1.
Toyota Mirai
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The Toyota Mirai is a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, one of the first such vehicles to be sold commercially. The Mirai was unveiled at the November 2014 Los Angeles Auto Show, Toyota planned to build 700 vehicles for global sales during 2015. Cumulative sales by mid-February 2017 totaled 2,840 Mirais in Japan, the top selling markets are Japan with 1,500 units and the U. S. with 1,200. Sales in Japan began on 15 December 2014 at a price of ¥6.7 million at Toyota Store, the Japanese government plans to support the commercialization of fuel-cell vehicles with a subsidy of ¥2 million. Retail sales in the U. S. began in August 2015 at a price of US$57,500 before any government incentives, deliveries to retail customers began in California in October 2015. Toyota scheduled to release the Mirai in the Northeastern States in the first half of 2016, as of June 2016, the Mirai is available for retail sales in the UK, Denmark, Germany, Belgium, and Norway. Pricing in Germany starts at 60,000 € plus VAT, the Mirai is based on the Toyota FCV concept car, which was unveiled at the 2013 Tokyo Motor Show. The unveiled FCV concept was a blue sedan shaped like a drop of water to emphasize that water is the only substance that hydrogen-powered cars emit from their tailpipes. The FCV has a grille and other openings to allow cooling air. According to Toyota, the FCV concept is close in appearance to the production version of the car. The FCV size is similar to the Toyota Camry, the FCV range is expected to be approximately 700 km under Japans JC08 test cycle. The FCV uses Toyotas proprietary, small, light-weight fuel cell stack, the Toyota FCV concept can accommodate up to four occupants. For the full-scale market launch in 2015, the cost of the cell system is expected to be 95% lower than that of the 2008 Toyota FCHV-adv. The hybrid technology is used to work together with the fuel cell. At low speeds such as city driving, the FCV runs just like any all-electric car by using the energy stored in its battery, at higher speeds, the hydrogen fuel cell alone powers the electric motor. When more power is needed, for example during sudden acceleration,1992, Toyota starts development of FCV technology. 1996, The EVS13, an FCV with a metal hydride hydrogen tank,2001, Toyota shows the FCHV-4, FCHV-5, and Daihatsu MOVE FCV-K-II fuel-cell cars at the Tokyo Motor Show. 2002, The Highlander-based FCHV is available for limited sales in the U. S. the fuel-cell stack outputs 90 kW
2.
Vehicle
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A vehicle is a mobile machine that transports people or cargo. Typical vehicles include wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles, railed vehicles, Land vehicles are classified broadly by what is used to apply steering and drive forces against the ground, wheeled, tracked, railed or skied. ISO 3833-1977 is the standard, also used in legislation, for road vehicles types, terms. Boats were used between 4000 BC-3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean, there is evidence of camel pulled wheeled vehicles about 3000–4000 BC. Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, in 200 CE, Ma Jun built a south-pointing chariot, a vehicle with an early form of guidance system. Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages, the earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau dating from around 1350. In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, the line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope and was operated by human or animal power, through a treadwheel. 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in 1769. In Russia, in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern features such as a flywheel, brake, gear box and bearings, however and it was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817. 1903 Wright brothers flew the first controlled, powered aircraft 1907 First helicopters Gyroplane no.1, there are over 1 billion bicycles in use worldwide. In 2002 there were an estimated 590 million cars and 205 million motorcycles in service in the world, at least 500 million Chinese Flying Pigeon bicycles have been made, more than an other single model of vehicle. The most-produced model of vehicle is the Honda Super Cub motorcycle. The most-produced car model is the Toyota Corolla, with at least 35 million made by 2010, by far, most vehicles use wheels which employ the principle of rolling to enable displacement with very little rolling friction. It is essential that a vehicle have a source of energy to drive it, energy can be extracted from the surrounding environment, as in the case of a sailboat, a solar-powered car or a streetcar. Energy can also be stored, in any form, provided it can be converted on demand, the most common type of energy source is fuel. Batteries also facilitate the use of motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures. Like fuel, batteries store energy and can cause burns
3.
Hydrogen
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Hydrogen is a chemical element with chemical symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard weight of circa 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table. Its monatomic form is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe, non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium, has one proton, the universal emergence of atomic hydrogen first occurred during the recombination epoch. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, nonmetallic, since hydrogen readily forms covalent compounds with most nonmetallic elements, most of the hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular forms such as water or organic compounds. Hydrogen plays an important role in acid–base reactions because most acid-base reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules. In ionic compounds, hydrogen can take the form of a charge when it is known as a hydride. The hydrogen cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century by the reaction of acids on metals. Industrial production is mainly from steam reforming natural gas, and less often from more energy-intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water. Most hydrogen is used near the site of its production, the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market, Hydrogen is a concern in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks. Hydrogen gas is flammable and will burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4% and 75% by volume. The enthalpy of combustion is −286 kJ/mol,2 H2 + O2 →2 H2O +572 kJ Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4–74%, the explosive reactions may be triggered by spark, heat, or sunlight. The hydrogen autoignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 °C, the detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame detector, such leaks can be very dangerous. Hydrogen flames in other conditions are blue, resembling blue natural gas flames, the destruction of the Hindenburg airship was a notorious example of hydrogen combustion and the cause is still debated. The visible orange flames in that incident were the result of a mixture of hydrogen to oxygen combined with carbon compounds from the airship skin. H2 reacts with every oxidizing element, the ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 91 nm wavelength. The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, however, the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity. The most complicated treatments allow for the effects of special relativity
4.
Launch vehicle
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In spaceflight, a launch vehicle or carrier rocket is a rocket used to carry a payload from Earths surface into outer space. A launch system includes the launch vehicle, the launch pad, Earth orbital launch vehicles typically have at least two stages, and sometimes as many as four or more. Expendable launch vehicles are designed for one-time use and they usually separate from their payload and disintegrate during atmospheric reentry. In contrast, reusable vehicles are designed to be recovered intact. The Space Shuttle was a part of a vehicle with components used for multiple orbital spaceflights. SpaceX has developed a rocket launching system to successfully bring back a part—the first stage—of their Falcon 9 and launch it again. A fully reusable VTVL design is planned for all parts of the ITS launch vehicle, Launch vehicles are often classified by the amount of mass they can carry into orbit. For example, a Proton rocket can lift 22,000 kilograms into low Earth orbit, Launch vehicles are also characterized by their number of stages. Rockets with as many as five stages have been successfully launched, additionally, launch vehicles are very often supplied with boosters supplying high early thrust, normally burning with other engines. Boosters allow the engines to be smaller, reducing the burnout mass of later stages to allow larger payloads. Other frequently reported characteristics of vehicles are the launching nation or space agency. For example, the European Space Agency is responsible for the Ariane V, many launch vehicles are considered part of a historical line of vehicles of same or similar name, e. g. the Atlas V is the latest Atlas rocket. A small-lift launch vehicle is capable of lifting up to 2,000 kg of payload into low Earth orbit, a medium-lift launch vehicle is capable of lifting 2,000 to 20,000 kg of payload into LEO. A heavy-lift launch vehicle is capable of lifting 20,000 to 50,000 kg of payload into LEO, a super-heavy lift vehicle is capable of lifting more than 50,000 kg of payload into LEO. It refers to its 1,500 kg to LEO Vega launch vehicle as light lift, sounding rockets have long been used for brief, inexpensive unmanned space and microgravity experiments. Current human-rated suborbital launch vehicles include SpaceShipOne and the upcoming SpaceShipTwo, minimizing air drag requires a reasonably high ballistic coefficient, a ratio of length to diameter greater than ten. This generally results in a vehicle that is at least 20 m long. Leaving the atmosphere as early on in the flight as possible provides a velocity loss due to air drag of around 300 m/s, Launch vehicles of sufficient size are capable of launching payloads smaller than their orbital capability, to the Moon or beyond
5.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
6.
Mechanical energy
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In the physical sciences, mechanical energy is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy. It is the associated with the motion and position of an object. The principle of conservation of energy states that in an isolated system that is only subject to conservative forces the mechanical energy is constant. In elastic collisions, the energy is conserved but in inelastic collisions. The equivalence between lost mechanical energy and an increase in temperature was discovered by James Prescott Joule and it is defined as the objects ability to do work and is increased as the object is moved in the opposite direction of the direction of the force. On the contrary, when a force acts upon an object. Though energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system, the pendulum reaches greatest kinetic energy and least potential energy when in the vertical position, because it will have the greatest speed and be nearest the Earth at this point. On the other hand, it will have its least kinetic energy and greatest potential energy at the positions of its swing. However, when taking the forces into account, the system loses mechanical energy with each swing because of the work done by the pendulum to oppose these non-conservative forces. This equivalence between mechanical energy and heat is especially important when considering colliding objects, in an elastic collision, mechanical energy is conserved – the sum of the mechanical energies of the colliding objects is the same before and after the collision. After an inelastic collision, however, the energy of the system will have changed. Usually, the energy before the collision is greater than the mechanical energy after the collision. In inelastic collisions, some of the energy of the colliding objects is transformed into kinetic energy of the constituent particles. This increase in energy of the constituent particles is perceived as an increase in temperature. The collision can be described by saying some of the energy of the colliding objects has been converted into an equal amount of heat. Thus, the energy of the system remains unchanged though the mechanical energy of the system has reduced. A satellite of mass m at a distance r from the centre of Earth possesses both kinetic energy, K, and gravitational energy, U. These devices can be placed in categories, An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
7.
Internal combustion engine
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An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
8.
