Europe. Below, some different geographic and geopolitical definitions of the term are outlined, prior to the Roman conquest, a large part of Western Europe had adopted the newly developed La Tène culture. This cultural and linguistic division was reinforced by the later political east-west division of the Roman Empire. The division between these two was enhanced during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages by a number of events, the Western Roman Empire collapsed, starting the Early Middle Ages. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, mostly known as the Greek or Byzantine Empire, survived, in East Asia, Western Europe was historically known as taixi in China and taisei in Japan, which literally translates as the Far West. The term Far West became synonymous with Western Europe in China during the Ming dynasty, the Italian Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci was one of the first writers in China to use the Far West as an Asian counterpart to the European concept of the Far East. In his writings, Ricci referred to himself as Matteo of the Far West, the term was still in use in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Post-war Europe would be divided into two spheres, the West, influenced by the United States, and the Eastern Bloc. With the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain, behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Although some countries were neutral, they were classified according to the nature of their political. This division largely defined the popular perception and understanding of Western Europe, the world changed dramatically with the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989. The Federal Republic of Germany peacefully absorbed the German Democratic Republic, COMECON and the Warsaw Pact were dissolved, and in 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Several countries which had part of the Soviet Union regained full independence. Although the term Western Europe was more prominent during the Cold War, it remains much in use, in 1948 the Treaty of Brussels was signed between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. It was further revisited in 1954 at the Paris Conference, when the Western European Union was established and it was declared defunct in 2011, after the Treaty of Lisbon, and the Treaty of Brussels was terminated. When the Western European Union was dissolved, it had 10 member countries, six member countries, five observer countries. The CIA divides Western Europe into two smaller subregions, regional voting blocs were formed in 1961 to encourage voting to various UN bodies from different regional groups. The European Union is an economic and political union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe, some Western and Northern European countries of Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein are members of EFTA, though cooperating to varying degree with the European Union
2.
Eastern Europe
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Eastern Europe, also known as East Europe, is the eastern part of the European continent. There is no consensus on the area it covers, partly because the term has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, cultural. There are almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region, a related United Nations paper adds that every assessment of spatial identities is essentially a social and cultural construct. One definition describes Eastern Europe as an entity, the region lying in Europe with main characteristics consisting in Byzantine, Orthodox. Another definition was created during the Cold War and used more or less synonymously with the term Eastern Bloc, a similar definition names the formerly communist European states outside the Soviet Union as Eastern Europe. Historians and social scientists generally view such definitions as outdated or relegating, several definitions of Eastern Europe exist today, but they often lack precision or are extremely general. These definitions vary both across cultures and among experts, even scientists, recently becoming more and more imprecise. The Ural Mountains, Ural River, and the Caucasus Mountains are the land border of the eastern edge of Europe. Eurovoc, a multilingual thesaurus maintained by the Publications Office of the European Union, provides entries for 23 EU languages, of these, those in italics are classified as Eastern Europe in this source. Other official web-pages of the European Union classify some of the countries as strictly Central European. The East–West Schism is the break of communion and theology between what are now the Eastern and Western churches which began in the 11th century and lasts until this very day and it divided Christianity in Europe, and consequently the world, into Western Christianity and Eastern Christianity. Since the Great Schism of 1054, Europe has been divided between Roman Catholic and Protestant churches in the West, and the Eastern Orthodox Christian churches in the east, due to this religious cleavage, Eastern Orthodox countries are often associated with Eastern Europe. A cleavage of this sort is, however, often problematic, for example, Greece is overwhelmingly Orthodox, the fall of the Iron Curtain brought the end of the East–West division in Europe, but this geopolitical concept is sometimes still used for quick reference by the media. The Baltic states have seats in the Nordic Council as observer states and they also are members of the Nordic-Baltic Eight whereas Eastern European countries formed their own alliance called the Visegrád Group. Estonia Latvia Lithuania The Caucasus nations may be included in the definitions of Eastern Europe, the extent of their geographic or political affiliation with Europe varies by country and source. All three states are members of the European Unions Eastern Partnership program and the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly, on 12 January 2002, the European Parliament noted that Armenia and Georgia may enter the EU in the future. Georgia — in modern geography, Georgia has been classified as part of Eastern Europe. Under the European Union’s geographic criteria, Georgia is viewed as part of Eastern Europe and is the only Caucasus country to be actively seeking EU membership and it is a member of Council of Europe and Eurocontrol
3.
Balkans
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The Balkan Peninsula, or the Balkans, is a peninsula and a cultural area in Eastern and Southeastern Europe with various and disputed borders. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch from the Serbia-Bulgaria border to the Black Sea, the highest point of the Balkans is Mount Musala 2,925 metres in the Rila mountain range. In Turkish, Balkan means a chain of wooded mountains, the name is still preserved in Central Asia with the Balkan Daglary and the Balkan Province of Turkmenistan. A less popular hypothesis regarding its etymology is that it derived from the Persian Balā-Khāna, from Antiquity through the Middle Ages, the Balkan Mountains had been called by the local Thracian name Haemus. According to Greek mythology, the Thracian king Haemus was turned into a mountain by Zeus as a punishment, a reverse name scheme has also been suggested. D. Dechev considers that Haemus is derived from a Thracian word *saimon, a third possibility is that Haemus derives from the Greek word haema meaning blood. The myth relates to a fight between Zeus and the monster/titan Typhon, Zeus injured Typhon with a thunder bolt and Typhons blood fell on the mountains, from which they got their name. The earliest mention of the name appears in an early 14th-century Arab map, the Ottomans first mention it in a document dated from 1565. There has been no other documented usage of the word to refer to the region before that, there is also a claim about an earlier Bulgar Turkic origin of the word popular in Bulgaria, however it is only an unscholarly assertion. The word was used by the Ottomans in Rumelia in its meaning of mountain, as in Kod̲j̲a-Balkan, Čatal-Balkan, and Ungurus-Balkani̊. The concept of the Balkans was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808, during the 1820s, Balkan became the preferred although not yet exclusive term alongside Haemus among British travelers. Among Russian travelers not so burdened by classical toponymy, Balkan was the preferred term, zeunes goal was to have a geographical parallel term to the Italic and Iberian Peninsula, and seemingly nothing more. The gradually acquired political connotations are newer and, to a large extent, after the dissolution of Yugoslavia beginning in June 1991, the term Balkans again received a negative meaning, especially in Croatia and Slovenia, even in casual usage. A European Union initiative of 1999 is called the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, and its northern boundary is often given as the Danube, Sava and Kupa Rivers. The Balkan Peninsula has an area of about 470,000 km2. It is more or less identical to the known as Southeastern Europe. As of 1920 until World War II, Italy included Istria, the current territory of Italy includes only the small area around Trieste inside the Balkan Peninsula. However, the regions of Trieste and Istria are not usually considered part of the Balkans by Italian geographers, the Western Balkans is a neologism coined to describe the countries of ex-Yugoslavia and Albania
4.
Iberian Peninsula
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The Iberian Peninsula /aɪˈbɪəriən pəˈnɪnsjᵿlə/, also known as Iberia /aɪˈbɪəriə/, is located in the southwest corner of Europe. The peninsula is divided between Portugal and Spain, comprising most of their territory. With an area of approximately 582,000 km2, it is the second largest European peninsula, at that time, the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabos Iberia was delineated from Keltikē by the Pyrenees and included the land mass southwest of there. The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the Phoenicians, hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term Iberia, which he wrote about circa 500 BC. Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with. According to Strabo, prior historians used Iberia to mean the country side of the Ἶβηρος as far north as the river Rhône in France. Polybius respects that limit, but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar, elsewhere he says that Saguntum is on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia. Strabo refers to the Carretanians as people of the Iberian stock living in the Pyrenees, according to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use Hispania and Hiberia as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political, the Latin word Hiberia, similar to the Greek Iberia, literally translates to land of the Hiberians. This word was derived from the river Ebro, which the Romans called Hiberus, hiber was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro. The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BC. Virgil refers to the Ipacatos Hiberos in his Georgics, the Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania. As they became interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names Hispania Citerior. At the time Hispania was made up of three Roman provinces, Hispania Baetica, Hispania Tarraconensis, and Lusitania, Strabo says that the Romans use Hispania and Iberia synonymously, distinguishing between the near northern and the far southern provinces. Whatever language may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the Vascones, the Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the Ebro, Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin. The association was so known it was hardly necessary to state, for example. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called the whole of Spain Hiberia because of the Hiberus River, the river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BC between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian, uses Ibērus, with reference to this border, Polybius states that the native name is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination
5.
Magyar tribes
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The ethnonym of the Hungarian tribal alliance is uncertain. According to one view, following Anonymuss description, the federation was called Hetumoger, though the word Magyar possibly comes from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, the tribal name Megyer became Magyar referring to the Hungarian people as a whole. Written sources called Magyars Hungarians prior to the conquest of the Carpathian Basin when they lived on the steppes of Eastern Europe. The English term Hungarian is a derivative of the Latin Ungri or Ungari forms, according to András Róna-Tas the locality in which the Hungarians, the Manicha-Er group, emerged was between the Volga river and the Ural Mountains. Between the 8th and 5th centuries BC, the Magyars embarked upon their independent existence, around 830 AD, the seven related tribes formed a confederation in Etelköz, called Hétmagyar. Their leaders, the Seven chieftains of the Magyars, besides Álmos, included Előd, Ond, Kond, Tas, Huba and Töhötöm, presumably, the Magyar tribes consisted of 108 clans. The confederation of the tribes was led by two high princes, the kende and the gyula. The high princes were either elected by the leaders of the tribes or appointed by the Khagan of the Khazars who had been exerting influence over the Magyars, around 862 AD the seven tribes separated from the Khazars. Before 881 AD three Turkic tribes rebelled against the rule of the Khagan of the Khazars, but they were suppressed, after their defeat they left the Khazar Empire and voluntarily joined the Hétmagyar confederation. The three tribes were organised into one tribe, called Kabar, and later played the roles of vanguard. The joining of the three tribes to the previous seven created the On-ogur, one of the origins for the name Hungarian. The Hungarian social structure was of Turkic origin, moreover the Hungarian language was affected by Turkic linguistic influence, – A kezdetektől 1526-ig, főszerkesztő, Benda Kálmán Makkai, László. Transylvania in the medieval Hungarian kingdom, In, Béla Köpeczi, from the Beginnings to 1606, Columbia University Press, New York,2001, ISBN0880334797
6.
Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)
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The Kingdom of Italy was one of the constituent kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire, along with the kingdoms of Germany, Bohemia, and Burgundy. It comprised northern and central Italy, but excluded the Republic of Venice and its original capital was Pavia until the 11th century. In June 774, the collapsed and the Franks became masters of northern Italy. The southern areas remained under Lombard control in the Duchy of Benevento, Charlemagne adopted the title King of the Lombards and in 800 had himself crowned Emperor of the Romans in Rome. Members of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule Italy until the deposition of Charles the Fat in 887, until 961, the rule of Italy was continually contested by several aristocratic families from both within and without the kingdom. In 961, King Otto I of Germany, already married to Adelaide, widow of a king of Italy. He continued on to Rome, where he had himself crowned emperor on 7 February 962, the union of the crowns of Italy and Germany with that of the so-called Empire of the Romans created the Holy Roman Empire, to which Burgundy was added in 1032. The resulting wars between Guelphs and Ghibellines, the anti-imperialist and imperialist factions, respectively, were characteristic of Italian politics in the 12th–14th centuries. The Lombard League was the most famous example of this situation, though not a declared separatist movement, by the 15th century, the power of the city-states was largely broken. A series of wars in Lombardy from 1423 to 1454 further reduced the number of competing states in Italy, the next forty years were relatively peaceful in Italy, but in 1494 the peninsula was invaded by France. The resulting Great Italian Wars lasted until 1559 as control of most of the Italian states passed to King Philip II of Spain. The Spanish branch of the Habsburg dynasty—the same dynasty of which another branch provided the Emperors—continued to rule most of imperial Italy down to the War of the Spanish Succession, after the Imperial Reform of 1495–1512, the Italian kingdom corresponded to the unencircled territories south of the Alps. The Imperial rule in Italy came to an end with the campaigns of the French Revolutionaries in 1792–97, in 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by the last emperor, Francis II, after its defeat by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz. After the Battle of Taginae, in which the Ostrogoth king Totila was killed, the battle lasted two days and Teia was killed in the fighting. The Kings of the Lombards ruled that Germanic people from their invasion of Italy in 567–68 until the Lombardic identity became lost in the ninth and tenth centuries, after 568, the Lombard kings sometimes styled themselves Kings of Italy. Upon the Lombard defeat at the 774 Siege of Pavia, the kingdom came under the Frankish domination of Charlemagne, the Iron Crown of Lombardy was used for the coronation of the Lombard kings, and the kings of Italy thereafter, for centuries. The primary sources for the Lombard kings before the Frankish conquest are the anonymous 7th-century Origo Gentis Langobardorum, the earliest kings listed in the Origo are almost certainly legendary. They purportedly reigned during the Migration Period, the first ruler attested independently of Lombard tradition is Tato, an initial phase of strong autonomy of the many constituent duchies developed over time with growing regal authority, even if the dukes desires for autonomy were never fully achieved
7.
East Francia
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East Francia or the Kingdom of the East Franks was a successor state of Charlemagnes empire and precursor of the Holy Roman Empire. Until 911 it was ruled by Carolingian dynasty and it was created after the 840-43 civil war between Charlemagnes grandchildren which ended with the Treaty of Verdun which divided the former empire into three kingdoms. In August 843, after three years of war following the death of emperor Louis the Pious on 20 June 840. The division of lands was based on the Meuse, Scheldt. The contemporary East Frankish Annales Fuldenses describes the kingdom being divided in three and Louis acceding to the eastern part, while West and Middle Francia contained the traditional Frankish heartlands, the East consisted mostly of lands only annexed to the Frankish empire in the eighth century. These included the duchies of Alemannia, Bavaria, Saxony and Thuringia, as well as the northern and eastern marches with the Danes, in 869 Lotharingia was divided between West and East Francia under the Treaty of Meersen. The short lived Middle Francia turned out to be the theatre of Franco-German wars up until the 20th century, all the Frankish lands were briefly reunited by Charles the Fat, but in 888 he was deposed by nobles and in East Francia Arnulf of Carinthia was elected king. The increasing weakness of royal power in East Francia meant that dukes of Bavaria, Swabia, Franconia, Saxony, Kings increasingly had to deal with regional rebellions. Because Conrad I was one of the dukes, he found it hard to establish his authority over them. Duke Henry of Saxony was in rebellion against Conrad I until 915 and struggle against Arnulf, on his deathbed Conrad I chose Henry of Saxony as the most capable successor. This kingship changed from Franks to Saxons, who had suffered greatly during the conquests of Charlemagne, by his death in July 936 Henry had prevented collapse of royal power as was happening in West Francia and left a much stronger kingdom to his successor Otto I. After Otto I was crowned as the Emperor in Rome in 962 the era of the Holy Roman Empire began, the term orientalis Francia originally referred to Franconia and orientales Franci to its inhabitants, the ethnic Franks living east of the Rhine. The use of the term in a sense, to refer to the eastern kingdom, was an innovation of Louis the Germans court. Since eastern Francia could be identified with old Austrasia, the Frankish heartland, under his grandson, Arnulf, the terminology was largely dropped and the kingdom, when it was referred to by name, was simply Francia. When it was necessary, as in the Treaty of Bonn with the West Franks, Henry I refers to himself as rex Francorum orientalium, king of the East Franks, in the treaty. By the 12th century, the historian Otto of Freising, in using the Carolingian terminology had to explain that the kingdom of the Franks was now called the kingdom of the Germans. The regalia of the Carolingian empire had divided by Louis the Pious on his deathbed between his two faithful sons, Charles the Bald and Lothair. Louis the German, then in rebellion, received nothing of the jewels or liturgical books associated with Carolingian kingship
8.
Middle Francia
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Middle Francia was allocated to emperor Lothair I, the eldest son and successor of emperor Louis the Pious. Following the 855 partition, Middle Francia became only a geographic term, in 855, on his deathbed at Prüm Abbey, Emperor Lothair I with the Treaty of Prüm divided Middle Francia among his three sons. The lands in northern Italy, which extended as far south as Rome and Spoleto, were left to the eldest son Louis II the Younger, crowned co-Emperor in 850 and this eventually became the Kingdom of Italy. Charles received Kingdom of Burgundy and Provence, which became the Kingdom of Arles, Charles died early and without sons in 863. According to a Frankish custom, his brothers Louis II and Lothair II divided his realm, Lothair II received the western Lower Burgundian parts which were bordering his western Upper Burgundy which were incorporated into Lotharingia, while Louis II received the Kingdom of Provence. When Lothair II died in 869, his only son Hugh by his mistress Waldrada, was declared illegitimate, so his legal heir was his brother. If Louis II had inherited Lotharingia, Middle Francia would have been reunited, however, as Louis II was at that time campaigning against the Emirate of Bari, Lotharingia was partitioned between his uncles Charles the Bald and Louis the German by the Treaty of Meerssen in 870. Louis the German took Upper Burgundy, territory north of the Jura mountains, in 875 the last of Lothair Is children Louis II died without sons and named as his successor in Italy his cousin Carloman of Bavaria, eldest son of Louis the German. However, Pope John VIII, dealing with the constant threat of raiders from the Emirate of Sicily, after much confusion and conflict, Charles the Bald took Louis realm in Italy. Charles was crowned Emperor by Pope John VIII in 881 and thus he reunited the entire Carolingian Empire in 884, John M. Riddle, A History of the Middle Ages, 300–1500. Timothy Reuter, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 3, c, engreen, Fred E. Pope John the Eighth and the Arabs
9.
Great Moravia
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Great Moravia, the Great Moravian Empire, or simply Moravia, was the first major state that was predominantly Slavonic to emerge in the area of Central Europe. Its core territories were located on the Morava river which gave its name to the kingdom, Morava in both Czech and Slovak refers to both the river and the land of Moravia - the medieval Margraviate of Moravia, which is now the eastern part of the Czech Republic. The kingdom saw the rise of the first ever Slavic literary culture in the Old Church Slavonic language, after the fall of Great Moravia, its core territory was gradually divided between the newly ascending Czech Kingdom and Hungarian Kingdom, the frontier was originally settled on the Morava river. After this, the Czech-Hungarian border shifted east to the White Carpathians, záhorie also boasts the only surviving building from Great Moravian times - the chapel at Kopčany just across the Morava from the archaeological site of Mikulčice. The core of Great Moravia was established, according to legend, in the early 830s, when Prince Mojmír I crossed the Morava and conquered the principality of Nitra. The former principality of Nitra was used as the údelné kniežatsvo, or the given to, and ruled by. The extent and location of Great Moravia are a subject of debate, rival theories place the heart of it either south of the river Danube or on the Great Hungarian Plain. The exact date when the Moravian state was founded is also disputed, but it occurred in the early 830s under Prince Mojmír I. Moravia reached its largest territorial extent under Svätopluk I, who ruled from 870 to 894, separatism and internal conflicts emerging after Svätopluks death contributed to the fall of Great Moravia, which was overrun by the Hungarians. The exact date of Moravias collapse is unknown, but it occurred between 902 and 907, Moravia experienced significant cultural development under Prince Rastislav, with the arrival in 863 of the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius. Rastislav had asked the Byzantine emperor to send a teacher to introduce literacy, the brothers Cyril and Methodius introduced a system of writing and Slavonic liturgy, the latter eventually formally approved by Pope Adrian II. The language, termed Old Church Slavonic, was the ancestral language for Bulgarian. Old Church Slavonic, therefore, differed somewhat from the local Slavic dialect of Great Moravia which was the idiom to the later dialects spoken in Moravia. Later, the disciples of Cyril and Methodius were expelled from Great Moravia by King Svätopluk I, arriving in the First Bulgarian Empire, the disciples continued the Cyrilo-Methodian mission and the Glagolitic script was superseded by Cyrillic. The meaning of the name has been subject to debate, the designation Great Moravia – megale Moravia in Greek – stems from the work De Administrando Imperio written by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos around 950. The emperor only used the adjective megale in connection with the polity when referring to events that occurred after its fall, according to a third theory, the megale adjective refers to a territory located beyond the borders of the Byzantine Empire. Finally, the historian Lubomír E. Havlík writes that Byzantine scholars used this adjective when referring to homelands of nomadic peoples, Morava is the Czech and Slovak name for both the river and the country. In modern German, the land of the medieval Margraviate of Moravia is called Mähren, as the territory was inhabited by Germanic tribes before the Slavs settled there, the name is possibly of Germanic origin, with the ending -ava usually explained as coming from the Germanic -ahwa
10.
Byzantine Empire
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It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
11.
