1.
Occupational hygiene
–
Occupational hygiene is the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, control and prevention of hazards from work that may result in injury, illness, or affect the well being of workers. These hazards or stressors are typically divided into the biological, chemical, physical, ergonomic. The risk of an effect from a given stressor is a function of the hazard multiplied by the exposure to the individual or group. For chemicals, the hazard can be understood by the response profile most often based on toxicological studies or models. Depending on a type of job, a hygienist will apply their exposure science expertise for the protection of workers, consumers and/or communities. The British Occupational Hygiene Society defines that occupational hygiene is about the prevention of ill-health from work, the term occupational hygiene is synonymous with industrial hygiene. Environmental hygiene addresses similar issues to occupational hygiene, but is likely to be about broad industry or broad issues affecting the community, broader society. These aspects of hygiene can often be referred to as the art of occupational hygiene and is used in a similar sense to the art of medicine. Ultimately professionals seek to implement safe systems, procedures or methods to be applied in the workplace or to the environment, Occupational hygienists have been involved historically with changing the perception of society about the nature and extent of hazards and preventing exposures in the workplace and communities. g. Since 1900, asbestos exposures that have affected the lives of tens of thousands of people, Occupational hygienists have become more engaged in understanding and managing exposure risks to consumers from products with new regulations such as REACh. More recent issues affecting broader society are, for example in 1976, more recently again in the 1990s radon and in the 2000s the effects of mold from indoor air quality situations in the home and at work. In the later part of the 2000s concern has been raised about the effects of nanoparticles. This has involved occupational hygienists in research, collection of data and to develop suitable, the occupational hygienist may be involved with the assessment and control of physical, chemical, biological or environmental hazards in the workplace or community that could cause injury or disease. Physical hazards may include noise, temperature extremes, illumination extremes, ionizing or non-ionizing radiation, chemical hazards related to dangerous goods or hazardous substances are frequently investigated by occupational hygienists. Other related areas including indoor air quality and safety may also receive the attention of the occupational hygienist, biological hazards may stem from the potential for legionella exposure at work or the investigation of biological injury or effects at work, such as dermatitis may be investigated. Examples of occupational hygiene include, Analysis of physical hazards such as noise that would lead to use of earplugs or earmuffs, planning procedures to protect against infectious disease exposure in the event of a flu pandemic. Monitoring and testing the air for hazardous contaminants that can lead to potential worker illness and/or death, although there are many aspects to occupational hygiene work the most known and sought after is in determining or estimating potential or actual exposures to hazards. Several methods can be applied in assessing the workplace or environment for exposure to a known or suspected hazard, a traditional method applied by occupational hygienists to initially survey a workplace or environment is used to determine both the types and possible exposures from hazards
2.
Dental hygienist
–
A dental hygienist is a licensed dental professional, registered with a dental association, or regulatory body within their country of practice. They are a primary healthcare professional who works independently or alongside dentists and they have the training and education that focus and specialize in the prevention and treatment of oral disease. They can choose to work in a range of settings from independent practice, private practice, specialists practices to public sector. Dental hygienists have a scope of clinical procedures they provide to their patients. They assess a patients condition in order to offer patient-specific preventative and educational services to promote, the use of therapeutic methods assists their patients in controlling oral disease, while providing tailored treatment plans that emphasize the importance of behavioral changes. In most jurisdictions, hygienists work for a dentist or dental specialist, the major role of a dental hygienist is to perform periodontal therapy which includes things such periodontal charting, periodontal debridement, prophylaxis for patients with periodontal disease. They are also able to work at a clinic and can perform many tasks there. Such as selecting and sizing of orthodontic bands for dental braces, Dental hygienists work together with other dental professionals, with a higher number working at general practices with dentists, Dental therapists and oral health therapists. A smaller number work at specialist practices alongside orthodontists and periodontists and they help with the contribution of an interdisciplinary approach, aiming to provide optimum oral health care to their patients. Dental hygienists also aim to work inter-professionally to provide oral health care in the best interest of their patient. Dental hygienists also offer expertise in their field and can provide a dental hygiene diagnosis, professional education, They are able to provide education by teaching and training dental hygiene students and dental assistants. They can also choose to present research at a variety of different events, community health, They provide assistance and group talks in community dental clinics, residential care, hospitals and nursing homes. For example, helping clients that suffer from medical and mental disorders, military dentistry, They are able to provide dental care to service members and their dependents or to civilians during humanitarian disasters. Marketing and sales, They can promote dental products and services through dental companies as a company representative. Periodontal therapy is a continuous cycle requiring regular evaluation and maintenance to optimise treatment outcomes, the treatment is normally carried out by a dental hygienist or oral health therapist, but involves all members of the dental team and can include specialists throughout the course of care. The provisional diagnosis is generated following an oral examination, data collection. An ASA physical status classification system is used to indicate future treatment options for the patient, whilst considering the implications of risk factors and this also allows the dental clinician to begin planning all non-surgical therapy. It is normally accomplished with the incorporation of patient education and motivational interviewing, therefore, mechanical and chemical plaque control are involved in this phase
3.
Hygiene, Colorado
–
Hygiene is an unincorporated community with a U. S. Post Office in Boulder County, Colorado, United States, application for the first Hygiene Post Office was made by Rev. Jacob Stoner Flory of the United Church of the Brethren on May 28,1883 ZIP Code 80533. This communitys name stems from a time when it had a sanitarium to work with tuberculosis patients, the prestigious Hygiene Home was developed by Jacob S. Flory. Articles of Incorporation were filed with the Boulder County Clerk as the Crystal Fountains, Hygienic Home, a Warranty Deed was obtained for the property adjacent to the present Hygiene Elementary School on January 31,1882. An advertisement in the Longmont Ledger April 13,1883 announced that the Hygiene Home was open for the season, the Brethren Church is no longer in use as a church. The building is owned by the cemetery association, as of summer,2013, it is in the process of restoration. The community association has some of its meetings in the church building in 2013–2015. Hygiene has a US Post Office, a church, a school, the Hygiene Community Association was formed in 2011 to preserve historical information and promote the community. Hygiene Hay Days was created as a community festival by Hygiene business owners in 2012. In 2013 the festival was organized by an effort of business owners. The festival was again, larger, in 2014. The BNSF Railway has trackage on the edge of Hygiene which is a branch line connecting Longmont. Hygiene is located at 40°11′21. 84″N 105°10′39. 36″W
4.