Fuel cell
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A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a chemical reaction of positively charged hydrogen ions with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as these inputs are supplied, the first fuel cells were invented in 1838. The first commercial use of fuel cells came more than a later in NASA space programs to generate power for satellites. Since then, fuel cells have been used in other applications. Fuel cells are used for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and they are also used to power fuel cell vehicles, including forklifts, automobiles, buses, boats, motorcycles and submarines. There are many types of cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode. The anode and cathode contain catalysts that cause the fuel to undergo reactions that generate positively charged hydrogen ions and electrons. The hydrogen ions are drawn through the electrolyte after the reaction, at the same time, electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity. At the cathode, hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen react to form water, Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are stacked, or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an applications requirements. In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the source, very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide. The energy efficiency of a cell is generally between 40–60%, or up to 85% efficient in cogeneration if waste heat is captured for use. The fuel cell market is growing, and in 2013 Pike Research estimated that the fuel cell market will reach 50 GW by 2020. The first references to hydrogen fuel cells appeared in 1838 and he used a combination of sheet iron, copper and porcelain plates, and a solution of sulphate of copper and dilute acid. In a letter to the publication written in December 1838 but published in June 1839. His letter discussed current generated from hydrogen and oxygen dissolved in water, grove later sketched his design, in 1842, in the same journal. The fuel cell he used similar materials to todays phosphoric-acid fuel cell. In 1939, British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell and this became known as the Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell. GE went on to develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft and this was the first commercial use of a fuel cell
9.
Hydrogen economy
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The hydrogen economy is a proposed system of delivering energy using hydrogen. The term hydrogen economy was coined by John Bockris during a talk he gave in 1970 at General Motors Technical Center, the concept was proposed earlier by geneticist J. B. S. Proponents of a hydrogen economy advocate hydrogen as a fuel for motive power and on-board auxiliary power, stationary power generation. The spike in attention for the concept during the 2000s has been described as a hype by critics, neutral observers and advocates of further research. Some small-scale initiatives from that period are still trying to enable hydrogen-fuelled land transport, however, this application faces many issues, given fundamentally low conversion efficiencies and competition from other sources. A hydrogen economy was proposed by the University of Michigan to solve some of the effects of using hydrocarbon fuels where the carbon is released to the atmosphere. Modern interest in the economy can generally be traced to a 1970 technical report by Lawrence W. Jones of the University of Michigan. In the current hydrocarbon economy, transportation is fueled primarily by petroleum, burning of hydrocarbon fuels emits carbon dioxide and other pollutants. The supply of economically usable hydrocarbon resources in the world is limited, and the demand for hydrocarbon fuels is increasing, particularly in China, India, Hydrogen has a high energy density by weight but has a low energy density by volume when not highly compressed or liquified. An Otto cycle internal-combustion engine running on hydrogen is said to have an efficiency of about 38%, 8% higher than a gasoline internal-combustion engine. The combination of the cell and electric motor is 2-3 times more efficient than an internal-combustion engine. 999%. On the other hand, hydrogen engine conversion technology is more economical than fuel cells, Hydrogen production is a large and growing industry. Globally, some 57 million metric tons of hydrogen, equal to about 170 million tons of oil equivalent, were produced in 2004, the growth rate is around 10% per year. Within the United States,2004 production was about 11 million metric tons, as of 2005, the economic value of all hydrogen produced worldwide is about $135 billion per year. There are two uses for hydrogen today. About half is used in the Haber process to produce ammonia, because both the world population and the intensive agriculture used to support it are growing, ammonia demand is growing. The other half of current hydrogen production is used to convert heavy petroleum sources into lighter fractions suitable for use as fuels and this latter process is known as hydrocracking. Hydrocracking represents a larger growth area, since rising oil prices encourage oil companies to extract poorer source material, such as tar sands
10.
Hyundai ix35 FCEV
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The Hyundai ix35 FCEV or Tucson FCEV is a hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle developed by Hyundai. Different versions are known - the previous version was based on the Hyundai Tucson FCEV, the first generation was introduced in 2001 with the Hyundai Santa Fe FCEV, and had a range of 100 miles, with a top speed of 78 mph. The second generation Tucson FCEV was introduced in 2005, used a graphite bipolar plate and had a range of 186 miles, the third generation is based on the Hyundai ix35, production was semi-automatic and used a metal bipolar plate. The current version and fourth generation is the 2012 ix35 FCEV, the Tucson ix35 FCEV has a more powerful electric engine rated at 100 kW, and a range of about 369 miles. This improvement in range is due in part to the Tucson ix35 FCEVs greater space for holding Hydrogen tanks of compressed hydrogen, higher storage pressure, the cars have made use of a sandwich design concept, aimed at maximizing room for both passengers and the propulsion components. The fuel cell is a proton exchange membrane fuel cell, the Hyundai ix35 FCEV is in production since 2013, a production vehicle that is powered by a fuel cell with hydrogen. Hyundai indicates an output of 100 kW and a torque of 300 Nm, a tank contains 5.64 kg of hydrogen and should last for a range of nearly 600 km. In February 2013, Hyundai announced that it started production at Ulsan, in 2015 the production of 10,000 units started. The first 15 cars went to the hydrogen link network, Copenhagen and 2 to hydrogen Sweden, in 2015 vehicles were ordered or delivered in 11 countries in the EU and 15 countries in total worldwide. Up to June 2015,273 cars had been shipped out for sales, the Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell is worlds 1st commercially produced Fuel Cell vehicle. The 700 Bar hydrogen tanks for hydrogen storage contain enough fuel for a 369 miles drive, the Hyundai ix35 fuel cell electric vehicle won the Future Auto accolade at the 2013 Brussels Motor Show. The first ix35 FCEV was delivered in June 2014 in Tustin with a price of $499/mo. The Tucson Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle is a test fuel cell vehicle for Hyundais 2nd generation hydrogen fuel cell, the vehicle has range of 300 kilometres and top speed of 150 km/h. The vehicle was unveiled in 2005 at the Los Angeles Auto Show and completed a 4, list of fuel cell vehicles ix35 Fuel Cell
11.
Honda Clarity
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The Honda FCX Clarity is a hydrogen fuel cell automobile manufactured by Honda. The design is based on the 2006 Honda FCX Concept, the FCX Clarity demonstrates electric car qualities such as zero emissions while offering five minute refueling times and long range in a full function large sedan. It was the first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle available to retail customers, the new generation Honda Clarity Fuel Cell was released in the U. S. in December 2016. Two additional plug-in electric variants will be added to the line-up, production began in June 2008 with leasing in the U. S. commenced in July 2008. It was introduced in Japan in November 2008, the FCX Clarity was available for lease in the U. S. Japan and Europe. In the U. S. it was available to customers who live in Southern California where several hydrogen fuel stations are available. As of July 2010, a total of 20 FCX Clarity cars were leased for US$600 a month, including collision coverage, maintenance, roadside assistance, there were around 10 others on lease in Japan and another 10 in Europe. One of the reasons for such a low number of cars in the U. S. was a lack of filling stations. In 2014 Honda announced to phase out the FCX Clarity, from 2008 to 2014, Honda leased a total of 46 FCX units in the US. The FCX Clarity electrical power comes from a 100 kW Honda Vertical Flow hydrogen fuel cell stack whereby electricity is supplied on demand, in common with many electric vehicles, the car has regenerative braking and uses a separate battery to store energy recovered during braking. The electric motor is based on the used in the EV Plus. The range on a hydrogen tank is EPA certified at 240 miles. The vehicle is estimated to get about 77 miles per kilogram hydrogen in the city,67 miles per kilogram highway and 72 miles per kilogram in combined driving, the FCX Clarity is about 4 inches shorter than a 2008 Honda Accord. A separate display shows the power level and another shows motor output. A speedometer is placed above the display, to make it easy for the driver to keep eyes on the road. In the interior, upholstery on the seats and door linings are made with Hondas Bio-Fabric that is derived from plants which cuts CO2, the FCX Clarity was produced in Japan at a dedicated fuel cell vehicle assembly line in the Honda Automobile New Model Center. The fuel cell itself is produced at Honda Engineering Co. Ltd. In July 2014 Honda announced the FCX Clarity would be discontinued and replaced by a new and it is reported in 2009 that hydrogen made from natural gas cost about $5 to $10 per kilogram in California, and after compression cost and transportation cost, retails for $12-$14 per kilogram
12.
Power-to-gas
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Power to gas is a technology that converts electrical power to a gas fuel. When using surplus power from generation, the concept is sometimes called windgas. There are currently three methods in use, all use electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen by means of electrolysis, in the first method, the resulting hydrogen is injected into the natural gas grid or is used in transport or industry. The methane may then be fed into the gas grid. Impurities, such as carbon dioxide, water, hydrogen sulfide, power-to-gas systems may be deployed as adjuncts to wind parks or solar-electric generation. The excess power or off-peak power generated by wind generators or solar arrays may then be used at a time for load balancing in the energy grid. Before switching to natural gas, the German gas networks were operated using towngas, the storage capacity of the German natural gas network is more than 200,000 GWh which is enough for several months of energy requirement. By comparison, the capacity of all German pumped storage power plants amounts to only about 40 GWh, the storage requirement in Germany is estimated at 16GW in 2023, 80GW in 2033 and 130GW in 2050. The transport of energy through a gas network is done much less loss than in a power network. The storage costs per hour are estimated at €0.10 for hydrogen. The use of the natural gas pipelines for hydrogen was studied by the EU NaturalHy project. The blending technology is used in HCNG. If cogeneration plants are used that produce electricity and heat, efficiency can be above 60%, but is still less than pumped hydro or battery storage. However, there is potential to increase efficiency of power-to-gas storage, advantages and disadvantages of the predominantly considered electrolysis technologies. In this method, electricity is used to water into hydrogen and oxygen by means of electrolysis. The resulting hydrogen is injected into the gas grid or is used in transport or industry. The unit produces 125 kg/day of hydrogen gas and incorporates AEG power electronics and it will be situated at a Mainova AG site in the Schielestraße, Frankfurt in the state of Hessen. The operational data will be shared by the whole Thüga group – the largest network of companies in Germany with around 100 municipal utility members
13.