Catalan counties
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The Catalan counties were the administrative divisions of the eastern Carolingian Marca Hispanica and southernmost part of the March of Gothia created after its Frankish conquest. The various counties roughly defined what came to be known as the Principality of Catalonia, in 778, Charlemagne led the first Frankish expedition into Hispania to create the Marca Hispanica, a buffer zone between the Umayyad Moors of Al-Andalus and the Frankish Kingdom of Aquitaine. The territory that he subdued was the kernel of Catalonia and these counties were originally feudal entities ruled by a small military elite. Originally, counts were appointed directly by and owed allegiance to the Carolingian emperor, the appointment to heirs could not be taken for granted. This trend resulted in the counts becoming de facto independent of the Carolingian crown under Borrell II in 987, the reconquista from the Moors by the Franks began in 785. In 785, Rostany was made Count of Girona, the first of the Catalan counties to be established, besalú and Empúries were originally part of Girona. In 797, in the greatest military triumph of his career, the young Louis took Barcelona. When Urgell and Cerdanya were subdued around 798, they were made counties. He took an active part in the subsequent conquest of Osona in 799. He was made count of Osona in 799, perhaps as a reward for his services, in 801, the greatest of the counties, Barcelona, was established under Bera. In 812, Count Odilo of Girona died and the county passed to Bera. In 804 and 805, Borrell participated in the expeditions to Tortosa, but not in the subsequent campaigns of 807,808, on Borrells death in 820, Osona was given to Rampon and Urgell and Cerdanya went to Aznar Galíndez. Also in 820, Bera went into political disfavour and lost the countships of Barcelona and Girona, around 813, Empúries became a separate county under Ermenguer, and in 817, it was united to the County of Roussillon. From 835 to 844, Sunyer I was count of Empúries and Peralada while Alaric I was count of Roussillon, besalú was made a separate county in 878 for Radulf on the condition that it pass to the heirs of Wilfred the Hairy on his death. It went to Miro I the Younger in 912, Barcelona soon overshadowed the other counties in importance, especially during the reign of Wilfred the Hairy in the late 9th century. At that time, the power of the Carolingians was waning and the neglected Hispanic march was practically independent of royal authority. In the early 11th century, Berenguer Ramon I, Count of Barcelona, was able to submit to Sancho III of Navarre as his suzerain, even though he was still legally a vassal of Robert II of France. With the accession of Roberts father, Hugh Capet, the first non-Carolingian king, in 987, over the next century, most of the Catalan counties would come into the hands of the counts of Barcelona
12.
Al-Andalus
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Al-Andalus, also known as Muslim Spain or Islamic Iberia, was a medieval Muslim territory and cultural domain occupying at its peak most of what are today Spain and Portugal. At its greatest geographical extent in the century, southern France—Septimania—was briefly under its control. Rule under these kingdoms led to a rise in cultural exchange, a number of achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from al-Andalus including major advances in trigonometry, astronomy, surgery, pharmacology, and other fields. Al-Andalus became an educational center for Europe and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea as well as a conduit for culture. For much of its history, al-Andalus existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms to the north, after the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented into a number of minor states and principalities. Attacks from the Christians intensified, led by the Castilians under Alfonso VI, the Almoravid empire intervened and repelled the Christian attacks on the region, deposing the weak Andalusi Muslim princes and included al-Andalus under direct Berber rule. In the next century and a half, al-Andalus became a province of the Berber Muslim empires of the Almoravids and Almohads, ultimately, the Christian kingdoms in the north of the Iberian Peninsula overpowered the Muslim states to the south. In 1085, Alfonso VI captured Toledo, starting a gradual decline of Muslim power, with the fall of Córdoba in 1236, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule and the Emirate of Granada became a tributary state of the Kingdom of Castile two years later. In 1249, the Portuguese Reconquista culminated with the conquest of the Algarve by Afonso III, finally, on January 2,1492, Emir Muhammad XII surrendered the Emirate of Granada to Queen Isabella I of Castile, completing the Christian Reconquista of the peninsula. The toponym al-Andalus is first attested to by inscriptions on coins minted by the new Muslim government in Iberia, the etymology of the name has traditionally been derived from the name of the Vandals. A number of proposals since the 1980s have contested this, Vallvé proposed a corruption of the name Atlantis, halm derives the name from a Gothic term *landahlauts. Bossong suggests derivation from a pre-Roman substrate and they crossed the Pyrenees and occupied Visigothic Septimania in southern France. Most of the Iberian peninsula became part of the expanding Umayyad Empire and it was organized as a province subordinate to Ifriqiya, so, for the first few decades, the governors of al-Andalus were appointed by the emir of Kairouan, rather than the Caliph in Damascus. Visigothic lords who agreed to recognize Muslim suzerainty were allowed to retain their fiefs, resistant Visigoths took refuge in the Cantabrian highlands, where they carved out a rump state, the Kingdom of Asturias. In the 720s, the al-Andalus governors launched several raids into Aquitaine. At the Battle of Poitiers in 732, the al-Andalus raiding army was defeated by Charles Martel, in 734, the Andalusi launched raids to the east, capturing Avignon and Arles and overran much of Provence. In 737, they climbed up the Rhône valley, reached as far as Burgundy, Charles Martel of the Franks, with the assistance of Liutprand of the Lombards, invaded Burgundy and Provence and expelled the raiders by 739. Relations between Arabs and Berbers in al-Andalus had been tense in the years after the conquest
13.
First Bulgarian Empire
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The First Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state that existed in southeastern Europe between the 7th and 11th centuries AD. It was founded circa 681 when Bulgar tribes led by Asparukh moved to the north-eastern Balkans, there they secured Byzantine recognition of their right to settle south of the Danube by defeating – possibly with the help of local South Slavic tribes – the Byzantine army led by Constantine IV. At the height of its power, Bulgaria spread from the Danube Bend to the Black Sea, as the state solidified its position in the Balkans, it entered into a centuries-long interaction, sometimes friendly and sometimes hostile, with the Byzantine Empire. Bulgaria emerged as Byzantiums chief antagonist to its north, resulting in several wars, Byzantium had a strong cultural influence on Bulgaria, which also led to the eventual adoption of Christianity in 864. After the disintegration of the Avar Khaganate, the country expanded its territory northwest to the Pannonian Plain, later the Bulgarians confronted the advance of the Pechenegs and Cumans, and achieved a decisive victory over the Magyars, forcing them to establish themselves permanently in Pannonia. During the late 9th and early 10th centuries, Simeon I achieved a string of victories over the Byzantines, thereafter, he was recognized with the title of Emperor, and proceeded to expand the state to its greatest extent. After the annihilation of the Byzantine army in the battle of Anchialus in 917, the Byzantines, however, eventually recovered, and in 1014, under Basil II, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Bulgarians at the Battle of Kleidion. By 1018, the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire, and it was succeeded by the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1185. After the adoption of Christianity, Bulgaria became the center of Slavic Europe. Old Bulgarian became the lingua franca of much of Eastern Europe, in 927, the fully independent Bulgarian Patriarchate was officially recognized. The Bulgars and other tribes in the empire gradually adopted an essentially foreign Slavic language. Since the late 9th century, the names Bulgarians and Bulgarian gained prevalence and became permanent designations for the local population, the First Bulgarian Empire became known simply as Bulgaria since its recognition by the Byzantine Empire in 681. Some historians use the terms Danube Bulgaria, First Bulgarian State, during its early existence, the country was also called the Bulgar state or Bulgar qaghanate. Between 864 and 917/927, the country was known as the Principality of Bulgaria or Knyazhestvo Bulgaria, in English language sources, the country is often known as the Bulgarian Empire. The eastern Balkan Peninsula was originally inhabited by the Thracians who were a group of Proto-Indo-European tribes, the whole region as far north as the Danube River was gradually incorporated into the Roman Empire by the 1st century AD. The decline of the Roman Empire after the 3rd century AD, nonetheless, it never relinquished the claim to the whole region up to the Danube. A series of administrative, legislative, military and economic reforms somewhat improved the situation, the group of Slavs that came to be known as the South Slavs was divided into Antes and Sclaveni who spoke the same language. The Slavic incursions in the Balkans increased during the half of Justinian Is reign and while these were initially pillaging raids
14.
Khazars
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The Khazars were a semi-nomadic Turkic people, who created what for its duration was the most powerful polity to emerge from the break-up of the Western Turkic Kaganate. For some three centuries the Khazars dominated the vast area extending from the Volga-Don steppes to the eastern Crimea, the alliance was dropped around 900. Between 965 and 969, the Kievan Rus ruler Sviatoslav I of Kiev conquered the capital Atil, the native religion of the Khazars is thought to have been Tengrism, like that of the North Caucasian Huns and other Turkic peoples. The polyethnic populace of the Khazar Khaganate appears to have been a multiconfessional mosaic of pagan, Tengrist, Jewish, Christian and this theory still finds occasional support, but most scholars view it with scepticism. The theory is associated with antisemitism and anti-Zionism. Gyula Németh, following Zoltán Gombocz, derived Xazar from a hypothetical *Qasar reflecting a Turkic root qaz- being an hypothetical velar variant of Common Turkic kez-, louis Bazin derived it from Turkic qas- on the basis of its phonetic similarity to the Uyğur tribal name, Qasar. András Róna-Tas connects it with Kesar, the Pahlavi transcription of the Roman title Caesar, D. M. Dunlop tried to link the Chinese term for Khazars to one of the tribal names of the Uyğur Toquz Oğuz, namely the Gésà. One method for tracing their origins consists in analysis of the possible etymologies behind the ethnonym Khazar itself. The tribes that were to comprise the Khazar empire were not a union, but a congeries of steppe nomads and peoples who came to be subordinated. They appear to stem from Mongolia and South Siberia in the aftermath of the fall of the Hunnic/Xiōngnú nomadic polities, moving west, the confederation reached the land of the Akatziroi, who had been important allies of Byzantium in fighting off Attilas army. An embryonic state of Khazaria began to form sometime after 630, Göktürk armies had penetrated the Volga by 549, ejecting the Avars, who were then forced to flee to the sanctuary of the Hungarian plain. The Āshǐnà clan whose tribal name was Türk appear on the scene by 552, by 568, these Göktürks were probing for an alliance with Byzantium to attack Persia. Both briefly challenged Tang hegemony in eastern Turkestan, to the West, two new nomadic states arose in the meantime, Old Great Bulgaria under Kubrat, the Duōlù clan leader, and the Nǔshībì subconfederation, also consisting of five tribes. The Duōlù challenged the Avars in the Kuban River-Sea of Azov area while the Khazar Qağanate consolidated further westwards, led apparently by an Āshǐnà dynasty. The Qağanate of the Khazars thus took out of the ruins of this nomadic empire as it broke up under pressure from the Tang dynasty armies to the east sometime between 630–650. According to Omeljan Pritsak, the language of the Onoğur-Bulğar federation was to become the lingua franca of Khazaria as it developed into what Lev Gumilev called a steppe Atlantis, Khazaria developed a Dual kingship governance structure, typical among Turkic nomads, consisting of a shad/bäk and a qağan. The emergence of this system may be deeply entwined with the conversion to Judaism, particularly elaborate rituals accompanied a royal burial. At one period, travellers had to dismount, bow before the rulers tomb, such a royal burial ground is typical of inner Asian peoples
15.