Health
–
Health is the level of functional and metabolic efficiency of a living organism. In humans it is the ability of individuals or communities to adapt, other definitions have been proposed, among which a recent definition that correlates health and personal satisfaction. The definition of health has evolved over time, although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized as being vague, excessively broad, and was not construed as measurable. For a long time it was set aside as an impractical ideal, just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, the 1984 WHO revised definition of health defined it as the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living, it is a concept, emphasizing social and personal resources. Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from insults, since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Initiative has been a visible component of the United States’ approach to improving population health. Progress has been limited for many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches, a new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years. Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote health in humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences, studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health. Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of importance for both his health status and quality of their life. The concept of the field, as distinct from medical care. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individuals health, the maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, mental, and social well-being, together sometimes referred to as the health triangle. The WHOs 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion further stated that health is not just a state, Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities. Health and illness can co-exist, as people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy
5.
World Health Organization
–
The World Health Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, headquartered in Geneva, the WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations, the constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office international dhygiène publique and the League of Nations Health Organization, since its creation, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, an international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey. The head of WHO is Margaret Chan, the 2014/2015 proposed budget of the WHO is about US$4 billion. About US$930 million are to be provided by member states with a further US$3 billion to be from voluntary contributions, after failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss, the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organisation. Dr. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for a conference on health. The use of the world, rather than international, emphasised the truly global nature of what the organisation was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations and it thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assemblys first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO and its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of statistics on the spread. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing, in 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex, and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake an initiative to eradicate smallpox. At this point,2 million people were dying from smallpox every year, in 1966, WHO moved into its headquarters building
6.
French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
7.
Latinisation of names
–
Latinisation is the practice of rendering a non-Latin name in a Latin style. It is commonly found with personal names, with toponyms. It goes further than romanisation, which is the transliteration of a word to the Latin alphabet from another script and this was often done in the classical era for much the same reason as English-speaking cultures produce English versions of some foreign names. In the case of names in the post-Roman era this may be done to emulate Latin authors. In a scientific context, the purpose of Latinisation may be to produce a name which is internationally consistent. Humanist names, assumed by Renaissance humanists, were very largely Latinised names, Latinisation in humanist names may consist of translation from vernacular European languages, sometimes involving a playful element of punning. Such names could be a cover for social origins. Latinisation is a practice for scientific names. For example, Livistona, the name of a genus of trees, is a Latinisation of Livingstone. In English, place names appear in Latinised form. This is a result of many text books mentioning the places being written in Latin. Because of this, the English language often uses Latinised forms of place names instead of anglicised forms or the original names. Examples of Latinised names for countries or regions are, Estonia Ingria Livonia During the age of the Roman Empire, additionally, Latinised versions of Greek substantives, particularly proper nouns, could easily be declined by Latin speakers with minimal modification of the original word. During the medieval period, following the collapse of the Empire in Western Europe, in the early medieval period, most European scholars were priests and most educated people spoke Latin, and as a result, Latin became firmly established as the scholarly language for the West. Though during modern times Europe has largely abandoned Latin as a scholarly language, by tradition, it is still common in some fields to name new discoveries in Latin. Romanization, conversion of a text in Latin letters Nicolson, Dan H, orthography of Names and Epithets, Latinization of Personal Names
8.
Greek language
–
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
9.
Ancient Greek religion
–
Ancient Greek religion encompasses the collection of beliefs, rituals, and mythology originating in ancient Greece in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices. These groups varied enough for it to be possible to speak of Greek religions or cults in the plural, many ancient Greeks recognized the twelve major gods and goddesses, although philosophies such as Stoicism and some forms of Platonism used language that seems to assume a single transcendent deity. Different cities often worshiped the deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them. Greek religion was tempered by Etruscan cult and belief to form much of the later ancient Roman religion, while there were few concepts universal to all the Greek peoples, there were common beliefs shared by many. Ancient Greek theology was polytheistic, based on the assumption there were many gods. There was a hierarchy of deities, with Zeus, the king of the gods, having a level of control all the others. Some deities had dominion over aspects of nature. Other deities ruled over abstract concepts, for instance Aphrodite controlled love, while being immortal, the gods were certainly not all-good or even all-powerful. They had to obey fate, known to Greek mythology as the Moirai, which overrode any of their divine powers or wills. For instance, in mythology, it was Odysseus fate to return home to Ithaca after the Trojan War, and the gods could only lengthen his journey and make it harder for him, the gods acted like humans, and had human vices. They would interact with humans, sometimes even spawning children with them, at times certain gods would be opposed to others, and they would try to outdo each other. In the Iliad, Aphrodite, Ares and Apollo support the Trojan side in the Trojan War, while Hera, Athena, some gods were specifically associated with a certain city. Athena was associated with the city of Athens, Apollo with Delphi and Delos, Zeus with Olympia, other deities were associated with nations outside of Greece, Poseidon was associated with Ethiopia and Troy, and Ares with Thrace. The Greeks believed in an underworld where the spirits of the dead went after death, one of the most widespread areas of this underworld was ruled over by Hades, a brother of Zeus, and was known as Hades. Other well known realms are Tartarus, a place of torment for the damned, and Elysium, in the early Mycenean religion all the dead went to Hades, but the rise of mystery cults in the Archaic age led to the development of places such as Tartarus and Elysium. Such beliefs are found in the most ancient of Greek sources, such as Homer and this belief remained strong even into the Christian era. For most people at the moment of death there was, however, no hope of anything, some Greeks, such as the philosophers Pythagoras and Plato, also embraced the idea of reincarnation, though this was only accepted by a few. Epicurus taught that the soul was simply atoms which dissolved at death, Greek religion had an extensive mythology
10.