Electrolysis of water
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Electrolysis of water is the decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen gas due to an electric current being passed through the water. The reaction has a potential of −1.23 V. This technique can be used to make fuel and breathable oxygen. Jan Rudolph Deiman and Adriaan Paets van Troostwijk used, in 1789, in 1800 Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile, and a few weeks later William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle used it for the electrolysis of water. When Zénobe Gramme invented the Gramme machine in 1869 electrolysis of water became a method for the production of hydrogen. A method of synthesis of hydrogen and oxygen through electrolysis was developed by Dmitry Lachinov in 1888. A DC electrical power source is connected to two electrodes, or two plates which are placed in the water, hydrogen will appear at the cathode, and oxygen will appear at the anode. Assuming ideal faradaic efficiency, the amount of hydrogen generated is twice the amount of oxygen, however, in many cells competing side reactions occur, resulting in different products and less than ideal faradaic efficiency. Electrolysis of pure water requires excess energy in the form of overpotential to overcome various activation barriers, without the excess energy the electrolysis of pure water occurs very slowly or not at all. This is in due to the limited self-ionization of water. Pure water has an electrical conductivity about one millionth that of seawater, many electrolytic cells may also lack the requisite electrocatalysts. The efficiency of electrolysis is increased through the addition of an electrolyte, currently the electrolytic process is rarely used in industrial applications since hydrogen can currently be produced more affordably from fossil fuels. In pure water at the negatively charged cathode, a reaction takes place. Not all half reactions must be balanced with acid or base, many do, like the oxidation or reduction of water listed here. To add half reactions they must both be balanced with acid or base. Assuming equal temperature and pressure for both gases, the hydrogen gas has therefore twice the volume of the produced oxygen gas. The number of electrons pushed through the water is twice the number of generated hydrogen molecules, decomposition of pure water into hydrogen and oxygen at standard temperature and pressure is not favorable in thermodynamic terms. Thus, the potential of the water electrolysis cell is −1.23 V at 25 °C at pH0
14.
Fuel cell vehicle
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Fuel cells in vehicles generate electricity to power the motor, generally using oxygen from the air and compressed hydrogen. Most fuel cell vehicles are classified as vehicles that emit only water. As compared with internal combustion vehicles, hydrogen vehicles centralize pollutants at the site of the hydrogen production, transporting and storing hydrogen may also create pollutants. Fuel cells have been used in various kinds of vehicles including forklifts, especially in applications where their clean emissions are important to air quality. The first commercially produced hydrogen fuel cell automobiles began to be sold by Toyota and leased on a basis by Hyundai in 2015. As of June 2016, the Toyota Mirai is available for sale in Japan, California, the UK, Denmark, Germany, Belgium. Furthermore, fuel cells are being developed and tested in buses, boats, motorcycles and bicycles, some public hydrogen fueling stations exist, and new stations are being planned, in Japan, Europe and elsewhere. Critics doubt whether hydrogen will be efficient or cost-effective for automobiles, all fuel cells are made up of three parts, an electrolyte, an anode and a cathode. In principle, a fuel cell functions like a battery, producing electricity. Instead of requiring recharging, however, the cell can be refilled with hydrogen. The concept of the cell was first demonstrated by Humphry Davy in 1801, but the invention of the first working fuel cell is credited to William Grove, a chemist, lawyer. Groves experiments with what he called a gas voltaic battery proved in 1842 that a current could be produced by the electrochemical reaction of breaking the hydrogen atom. The first modern fuel cell vehicle was a modified Allis-Chalmers farm tractor, fitted with a 15 kilowatt fuel cell, the Cold War Space Race drove further development of fuel cell technology. Project Gemini tested fuel cells to provide power during manned space missions. Fuel cell development continued with the Apollo Program, the electrical power systems in the Apollo capsules and lunar modules used alkali fuel cells. In 1966, General Motors developed the first fuel cell road vehicle and it had a PEM fuel cell, a range of 120 miles and a top speed of 70 mph. There were only two seats, as the fuel cell stack and fuel tanks took up the portion of the van. Only one was built, as the project was deemed cost-prohibitive, General Electric and others continued working on PEM fuel cells in the 1970s
15.
Fuel cell bus
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A fuel cell bus is a bus that uses a hydrogen fuel cell as its power source for electrically driven wheels, sometimes augmented in a hybrid fashion with batteries or a supercapacitor. Several companies are conducting hydrogen fuel research and practical fuel cell bus trials. These include, Daimler AG, with thirty-six experimental units powered by Ballard Power Systems fuel cells completing a successful trial, in eleven cities. Hydrogen-powered fuel-cell buses began operating in Beijing on a basis in 2006. Three fuel cell buses, made by Daimler in Germany and purchased with a grant from the U. N, development Programme, were the first fuel cell buses to enter operation in China. The technology has not gained broader use in the city because air pollution reduced the efficiency, the first Brazilian hydrogen fuel cell bus prototype began operation in São Paulo during the first semester of 2009. The hydrogen bus was manufactured in Caxias do Sul, and the fuel will be produced in São Bernardo do Campo from water through electrolysis. The programme, called Ônibus Brasileiro a Hidrogênio, includes three additional buses, the town of Whistler in British Columbia, Canada owned and operated the largest fuel-cell bus fleet in the world, having been put in operation for the 2010 Winter Olympics. However, the costs were too high and the program halted in 2015, in Aberdeen, Scotland, the Aberdeen Hydrogen Bus Project currently has 10 hydrogen fuel cell buses operating, the largest fleet in Europe. The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a cooperative effort in trial fuel cell buses. Ford began leasing E-350 shuttle buses in late 2006 and it conducted some trials,1998 - Chicago and Vancouver, there were two-year three-bus demonstration projects. The 3 Vancouver units were deactivated, some were sold back to Ballard, who made the fuel cells, 2004–present Oakland and California a two-year three-bus trial. During this period, AC Transit and Sunline Transit have been operating three buses and one bus respectively and this trial has shown promising results and has been extended until new buses listed below are delivered. 2004–2006 Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority operated 3 buses Manufactured by Gilig Corp of Hayward California which were equipped with Ballard fuel cells, VTA reported in the press that these buses were too expensive to operate and that they would not continue with their trial. Japan, operating FCHV-BUS manufactured by Hino Motors and Toyota Motors under Japan hydrogen fuel cell project, 2003–2004 – Tokyo, one year and four months one-bus demonstration operated by Toei Bus. 2005 – Expo 2005 Aichi, six-month eight-fleet trial as inter-site shuttle, during Expo,8 FCHV-BUSes carried one million visitors and traveled about 130,000 kilometers. 2006-Tokoname, Aichi, ex-Expo 2005 fleets are leasing 1 to Chita Noriai as route bus in Chūbu Centrair International Airport island, a 12-bus trial program in this city in the San Francisco Bay Area is underway at AC Transit which features buses specially designed by Van Hool of Belgium. These buses use near ambient pressure, PEM fuel cells manufactured by the Hartford, UTC is also purchasing four additional buses for use in Hartford, Connecticut under AC Transits contract with Van Hool
16.
PHB (bicycle)
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The PHB is a hydrogen bicycle, power-assisted by an electric motor that gets its electricity from a fuel cell. It is manufactured by Pearl, unveiled at the 9th China International Exhibition on Gas Technology, Equipment, the vehicle weighs approximately 32 kg. It uses a proton-exchange membrane fuel cell to generate about 200 Watts and it can reach approximately 25 km/h and, on a full tank, may ride a distance of 60 to 100 kilometres. The motor is a brushless motor, the bike will sell for approximately US$2500, with further prices going down to $500. As stated by the manufacturer, those who already have a bike dont need to change the frame structure. 600 liters of hydrogen ≥99. 95% hydrogen purity in two onboard cylinders which have to be refueled at a hydrogen station, Hydrogen vehicle Pearl Hydrogen China Valeswood ETD Ltd, UK Shanghai Daily
17.
Freight bicycle
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Freight bicycles, carrier cycles, freight tricycles, cargo bikes, box bikes, or cycletrucks are human powered vehicles designed and constructed specifically for transporting loads. The frame and drivetrain must be constructed to handle loads larger than those on an ordinary bicycle, the first freight bicycles were used by tradesmen to deliver mail, bread and milk amongst other things. Early freight bicycles were heavy-duty standard bicycles, with carriers at front or rear. During the early part of the 20th century these were used by tradesmen for local deliveries. In the UK this style is sometimes known as a butchers bike or delibike. With the domination of the combustion engine in the industrialized countries after World War II. In the rest of the world, however, they continued to be manufactured, in the 1980s in Europe, and the 1990s in the US, ecologically-minded designers and small-scale manufacturers initiated a revival of the freight bike manufacturing sector. These limitations might in some cases some people from using cargo bikes, whereas others still find them useful. Some cargo bike makers and users utilize power assist motors to complement the power of the cyclist, power assist can increase the payload and range of cargo bikes, but also increases the cost of the bicycle and requires on-board fuel or other energy storage. Technical efforts to improve conditions are hampered by the need for low weight, in Amsterdam and Copenhagen, freight bikes are extremely popular. In Amsterdam many residents simply fit large front carriers to sturdy city bicycles, varieties used elsewhere include a platform, basket etc. instead of the box, the loading area between two rear wheels, small-wheel two-wheelers loading both back and front. An occasional four-wheeler can also be seen, especially within a plant, warehouse or the like, the Cycle truck refers to a type of freight bicycle with a smaller front wheel than rear, typically 26 inches rear and 20 inches front. Also referred to as a Bakers bike, however this style of bicycle was popular with a wide variety of trades during the first half of the 20th century. Typically, they would have a basket or storage box mounted within a framework which was fixed to the front of the bike, often, they would also feature a sign advertising the business concerned, which would be attached within the main triangle of the bicycle frame. Their popularity declined significantly towards the end of the 1950s, with the increase of motorised transport, a boda-boda is a two-wheeled bicycle or motorcycle taxi, originally in East Africa. Boda Boda is also the name of Yuba Bicycles compact cargo bike introduced in 2012, the Long John Bicycle is a freight bicycle with the cargo area in front of the rider and some linkage connecting the steering to the front wheel. Capacity is usually about 220 pounds, a traditional Long John will have a smaller front wheel and a 23 or 26 in rear wheel and a 30–40 in long platform or basket located low in front of the handlebars. Vintage Long Johns are becoming collectible, recently the term Bakfiets has sometimes been used to describe Long Johns and for cargo bikes in general
18.