West Francia
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West Francia extended further south than modern France, but it did not extend as far east. In Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the West Frankish king was barely felt, West Frankish kings were elected by the secular and ecclesiastic magnates, and for the half-century between 888 and 936 they chose alternatingly from the Carolingian and Robertian houses. By this time the power of king became weaker and more nominal, the Robertians, after becoming counts of Paris and dukes of France became kings themselves and established the Capetian dynasty. In August 843, after three years of war following the death of Louis the Pious on June 20,840. The youngest, Charles the Bald, received the western Francia, the contemporary West Frankish Annales Bertiniani describes Charles arriving at Verdun, where the distribution of portions took place. After describing the portions of his brothers, Lothair the Emperor and Louis the German, the Annales Fuldenses of East Francia describe Charles as holding the western part after the kingdom was divided in three. Charles the Bald was at war with Pippin II from the start of his reign in 840, accordingly, in June 845, after several military defeats, Charles signed the Treaty of Benoît-sur-Loire and recognised his nephews rule. This agreement lasted until March 25,848, when the Aquitainian barons recognised Charles as their king, thereafter Charless armies had the upper hand and by 849 had secured most of Aquitaine. In May, Charles had himself crowned King of the Franks, the coronation was officiated by Archbishop Wenilo of Sens, and included the first instance of royal unction in West Francia. The idea of anointing Charles may be owed to Archbishop Hincmar of Reims, by the time of the Synod of Quierzy, Hincmar was claiming that Charles was anointed to the entire West Frankish kingdom. With the Treaty of Mersen in 870 the western part of Lotharingia was added to West Francia, in 875 Charles the Bald was crowned Emperor of Rome. The last record in the Annales Bertiniani dates to 882, the next set of original annals from the West Frankish kingdom are those of Flodoard, who began his account with the year 919. After the death of Charless grandson, Carloman II, on December 12,884 and he was probably crowned King in Gaul on 20 May 885 at Grand. His reign was the time after the death of Louis the Pious that all of Francia would be re-united under one ruler. In his capacity as king of West Francia, he seems to have granted the title and perhaps regalia to the semi-independent ruler of Brittany. His handling of the Viking siege of Paris in 885–86 greatly reduced his prestige, in November 887 his nephew, Arnulf of Carinthia revolted and assumed the title as King of the East Franks. Charles retired and soon died on January 13,888, in Aquitaine, Duke Ranulf II may have had himself recognised as king, but he only lived another two years. Although Aquitaine did not become a kingdom, it was largely outside the control of the West Frankish kings
16.
Lower Pannonia (9th century)
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The Slavic counts were predominantly under Frankish suzerainty, part of Frankish Pannonia, and are known from Frankish primary sources. In the mid-9th century, Lower Pannonia was inhabited by a Slavic majority, during the reign of Justinian I, in the mid-6th century, the Avars that stayed in Dobrudja had demanded Byzantine territory, but refused the offer of Lower Pannonia. After Justin II discontinued the tribute to the Avars, they marched on Eastern Frankish territory, the Royal Frankish Annals makes mention of a Wonomyrus Sclavus active in 795. Eric, Duke of Friuli, sent Vojnomir with his army into Pannonia, the next year the Avars were defeated and Frankish power was extended further east, to the central Danube. Initially, the Slavic counts were under Frankish suzerainty, part of Frankish Pannonia, ljudevit was mentioned in the Frankish Annals as Liudewitus, dux Pannoniae inferioris, having led an uprising against the Franks, joined by the Carantanians and other Slavic tribes. In 827, the Bulgars under Great Khan Omurtag invaded and conquered Lower Pannonia, in 829 the Bulgars imposed a local Slavic prince, Ratimir, as the new ruler of Pannonia. His province is believed to have been the territory of Roman Pannonia Savia, in 838, nine years later, following the Bulgar conquest of Macedonia, the Danubian count Radbod, prefect of the East March, deposed Ratimir and restored Frankish rule in Pannonia. Ratimir fled the land, and the Franks next instated Slavic princes Pribina, in the mid-9th century, Lower Pannonia was inhabited by a Slavic majority. Christian Avars were found in Lower Pannonia in 873, braslav was the Duke of Lower Pannonia between 884 and 896. His territory initially spanned between the Drava and Sava, which he held under the overlordship of Arnulf of Carinthia, Principality of Nitra East Francia Great Moravia Principality of Hungary Duchy of the Croats Luthar, Oto. The Land Between, A History of Slovenia, ponovno o Srbima u Hrvatskoj u 9. Savez povijesnih društava Hrvatske, Faculty of Philosophy, Zagreb, od Hrvata pak koji su stigli u Dalmaciju odvojio se jedan dio i zavladao Ilirikom i Panonijom, Razmatranja uz DAI c
17.
Duchy of Croatia
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Duchy of Croatia, was a medieval Croatian duchy that was established in the former Roman province of Dalmatia. Throughout its time it had several seats, namely Klis, Solin, Knin, Biaći and Nin, comprised the littoral, or coastal part of todays Croatia, the Duchy was in the center of competition between the Carolingian Empire and the Byzantine Empire for rule over the area. Rivalry with Venice emerged in the first decades of the 9th century and was to continue for the following centuries, Croatia saw periods of vassalage of the Franks or Byzantines and de facto independence until 879 when Croatian Duke Branimir received recognition from Pope John VIII as an independent realm. The ruling dynasty of Croatia was the House of Trpimirović, with interruptions by the House of Domagojević, the Duchy existed until around 925 when, during the rule of Duke Tomislav, Croatia became a kingdom. Dalmatian Croatia and Littoral Croatia are modern appellations amongst historians for the territory of the Duchy, the state is sometimes called a principality, i. e. the Principality of Croatia. The first recorded name for the Duchy was Land of the Croats, Croatia was not yet a kingdom at the time and the term regnum is used in terms of a country in general. In Byzantine sources the entity was called just Croatia. The first known duke, Borna, was named Duke of Dalmatia, the Croatian name is recorded in contemporary charters of Croatian dukes from the second half of the 9th century. Trpimir I was named Duke of the Croats in a Latin charter issued in 852, within the area of the Roman province of Dalmatia, various tribal groupings, which were called sclaviniae by the Byzantines, were settled along the Adriatic coast. Several coastal Dalmatian cities were under the rule of the Byzantines, including Split, Zadar, Kotor and Dubrovnik, as well as islands of Hvar and Krk. To the south Croatia bordered with the land of the Narentines, which stretched from the rivers Cetina to Neretva, in the southern part of Dalmatia, there was Zahumlje, Travunia and Dioclea. North of Croatia there was the Duchy of Pannonia, Croatia, as well as other early medieval states, didnt have a permanent capital and Croatian dukes resided in various places on their courts. The first important center of Croatia was Klis near Split, where Duke Trpimir I resided, other dukes ruled from the towns of Solin, Knin, Biaći and Nin. Most of Dalmatia was in the 7th century under the Avar Khaganate, in 614 the Avars and Slavs sacked and destroyed the capital of the province of Dalmatia, Salona, and retained direct control of the region for a few decades until they were driven out by the Croats. The earliest recorded Croatian leader, referred to by the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, was Porga, by the early 9th century, Croatia emerged as a political entity with a duke as head of the state, territorially in the basins of the rivers Cetina, Krka and Zrmanja. It was administered in 11 counties, from that point on, they were independent, and demanded to be baptised from the bishop of Rome, and was sent to them to be baptised in the time of Porinos their prince. Their land was divided in eleven zupanias, which are, Hlebiana, Tzenzena, Emota, Pleba, Pesenta, Parathalassia, Brebere, Nona, Tnena, Sidraga, Nina, and their ban has Kribasan, Litzan, Goutzeska. Although the Christianization of Croats began right after their arrival to Dalmatia, the Franks gained control of Pannonia and Dalmatia in the 790s and the first decade of the ninth century
18.
Principality of Serbia (medieval)
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Its first ruler known by name was Višeslav. In 822, the Serbs were said to rule the greater part of Dalmatia, Vlastimir defeated the Bulgar army in a three-year-war, and the two powers lived in peace for some decades. Serbia was annexed by the Bulgars for three years, until the return of the political hostage Prince Časlav, who united several provinces, becoming the most powerful of the Vlastimirović. An important event was the establishment of Christianity as state-religion in 869 AD, and the founding of the first Serbian eparchy, the information of the Vlastimirović dynasty ends with De Administrando Imperio. Serbia was annexed by the Byzantines in 969 and ruled as the Catepanate of Ras, Slavs settled the Balkans in the 6th century. The Serbian ruler was titled Prince of the Serbs, the DAI mentions that the Serbian throne is inherited by the son, i. e. the first-born. His descendants succeeded him, but their names are unknown until the coming of Višeslav, the first ruler of the dynasty known by name was Višeslav who began his rule around 780, being a contemporary of Charlemagne. The first capital of the Serbs was Ras, in Raška, the other Serb-inhabited lands that were mentioned included the countries of Paganija, Zahumlje and Travunija, while the land of Duklja was held by the Byzantines. These polities bordered Serbia to the north, the exact borders of the early Serbian state are unclear. The Bulgars were defeated in 774, after Constantine V learnt of their planned raid, in 783, a large Slavic uprising took place in the Byzantine Empire, stretching from Macedonia to the Peloponnese, which was subsequently quelled by Byzantine patrikios Staurakios. In Pannonia, to the north of Serbia, Charlemagne started his offensive against the Avars, višeslavs great-grandson Vlastimir began his rule in c. 830, and he is the oldest Serbian ruler of which there is data on. In the east, the Bulgarian Empire grew strong, in 805, khan Krum conquered the Braničevci, Timočani and Obotrites, to the east of Serbia, and banished their tribal chiefs and replaced them with administrators appointed by the central government. In 815, the Bulgarians and Byzantines signed a 30-year peace treaty, the Timočani migrated into Frankish territory, somewhere in Lower Pannonia, and were last mentioned in 819, when they were persuaded by Ljudevit to join him in fighting the Franks. The Danubian Obotrites stayed in Banat, and resisted the Bulgars until 824, the khan sent envoys to the Franks and requested that the precise boundary be demarcated between them, and negotiations lasted until 826, when the Franks neglected him. The Bulgars answered with attacking the Slavs that lived in Pannonia, and subjugated them, then sent ships up the Drava river. There was more fighting in 829, as well, and by this time, Vlastimir succeeded his father, Prosigoj, in c. He united the Serbian tribes in the vicinity, Emperor Theophilos was recognized as the nominal suzerain of the Serbs, and most likely encouraged them to thwart the Bulgars
19.