Hygieia
–
In Greek as well as Roman mythology, Hygieia, was the daughter of the god of medicine, Asclepius, and Epione. She was the goddess/personification of health, cleanliness and hygiene, Hygieia as well as her four sisters each performed a facet of Apollos art, Hygieia, Panacea, Iaso, Aceso, and Aglïa. Hygieia also played an important part in her fathers cult, while her father was more directly associated with healing, she was associated with the prevention of sickness and the continuation of good health. Her name is the source of the word hygiene, at Athens, Hygieia was the subject of a local cult since at least the 7th century BC. In the 2nd century AD, Pausanias noted the both of Hygieia and of Athena Hygieia near the entrance to the Acropolis of Athens. Hygieias primary temples were in Epidaurus, Corinth, Cos and Pergamon, Pausanias remarked that, at the Asclepieion of Titane in Sicyon, statues of Hygieia were covered by womens hair and pieces of Babylonian clothes. According to inscriptions, the sacrifices were offered at Paros. Ariphron, a Sicyonian artist from the 4th century BC wrote a well-known hymn celebrating her, statues of Hygieia were created by Scopas, Bryaxis and Timotheus, among others, but there is no clear description of what they looked like. She was often depicted as a woman feeding a large snake that was wrapped around her body or drinking from a jar that she carried. These attributes were later adopted by the Gallo-Roman healing goddess, Sirona, Hygieia was accompanied by her brother, Telesphorus. Hygieia Theoi Project, Hygeia Greek and Latin notices, in translation
11.
Skylab
–
Skylab was the United States first space station, orbiting Earth from 1973 to 1979, when it fell back to Earth amid huge worldwide media attention. Launched and operated by NASA, Skylab included a workshop, a solar observatory and it was launched unmanned by a modified Saturn V rocket, with a weight of 170,000 pounds. Lifting Skylab into low earth orbit was the mission and launch of a Saturn V rocket. Skylabs solar observatory was one aspect of study, and solar science was significantly advanced by the telescope. Each of these missions delivered a three-astronaut crew, carried in the Apollo Command/Service Module launched atop the Saturn IB rocket, which is much smaller than the Saturn V. For the final two manned missions to Skylab, a backup Apollo CSM/Saturn IB was assembled and made ready in case a rescue mission was needed. This deprived Skylab of most of its power, and also removed protection from intense solar heating, threatening to make it unusable. However, the first crew was able to save Skylab by deploying a replacement heat shade and freeing the jammed solar panels, Skylab included the Apollo Telescope Mount, Multiple Docking Adapter, Airlock Module with extravehicular activity hatches, and the Orbital Workshop. Electrical power came from solar arrays, as well as cells in the docked Apollo CSM. The rear of the station included a large tank, propellant tanks for maneuvering jets. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, the Earth Resources Experiment Package was used to view Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions. Plans were made to refurbish and reuse Skylab by using the Space Shuttle to boost its orbit, however, due to delays with the development of the Space Shuttle, Skylabs decaying orbit could not be stopped. In the hours before re-entry, NASA ground controllers attempted to adjust Skylabs trajectory, NASAs attempted target was a spot 810 miles south-southeast of Cape Town, South Africa. Skylab did not burn up as fast as NASA expected, and Skylab debris landed southeast of Perth in Western Australia, over a single property in Esperance,24 pieces of Skylab were found. Analysis of some debris indicated that the Skylab station had disintegrated 10 mi above the Earth, after Skylab, NASA space station/laboratory projects included Spacelab, Shuttle-Mir, and Space Station Freedom. Rocket engineer Wernher von Braun, science fiction writer Arthur C, clarke, and other early advocates of manned space travel, expected until the 1960s that a space station would be an important early step in space exploration. Von Braun participated in the publishing of a series of articles in Colliers magazine from 1952 to 1954. He envisioned a large, circular station 250 feet in diameter that would rotate to generate gravity and require a fleet of 7
12.
Geocentric orbit
–
A geocentric orbit or Earth orbit involves any object orbiting the Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. In 1997 NASA estimated there were approximately 2,465 artificial satellite orbiting the Earth and 6,216 pieces of space debris as tracked by the Goddard Space Flight Center. Over 16,291 previously launched objects have decayed into the Earths atmosphere, altitude as used here, the height of an object above the average surface of the Earths oceans. Analemma a term in astronomy used to describe the plot of the positions of the Sun on the celestial sphere throughout one year, apogee is the farthest point that a satellite or celestial body can go from Earth, at which the orbital velocity will be at its minimum. Eccentricity a measure of how much an orbit deviates from a perfect circle, eccentricity is strictly defined for all circular and elliptical orbits, and parabolic and hyperbolic trajectories. Equatorial plane as used here, an imaginary plane extending from the equator on the Earth to the celestial sphere, escape velocity as used here, the minimum velocity an object without propulsion needs to have to move away indefinitely from the Earth. An object at this velocity will enter a parabolic trajectory, above this velocity it will enter a hyperbolic trajectory, impulse the integral of a force over the time during which it acts. Inclination the angle between a plane and another plane or axis. In the sense discussed here the reference plane is the Earths equatorial plane, orbital characteristics the six parameters of the Keplerian elements needed to specify that orbit uniquely. Orbital period as defined here, time it takes a satellite to make one orbit around the Earth. Perigee is the nearest approach point of a satellite or celestial body from Earth, sidereal day the time it takes for a celestial object to rotate 360°. For the Earth this is,23 hours,56 minutes,4.091 seconds, solar time as used here, the local time as measured by a sundial. Velocity an objects speed in a particular direction, since velocity is defined as a vector, both speed and direction are required to define it. The following is a list of different geocentric orbit classifications, Low Earth orbit - Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 160 kilometers to 2,000 kilometres above mean sea level. At 160 km, one revolution takes approximately 90 minutes, medium Earth orbit - Geocentric orbits with altitudes at apogee ranging between 2,000 kilometres and that of the geosynchronous orbit at 35,786 kilometres. Geosynchronous orbit - Geocentric circular orbit with an altitude of 35,786 kilometres, the period of the orbit equals one sidereal day, coinciding with the rotation period of the Earth. The speed is approximately 3,000 metres per second, high Earth orbit - Geocentric orbits with altitudes at apogee higher than that of the geosynchronous orbit. A special case of high Earth orbit is the elliptical orbit
13.