Golf cart
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A golf cart is a small vehicle designed originally to carry two golfers and their golf clubs around a golf course or on desert trails with less effort than walking. They are generally around 4 feet wide ×8 feet long ×6 feet high and weigh 900 pounds to 1,000 pounds, most are powered by 4-stroke engines. The price of a cart can range anywhere from under US$1,000 to well over US$20,000 per cart. These factors may include whether or not a fleet of carts is being purchased for a course or a country club, for example. Other factors may include such as equipment requirements, and how many people the cart is meant to transport. With the rise in popularity of golf carts, many golf clubs or country clubs offer storage and this has led to the modification of golf carts to suit use at the particular golf course. Typical modification includes windshields, ball cleaners, cooler trays, upgraded motor or speed controller, originally golf carts were electrically powered, but in time gasoline-powered variants started to occur. The electric variety is now used in communities where their lack of pollutants, lack of noise. These may resemble the golf carts shown above, although some are now being made with all-weather car-like bodies, the minimum age to drive a golf cart is 13 in Georgia, Alabama, California, Kansas, Kentucky, Rhode Island, Vermont, and South Carolina. Other US states, such as Florida, have an age of 14–15 years. Later, he purchased a cart and found that it worked poorly on a golf course, the first electric golf cart was custom made in 1932, but did not gain widespread acceptance. In the 1930s until the 1950s the most widespread use of carts were for those with disabilities who could not walk far. By the mid 1950s the golf cart had gained acceptance with golfers. Merle Williams of Long Beach, California was an innovator of the electric golf cart. He started with knowledge gained from production of electric cars due to World War II gasoline rationing, in 1951 his Marketeer Company began production of an electric golf cart in Redlands, California. E-Z-Go began producing cars in 1954, Cushman in 1955, Club Car in 1958, Taylor-Dunn in 1961, Harley-Davidson in 1963, Yamaha Golf Car in 1979. Max Walker created the first gasoline-powered golf cart The Walker Executive in 1957 and this three-wheeled vehicle was shaped with a Vespa-style front end and, like any golf cart, carried two passengers and bags. In 1963, the Harley Davidson Motor Company began producing golf cars, over the years they manufactured and distributed thousands of three and four-wheeled gas and electric vehicles that are still highly sought after
19.
Motorized wheelchair
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A motorized wheelchair, powerchair, electric wheelchair or electric-powered wheelchair is a wheelchair that is propelled by means of an electric motor rather than manual power. Motorized wheelchairs are useful for those unable to propel a wheelchair or who may need to use a wheelchair for distances or over terrain which would be fatiguing in a manual wheelchair. They may also be used not just by people with mobility impairments. The electric-powered wheelchair was invented by George Klein who worked for the National Research Council of Canada, powerchair design may be categorized by drive system/chassis, battery, controller, seat, and use. Powerchairs are generally four-wheeled or six-wheeled and non-folding, however some folding designs exist, four general styles of powerchair drive systems exist, front, centre or rear wheel drive and all-wheel drive. Powered wheels are typically larger than the trailing/castoring wheels, while castoring wheels are typically larger than the castors on a manual chair. Centre wheel drive powerchairs have castors at both front and rear for a six-wheel layout, powerchair chassis may also mount a kerb-climber, a powered device to lift the front wheels over a kerb of 10 cm or less. Some manual wheelchairs may also be fitted with an electric power system. Some experimental all-terrain powerchair designs have produced with tracks rather than wheels. The iBOT was at one time a model, but is no longer marketed. These are available in wet or dry options, many powerchairs carry an on-board charger which can be plugged into a standard wall outlet, older or more portable models may have a separate charger unit. Controllers are most commonly an arm-rest mounted joystick which may have additional controls to allow the user to tailor sensitivity or access multiple control modes, the controller may be swing-away to aid in side-transfers. For users who are unable to use a hand controller various alternatives are available such as sip-and-puff controllers, in some cases the controller may be mounted for use by an aide walking behind the chair rather than by the user. Capabilities include turning one drivewheel forward while the other goes backward, thought-control of powerchairs, actually working by the detection of brainwaves or nerve signals via sensors on the scalp or elsewhere, has been demonstrated in the laboratory environment. The seating on a powerchair can vary in design, starting with a basic sling seat and backrest made of vinyl or nylon, some chairs have an optional padding, some have more comfortable cushion and backrest options which may include a head rest. There are companies which can fit their own backrests and seat cushions for people with increased need for stability in the trunk, finally, specialist seating solutions are available for users who need individually tailored support. Leg rests may be integrated into the design and may have powered adjustment for those users who need to vary their leg position. Powerchairs may also have a tilt-in-space, or reclining facility for users who are unable to maintain an upright seating position indefinitely
20.
Hydrogen ship
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A hydrogen ship is a hydrogen-fueled ship, power-assisted by an electric motor that gets its electricity from a fuel cell. In 2000, the 22-person Hydra ship was demonstrated, and in 2003 the Duffy-Herreshoff watertaxi went into service,2003 saw the debut of Yacht No. The AUV DeepC and Yacht XV1 were shown in 2004, in 2005 the first example of the Type 212 submarine, which is powered underwater by fuel cells, went into service with the German navy. In 2006 the 12-person Xperiance was debuted, as well as the Zebotec, in 2007 both the 8-person Tuckerboot and the Canal boat Ross Barlow debuted, and in 2008 the 100-passenger Zemships project Alsterwasser went into service in Hamburg. Also, in 2009 the Nemo H2 and the Frauscher 600 Riviera HP went into service, in 2013 the Hydrogenesis Passenger Ferry project went into service. Hjalti Pall Ingolfsson from Icelandic New Energy has commented that ships are fast becoming the biggest source of air pollution in the European Union and it is estimated that by 2020 emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from ships will exceed land-based emissions in Europe. The need for a hydrogen infrastructure varies, where the Yacht No, hydrogen codes and standards have repeatedly been identified as a major institutional barrier to the deployment of hydrogen technologies and the development of a hydrogen economy. The Germanischer Lloyd guidelines for fuel cells on ships and boats is used for the Hydra, Tuckerboot, the NEW H SHIP project was a 15-month project that started February 2004. FC-SHIP was funded by the European Commission under FP5 - GROWTH from 2002 to 2004, the Viking Fellowship is a Nordic project. The SMART H2 project started in 2007 by placing a fuel cell in the existing whale-watching ship Elding, other studies have also considered various ways of combining fuel cell operations on board with air conditioning systems for operations while in harbour. In order to gain an advantage, the Norwegian government scheduled money for a regular hydrogen car ferry in 2016. New rules are viewed as more challenging than developing the technology, hydrogen tanker Fuel cell ship - Specialty projects New Clermont Project Green Tug HHHT
21.
Airplane
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An airplane or aeroplane is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine or propeller. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations, the broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. Commercial aviation is a massive industry involving the flying of tens of thousands of daily on airliners. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, the Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, recognized as the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight. They built on the works of George Cayley dating from 1799, between 1867 and 1896, the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal also studied heavier-than-air flight. Following its limited use in World War I, aircraft continued to develop. Airplanes had a presence in all the battles of World War II. The first jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178 in 1939, the first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in service for more than 50 years. Aéroplane originally referred just to the wing, as it is a plane moving through the air, in an example of synecdoche, the word for the wing came to refer to the entire aircraft. In the United States and Canada, the airplane is used for powered fixed-wing aircraft. In the United Kingdom and most of the Commonwealth, the aeroplane is usually applied to these aircraft. Many stories from antiquity involve flight, such as the Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus, and this machine may have been suspended for its flight. Some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century poet Abbas ibn Firnas, leonardo da Vinci researched the wing design of birds and designed a man-powered aircraft in his Codex on the Flight of Birds. In 1799, George Cayley set forth the concept of the airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, in 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider LAlbatros artificiel pulled by a horse on a beach. Then Alexander F. Mozhaisky also made some innovative designs, in 1883, the American John J. Montgomery made a controlled flight in a glider. Other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower steam engines driving two propellers
22.
Submarine
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A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability, the term most commonly refers to a large, crewed vessel. It is also used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine. The noun submarine evolved as a form of submarine boat, by naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than as ships. Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, Submarines were first widely used during World War I, and now figure in many navies large and small. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection, Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology, most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the sail in American usage, a conning tower was a feature of earlier designs, a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins, smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines use diving planes and also change the amount of water, Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers, modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving bell. In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an underwater navigation vehicle and its unclear whether he ever carried out his idea. The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was designed and built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel and it was propelled by means of oars. By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England, in 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft, a mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemens Magazine reported that a design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion. The first military submarine was the Turtle, a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person and it was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion
23.
Rocket
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A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellant carried within the rocket before use, Rocket engines work by action and reaction and push rockets forward simply by expelling their exhaust in the opposite direction at high speed, and can therefore work in the vacuum of space. In fact, rockets work more efficiently in space than in an atmosphere, multistage rockets are capable of attaining escape velocity from Earth and therefore can achieve unlimited maximum altitude. Compared with airbreathing engines, rockets are lightweight and powerful and capable of generating large accelerations. To control their flight, rockets rely on momentum, airfoils, auxiliary engines, gimballed thrust, momentum wheels, deflection of the exhaust stream, propellant flow, spin. Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th century China, significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology for the Space Age, including setting foot on the Earths moon. Rockets are now used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for satellites, human spaceflight. Chemical rockets are the most common type of high power rocket, chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use minimizes risks, the first gunpowder-powered rockets were developed in Song China, by the 13th century. The Chinese rocket technology was adopted by the Mongols and the invention was spread via the Mongol invasions to the Near East, medieval and early modern rockets were used militarily as incendiary weapons in sieges. An early Chinese text to mention the use of rockets was the Huolongjing, between 1270 and 1280, Hasan al-Rammah wrote al-furusiyyah wa al-manasib al-harbiyya, which included 107 gunpowder recipes,22 of which are for rockets. In Europe, Konrad Kyeser described rockets in his military treatise Bellifortis around 1405. The name Rocket comes from the Italian rocchetta, meaning bobbin or little spindle, the Italian term was adopted into German in the mid 16th century by Leonhard Fronsperger and Conrad Haas, and by the early 17th century into English. Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima, an important early work on rocket artillery. The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the late 18th century in the Kingdom of Mysore, in 1814, Francis Scott Key wrote the line rockets red glare while held captive on a British ship that was laying siege to Fort McHenry. The first mathematical treatment of the dynamics of rocket propulsion is due to William Moore, in 1815, Alexander Dmitrievich Zasyadko constructed rocket-launching platforms, which allowed rockets to be fired in salvos, and gun-laying devices. William Hale in 1844 greatly increased the accuracy of rocket artillery, the Congreve rocket was further improved by Edward Mounier Boxer in 1865. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky first speculated on the possibility of manned spaceflight with rocket technology, robert Goddard in 1920 published proposed improvements to rocket technology in A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes
24.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
25.