Lehel
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Lehel, a member of the Árpád dynasty, was a Magyar chieftain and, together with Bulcsú, one of the most important figures of the Hungarian invasions of Europe. After the Magyar defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld, he was executed in Regensburg, the medieval chronicler Anonymus calls Lehel the son of Tas, who was one of the Seven chieftains of the Magyars, and descendent of late Grand Prince Árpád. Most historians agree there is a mismatch in the timing, though he should be the son of Tas. Lehels dukedom from about 925 was the Principality of Nitra, where he ruled in the former Kabarian lands, the historic cities of Alsólelóc and Felsőlelóc kept the name of Lél. His dukedom could also refer to the status of Lél being a crown-prince, when in Spring of 954, the Magyars again attacked the Duchy of Bavaria, Lehel also led the Nitrian Kabars. The Hungarian troops advanced up to Lotharingia, where they signed an armistice with the Salian prince Conrad the Red, the next year, they met with the united East Frankish forces under King Otto I at the Battle of Lechfeld near Augsburg. The battle ended with the defeat of the Hungarians. According to the Annales Sangallenses maiores, the three Hungarian military leaders were captured by Bohemian troopers, with Bulcsú and Súr, Lehel was arrested, handed over to King Ottos brother, Duke Henry of Bavaria, and hanged at his residence in Regensburg. By his victory, Otto put an end to the Hungarian invasions, close to the city, at the Lech field, the Germans smashed the Hungarians, part of them were killed brutally, some others were imprisoned. At that place Lehel and Bulcsú were also imprisoned, and taken in front of the emperor, when the emperor asked, why the Hungarians are so cruel against the Christians, they replied, We are the revenge of the highest God, sent to you as a scourge. You shall imprison us and kill us, when we cease to chase you, then the emperor called them, Choose the type of death you wish. Then Lehel replied, Bring me my horn, which I will blow, the horn was handed to him, and during the preparation to blow it, he stepped forward, and hit the emperor so strongly he died instantly. Then he said, You will walk before me and serve me in the world, as it is a common belief within the Scythians. They were taken to custody and were hanged quickly in Regensburg and this fiction cleverly re-interpreted the fact that Duke Henry of Bavaria died shortly after the battle of disease, in Lehels favour. It may also refer to Lehels former ally Conrad the Red, who, according to Widukind of Corvey, was killed in the battle, when an arrow pierced his throat. The legend was rendered in the 13th century chronicles by Magister Ákos and then depicted in the Chronicon Pictum. Nowadays there is a described as Lehels Horn on display at Jászberény. This is a Byzantine ivory horn from 10-11th century and therefore cant have been the horn mentioned in the myth
20.
Taksony of Hungary
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Taksony was the Grand Prince of the Hungarians after their catastrophic defeat in the 955 Battle of Lechfeld. In his youth he had participated in plundering raids in Western Europe, the Gesta Hungarorum recounts that significant Muslim and Pecheneg groups settled in Hungary under Taksony. Taksony was the son of Zoltán, according to the Gesta Hungarorum, the same source adds that Taksonys mother was an unnamed daughter of Menumorut, a local ruler defeated by the conquering Hungarians shortly before 907. Its unknown author also says that Taksony was born in the year of Our Lords incarnation 931, the Gesta Hungarorum reports that Zoltán abdicated in favor of Taksony in 947, three years before his own death. However, modern historians have challenged existing information on Taksonys early life, a nearly-contemporaneous source – Liudprand of Cremonas Retribution – narrates that Taksony led a plundering raid against Italy in 947, which suggests that he was born considerably earlier than 931. His fathers reign was preserved only in the Gesta Hungarorum, its anonymous author lists Zoltán among the grand princes, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus wrote around 950 that Fajsz, Taksonys cousin, was grand prince of the Hungarians at that time. In that time Taxis, king of the Hungarians came to Italy with a large army, berengar gave him ten measures of coins not from his own money, but from an exaction on the churches and paupers. A later source, Johannes Aventinus, writes that Taksony fought in the Battle of Lechfeld on August 10,955, there, future Holy Roman Emperor Otto I routed an 8, 000-strong Hungarian army. If this report is reliable, Taksony was one of the few Hungarian leaders to survive the battlefield, modern historians, including Zoltán Kordé and Gyula Kristó, suggest that Fajsz abdicated in favor of Taksony around that time. After that battle the Hungarians plundering raids in Western Europe stopped, however, the Hungarians continued their incursions into the Byzantine Empire until the 970s. According to the Gesta Hungarorum, a great host of Muslims arrived in Hungary from the land of Bular under Taksony, the contemporaneous Abraham ben Jacob also recorded the presence of Muslim merchants from Hungary in Prague in 965. Anonymous also writes of the arrival of Pechenegs during Taksonys reign, the only sign of a Hungarian connection with Western Europe under Taksony is a report by Liudprand of Cremona. He writes about Zacheus, whom Pope John XII consecrated bishop, however, there is no evidence that Zacheus ever arrived in Hungary. Taksony arranged the marriage of his elder son Géza to Sarolt, daughter of Gyula of Transylvania, Taksonys marriage to a woman from the land of the Cumans was arranged by his father, according to the Gesta Hungarorum. The names of two of their sons have been preserved, the following family tree presents Taksonys ancestry and his offspring. *Whether Menumorut is an actual or a person is debated by modern scholars. **A Khazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian woman ***Kristó writes that she may have been a member of the Rurik dynasty from Kievan Rus
21.
Berengar I of Italy
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Berengar I was the King of Italy from 887, and Holy Roman Emperor after 915, until his death. He is usually known as Berengar of Friuli, since he ruled the March of Friuli from 874 until at least 890, but he had lost control of the region by 896. Berengar rose to one of the most influential laymen in the empire of Charles the Fat. His long reign of 36 years saw him opposed by no less than seven other claimants to the Italian throne and his reign is usually characterised as troubled because of the many competitors for the crown and because of the arrival of Magyar raiders in Western Europe. He was the last emperor before Otto the Great was crowned in 962 and his family was called the Unruochings after his grandfather, Unruoch II. Berengar was a son of Eberhard of Friuli and Gisela, daughter of Louis the Pious and he was thus of Carolingian extraction on his mothers side. He was born probably at Cividale, sometime during his margraviate, he married Bertilla, daughter of Suppo II, thus securing an alliance with the powerful Supponid family. She would later rule alongside him as a consors, a title specifically denoting her informal power and influence, as opposed to a mere coniunx, when his older brother Unruoch III died in 874, Berengar succeeded him in the March of Friuli. With this he obtained a key position in the Carolingian Empire, as the march bordered the Croats and he was a territorial magnate with lordship over several counties in northeastern Italy. He was an important channel for the men of Friuli to get access to the emperor and for the emperor to exercise authority in Friuli and he even had a large degree of influence on the church of Friuli. In 884–885, Berengar intervened with the emperor on behalf of Haimo, Louis the German sent first Charles the Fat, his youngest son, and then Carloman himself, with armies containing Italian magnates led by Berengar, to possess the Italian kingdom. This was not successful until the death of Charles the Bald in 877, the proximity of Berengars march to Bavaria, which Carloman already ruled under his father, may explain their cooperation. In 883, the newly succeeded Guy III of Spoleto was accused of treason at a synod held at Nonantula late in May. He returned to the Duchy of Spoleto and made an alliance with the Saracens, the emperor, then Charles the Fat, sent Berengar with an army to deprive him of Spoleto. Berengar was successful before an epidemic of disease, which ravaged all Italy, affecting the emperor and his entourage as well as Berengars army, Berengar and Liutward had a feud that year, which involved his attack on Vercelli and plundering of the bishops goods. Berengars actions are explicable if his sister was abducted by the bishop, whatever the case, bishop and margrave were reconciled shortly before Liutward was dismissed from court in 887. By his brief war with Liutward, Berengar had lost the favour of his cousin the emperor, Berengar came to the emperors assembly at Waiblingen in early May 887. He made peace with the emperor and compensated for the actions of the year by dispensing great gifts
22.
Louis the Child
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Louis the Child, sometimes called Louis III or Louis IV, was the king of East Francia from 899 until his death in 911 and was the last ruler of Carolingian dynasty there. He succeeded his father, king Arnulf of Carinthia in 899, Louis also inherited the crown of Lotharingia with the death of his elder illegitimate half-brother Zwentibold in 900. During his reign the country was ravaged by Magyar raids, Louis was born in September or October 893 in Altötting, Duchy of Bavaria. He was the legitimate son of king Arnulf of Carinthia and his wife, Ota. He had at least two brothers, his elder, illegitimate brother Zwentibold, who ruled Lotharingia, and another brother named Ratold, ratolds maternity and age are unknown. Louis was crowned in Forchheim on 4 February 900 and this is the earliest East Frankish royal coronation about which records are known to exist. Louis was of a weak constitution, often sick, and due to his young age. Indeed, the coronation was probably a result of the fact there was little Louis could gain at the expense of the nobles. The most influential of Louiss councillors were Hatto I, Archbishop of Mainz and it was these two who assured that the royal court decided in favour of the Conradines against the Babenbergers in the matter of the Duchy of Franconia. They appointed Louiss nephew, Conrad as a duke, in 903 Louis promulgated the Raffelstetten Customs Regulations, the first customs regulations in the East Frankish part of Europe. In 900, during Hungarian invasions of Europe, Magyar army ravaged Bavaria, another group of Magyars were defeated by Luitpold, Margrave of Bavaria and Bishop Richer of Passau. In 901 they devastated Duchy of Carinthia, in 904 Louis invited Kurszán, the kende of Magyars to negotiations, but killed him and his delegation. In 906 Magyars twice ravaged Duchy of Saxony, in 907 they inflicted a heavy defeat on the Bavarians who had invaded Hungary, killing the Margrave Liutpold and many high nobles in the Battle of Pressburg. Next year it was the turn of Saxony and Thuringia, in 909 that of Alemannia. On their return, however, Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria inflicted a defeat on them on the Rott, Louis himself tried to take some military control as he grew older, but he had little success against the Magyars. His army was destroyed at Ennsburg in 907, in a state of despair, possibly afflicted by severe depression, Louis died at Frankfurt am Main on 20 or 24 September 911, only seventeen or eighteen years old. Louis was buried in the monastery of Saint Emmeram in Regensburg and his death brought an end to the eastern branch of the Carolingian dynasty. The vacuum left in the Carolingian East was eventually filled in 919 by the family of Henry the Fowler, a cousin, and heralded the beginning of the Ottonian dynasty
23.
Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria
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Arnulf, also known as the Bad or the Evil, a member of the Luitpolding dynasty, held the title of a Duke of Bavaria from about 907 until his death in 937. Arnulf was the son of Margrave Luitpold of Bavaria and Cunigunde, herself a member of the Ahalolfing dynasty, daughter of Berthold I and her brother Erchanger assumed the Swabian ducal title in 915. Under the weak rule of the East Frankish king Louis the Child, Margrave Luitpold had already achieved a position in the Bavarian lands. He ruled over extended estates along the Danube with Regensburg, after the death of his father, Arnulf succeeded him in his Bavarian lands, and soon after he assumed the title of a Duke of Bavaria as ruler of the estates around Regensburg. An energetic and combative man, he received support by the local nobles, however, already during his ascension in to dukedom. These attacks had laid waste to the East Frankish lands of Bavaria, Saxony, in several skirmishes he was able to force back the Hungarian invaders and defeated a small force in 913 with the support by his Swabian relatives. Having re-established the stem duchy of Bavaria, he negotiated a truce with the Hungarian princes. Duke Arnulf pursued a policy of independence from the East Frankish kings, the dispute was only temporarily settled, when in 913 Arnulf’s widow mother Cunigunda married King Conrad. In 916 the Conrads forces invaded Bavaria, attacking and pillaging Regensburg and these attacks drove Arnulf into exile to his former enemies in Hungary. It is more likely that Arnulf and his family never appeared at the convocation. As a result, they remained exiled among the Hungarians, in 919, the death of Conrad I allowed Arnulf to return to Bavaria and expel the king’s forces. With Conrad I being childless, the throne was open to Arnulf, with his return, according to the Annales iuvavenses, in 920, Baiuarii sponte se reddiderunt Arnolfo duci et regnare ei fecerunt in regno teutonicorum. In any case, Arnulfs reign was short-lived, King Henry I turned out to be an opponent who defeated him in two campaigns in 921. When Arnulf was besieged by Henry in Regensburg, the duke entered into peace negotiations, King Henry confirmed Arnulfs autonomous rule over Bavaria, including the right of investiture and several important regalia, in return for Arnulfs renunciation of his royal claim. Arnulf accompanied King Henry I on his 928 campaign against Duke Wenceslaus of Bohemia, in 934 year he launched an attack against King Hugh of Italy to obtain the Iron Crown of Lombardy for his eldest son Eberhard, which only resulted in defeat. After King Henry had died in 936, the attended the coronation of his son Otto as King of the Romans at Aachen Cathedral. Duke Arnulf died in his Regensburg residence on 14 July 937, he was succeeded by his son Eberhard, Arnulf is buried at St. Emmerams Abbey. A commemorative plaque in tribute to him was attached to the Walhalla memorial in 1842, historians believed Arnulf was married to Judith of Friuli, a member of the Unruoching dynasty, daughter of Count Eberhard of Friuli
24.
Henry the Fowler
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Henry the Fowler was the duke of Saxony from 912 and the elected king of East Francia from 919 until his death in 936. An avid hunter, he obtained the epithet the Fowler because he was fixing his birding nets when messengers arrived to inform him that he was to be king. By his death in July 936 Henry had prevented collapse of royal power, as had happened in West Francia, Henry died on July 2,936 in his royal palace in Memleben, one of his favourite places. He was buried at Quedlinburg Abbey, established by his wife Matilda in his honor, in 906 he married Hatheburg von Merseburg, daughter of the Saxon count Erwin. She had previously been a nun, the marriage was annulled in 909 because her vows as a nun were deemed by the church to remain valid. She had already given birth to Henrys son Thankmar, the annulment placed a question mark over Thankmars legitimacy. Later that year he married Matilda, daughter of Dietrich of Ringelheim, Matilda bore him three sons, one called Otto, and two daughters, Hedwig and Gerberga, and founded many religious institutions, including the Quedlinburg Abbey where Henry is buried. Henry became Duke of Saxony after his fathers death in 912, an able ruler, he continued to strengthen the position of his duchy within the weakening kingdom of East Francia, and was frequently in conflict with his neighbors to the South in Duchy of Franconia. On December 23,918 Conrad I, king of East Francia and Franconian duke, although Henry had rebelled against Conrad I between 912 and 915 over the lands in Thuringia, Conrad recommended Henry as his successor. Kingship now changed from Franks to Saxons, who had suffered greatly during the conquests of Charlemagne and were proud of their identity, Henry, as Saxon, was the first non-Frank on the throne. Conrads choice was conveyed by his brother, duke Eberhard III of Franconia at the Imperial Diet of Fritzlar in 919, the assembled Franconian and Saxon nobles elected Henry to be king with other regional dukes not participating in election. Henry, who was elected to kingship by only Saxons and Franconians at Fritzlar, had to subdue other dukes, Duke Arnulf of Bavaria did not submit until Henry defeated him in two campaigns in 921. Henry besieged his residence at Ratisbon and forced Arnulf into submission, Arnulf had crowned himself as king of Bavaria in 919, but in 921 renounced crown and submitted to Henry while maintaining large autonomy and the right to mint his own coins. Duke Burchard II of Swabia soon swore fealty to the new King, Henry was too weak to impose absolutist rule, and regarded his kingdom as a confederation of stem duchies rather than as a feudal monarchy and saw himself as primus inter pares. In 920 king of West Francia Charles the Simple invaded and marched as far as Pfeddersheim near Worms, on November 7,921, Henry and Charles met and concluded a treaty of friendship. Henry then saw an opportunity to wrest Lotharingia when a war over royal succession began in West Francia after coronation of king Robert I. In 923 Henry crossed the Rhine twice, capturing a part of the duchy. The eastern part of Lotharingia was left in Henrys possession until October 924, in 925 duke Gilbert of Lotharingia rebelled
25.
Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor
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Otto I, traditionally known as Otto I the Great, was German king from 936 and emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 962 until his death in 973. He was the oldest son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda, Otto inherited the Duchy of Saxony and the kingship of the Germans upon his fathers death in 936. He continued his fathers work of unifying all German tribes into a single kingdom, through strategic marriages and personal appointments, Otto installed members of his family in the kingdoms most important duchies. This reduced the various dukes, who had previously been co-equals with the king, Otto transformed the Roman Catholic Church in Germany to strengthen royal authority and subjected its clergy to his personal control. After putting down a brief civil war among the duchies, Otto defeated the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. The victory against the pagan Magyars earned Otto a reputation as a savior of Christendom, by 961, Otto had conquered the Kingdom of Italy and extended his realms borders to the north, east, and south. The patronage of Otto and his immediate successors facilitated a so-called Ottonian Renaissance of arts, following the example of Charlemagnes coronation as Emperor of the Romans in 800, Otto was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962 by Pope John XII in Rome. Ottos later years were marked by conflicts with the papacy and struggles to stabilize his rule over Italy, reigning from Rome, Otto sought to improve relations with the Byzantine Empire, which opposed his claim to emperorship and his realms further expansion to the south. To resolve this conflict, the Byzantine princess Theophanu married his son Otto II in April 972, Otto finally returned to Germany in August 972 and died at Memleben in May 973. Otto II succeeded him as Holy Roman Emperor, Otto was born on 23 November 912, the oldest son of the Duke of Saxony, Henry the Fowler and his second wife Matilda, the daughter of Dietrich of Ringelheim, a Saxon count in Westphalia. Otto had four siblings, Hedwig, Gerberga, Henry. On 23 December 918, Conrad I, King of East Francia and Duke of Franconia, although Conrad and Henry had been at odds with one another since 912, Henry had not openly opposed the king since 915. Furthermore, Conrads repeated battles with German dukes, most recently with Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria, after several months of hesitation, Eberhard and the other Frankish and Saxon nobles elected Henry as king at the Imperial Diet of Fritzlar in May 919. For the first time, a Saxon instead of a Frank reigned over the kingdom, Burchard II of Swabia soon swore fealty to the new king, but Arnulf of Bavaria did not recognize Henrys position. According to the Annales Iuvavenses, Arnulf was elected king by the Bavarians in opposition to Henry, in 921, Henry besieged Arnulfs residence at Ratisbon and forced him into submission. Arnulf had to accept Henrys sovereignty, Bavaria retained some autonomy, Otto first gained experience as a military commander when the German kingdom fought against Slavic tribes on its eastern border. While campaigning against the Slavs in 929, Ottos illegitimate son William, with Henrys dominion over the entire kingdom secured by 929, the king probably began to prepare his succession over the kingdom. No written evidence for his arrangements is extant, but during this time Otto is first called king in a document of the Abbey of Reichenau, while Henry consolidated power within Germany, he also prepared for an alliance with Anglo-Saxon England by finding a bride for Otto
26.