Shower
–
A shower is a place in which a person bathes under a spray of typically warm or hot water. Indoors, there is a drain in the floor, most showers have temperature, spray pressure and adjustable showerhead nozzle. The simplest showers have a swivelling nozzle aiming down on the user and this allows the showerer to spray the water at different parts of their body. A shower can be installed in a shower stall or bathtub with a plastic shower curtain or door. Showering is common in Western culture due to the efficiency of using it compared with a bathtub and its use in hygiene is therefore common practice. A shower uses less water on average than a bath,80 litres for a shower compared with 150 litres for a bath, the original showers were neither indoor structures nor man-made, but were common natural formations, waterfalls. The falling water rinsed the bathers completely clean and was more efficient than bathing in a traditional basin, ancient people began to reproduce these natural phenomena by pouring jugs of water, often very cold, over themselves after washing. There has been evidence of upper class Egyptian and Mesopotamians having indoor shower rooms where servants would bathe them in the privacy of their own homes. However, these were rudimentary by modern standards, having rudimentary drainage systems and water was carried, not pumped, the ancient Greeks were the first people to have showers. Their aqueducts and sewage systems made of lead pipes allowed water to be pumped both into and out of large communal shower rooms used by elites and common citizens alike. These rooms have been discovered at the site of the city Pergamum, the depictions are very similar to modern locker room showers, and even included bars to hang up clothing. The ancient Romans also followed this convention, their famous bathhouses can be all around the Mediterranean. The Romans not only had these showers, but also believed in bathing multiple times a week, the water and sewage systems developed by the Greeks and Romans broke down and fell out of use after the fall of the Roman Empire. The first mechanical shower, operated by a pump, was patented in England in 1767 by William Feetham. His shower contraption used a pump to force the water into a vessel above the users head, the system would also recycle the same dirty water through every cycle. This early start was greatly improved in the anonymously invented English Regency shower design of circa 1810, the original design was over 10 feet tall, and was made of several metal pipes painted to look like bamboo. A basin suspended above the pipes fed water into a nozzle that distributed the water over the users shoulders, the water on the ground was drained and pumped back through the pipes into the basin, where the cycle would repeat itself. The original prototype was improved upon in the following decades
14.
Vacuum
–
Vacuum is space void of matter. The word stems from the Latin adjective vacuus for vacant or void, an approximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressure. In engineering and applied physics on the hand, vacuum refers to any space in which the pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure. The Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object that is surrounded by a vacuum, the quality of a partial vacuum refers to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum. Other things equal, lower gas pressure means higher-quality vacuum, for example, a typical vacuum cleaner produces enough suction to reduce air pressure by around 20%. Ultra-high vacuum chambers, common in chemistry, physics, and engineering, operate below one trillionth of atmospheric pressure, outer space is an even higher-quality vacuum, with the equivalent of just a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter on average. In the electromagnetism in the 19th century, vacuum was thought to be filled with a medium called aether, in modern particle physics, the vacuum state is considered the ground state of matter. Vacuum has been a frequent topic of debate since ancient Greek times. Evangelista Torricelli produced the first laboratory vacuum in 1643, and other techniques were developed as a result of his theories of atmospheric pressure. A torricellian vacuum is created by filling a glass container closed at one end with mercury. Vacuum became an industrial tool in the 20th century with the introduction of incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes. The recent development of human spaceflight has raised interest in the impact of vacuum on human health, the word vacuum comes from Latin an empty space, void, noun use of neuter of vacuus, meaning empty, related to vacare, meaning be empty. Vacuum is one of the few words in the English language that contains two consecutive letters u. Historically, there has been dispute over whether such a thing as a vacuum can exist. Ancient Greek philosophers debated the existence of a vacuum, or void, in the context of atomism, Aristotle believed that no void could occur naturally, because the denser surrounding material continuum would immediately fill any incipient rarity that might give rise to a void. Almost two thousand years after Plato, René Descartes also proposed a geometrically based alternative theory of atomism, without the problematic nothing–everything dichotomy of void, by the ancient definition however, directional information and magnitude were conceptually distinct. The explanation of a clepsydra or water clock was a topic in the Middle Ages. Although a simple wine skin sufficed to demonstrate a partial vacuum, in principle and he concluded that airs volume can expand to fill available space, and he suggested that the concept of perfect vacuum was incoherent. However, according to Nader El-Bizri, the physicist Ibn al-Haytham and the Mutazili theologians disagreed with Aristotle and Al-Farabi, using geometry, Ibn al-Haytham mathematically demonstrated that place is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body
15.
Culture
–
Culture can be defined in numerous ways. In the words of anthropologist E. B, Tylor, it is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is the way of life, especially the customs and beliefs. As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture is a concept in anthropology. The word is used in a sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of culture that emerged in the 20th century. When used as a count noun, a culture is the set of customs, traditions, in this sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes culture is used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a context, meaning something similar. His use, and that of many writers after him, refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human. To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, thus a contrast between culture and civilization is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. Cultural invention has come to any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior. Humanity is in a global accelerating culture change period, driven by the expansion of commerce, the mass media, and above all. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change, Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change, for example, the U. S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors, Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices
16.