Space Shuttle
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The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated by the U. S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program name was Space Transportation System, taken from a 1969 plan for a system of reusable spacecraft of which it was the only item funded for development, the first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982. Five complete Shuttle systems were built and used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011, the Shuttle fleets total mission time was 1322 days,19 hours,21 minutes and 23 seconds. Shuttle components included the Orbiter Vehicle, a pair of solid rocket boosters. The Shuttle was launched vertically, like a rocket, with the two SRBs operating in parallel with the OVs three main engines, which were fueled from the ET. The SRBs were jettisoned before the vehicle reached orbit, and the ET was jettisoned just before orbit insertion, at the conclusion of the mission, the orbiter fired its OMS to de-orbit and re-enter the atmosphere. The orbiter then glided as a spaceplane to a landing, usually at the Shuttle Landing Facility of KSC or Rogers Dry Lake in Edwards Air Force Base. After landing at Edwards, the orbiter was back to the KSC on the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. The first orbiter, Enterprise, was built in 1976 for use in Approach, four fully operational orbiters were initially built, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis. Of these, two were lost in accidents, Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003, with a total of fourteen astronauts killed. A fifth operational orbiter, Endeavour, was built in 1991 to replace Challenger, the Space Shuttle was retired from service upon the conclusion of Atlantiss final flight on July 21,2011. Nixons post-Apollo NASA budgeting withdrew support of all components except the Shuttle. The vehicle consisted of a spaceplane for orbit and re-entry, fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen tanks. The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982, all launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The system was retired from service in 2011 after 135 missions, the program ended after Atlantis landed at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21,2011. Major missions included launching numerous satellites and interplanetary probes, conducting space science experiments, the first orbiter vehicle, named Enterprise, was built for the initial Approach and Landing Tests phase and lacked engines, heat shielding, and other equipment necessary for orbital flight. A total of five operational orbiters were built, and of these and it was used for orbital space missions by NASA, the US Department of Defense, the European Space Agency, Japan, and Germany. The United States funded Shuttle development and operations except for the Spacelab modules used on D1, sL-J was partially funded by Japan
26.
Solar power
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Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics, or indirectly using concentrated solar power. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam, Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic effect. Most solar installations would be in China and India, Solar PV is rapidly becoming an inexpensive, low-carbon technology to harness renewable energy from the Sun. The current largest photovoltaic power station in the world is the 850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park, in Qinghai, commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. The 392 MW Ivanpah installation is the largest concentrating solar power plant in the world, long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies, Photovoltaic systems use solar panels, either on rooftops or in ground-mounted solar farms, concentrated solar power plants use solar thermal energy to make steam, that is thereafter converted into electricity by a turbine. A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is a device that converts light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect, the first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. The German industrialist Ernst Werner von Siemens was among those who recognized the importance of this discovery, following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954. These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4. 5–6%, the array of a photovoltaic power system, or PV system, produces direct current power which fluctuates with the sunlights intensity. For practical use this usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages or alternating current, multiple solar cells are connected inside modules. Modules are wired together to form arrays, then tied to an inverter, which produces power at the voltage, and for AC. Many residential PV systems are connected to the grid wherever available, in these grid-connected PV systems, use of energy storage is optional. In certain applications such as satellites, lighthouses, or in developing countries, batteries or additional power generators are often added as back-ups, such stand-alone power systems permit operations at night and at other times of limited sunlight. Concentrated solar power, also called concentrated solar thermal, uses lenses or mirrors, contrary to photovoltaics – which converts light directly into electricity – CSP uses the heat of the suns radiation to generate electricity from conventional steam-driven turbines. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists, among the best known are the trough, the compact linear Fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish. Various techniques are used to track the sun and focus light, in all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage. Thermal storage efficiently allows up to 24-hour electricity generation, a parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflectors focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned right above the middle of the mirror and is filled with a working fluid
27.
Oxygen
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Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal. By mass, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen, at standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2. This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20. 8% of the Earths atmosphere, additionally, as oxides the element makes up almost half of the Earths crust. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, conversely, oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is too reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms. Another form of oxygen, ozone, strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation, but ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog. At low earth orbit altitudes, sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft, the name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle, Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philos work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration, Oxygen was discovered by the Polish alchemist Sendivogius, who considered it the philosophers stone. In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion, English chemist John Mayow refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus. From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion, Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it. Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract De respiratione. Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory, which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, one part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calx. The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the combustion products
28.
Ohio State University
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The Ohio State University, commonly referred to as Ohio State or OSU, is a large, primarily residential, public university in Columbus, Ohio. Founded in 1870 as a land-grant university and ninth university in Ohio with the Morrill Act of 1862, Hayes, and in 1878 the Ohio General Assembly passed a law changing the name to The Ohio State University. It has since grown into the third-largest university campus in the United States, along with its main campus in Columbus, Ohio State also operates a regional campus system with regional campuses in Lima, Mansfield, Marion, Newark, and Wooster. Ohio State athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the Ohio State Buckeyes, athletes from Ohio State have won 100 Olympic medals. The university is a member of the Big Ten Conference for the majority of sports, the Ohio State mens ice hockey program competes in the Big Ten Conference, while its womens hockey program competes in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association. In addition, the OSU mens volleyball team is a member of the Midwestern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association, OSU is one of only 14 universities that plays Division I FBS football and Division I ice hockey. As of August 2015, the university had awarded a total of 714,512 degrees, alumni and former students have gone on to prominent careers in government, business, science, medicine, education, sports, and entertainment. Championed by the Republican stalwart Governor Rutherford B, Hayes, the Ohio State University was founded in 1870 as a land-grant university under the Morrill Act of 1862 as the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College. The school was originally within a community on the northern edge of Columbus. The university opened its doors to 24 students on September 17,1873, in 1878, the first class of six men graduated. The first woman graduated the following year, also in 1878, in light of its expanded focus, the Ohio legislature changed the name to the now-familiar The Ohio State University, with The as part of its official name. Ohio State began accepting students in the 1880s, and in 1891. It would later acquire colleges of medicine, dentistry, optometry, veterinary medicine, commerce, in 1916, Ohio State was elected into membership in the Association of American Universities. Michael V. Drake, former chancellor of the University of California, Irvine, in an attack against the campus on November 28,2016, an unrelated fluorine leak was called in for Watts Hall, resulting in the evacuation of the building to an outside courtyard. As firetrucks began to depart, Abdul Razak Ali Artan drove into the crowd, then emerged, the attack was stopped in under two minutes by OSU Police Officer Alan Horujko, who witnessed the attack after responding to the reported gas leak, and who shot and killed Artan. The universitys Buckeye Alert system was triggered and the campus was placed on lockdown, Ten were transported to local hospitals and one suspect was killed according to multiple sources. Local law enforcement and the FBI launched an investigation, according to authorities, Artan was inspired by terrorist propaganda from the Islamic State and radical Muslim cleric Anwar al-Awlaki. Ohio States 1, 764-acre main campus is about 2.5 miles north of the citys downtown, the historical center of campus is the Oval, quad of about 11 acres
29.
Buckeye Bullet
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The Buckeye Bullet is the name of a series of student-built, alternative-fuel race cars created by Ohio State University students led by Dr. Giorgio Rizzoni at the Center for Automotive Research. The cars are designed to run on the world-famous Bonneville Speedway, just outside Wendover, the VBBs have also been called the Venturi Jamais Contente, referencing the electrically powered first vehicle to top 100 km/h. The Buckeye Bullet team is composed of students from Ohio State University, the team is provided research space from the Center of Automotive Research at the university. All Buckeye Bullet vehicles have been powered, with power coming from either batteries or hydrogen fuel cells. The Buckeye Bullet 1 is an electric powered land speed race car. The Buckeye Bullet 1 holds the distinction of being the worlds fastest electric car with a top recorded speed of 321.834 mph and it holds the U. S. electric land speed record at 314.958 mph. It set a BNI recognized international record at 271.737 mph on October 3,2004 and it is the first hydrogen fuel cell powered land speed streamliner. The Buckeye Bullet 2 ran for the first time at Speedweek 2007, at Speedweek 2008, the BB2 eclipsed its previous mark by reaching 286.476 mph, the highest speed ever recorded by a hydrogen/fuel cell vehicle. On September 25,2009, the Buckeye Bullet 2 set international speed records both at 303.025 mph in the flying kilometer and 302.877 mph in the flying mile. The Buckeye Bullet 2.5 is an electric version of the Buckeye Bullet 2. The BB2.5 uses the frame and body as the Buckeye Bullet 2. The BB2.5 raced for one season in 2009. This vehicle was intended to be a testbed for new technologies in consideration for use on the Buckeye Bullet 3. The most significant technology under consideration was the lithium ion batteries, the batteries used for the BB2.5 were A123 Systems 32113 cylindrical cells. The vehicle was able to set a FIA sanctioned world record at 307.666 mph, the Buckeye Bullet 3 is a new vehicle that is currently in development, building on the technology of the previous vehicles. It is 4-wheel drive and has a coefficient of 0.13. The car has separate powertrains for each axle, with the cockpit in the center, each powertrain has two electric motors driving a 2-speed transmission, built by Hewland. 1st gear can be used up to 275mph, the target speed for this vehicle is 400 mph
30.