Conrad, Duke of Lorraine
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Conrad, called the Red, was Duke of Lorraine from 944 until 953. He became the progenitor of the Imperial Salian dynasty and he was the son of Werner V, a Franconian count in the Nahegau, Speyergau, and Wormsgau territories on the Upper Rhine. His mother presumably was Hicha, a daughter of the Hunfriding duke Burchard II of Swabia, in 941, Conrad appeared as his fathers successor in the Rhenish counties and obtained additional territory in the Wetterau on the right bank of the Rhine. Conrad took his residence at Worms and rivalled with Archbishop Frederick of Mainz for supremacy in Rhenish Franconia and he also helped to ensure the waiver of Lotharingia by the West Frankish king Louis IV and also to uncover a plot by the kings brother Henry on Ottos life. In turn, the adolescens was vested with Lotharingia in 944, rejected by the local nobility, however, he remained dependent on the kings support. About three years later, he married Liutgarde, Ottos daughter with his first wife Edith of Wessex and he and Liutgard had one son, Otto of Worms, born in 948, later Duke of Carinthia. Conrad, however, was duped by his king, when Otto took the occasion to additionally enforce the cession of the Italian March of Verona to his brother Henry, the revolt reached large circles, it nevertheless was quashed after the insurgents began to deal with hostile Hungarian forces. Eventually the Salian submitted to Otto at Langenzenn and both were reconciled, Conrad retained his estates, however, he never regained the ducal title, in 954 he participated in a successful campaign of Margrave Gero against the Slavic Ukrani tribes in the Uckerland. Conrad the Red was killed in the 955 Battle of Lechfeld near Augsburg, conrads body was carried in state to Worms, where he was given a lavish funeral and buried at Worms Cathedral by his son and heir Otto. Conrad was the great-grandfather of Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor, the Salian Century, Main Currents in an Age of Transition,1999
27.
Muncimir of Croatia
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Muncimir, sometimes called Mutimir, was a duke of the Duchy of Croatia and reigned from 892 to around 910. He was a member of the House of Trpimirović, Muncimir succeeded Branimir in 892 as the Duke of Croatia, restoring the line of the House of Trpimirović to the throne of Croatia. He reigned from Biaći near Trogir, Muncimir took control of Croatia and ruled it independently of both pope and Byzantium as divino munere Croatorum dux. Duke Muncimir restored to the Archbishopric of Split the lands that were away from it. In his charter, in which he reinforces his fathers decisions about church lands, also, for the first time, the royal seal was mentioned. During his rule there was significant activity of the Hungarians in the vicinity of his realm, in the late 9th century the Hungarians crossed the Carpathians and entered the Carpathian Basin. They invaded northern Italy and also defeated Duke Braslav from the Duchy of Pannonia, during Muncimirs reign, the exiled Prince Petar Gojniković of the Serbian House of Vlastimirović that stayed in Croatia returned to Rascia and seized power there. Prince Petar exiled his cousins who were pretenders to the Grand Princely throne, Pribislav, Bran and Stefan and he was succeeded by Tomislav, first king of Croatia. The family relationship between Muncimir and Tomislav is unknown, Tomislav was probably Muncimirs son
28.
Tomislav of Croatia
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Tomislav was the first King of Croatia. He became Duke of Croatia in c,910, was elevated to kingship by 925 and reigned until 928. To the north there were conflicts with the Principality of Hungary. Croatia kept its borders and to some extent expanded on the disintegrated Duchy of Pannonia, although the Pope sought to prohibit Slavic liturgy, the Council did not agree, while jurisdiction was given to the Archbishop of Split instead of the Croatian Bishop Gregory of Nin. Since the historical sources about Tomislav are scarce, the year of his accession. The rule of his successors was marked by a series of wars in Croatia. Tomislavs ancestry is not known, but he probably hailed from the House of Trpimirović, there is a time difference of almost twenty years between the first attestation of Tomislavs name and the last mention of Muncimir, his predecessor as the Duke of Croatia. The historical records of him are scarce, but it is assumed that he was the son of Muncimir, in any case, Tomislav gained the throne of Croatia at some time between 910 and 914. In Historia Salonitana, a chronicle from the 13th century written by Thomas the Archdeacon from Split, following the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin in the late 9th and early 10th century, the Hungarians immediately began raiding and expanding their territory. They particularly threatened the Duchy of Pannonia, that was nominally under Frankish suzerainty. The Hungarians also fought against Croatia, although it wasnt a primary target of their raids, the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja mentions that Tomislav, whose rule was specified at 13 years, successfully fought many battles with the Hungarians. Since the Venetian chronicler Andrea Dandolo and a notary of King Béla III mention Hungarian victories against Croatia in the same period, Croatia did manage to maintain its northern borders, but also to expand on a part of the collapsed Pannonian Duchy, such as its former capital Sisak. The plains north of Sisak were difficult to defend in front of the Hungarian cavalry, east of Croatia the power of Bulgaria increased significantly. After a war between the Bulgarian Knyaz Boris I and Croatian Duke Trpimir I, the Croatian-Bulgarian relations were fairly good, Papal legates regularly went through Croatian territory, where they received protection, to Bulgaria. The situation changed in the 10th century during the reign of Simeon I, Tomislavs realm covered most of Southern and Central Croatia, the Dalmatian coast excluding the Theme of Dalmatia, parts of western Herzegovina and northern and western Bosnia. Presumably within Tomislavs state, after its expansion, there were more than eleven counties, however, these figures are viewed as a considerable exaggeration and an overemphasis of the Croatian army. Tomislav became King of Croatia by the year 925 and he was the first Croatian ruler whom the Papal chancellery honoured with the title king. It is generally said that Tomislav was crowned in 924 or 925, however and it is not known when, where, or by whom he was crowned
29.
Battle of Brenta
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It was one of the earliest battles of the Hungarian invasions of Europe. The result was a defeat for Berengar I, opening the following raids for the Hungarians against Italy. The Hungarian invasion resulted in the burning of many cities, like Feltre, Vercelli, Modena and monasteries like the monastery in Nonantola, and attacking even Venice, hovewer without success. In their way home the Hungarians made an assault, a unique achievement from an exclusively land army in the premodern times. Many contemporary sources mention about this battle, like the Chronicon of Regino of Prüm, the Annales Fuldenses, the Chronicon Sagornini of John the Deacon, Catalogus abbatum nonantulorum, etc. At the end of the IX. century the Carolingian Empire of Charlemagne was long gone, Berengar was king of Italy from 888 but lost his lands to Guy III of Spoleto who proclaimed himself king of Italy and emperor. Berengar was saved by the intervention of Arnulf of Carinthia in 894, defeating Guy of Spoleto, Arnulf in 896, crowned himself as King of Italy, but named his illegitimate son Ratold as sub-king of Italy. Ratold and Berengar agreed to divide Italy between themselves, but shortly after started to fight for supremacy. Ratold died unexpectedly, so Berengar remained as ruler. Arnulf was accused by enemies that he concluded the alliance with the Hungarians by cutting a dog, so, probably beside the Christian way, about which the chronicles do not write anything, Arnulf had to conclude this alliance also in the Hungarians pagan way. This shows that Arnulf was aware of the Hungarian danger for the Eastern provinces of his realm, mainly the March of Pannonia. So with this alliance had two purposes, to punish Berengar and to divert their energies far away from Pannonia, so at least for a while he could be assured that they will not attack him. And of course, maybe he hoped that two dangerous neighbours will weaken each other. Hungarian armies never went to Italy before, the military intelligence was one of the most important features of the nomadic warfare. Starting a war without knowing the enemies power, number of soldiers, will to fight and it is certain that the place of the future battle was chosen during this minor incursion. We do not know the number of this scout unit. So we can presume that the Hungarian scout unit, which went in 898 in Italy, had a number around 100-200, after three days the small groups they sent in every direction, returned, analyzed the informations they gained, than returned home. As Liutprand of Cremona mentions, after returning home, the Hungarians used the winter to prepare their weapons, sharpen their arrowheads, than in 899, a Hungarian army, crossing Pannonia, headed to Italy
30.
Battle of Pressburg
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This battle is considered one of the most significant battles in the History of Hungary, and marks the conclusion of the Hungarian conquest. Despite being written 600 years after the events, it is based on manuscripts written at the time of the battle and this started a war between the Hungarians and Germans that lasted until 910. Prior to the Battle of Pressburg, most fighting was between the Hungarians and the Bavarians, with the exception of the Hungarian campaign in Saxony of 906, after losing Pannonia, Luitpold, Margrave of Baveria allied with Bavarias former enemy Mojmir II of Moravia. In 902 the Hungarian armies, probably led by Kurszán, defeated Great Moravia and this interrupted Bavarias trade routes to Northern and Eastern Europe. This was a blow and was one of the reasons that caused Luitpold to believe a campaign against the Hungarians was necessary. He also could not reconcile the loss of Bavarian control over Pannonia, Moravia and Bohemia, several events strengthened Luitpolds resolve to start a campaign against the Hungarians. During the last Hungarian attacks against Bavaria, Luitpolds forces defeated some of their units in battles, including Laibach. In 904, the Bavarians assassinated Kurszán after feigning a desire for a treaty to which they invited him to negotiate. After these setbacks, for a time the Hungarians did not attack Bavaria and these events and the belief the Hungarians were afraid of his forces convinced Luitpold the time was right to expel the Hungarians from the territories formerly belonging to Bavaria. The nominal leader of the Bavarian army was Louis the Child, since he was under the age of majority, the actual commander was Luitpold. An experienced military leader, Luitpold successfully fought the Moravians and achieved some success against raiding Hungarian units. Many historians believe the commander of the Hungarian forces was Árpád, Grand Prince of the Hungarians and it is more likely they were led by the same unknown, but brilliant commander who led them during the battles of Brenta, Eisenach, Rednitz and Augsburg. These battles, part of the Hungarian invasions of Europe, were their greatest triumphs and this conclusion is supported by analysis of these battles using existing sources. Despite this feat, some claim the Hungarians lost this battle. After 933 it becomes clear the Hungarians no longer had the great, another example that shows how the previous leadership was lacking is the Battle of Lechfeld. The Hungarian commanders, Bulcsú and Lél, did not maintain discipline, after the successful counterattack resulted in their defeat, the commanders could not prevent their troops from fleeing and dispersing. The German troops and inhabitants captured the fleeing Hungarian troops and executed them by hanging in Regensburg and these defeats were caused by the loss of military discipline and the Hungarian commanders lack of authority and competence. The commanders resorted to measures to motivate the soldiers to fight, for example during the Siege of Augsburg in 955
31.