Mental health
–
Mental health is a level of psychological well-being, or an absence of mental illness. It is the state of someone who is functioning at a satisfactory level of emotional and behavioral adjustment. Cultural differences, subjective assessments, and competing professional theories all affect how mental health is defined, a widely accepted definition of health by mental health specialists is psychoanalyst Sigmund Freuds definition, the capacity to work and to love. In the mid-19th century, William Sweetser was the first to coin the term mental hygiene, dorothea Dix was an important figure in the development of mental hygiene movement. Dix was a teacher who endeavored throughout her life to help people with mental disorders. This was known as the mental hygiene movement, emil Kraepelin in 1896 developed the taxonomy mental disorders which has dominated the field for nearly 80 years. Later the proposed model of abnormality was subjected to analysis. Mental illnesses are more common than cancer, diabetes, or heart disease, over 26 percent of all Americans over the age of 18 meet the criteria for having a mental illness. Serious mental disorders affect an estimated 6 percent of the adult population, a little more than half receive treatment. A WHO report estimates the global cost of illness at nearly $2.5 trillion in 2010. An individuals emotional health can also impact physical health and poor mental health can lead to such as substance abuse. Maintaining good mental health is crucial to living a long and healthy life, good mental health can enhance ones life, while poor mental health can prevent someone from living an enriching life. According to Richards, Campania, & Muse-Burke, There is growing evidence that is showing emotional abilities are associated with prosocial behaviors such as stress management and physical health. Their research also concluded that people who lack emotional expression are inclined to anti-social behaviors, Mental health can be seen as an unstable continuum, where an individuals mental health may have many different possible values. Mental wellness is generally viewed as an attribute, even if the person does not have any diagnosed mental health condition. This definition of mental health highlights emotional well-being, the capacity to live a full and creative life, some discussions are formulated in terms of contentment or happiness. Many therapeutic systems and self-help books offer methods and philosophies espousing strategies and techniques vaunted as effective for improving the mental wellness. Positive psychology is increasingly prominent in mental health, an example of a wellness model includes one developed by Myers, Sweeney and Witmer
17.
Oral hygiene
–
Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping the mouth and teeth clean to prevent dental problems, most commonly, dental cavities, gingivitis, periodontal diseases and bad breath. There are also oral pathologic conditions in which good oral hygiene is required for healing and these conditions include gingivitis, periodontitis, and dental trauma, such as subluxation, oral cysts, and following wisdom tooth extraction. Teeth cleaning is the removal of plaque and tartar from teeth to prevent cavities, gingivitis, gum disease. Severe gum disease causes at least one-third of adult tooth loss, tooth decay is the most common global disease. Dental sealants, which are applied by dentists, cover and protect fissures and grooves in the surfaces of back teeth. An elastomer strip has shown to force sealant deeper inside opposing chewing surfaces. Since before recorded history, a variety of oral hygiene measures have been used for teeth cleaning and this has been verified by various excavations done throughout the world, in which chew sticks, tree twigs, bird feathers, animal bones and porcupine quills were recovered. Many people used different forms of cleaning tools. In the Muslim world, the miswak, or siwak, made from a twig or root, has properties and has been widely used since the Islamic Golden Age. Rubbing baking soda or chalk against the teeth was also common, generally, dentists recommend that teeth be cleaned professionally at least twice per year. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling, tooth polishing, and, if tartar has accumulated, debridement, however, the American Dental Hygienists Association publicly stated in 1998 that there is an absence of evidence that scaling and polishing provides therapeutic value. Between cleanings by a dental hygienist, good hygiene is essential for preventing tartar build-up which causes the problems mentioned above. This is done through careful, frequent brushing with a toothbrush, powered toothbrushes reduce dental plaque and gingivitis more than manual toothbrushing in both short and long term. Further evidence is needed to determine the importance of these findings. Dentist and dental hygienist are about preventing tooth loss and gum disease, the patient needs to be aware of the importance of brushing and flossing their teeth daily. New parents need to be educated to promote a healthy life, at any age, a person should be notified about how to take care of their teeth and how they will be able to keep their teeth and not need dentures. Plaque is a yellow sticky film that forms on the teeth and gums, the bacteria in plaque convert carbohydrates in food into acid that demineralises teeth, eventually causing cavities. Daily brushing with toothpaste and flossing removes plaque, plaque can also cause inflammation of the gum, making it red, tender and can easily bleed when flossing or brushing your teeth
18.
Public health
–
It is concerned with threats to health based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, Public health incorporates the interdisciplinary approaches of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health and occupational safety, the focus of public health intervention is to improve health and quality of life through prevention and treatment of disease and other physical and mental health conditions. This is done through surveillance of cases and health indicators, there is a great disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed nations and developing nations. In the developing world, public health infrastructures are still forming, many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that the act of hand washing with soap can prevent many contagious diseases. Public health communications programs, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are examples of public health measures. Measures such as these have contributed greatly to the health of populations, Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and non-governmental organizations. The World Health Organization is the agency that coordinates and acts on global public health issues. Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, for example, in the United States, the front line of public health initiatives are state and local health departments. In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada is the agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response. The Public health system in India is managed by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare of the government of India with state-owned health care facilities. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox, antibiotic resistance, also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011. Although the prioritization of pressing public health issues is important, Laurie Garrett argues that there are following consequences, when foreign aid is funnelled into disease-specific programs, the importance of public health in general is disregarded. This public health problem of stovepiping is thought to create a lack of funds to other existing diseases in a given country. For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people suffer from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by the year 2030, the risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity. The WHO’s latest estimates highlighted that globally approximately 1.5 billion adults were overweight in 2008, the United States is the leading country with 30. 6% of its population being obese
19.