Bonneville Salt Flats
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The Bonneville Salt Flats is a densely packed salt pan in Tooele County in northwestern Utah. The area is a remnant of the Pleistocene Lake Bonneville and is the largest of many salt flats located west of the Great Salt Lake, the property is public land managed by the Bureau of Land Management and is known for land speed records at the Bonneville Speedway. Access is free and visitors can drive on the flats, geologist Grove Karl Gilbert named the area after Benjamin Bonneville, a U. S. Army officer who explored the Intermountain West in the 1830s. In 1907 Bill Rishel and two local businessmen tested the suitability of the salt for driving on by taking a Pierce-Arrow onto the surface of the flats, a railway line across the Bonneville Salt Flats was completed in 1910, marking the first permanent crossing. The first land speed record was set there in 1914 by Teddy Tetzlaff, furthermore, the Pontiac Bonneville, the Triumph Bonneville motorcycle, and the Bonneville International media company are all named for the salt flats. Specifically, the BLM concluded “despite brine withdrawal for mineral production, during the following summer months, heat from the sun evaporates the water and the precipitated salt becomes part of the race track surface. Since the onset of this project, more than 10.7 million tons of salt have been pumped on to the Bonneville Salt Flats, the Salt Laydown Project is now a required element of the facility’s operating plan. Motorcar racing has taken place at the flats since 1914. Racing takes place at part of the Bonneville Salt Flats known as the Bonneville Speedway, there are five major land speed events that take place at the Bonneville Salt Flats. Bonneville Speed Week takes place mid-August followed by World of Speed in September and these three events welcome cars, trucks, and motorcycles. The Bub Motorcycle Speed Trials are for motorcycles only, World records are contested at the Mike Cook ShootOut in September. Speed Week events in August were canceled for the year in a row in 2015. In 2004, the Stardust spacecraft released its sample-return capsule for a landing in the Bonneville Salt Flats after its flybys of asteroid 5535 Annefrank in 2002 and comet Wild 2 in 2004. List of vehicle speed records Bonneville Salt Flats - Bureau of Land Management High Speed Race Mike Cooks Bonneville Shootout Speed Week on the Bonneville Salt Flats
31.
Los Angeles metropolitan area
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It is entirely located in the southern portion of the U. S. State of California. Its land area is 4,850 sq. mi, the combined Los Angeles metropolitan area is home to 18.2 million people, making it the most populous metropolitan area in the western United States and the largest in area in the United States. The metro area has at its core the Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim corridor and this includes the three additional counties of Ventura, Riverside, and San Bernardino. The total land area of the statistical area is 33,955 sq. mi. The counties and county groupings comprising the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area are listed below with 2012 U. S. Bureau of the Census estimates of their populations, the combined statistical area is a multicore metropolitan region containing several urban areas. The following is a list of cities with populations over 50,000 in the Los Angeles metropolitan area with 2011 United States Census Bureau estimates of their population, korean Airs US passenger and cargo operations headquarters are located in two separate offices in Los Angeles. Entertainment and media giant The Walt Disney Company is headquartered in nearby Burbank, the Southland CSA is third largest economic center in the world, after the Greater Tokyo Area and the New York-Newark-Bridgeport CSA. The Port of Los Angeles occupies 7,500 acres of land, the Port is the busiest port in the United States by container volume, the 8th busiest container port in the world. The top trading partners in 2004 were, China, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand and it adjoins the separate Port of Los Angeles. Acting as a gateway for U. S. -Asian trade. The seaport boasts approximately $100 billion in trade and provides more than 316,000 jobs in Southern California, the Port of Long Beach import and export more than $100 billion worth of goods every year. The seaport provides the country with jobs, generates tax revenue, Long Beach-Los Angeles- Anaheim The Long Beach Los Angeles Anaheim metropolitan statistical area is located in the southern part of California. In 2014, the metro area’s population reached 13,262,220, in 2014, Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim had a per capita personal income of $50,751 and ranked 29th in the country. In 2014, Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim placed 3rd among the largest exporters in the United States, the metro accounted for 40.8 percent of California’s merchandise exports, mainly exporting computer and electronic products, transportation equipment and chemicals. Overall, in 2014 the average wages and salaries reached $57,519, meanwhile, the median household income in 2014 was $56,935, a 1.4 percent increase from 2013. Top three sectors include information, art, entertainment, and recreation, and real estate and rental, data obtained from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Data measures Location Quotient for sectors in the MSA area, per capita items in dollars, other dollar items in thousands of dollars. Southern Orange County is part of the Los Angeles metropolitan area, there are three natural gas providers in the metropolitan area
32.
Pat Cox
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Pat Cox is an Irish politician and former television current affairs presenter. He was President of the European Parliament from 2002 to 2004, before this Cox was a journalist and presenter with RTÉs Today Tonight and then a Teachta Dála for Cork South–Central. Born in Dublin but raised in Limerick, Cox was educated at Ardscoil Rís in Limerick, Cox is married to Cathy, and lived at Ashboro, Shanakiel in the Cork northside suburb of Sundays Well for 16 years. Cox first came to prominence as a journalist, then a presenter with RTÉs Today Tonight and he stood as a Fianna Fáil candidate at the 1979 local elections. Cox left the programme to become a political candidate and he was elected an MEP in 1989 for the constituency of Munster, representing the Progressive Democrats. At the 1992 general election he was elected to Dáil Éireann as a Teachta Dála for Cork South–Central. Following Desmond OMalleys retirement from the party leadership in 1993, Cox stood for election to the post but was beaten by Mary Harney, Cox left the PDs in 1994 in a dispute over his seat as an MEP. It was expected that Cox would not contest his seat in the 1994 European elections, with OMalley, however Cox then decided to contest the seat as an independent, beating OMalley, the PD candidate. On being elected, he resigned his Dáil seat and a by-election was held on 10 November 1994 and he succeeded the Frenchwoman Nicole Fontaine. At his first press conference following his election as president he spoke positively of direct talks between the Cypriot President Glafcos Clerides and Turkish Cypriot President Rauf Denktaş, in July 2003 Cox took a personal telephone apology from Silvio Berlusconi after Berlusconi managed to offend several MEPs. The controversy arose after Berlusconi compared a German MEP to a Nazi concentration camp commandant, on 20 May 2004 he was awarded the Charlemagne Prize for his achievements with regard to the enlargement of the European Union and for his work in promoting greater EU democratisation. Cox did not contest the 2004 elections to the European parliament, the Christian Democrats and Socialist Groups agreed at the customary two-way split of the Presidency of the European Parliament. Josep Borrell Fontelles, a Spanish Socialist, assumed the Presidency on 20 July 2004, Cox is a member of the Comite dHonneur of the Institute of European Affairs. In 2006 he was elected President of European Movement, an international pro-European lobby association, in June 2009 Pat Cox temporarily stepped down as President and took over the position of the campaign director for the pro-Lisbon treaty initiative Ireland for Europe. He resigned as president of European Movement in May 2013, also in 2009, Cox co-founded the European Privacy Association. On 15 September 2010 Cox supported the new initiative Spinelli Group, other prominent supporters include Jacques Delors, Daniel Cohn-Bendit, Guy Verhofstadt, Andrew Duff and Elmar Brok. He is a Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania and he received the 2004 Charlemagne Prize for his efforts in the eastward expansion of the European Union. Since 1 January 2015, he has been the president of the Jean Monnet Foundation for Europe, Fine Gaels national executive on 16 June 2011 approved his application to join the partys St Lukes branch in Cork
33.
BMW
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Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, usually known under its abbreviation BMW, is a German luxury vehicle, motorcycle, and engine manufacturing company founded in 1916. It is one of the luxury automakers in the world. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, headquartered in Munich, Bavaria, BMW owns Mini cars and is the parent company of Rolls-Royce Motor Cars. BMW was established as a business entity following a restructuring of the Rapp Motorenwerke aircraft manufacturing firm in 1912 named Aerowerke Gustav Otto, after the end of World War I in 1918, BMW was forced to cease aircraft-engine production by the terms of the Versailles Armistice Treaty. The company consequently shifted to production as the restrictions of the treaty started to be lifted in 1923. BMWs first significant aircraft engine, and commercial product of any sort, was the BMW IIIa inline-six liquid-cooled engine of 1918, known for good fuel economy, with German rearmament in the 1930s, the company again began producing aircraft engines for the Luftwaffe. The factory in Munich made ample use of forced labour, foreign civilians, prisoners of war, the few Me 262 A-1b test examples built used the more developed version of the 003 jet, recording an official top speed of 800 km/h. The first-ever four-engine jet aircraft flown were the sixth and eighth prototypes of the Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance-bomber. Through 1944 the 003s reliability improved, making it a power plant for air frame designs competing for the Jägernotprogramms light fighter production contract. Which was won by the Heinkel He 162 Spatz design, the BMW003 aviation turbojet was also under consideration as the basic starting point for a pioneering turboshaft powerplant for German armored fighting vehicles in 1944–45, as the GT101. Towards the end of the Third Reich, BMW developed some military aircraft projects for the Luftwaffe, the BMW Strahlbomber, the BMW Schnellbomber and the BMW Strahljäger, but none of them were built. By the year 1958, the division of BMW was in financial difficulties. It was decided to carry on by trying to cash in on the current economy car boom exploited so successfully by German ex-aircraft manufacturers such as Messerschmitt, BMW bought the rights to manufacture the Italian Iso Isetta. BMWs version of the cars were to be powered by a modified form of BMWs motorcycle engine. This was moderately successful and helped the company get back on its feet, since 1959, the controlling majority shareholder of the BMW Aktiengesellschaft has been the Quandt family, which owns about 46% of the stock. The rest is in public float, BMW acquired the Hans Glas company based in Dingolfing, Germany, in 1966. Glas vehicles were badged as BMW until the company was fully absorbed. However, this factory was outmoded and BMWs biggest immediate gain was, according to themselves, the Glas factories continued to build a limited number of their existing models, while adding the manufacture of BMW front and rear axles until they could be closer incorporated into BMW
34.