Battle of Lechfeld (910)
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The Battle of Lechfeld in 910, was an important victory by a Magyar army over Louis the Childs united Frankish Imperial Army. Located south of Augsburg, the Lechfeld is the plain that lies along the Lech River. At this time the Grand Prince of Hungary was Zolta, Zoltán of Hungary, the battle appears as the first Battle of Augsburg in Hungarian historiography. Antapodosis, seu rerum per Europam gestarum, written by Liutprand of Cremona, Continuator Reginonis, Annales Alamannici, Necrologies of the German counts, the majority of the historians accept the date and place of the battle given by Liutprand of Cremona as 910 and Augsburg. Century, was right when he put the battle which he presents in detail, in 907 and at Ennsburg and not Augsburg, however, he represents a dissenting opinion, from the other historians, who believe, that the contemporary Liutprands information is right. After the Battle of Pressburg, the Hungarians continued their campaigns against East Francia, in order to completely the Germans. In 908 a Hungarian army invaded Thuringia, killing, in the Battle of Eisenach its duke, Burchard, duke Egino and Rudolf I, in 909 a Hungarian army invaded Bavaria, but it was defeated by Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria in a minor battle near Pocking. He even threatened with execution those who would not gather under his flag, so we can presume that Louis gathered a huge army, as Liutprand terms it in his Antapodosis. Although it was a crushing Hungarian victory, the Magyars thought that it is safer to conduct operations in Germany rather than in their own lands. This Hungarian campaign is cited as a brilliant example of the preventive war strategy. The kings army was led by Count Gozbert, because Louis the Child was only 16 years old at the time, the Hungarians learned about plans of Louis the Child, and sent quickly a Hungarian army, which rushed to prevent the joining of the Swabian and Frankish-Lotharingian-Bavarian forces. They reached Augsburg on forced march very quickly, totally unexpected by Louis the Child and this is another proof of the incredible efficiency of the espionage due to its emphasis by the Principality of Hungary and other states of the nomadic warriors. Because the unexpected appearance of the Hungarians before the battle of Augsburg is hard to believe that it was only a coincidence, as Liutprand of Cremona mentions, the king did not waited that the Hungarians will appear in his land so quickly. Still, from the account of Liutprand of Cremona it can be understood that, even without the Frankish help, one historian supposes that a small Hungarian unit kept the Frankish Army busy until the Battle of Augsburg ended. Hungarian nomadic warriors used similar tactics elsewhere and they distracted enemies with simple maneuvers to hide the real tactical movement and intent. An example is the Battle of the Brenta, but this attack was only a minor preparatory, so called swarming attack in order to diminguish the fighting spirit of the Germans, after which they retreated to their camp. In the course of the day this tactic was used a several times, probably the German army was composed of infantry and heavy cavalry, with heavy shields, lances and swords, while the Hungarians were all light cavalry, with bow and arrows as their main weapon. This is why when the Germans attacked, only the cavalry pursued the Hungarians, while the infantry formed a solid wall
32.
Battle of Achelous (917)
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The battle was one of the worst disasters ever to befall a Byzantine army, and conversely one of the greatest military successes of Bulgaria. Among the most significant consequences was the recognition of the Imperial title of the Bulgarian monarchs. After the Bulgarian victory in the War of 894–896 the Byzantines were forced to pay tribute to Tsar Simeon I of Bulgaria, in 912 when the Byzantine emperor Leo VI died, his brother Alexander refused to pay tribute to the Bulgarians. Simeon saw an opportunity to wage a new war and fulfill his ambitions to conquer Constantinople, at some point, the patriarch and Simeon even met outside the walls of Constantinople, performing a coronation ceremony. Thereafter, Simeon began using the title Tsar of the Bulgarians, after a plot in the Byzantine court in 914 however, the new regent Zoe, Constantines mother, rejected the marriage. In answer the Bulgarians raided Eastern Thrace, adrianople opened its gates to Simeon in September 914, and its population recognised Simeon as their ruler, while the Byzantine army was occupied in the east. In the next year the Bulgarian armies attacked the areas of Dyrrhachium, both sides carefully prepared for a decisive end of the conflict. Empress Zoe wanted to make a peace settlement with the Arabs and to engage the whole army of the East in a war with Simeon. Thus the Byzantines were forced to fight alone and this was a very large army by contemporary standards, and its goal was the elimination of the Bulgarian threat from the north. The Byzantine commanders were convinced that their strategy would be successful, morale was raised as the soldiers vowed by the miraculous Cross to die for one another. The spirit of the army was raised as the troops were paid in advance. The Byzantines had tried to pay some Pecheneg tribes to attack, but Romanus would not agree to transport them across the Danube, the size of the Bulgarian army under Simeon I of Bulgaria is unknown. However Miracula Sancti Georgii points that the Bulgarian army in the battle of Achelous was allied with Hungarian and Pecheneg troops, in addition Bulgarian forces under Marmais were deployed near the western borders with the Serb principalities to prevent possible unrest. The Byzantine army marched northwards and set its camp in the vicinity of the fortress of Anchialus. Leo Phocas intended to invade Moesia and meet the Pechenegs and Lecapenuss troops in Dobrudzha, Simeon swiftly concentrated his army on the heights around the fortress. The Byzantine generals planned to outflank the right Bulgarian wing in order to detach Simeons troops from the Balkan Passes. The Bulgarian ruler concentrated his most powerful forces in the two wings and left the centre relatively weak in order to surround the enemy when the centre would yield to the Byzantine attack. Simeon himself was in charge of large cavalry reserves hidden behind the hills which were intended to strike the decisive blow, the Byzantine attack was fierce and it was not long before the Bulgarians began slowly to retreat
33.
Battle of Drava River
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The Battle of Drava River was fought between the army of Tomislav of Croatia and the forces of Hungarian tribes led by Grand Prince Zoltán, the youngest son of Árpád, founder of the Árpád dynasty. According to the Chronicle of the Priest of Dioclea from the late 12th century, others question the reliability of this account, because there is no proof for this interpretation in other records. The battle was followed by the unification of Littoral Croatia and the territory of Pannonian Croatia and they started occasionally to perform devastating raids and military campaigns to the south as well, across the Drava river, to the territory of the Principality of Pannonian Croatia. They succeeded in defeating the Principalitys last known ruler Braslav, who was vassalaged to the Kingdom of East Francia, Tomislav undertook measures to prevent Hungarian incursions, mobilizing his army, deploying to the north and carrying out the military actions to fight the enemy. According to meager medieval sources, the battle took place in an undefined area of the right. There are no accounts of the battle. Moreover, the Croatian ruler governed the coastal towns of Byzantine Province of Dalmatia, the records of the two Synods of Bishops held in Split in 925 and 928 indirectly confirm that Croatia comprised the territory of medieval Slavonia, with its capital Sisak. At the 925 Synod Gregory of Nin lost his diocese and was offered to another one, among the temporary vacant bishop seats of Skradin. Quoting clashes between Croats and Hungarians at Drava River
34.
Battle of Riade
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The battle was precipitated by the decision of the Synod of Erfurt to stop paying an annual tribute to the Magyars in 932. Recorded by the Saxon chronicler Widukind of Corvey, it was a victory for the East Franks. The Magyars, Eurasian nomads who had served as mercenaries under Emperor Arnulf, after his death in 899 began to campaign in the Kingdom of Italy. In 906 they broke up Great Moravia and one year later destroyed a Bavarian army under Margrave Luitpold at the Battle of Pressburg. In 924 a Magyar army invading the German duchy of Saxony defeated King Henry I in the field, a truce of nine years, during which annual tribute was required of the Germans, was declared in 926. During the truce, Henry reorganised the defences of his Saxonian duchy, in time of invasion, all nine could man the castles. After he believed the reforms had been made, Henry secured the support of the church in reneging on tribute payments in 932. Allegedly he had a dead dog thrown down in front of the Magyar negotiators, the Thuringian contingent, though probably mounted, was described as inermes, or unarmed by the contemporary chronicler Widukind of Corvey. His Saxon horsemen were described as armed warriors, but he could not trust his horsemen, because they lacked certain skills, the Magyars had besieged an unknown town but attempted to withdraw in the night because Henry and his army had camped in the neighborhood at Riade. Henry sent forward a small contingent of footsoldiers with a few cavalrymen as a screen for his main army, the king had learned what to expect from the preceding struggles, where the rapidity of the Magyar light cavalry and archers had brought them success. He confronted their onset with light armoured combatants at first, followed by a heavy cavalry attack. According to Widukind of Corvey, the Magyar forces readily fled at the coming of Henrys horsemen, however the place of Riade rendered by Widukind denotes the army camp of King Henry, probably not identical with the battlefield. In Henrys lifetime the Magyars did not dare to make a raid on East Francia. In 954 they again invaded Germany during a rebellion instigated by Duke Liudolf of Swabia and were defeated by Henrys son. Bernhardt, John W. Itinerant Kingship and Royal Monasteries in Early Medieval Germany, Henry I and the Beginnings of the Saxon Empire. Germany in the Early Middle Ages 800–1056, barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels, The Ways of Medieval Warfare
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Battle of Lechfeld (955)
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The Battle of Lechfeld was a decisive victory for Otto I the Great, King of East Francia, over the Hungarian harka Bulcsú and the chieftains Lél and Súr. It is often seen as the event in the repulsion of the Hungarians incursions into Western Europe. Located south of Augsburg, the Lechfeld is the plain that lies along the Lech River. The battle appears as the second Battle of Augsburg in Hungarian historiography and it was followed by the Battle of Recknitz in October. It was important in rallying the East Frankish realm against a foreign enemy, the first Battle of Lechfeld happened in the same area forty-five years earlier. Perhaps the most important source is Gerhards monograph Vita Sancti Uodalrici, another source is the chronicler Widukind of Corvey, who provides some important details. The chronicle Gesta Hungarorum provides insight from the Hungarian side, however, this chronicle was only written in the 12th century. After having put down a rebellion by his son, Liudolf, Duke of Swabia and son-in-law, Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, Otto I the Great, King of East Francia, set out to Saxony, upon arriving in Magdeburg he received reports of the Hungarian invasion. The Hungarians had already invaded once before during the course of the rebellion and this occurred immediately after he had put down a revolt in Franconia. Because of unrest among the Polabian Slavs on the lower Elbe, in addition, Saxony was distant from Augsburg and its environs, and considerable time would have elapsed waiting for their arrival. The battle took place six weeks after the first report of an invasion, the King ordered his troops to concentrate on the Danube, in the vicinity of Neuburg and Ingolstadt. He did this in order to march on the Hungarian line of communications and it was also a central point of concentration for all the contingents that were assembling. Strategically, therefore, this was the best location for Otto to concentrate his forces before making the descent upon the Hungarians. There were other troops that had an influence on the course of the battle, the King was aware of the escape of these Hungarians on the above-mentioned occasions, and was determined to trap them. He therefore ordered his brother, Archbishop Bruno, to keep the Lotharingian forces in Lorraine and he did this with the fear that the Hungarians would follow their plan of retreat on the previous occasions. However, with a powerful force of knights pressing them in the front from the west, and an equally strong force of knights chasing them from the east. The Bishop Ulrich defended Augsburg, a city of Swabia. Motivating them with the 23rd Psalm, while this defense was going on, the King was raising an army to march south
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