Isolation (health care)
–
Various forms of isolation exist, in some of which contact procedures are modified, and others in which the patient is kept away from all others. In a system devised, and periodically revised, by the U. S, centers for Disease Control and Prevention, various levels of patient isolation comprise application of one or more formally described precaution. Isolation is most commonly used when a patient is known to have a viral or bacterial illness. Special equipment is used in the management of patients in the forms of isolation. These most commonly include items of protective equipment and engineering controls. Dedicated isolation wards may be pre-built into hospitals, or isolation units may be designated in facilities in the midst of an epidemic emergency. Isolation is defined as the voluntary or compulsory separation and confinement of those known or suspected to be infected with a contagious disease agent to prevent further infections. Biocontainment refers to laboratory biosafety in microbiology laboratories in which the containment of highly pathogenic organisms is accomplished through built-in engineering controls. The practice was introduced in 1985–88. In 1987, the practice of universal precautions was adjusted by a set of known as body substance isolation. In 1996, both practices were replaced by the latest approach known as standard precautions, use of personal protective equipment is now recommended in all health settings. The latter require additional measures to effectively prevent transmission. Droplet precautions are intended to prevent transmission of pathogens spread through respiratory or mucous membrane contact with respiratory secretions. Airborne precautions prevent transmission of infectious agents that remain infectious over long distances suspended in the air. Strict isolation is used for diseases spread through the air and in cases by contact Patients must be placed in isolation to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. Those who are kept in isolation are often kept in a special room at the facility designed for that purpose. Such rooms are equipped with a lavatory and caregiving equipment. Contact isolation is used to prevent the spread of diseases that can be spread through contact with open wounds, health care workers making contact with a patient on contact isolation are required to wear gloves, and in some cases, a gown
20.
Quarantine
–
A quarantine is used to separate and restrict the movement of persons, it is a state of enforced isolation. This is often used in connection to disease and illness, such as those who may possibly have been exposed to a communicable disease. The term is often used to mean medical isolation, which is to separate ill persons who have a communicable disease from those who are healthy. Quarantine can be applied to humans, but also to animals of various kinds, for example, an article entitled Daily News workers quarantined describes a brief quarantine that lasted until people could be showered in a decontamination tent. The February/March 2003 issue of HazMat Magazine suggests that people be locked in a room until proper decon could be performed, but Capt. Chmiel said local health authorities have certain powers to quarantine people. It can also be used to limit exposure, as well as eliminate a vector, the first astronauts to visit the Moon were quarantined upon their return at the specially built Lunar Receiving Laboratory. Infected people were separated to prevent spread of disease among the ancient Israelites under the Mosaic Law, the word quarantine originates from the Venetian dialect form of the Italian quaranta giorni, meaning forty days. This is due to the 40-day isolation of ships and people entering the city of Dubrovnik in Croatia. This was practiced as a measure of disease related to the Black Death. Between 1348 and 1359, the Black Death wiped out an estimated 30% of Europes population, later, isolation was prolonged to 40 days and was called quarantine. Other diseases lent themselves to the practice of quarantine before and after the devastation of the plague, Venice took the lead in measures to check the spread of plague, having appointed three guardians of public health in the first years of the Black Death. The next record of preventive measures comes from Reggio in Modena in 1374, the first lazaret was founded by Venice in 1403, on a small island adjoining the city. In 1467, Genoa followed the example of Venice, and in 1476 the old hospital of Marseille was converted into a plague hospital. The great lazaret of Marseilles, perhaps the most complete of its kind, was founded in 1526 on the island of Pomègues, the practice at all the Mediterranean lazarets was not different from the English procedure in the Levantine and North African trade. On the approach of cholera in 1831 some new lazarets were set up at ports, notably a very extensive establishment near Bordeaux. Since 1852 several conferences were held involving European powers, with a view to uniform action in keeping out infection from the East, all but that of 1897 were concerned with cholera. The principal countries which retained the old system at the time were Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Greece, the aim of each international sanitary convention had been to bind the governments to a uniform minimum of preventive action, with further restrictions permissible to individual countries. The minimum specified by international conventions was very nearly the same as the British practice, an additional convention was signed in Paris on 3 December 1903
21.
Sterilization (microbiology)
–
Sterilization can be achieved through various means, including, heat, chemicals, irradiation, high pressure, and filtration. Sterilization is distinct from disinfection, sanitization, and pasteurization in that kills, deactivates, or eliminates all forms of life. Canning of foods is an extension of the principle, and has helped to reduce food borne illness. Other methods of sterilizing foods include food irradiation and high pressure, in general, surgical instruments and medications that enter an already aseptic part of the body must be sterile. Examples of such instruments include scalpels, hypodermic needles and artificial pacemakers and this is also essential in the manufacture of parenteral pharmaceuticals. Most medical and surgical devices used in healthcare facilities are made of materials that are able to go under steam sterilization, however, since 1950, there has been an increase in medical devices and instruments made of materials that require low-temperature sterilization. Ethylene oxide gas has been used since the 1950s for heat-, within the past 15 years, a number of new, low-temperature sterilization systems have been developed and are being used to sterilize medical devices. ]Steam sterilization is the most widely used and the most dependable. Steam sterilization is nontoxic, inexpensive, rapidly microbicidal, sporicidal, there are strict international rules to protect the contamination of Solar System bodies from biological material from Earth. Standards vary depending on both the type of mission and its destination, the more likely a planet is considered to be habitable, the aim of sterilization is the reduction of initially present microorganisms or other potential pathogens. The degree of sterilization is commonly expressed by multiples of the decimal reduction time, or D-value, then the number of microorganisms N after sterilization time t is given by, N N0 =10. The D-value is a function of sterilization conditions and varies with the type of microorganism, temperature, water activity, for steam sterilization typically the temperature is given as index. Theoretically, the likelihood of survival of an individual microorganism is never zero, to compensate for this, the overkill method is often used. Using the overkill method, sterilization is performed by sterilizing for longer than is required to kill the present on or in the item being sterilized. This provides a sterility assurance level equal to the probability of a non-sterile unit, for high-risk applications such as medical devices and injections, a sterility assurance level of at least 10−6 is required by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A widely used method for heat sterilization is the autoclave, sometimes called a converter or steam sterilizer, autoclaves use steam heated to 121-134 °C under pressure. To achieve sterility, the article is heated in a chamber by injected steam until the article reaches a time, meantime almost all the air is removed from the chamber, because air is undesired in the moist heat sterilization process. The article is then held at that setpoint for a period of time varies depending on the bioburden present on the article being sterilized. Following sterilization, liquids in a pressurized autoclave must be cooled slowly to avoid boiling over when the pressure is released and this may be achieved by gradually depressurizing the sterilization chamber and allowing liquids to evaporate under a negative pressure, while cooling the contents
22.