Toyota
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Toyota Motor Corporation is a Japanese automotive manufacturer headquartered in Toyota, Aichi, Japan. In March 2014, the corporation consisted of 338,875 employees worldwide and. As of 2016, Toyota is the worlds second-largest automotive manufacturer behind German Volkswagen Group, Toyota was the worlds first automobile manufacturer to produce more than 10 million vehicles per year which it has done since 2012, when it also reported the production of its 200-millionth vehicle. As of July 2014, Toyota was the largest listed company in Japan by market capitalization, Toyota is the worlds market leader in sales of hybrid electric vehicles, and one of the largest companies to encourage the mass-market adoption of hybrid vehicles across the globe. Cumulative global sales of Toyota and Lexus hybrid passenger car models achieved the 10 million milestone in January 2017 and its Prius family is the worlds top selling hybrid nameplate with over 6 million units sold worldwide as of January 2017. The company was founded by Kiichiro Toyoda in 1937, as a spinoff from his fathers company Toyota Industries to create automobiles. Three years earlier, in 1934, while still a department of Toyota Industries, it created its first product, the Type A engine, and, in 1936, its first passenger car, the Toyota AA. Toyota Motor Corporation produces vehicles under five brands, including the Toyota brand, Hino, Lexus, Ranz, TMC is part of the Toyota Group, one of the largest conglomerates in the world. Toyota is headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi, the main headquarters of Toyota is located in a 4-story building in Toyota. As of 2006, the office has the Toyopet Toyota logo. Vinod Jacob from The Hindu described the headquarters building as modest. In 2013, company head Akio Toyoda reported that it had difficulties retaining foreign employees at the due to the lack of amenities in the city. Its Tokyo office is located in Bunkyo, Tokyo and its Nagoya office is located in Nakamura-ku, Nagoya. In addition to manufacturing automobiles, Toyota provides financial services through its Toyota Financial Services division, since 1950, the two entities had existed as separate companies as a prerequisite for reconstruction in postwar Japan. Shoichiro Toyoda presided over Toyota Motor Sales in preparation for the consummation of the merger occurred in 1982. Shoichiro then succeeded his uncle Eiji as the President of the organization that then became known as Toyota Motor Corporation. Announced the appointment of board members, this was a first for the corporation. Additionally, Vice Chairman Takeshi Uchiyamada replaced Fujio Cho as chairman, Toyota is publicly traded on the Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Fukuoka, and Sapporo exchanges under company code TYO,7203
35.
Ford Motor Company
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The Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16,1903, the company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer, Troller, and Australian performance car manufacturer FPV, in the past, it has also produced tractors and automotive components. Ford owns an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom, and it also has a number of joint-ventures, one in China, one in Taiwan, one in Thailand, one in Turkey, and one in Russia. It is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family, Fords former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000 respectively, were sold to Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010, in 2011, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed entry-level luxury cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938. During the financial crisis at the beginning of the 21st century, it was close to bankruptcy, Ford is the second-largest U. S. -based automaker and the fifth-largest in the world based on 2015 vehicle production. At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth largest automaker in Europe, Ford is the eighth-ranked overall American-based company in the 2010 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2009 of $118.3 billion. In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants, the company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent voting rights. The Ford Motor Company was launched in a factory in 1903 with $28,000 in cash from twelve investors, most notably John. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at its factory on Mack Avenue and later its factory on Piquette Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on car, assembling it from parts made mostly by supplier companies contracting for Ford. Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company and it has been in continuous family control for over 100 years and is one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world. The first gasoline powered automobile had been created in 1885 by the German inventor Carl Benz, between 1903 and 1908, Ford produced the Models A, B, C, F, K, N, R, and S. Hundreds or a few thousand of most of these were sold per year, in 1908, Ford introduced the mass-produced Model T, which totalled millions sold over nearly 20 years. In 1927, Ford replaced the T with the Model A, Ford launched the first low-priced car with a V8 engine in 1932. In an attempt to compete with General Motors mid-priced Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Henry Ford purchased the Lincoln Motor Company in 1922, in order to compete with such brands as Cadillac and Packard for the luxury segment of the automobile market. The creation of a laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan in 1951, doing unfettered basic research
36.
Daimler AG
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Daimler AG is a German multinational automotive corporation. Daimler AG is headquartered in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany, the Maybach brand was closed at the end of 2012, but was revived in April 2015 as Mercedes-Maybach, an ultra luxury edition of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class and the Mercedes-Benz G-Class. In 2016 Daimler sold 3.0 million vehicles, by unit sales, Daimler is the thirteenth-largest car manufacturer and is the largest truck manufacturer in the world. In addition to automobiles, Daimler manufactures buses and provides services through its Daimler Financial Services arm. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, Daimler AG is a German manufacturer of automobiles, motor vehicles, and engines, which dates back more than a century. An Agreement of Mutual Interest was signed on 1 May 1924 between Benz & Cie and Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft, in 1998, Daimler-Benz and Chrysler Corporation announced the worlds largest cross-border deal ever, valued at US$38billion, and the resulting change in company name to DaimlerChrysler AG. In 2007, when the Chrysler group was sold off to Cerberus Capital Management, in November 2014, Daimler announced it would acquire 25 percent of Italian motorcycle producer MV Agusta for an undisclosed fee. The terms of the merger allowed Daimler-Benzs non-automotive businesses such as Daimler-Benz InterServices AG, debis AG for short, debis AG reported revenues of $8.6 bn in 1997. A class action lawsuit was settled in August 2003 for US$300 million while a suit by billionaire investor activist Kirk Kerkorian was dismissed on 7 April 2005. The transaction claimed the job of its architect, Chairman Jürgen E. Schrempp, the merger was also the subject of a book Taken for a Ride, How Daimler-Benz Drove Off With Chrysler, by Bill Vlasic and Bradley A. Stertz. Another issue of contention is whether the merger delivered promised synergies, martin H. Wiggers concept of a platform strategy like the VW Group, was implemented only for a few models, so the synergy effects in development and production were too low. As late as 2002, DaimlerChrysler appeared to run two independent product lines. 2L V6, and the Dodge Sprinter/Freightliner Sprinter, a re-badged Mercedes-Benz Sprinter van, Daimler agreed to sell the Chrysler unit to Cerberus Capital Management in May 2007 for US$6 billion. Chrysler reported losses of US$1.5 billion in 2006 and it then announced plans to lay off 13,000 employees in mid-February 2007, close a major assembly plant and reduce production at other plants in order to restore profitability by 2008. DaimlerChrysler had reportedly approached other carmakers and investment groups to sell Chrysler in early 2007, general Motors was reported to be a suitor, but on 3 August 2007, DaimlerChrysler completed the sale of Chrysler Group to Cerberus Capital Management. The original agreement stated that Cerberus would take an 80.1 percent stake in the new company, DaimlerChrysler changed its name to Daimler AG and retained the remaining 19. 9% stake in the separated Chrysler. The terms saw Daimler pay Cerberus US$650 million to take Chrysler, of the US$7.4 billion purchase price, Cerberus Capital Management was to invest US$5 billion in Chrysler Holdings and US$1.05 billion in Chryslers financial unit. The de-merged Daimler AG received US$1.35 billion directly from Cerberus, interestingly, despite the fact it had been nearly a decade since the Daimler/Chrysler split, the fourth-generation Jeep Grand Cherokee shares a platform with the Mercedes-Benz M-Class. This also includes the Chrysler LX platform vehicles which initially used Mercedes-Benz components since its 2005 introduction
37.
Nissan
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Nissan Motor Company Ltd, usually shortened to Nissan, is a Japanese multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Nishi-ku, Yokohama. The company sells its cars under the Nissan, Infiniti, since 1999, Nissan has been part of the Renault–Nissan Alliance, a partnership between Nissan and French automaker Renault. As of 2013, Renault holds a 43. 4% voting stake in Nissan, Carlos Ghosn serves as CEO of both companies. Taken together, the Renault–Nissan Alliance would be the fourth largest automaker, however Nissan is the leading Japanese brand in China, Russia. Nissan is the worlds largest electric vehicle manufacturer, with sales of more than 275,000 all-electric vehicles as of mid-December 2016. Masujiro Hashimoto founded the Kaishinsha Motor Car Works 1 July 1911, in 1914, the company produced its first car, called DAT. DAT Motors built trucks in addition to the DAT and Datsun passenger cars, beginning in 1918, the first DAT trucks were produced for the military market. At the same time, Jitsuyo Jidosha Co. Ltd. produced small trucks using parts, Commercial operations were placed on hold during Japans participation in World War I, and the company contributed to the war effort. In 1926 the Tokyo-based DAT Motors merged with the Osaka-based Jitsuyo Jidosha Co. Ltd. a. k. a, Jitsuyo Jidosha Seizo to become DAT Jidosha Seizo Co. Ltd Automobile Manufacturing Co. Ltd. in Osaka until 1932, from 1923 to 1925, the company produced light cars and trucks under the name of Lila. In 1931, DAT came out with a new car, called the Datsun Type 11. Later in 1933 after Nissan Group zaibatsu took control of DAT Motors, in 1933, the company name was Nipponized to Jidosha-Seizo Co. Ltd. and was moved to Yokohama. In 1928, Yoshisuke Aikawa founded the holding company Nihon Sangyo, the name Nissan originated during the 1930s as an abbreviation used on the Tokyo Stock Exchange for Nihon Sangyo. This company was the famous Nissan Zaibatsu which included Tobata Casting, at this time Nissan controlled foundries and auto parts businesses, but Aikawa did not enter automobile manufacturing until 1933. The zaibatsu eventually grew to include 74 firms, and became the fourth-largest in Japan during World War II, in 1931, DAT Jidosha Seizo became affiliated with Tobata Casting, and was merged into Tobata Casting in 1933. As Tobata Casting was a Nissan company, this was the beginning of Nissans automobile manufacturing, in 1934, Aikawa separated the expanded automobile parts division of Tobata Casting and incorporated it as a new subsidiary, which he named Nissan Motor Co. Ltd. The shareholders of the new company however were not enthusiastic about the prospects of the automobile in Japan, at this time, Nissan Motor effectively became owned by Nihon Sangyo and Hitachi. In 1935, construction of its Yokohama plant was completed,44 Datsuns were shipped to Asia, Central and South America
38.
Toyota FCHV-BUS
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The Toyota FCHV is a current hybrid hydrogen fuel cell vehicle development programme, which was leased to a limited number of drivers in the USA and Japan beginning in 2002. FCHV stands for Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle, a number of prototypes have been produced, up to the latest FCHV-adv. The FCHV designs are based on the first generation Highlander SUV, the powertrain consists of a 90 kW fuel cell supplied from onboard compressed hydrogen tanks, and a nickel–metal hydride battery in parallel. Battery and fuel cell can provide power to the 90 kW driving motors either singly or together, at low speeds the FCHV can run on battery alone, with a range of about 50 km. For high performance, such as when accelerating from rest, the fuel cell, the battery can also charge by regenerative braking, improving overall efficiency. There are currently five generations of the FCHV, beginning with preliminary prototypes FCHV-1, as of 2008 the FCHV-adv was available for lease in Japan. The use of the vehicles by government ministries and companies is intended to provide detailed development feedback on the FCHV performance under varied driving conditions. In 2007 a FCHV was driven 560 km between Osaka and Tokyo on a tank of hydrogen, proving that a hydrogen vehicle could compete with conventional vehicles for range. The 700 Bar hydrogen tanks holds 156 liters - enough fuel for a range of 830 kilometers on the Japanese 10-15 test cycle and 760 kilometers on the Japanese JC08 test cycle. Test vehicles on the Japanese 10-15 test cycle average 22.7 kilometers per hour with a top speed of 70 kilometers per hour, vehicles on the JC08 test cycle average 24.4 kilometers per hour and a top speed of 81.6 kilometers per hour. The Toyota FCHV-BUS is a fuel cell bus based on the Hino Blue Ribbon City low-floor bus, after Expo 2005, some were lent to bus fleet operators, and also demonstrated in fuel cell events. Some measure of credit is given to Jules Verne in the episode, list of fuel cell vehicles Fine-S Fine-N Fine-T Fine-X FCV-R FCV Toyota FCHV-adv Putting the Green in Our Machine
39.
Expo 2005
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Expo 2005 was the Worlds Fair held for 185 days between Friday, March 25 and Sunday, September 25,2005, in Aichi Prefecture, Japan, east of the city of Nagoya. It was a Specialized International Exhibition under the scheme of the 1972 protocol of the Convention relating to International Exhibitions, Japan has also hosted Expo70 Osaka, Expo 75 Okinawa, Expo85 Tsukuba, and Expo90 Osaka. The theme of the Expo was Natures Wisdom, with national and corporate pavilions expressing themes of ecological co-existence, renewable technology, and the wonders of nature. In Japanese, this is rendered as Ai-chikyūhaku, which means Love the Earth Expo, as well as being a play on the name of the host prefecture, 愛知. According to the website, We must come together and share our experience and wisdom. The main site of the Expo was an area in Nagakute, east of Nagoya. A smaller area of 0.15 square kilometres nearby, accessible by gondola from the site near Seto was also part of the Expo. The cost of the Expo has been estimated at 340 billion yen, however, the recorded 22,049,544 visitors greatly exceeded the target of 15,000,000 and the Expo made a profit of over 10 billion yen. The nearby city of Toyota also held related events, although there was no special area set aside. The area in Nagakute can be reached from Nagoya by subway to the last stop in Fujigaoka,121 Participants of countries set date for their own Pavilions. Morizo and Kiccoro, collectively known as Moricoro, were created to be Aichi Banpakus mascots, the popular fluffy green creatures are both from the forest of Seto. Satsuki and Meis House, was a recreation of the house from Hayao Miyazakis movie My Neighbor Totoro and it re-opened to the public on July 15,2006. ASIMO, Hondas humanoid robot, was shown off at the Expo as one of its public appearances. The Toyota Partner Robots made their debut, chickens Suit a clothing range for chickens by Edgar Honetschläger made its debut with chickens on a runway. The Growing Village Pavilion featured a variety of tree shaping art work, the Forest Experience Zone contains three areas, the ‘Nature School Forest’, ‘Satsuki and Mei’s House’, and the ‘Japanese Garden’. This forest explores the relationship between people and nature, the official theme song of the Expo was Ill Be Your Love, composed by Yoshiki Hayashi, and performed by a female singer named Dahlia, an Okinawan-American musician from Honolulu, Hawaii. On March 24,2005, Yoshiki conducted an orchestra and performed the song in a ceremony of the Expo. Pop singer Ayumi Hamasaki also performed a version of her single A Song Is Born on the events opening day
40.
CSR Corporation Limited
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China South Locomotive & Rolling Stock Corporation Limited was a state-owned enterprise supervised by the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China. In 2015, the merged with China CNR Corporation to form CRRC Corporation. In 1986 the China National Railway Locomotive & Rolling Stock Industry Corporation was formed, in 2002 LORIC was separated from the ministry of Railways and China South Locomotive and Rolling Stock Industry Corporation was formed. Its main competitor, the China North Locomotive and Rolling Stock Industry Corporation was formed in 2000, in 2002 the group manufactured the 270 km/h China Star high speed EMU at the Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive Works. In 2007 the China South Locomotive & Rolling Stock Corporation Limited was formed, the companys H shares were first traded on the Hong-Kong stock market on 21 August 2008, the companys A shares began trading on the 18 August 2008. The shares also began trading on the Shanghai Stock Exchange in August, a 40% stake in the company was offered in total on the two exchanges. Between 2004 and 2007 CSR had ~50% of the internal Chinese market for locomotives and ~80% of the market for multiple units, as well as a share in locomotive. In the same period overseas sales accounted for ~7-8% of revenue, in April 2010 the majority shareholder and state owned holding company China South Locomotive and Rolling Stock Industry Corporation was renamed to China South Locomotive Group. On 26 December 2011, CSR announced that it had tested a super high speed train that was capable of traveling at 500 km/h. In February 2014, CSR acquired the Argentine rolling stock manufacturer Emprendimientos Ferroviarios, at the end of 2014 CSR and its rival CNR announced their intention to merge, with a 1,1 share swap, the resultant company was to be named China Railway Rolling Stock Corp. The two companies merged on 1 June 2015. CSR Feb. 7th Rolling Stock Co. Ltd. manufacture, CSR Luoyang Locomotive Co. Ltd. refurbishment of locomotives. CSR Meishan Rolling Stock Co. Ltd. manufacture of wagons, brakes. CSR Nanjing Puzhen Rolling Stock Co. Ltd. manufacture of carriages, multiple units, CSR Sifang Locomotive & Rolling Stock Co. Ltd. Manufacture of carriages and multiple units, and auxiliary products, renamed CSR Qingdao Sifang Locomotive & Rolling Stock Co. CSR Sifang Rolling Stock Co. Ltd. maintenance and manufacture of carriages, CSR Yangtze Rolling Stock Co. Ltd. Ltd. R&D and manufacture of electric locomotives, multiple units and rapid transit vehicles, and electric motors, transformers and related products. Zhuzhou CSR Times Electric Co. Ltd. development and sale of traction and auxiliary electrical power equipment, CSR Ziyang Locomotive Co. Ltd. R&D and manufacturing of diesel and electric locomotives, and diesel and gas powered engines and sub-components. CSR Xiangfan Locomotive Co. Ltd. refurbishment of locomotives, Emprendimientos Ferroviarios, the companys subsidiary in Argentina
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CRRC Qingdao Sifang
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CSR Sifang Co Ltd. formerly known as CSR Sifang Locomotive & Rolling Stock Co. Ltd. is a Chinese rolling stock manufacturer based in Qingdao, Shandong province. It was established in 1900 and is now a subsidiary of China South Locomotive & Rolling Stock Corporation Limited, Kawasaki Heavy Industries co-operated with CSR Sifang Co Ltd. in year 2009 to produce the C151A trains, the fourth generation MRT train for SMRT Trains, in Singapore. A total of 22 trainsets were built with 6 carriages each, by 2010 half of the trainsets are completed, and testing was done in 2011 by Kawasaki Heavy Industries, before full delivery in December 2011. These trains now serves the North South Line & East West Line in Singapore, another 78 cars of C151A trains which in production to be delivered by 2014. The entire issue has generated a huge amount of controversies in Hong Kong. See the main articles for more details. sg/2016/07/we-summarise-wth-is-going-on-with-mrt-train-cars-being-shipped-back-to-china/
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Shanghai
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Shanghai is the most populous city proper in the world, with a population of more than 24 million as of 2014. As one of the four direct-controlled municipalities of the Peoples Republic of China, it is a financial centre and transport hub. Located in the Yangtze River Delta in East China, Shanghai sits on the edge of the mouth of the Yangtze in the middle portion of the eastern Chinese coast. The municipality borders the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the north, south and west, as a major administrative, shipping and trading city, Shanghai grew in importance in the 19th century due to trade and recognition of its favourable port location and economic potential. The city was one of five treaty ports forced open to foreign trade following the British victory over China in the First Opium War, the subsequent 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1844 Treaty of Whampoa allowed the establishment of the Shanghai International Settlement and the French Concession. The city then flourished as a center of commerce between China and other parts of the world, and became the financial hub of the Asia-Pacific region in the 1930s. However, with the Communist Party takeover of the mainland in 1949, trade was limited to other socialist countries, and the citys global influence declined. In the 1990s, the reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping resulted in an intense re-development of the city, aiding the return of finance. The two Chinese characters in the name are 上 and 海, together meaning Upon-the-Sea. The earliest occurrence of this dates from the 11th-century Song Dynasty, at which time there was already a river confluence. There are disputes as to exactly how the name should be understood, Shanghai is officially abbreviated 沪 in Chinese, a contraction of 沪渎, a 4th- or 5th-century Jin name for the mouth of Suzhou Creek when it was the main conduit into the ocean. This character appears on all motor vehicle license plates issued in the municipality today, another alternative name for Shanghai is Shēn or Shēnchéng, from Lord Chunshen, a third-century BC nobleman and prime minister of the state of Chu, whose fief included modern Shanghai. Sports teams and newspapers in Shanghai often use Shen in their names, such as Shanghai Shenhua F. C. Huating was another early name for Shanghai. In AD751, during the dynasty, Huating County was established at modern-day Songjiang. Today, Huating appears as the name of a hotel in the city. The city also has various nicknames in English, including Pearl of the Orient, during the Spring and Autumn period, the Shanghai area belonged to the Kingdom of Wu, which was conquered by the Kingdom of Yue, which in turn was conquered by the Kingdom of Chu. During the Warring States period, Shanghai was part of the fief of Lord Chunshen of Chu and he ordered the excavation of the Huangpu River. Its former or poetic name, the Chunshen River, gave Shanghai its nickname of Shen, two important events helped promote Shanghais development in the Ming dynasty