Surgery
–
An act of performing surgery may be called a surgical procedure, operation, or simply surgery. In this context, the verb means to perform surgery. The adjective surgical means pertaining to surgery, e. g. surgical instruments or surgical nurse, the patient or subject on which the surgery is performed can be a person or an animal. A surgeon is a person who practices surgery and an assistant is a person who practices surgical assistance. A surgical team is made up of surgeon, surgeons assistant, anesthesia provider, circulating nurse, Surgery usually spans minutes to hours, but it is typically not an ongoing or periodic type of treatment. The term surgery can also refer to the place where surgery is performed, or simply the office of a physician, dentist, Surgery is a technology consisting of a physical intervention on tissues. As a general rule, a procedure is considered surgical when it involves cutting of a patients tissues or closure of a previously sustained wound, surgical procedures are commonly categorized by urgency, type of procedure, body system involved, degree of invasiveness, and special instrumentation. Based on timing, Elective surgery is done to correct a condition, and is carried out at the patients request, subject to the surgeons. A semi-elective surgery is one that must be done to avoid permanent disability or death, emergency surgery is surgery which must be done promptly to save life, limb, or functional capacity. Based on purpose, Exploratory surgery is performed to aid or confirm a diagnosis, therapeutic surgery treats a previously diagnosed condition. Cosmetic surgery is done to improve the appearance of an otherwise normal structure. By type of procedure, Amputation involves cutting off a part, usually a limb or digit. Resection is the removal of all or part of an organ or part of the body. Replantation involves reattaching a severed body part, reconstructive surgery involves reconstruction of an injured, mutilated, or deformed part of the body. Excision is the cutting out or removal of an organ, tissue, transplant surgery is the replacement of an organ or body part by insertion of another from different human into the patient. Removing an organ or body part from a human or animal for use in transplant is also a type of surgery. By body part, When surgery is performed on one system or structure. Examples include cardiac surgery, gastrointestinal surgery, and orthopedic surgery, by contrast, an open surgical procedure such as a laparotomy requires a large incision to access the area of interest
23.
Surgical mask
–
Surgical masks are popularly worn by the general public in East Asian countries to reduce the chance of spreading airborne diseases. Its first recorded use was by the French surgeon Paul Berger during an 1897 operation in Paris, modern surgical masks are made from paper or other non-woven material and should be discarded after each use. A surgical mask is not to be confused with a respirator and is not certified as such, surgical masks are not designed to protect the wearer from inhaling airborne bacteria or virus particles and are less effective than respirators, which are designed for this purpose. Simple surgical masks protect wearers from being splashed in the mouth with body fluids and they also remind wearers not to touch their mouth or nose, which could otherwise transfer viruses and bacteria after having touched a contaminated surface. They can also reduce the spread of infectious liquid droplets that are created when the wearer coughs or sneezes, there is no clear evidence that disposable face masks worn by members of the surgical team would reduce the risk of wound infections after clean surgical procedures. Cotton and gauze masks do not serve as surgical masks as they do not offer adequate filtration of microbes, evidence supports the effectiveness of surgical masks in reducing the risk of infection among other healthcare workers and in the community. The U. S Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provides information on products. A printable factsheet has been designed for issue to those unaccustomed to respirator use, in Japan and Taiwan, it is common to see these masks worn while ill, as a show of consideration for others and social responsibility. They are also worn by people in dusty environments such as sanitation workers, the mask is used in Japan to prevent allergic rhinitis from inhaling the pollen of Cryptomeria japonica in spring. The mythological figure Kuchisake Onna is commonly seen with a mask to hide the scars on her mouth. Pop star Michael Jackson often wore a mask when in public to conceal his identity. The design of the surgical masks depends on the mode, usually the masks are 3 ply/3 layers and this 3 ply material is made up from a melt-blown material placed between non-woven fabric. The melt-blown material acts as the filter that stops microbes from entering or exiting the mask, most surgical masks feature pleats or folds. Commonly,3 pleats are used allowing the user to expand the mask so it covers the area from the nose to the chin, there are 3 different ways to secure the masks. The most popular is the ear loop, where a string like material is attached to the mask, the other is the tie-on and the head band. The tie-on straps consist of four non-woven straps that are tied behind the head, the head band is an elastic strap that is placed behind the head. Surgical masks with decorative designs are popular in countries in which they are worn in public
24.
Hospital gown
–
A hospital gown, also called a johnny gown or johnny is a long loose piece of clothing worn in a hospital by someone doing or having an operation. It can be used as clothing for bedridden patients, Hospital gowns worn by patients are designed so that hospital staff can easily access the part of the patients body being treated. The hospital gown is made of fabric that can withstand repeated laundering in hot water, usually cotton, disposable hospital gowns may be made of paper or thin plastic, with paper or plastic ties. Some gowns have snaps along the top of the shoulder and sleeves, used paper hospital gowns are associated with hospital infections, which could be avoided by proper disposal. A Canadian study surveying patients at five hospitals determined 57 percent could have worn more clothing below the waist, the physicians conducting the survey said gowns should not be required unless they are necessary. Although they are cheaper and easier to wash, Dr. Todd Lee, of Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal, otherwise, Lee said, pajamas or regular clothes may be acceptable. When 9-year-old Luke Lange complained about wearing a gown when being treated for Hodgkins lymphoma, his mother adapted some t-shirts for him to wear. Other children saw the t-shirt and wanted one too, two years later, the organization Lukes FastBreaks had raised $1 million for childrens cancer and given out over 5000 of the t-shirts. They were long enough to wear like the gowns, but some preferred to wear them like t-shirts, briton Lynn, executive director of Lukes FastBreaks, said the t-shirts helped children have a more positive attitude. Studies had been done on updating the garment first used when most patients had to stay in bed, NCSU professor Traci Lamar said, Now doctors want patients up and walking quickly. Still, traditional gowns could be washed many times and could be handled a lot, Lamars team worked to come up with a more comfortable, less revealing design. Surveys found that nurses did not like the ties in the back because knots could form, and some patients wore more than one gown at once, with one tied in front, many patients disliked how lightweight gowns were. In April 2009, the NCSU team showed potential new designs at a reception, meanwhile, some hospitals were offering alternatives, including gowns that opened in the front or on the side, and drawstring pants, cotton tops and boxers. These cost more than traditional gowns, in 2009, Fatima Ba-Alawi was honored for her DCS gown at a RCN conference on London. Four years after she started using her skills making dresses to redesign hospital gowns, one version called the Faith Gown has a detachable head scarf and long sleeves. Another redesign in England came from Ben de Lisi, one of six receiving grants, the Design Council was scheduled to show his design, which did not open in the back but did allow access, in March 2010. The Cleveland Clinic changed its gowns in 2010 because the CEO had heard many complaints, many patients feel that hospital gowns are unfashionable, Diane von Furstenberg was commissioned to design stylish hospital gowns based on her fashionable wrap dress by the Cleveland Clinic. The new design was reversible with a V-neck in both the front and the back, with softer fabric, Lamars additional funding came from RocketHub
25.
Eye protection
–
Eye protection is protective gear for the eyes, which comes in many types depending upon the threat that is to be reduced. The threats can be particles, light, wind blast, heat, goggles are forms of protective eyewear that usually enclose or protect the eye area in order to prevent particulates, infectious fluids, or chemicals from striking the eyes. For example, when swimming, goggles protect the eyes from salt or chlorine in the pool, the human eye is sensitive to intense light because it damages the retina and can even blind the individual. There are many different types of eye protection against light suited for different applications, the most common forms of eye protection against light are sunglasses. These primarily protect against UV light from the sun and help increase visibility in bright conditions and they often tend to be fashionable as well as practical. Laser protection eyewear is similar but will filter out a particular wavelength, laser protection eyewear is particularly important because of the extremely high intensity of laser light. Shade 14 welding glass must be used to stare directly at the sun, sunglasses will not provide sufficient protection. Welding glass protects against glare and flying sparks and it is a more extreme implementation of the same idea as sunglasses, suited to the more intense light generated during welding. Arc welding goggles must be much darker than blowtorch goggles, eye protectors used in sports like orienteering and cycling to protect eyes from insects, dust and wind blast. Batting helmet with full coverage is used by the catcher in baseball and softball games to protect the eyes. Eyeshield is a piece of equipment which attaches to a players helmet to protect the eyes from impact. Fighter pilot helmet includes a visor for protection from the sun, some firefighters helmets have visors which protect the eyes from infrared rays and the radiant heat of fire as well as from impact. Hockey helmets have visors, shields, cages and masks to protect the eyes, hurling helmets protect the eyes from the ball and from near contact with other players. Lacrosse helmet used primarily in mens lacrosse have a visor to protect the face, lifeboatmans helmet has a transparent visor to keep sea spray out of the eyes. Motorcycle helmets and Bicycle helmets have face shields that protects the eyes against wind blast, dust, insects, racing helmets also have face shields to protect against fire and impact. Riot protection helmets have visors to protect the eyes and face from projectiles, safety helmets, also called hard hats, used by chainsaw operators and construction workers often have visors to protect the eyes from impact. Space suit helmets have gold-impregnated face shields to protect astronauts from the rays of the sun. Prices depend on the manufacturing cost, quality, wavelength protection, glasses Helmet Visor Protective headgear Personal protective equipment
26.
Medical glove
–
Medical gloves are disposable gloves used during medical examinations and procedures that help prevent cross-contamination between caregivers and patients. Cornstarch replaced tissue-irritating Lycopodium powder and talc, but even cornstarch can impede healing if it gets into tissues, as such, unpowdered gloves are used more often during surgery and other sensitive procedures. Special manufacturing processes are used to compensate for the lack of powder, there are two main types of medical gloves, examination and surgical. Surgical gloves have more precise sizing with a precision and sensitivity and are made to a higher standard. Examination gloves are available as either sterile or non-sterile, while surgical gloves are generally sterile, caroline Hampton became the chief nurse of the operating room when Johns Hopkins Hospital opened in 1889. In 1894 Halsted implemented the use of sterilized medical gloves at Johns Hopkins, the first disposable latex medical gloves were manufactured in 1964 by Ansell. They based the production on the technique for making condoms and these gloves have a range of clinical uses ranging from dealing with human excrement to dental applications. Criminals have also known to wear medical gloves during commission of crimes. These gloves are often chosen because their thinness and tight fit allow for dexterity, however because of the thinness of these gloves, fingerprints may actually pass through the material as glove prints, thus transferring the wearers prints onto the surface touched or handled. The participants of the Watergate burglaries infamously wore rubber gloves in an effort to hide their fingerprints. To facilitate donning of gloves, powders have been used as lubricants, early powders derived from pines or club moss were found to be toxic. Talcum powder was used for decades but linked to postoperative granuloma, corn starch, another agent used as lubricant, was also found to have potential side effects such as inflammatory reactions and granuloma and scar formation. To make them easier to don without the use of powder, chlorination affects some of the beneficial properties of latex, but also eliminates soluble proteins that cause allergic reactions. With the availability of non-powdered medical gloves that were easy to don, by 2016, healthcare systems in Germany and the United Kingdom had eliminated their use. In March 2016, the FDA issued a proposal to ban their use as well. Powder-free medical gloves are used in medical environments, where the need for cleanliness is often similar to that in a sensitive medical environment. Chemical processes may be employed to reduce the amount of protein in Hevea latex. It has no latex protein content and is resistant to tearing
27.
Bandage
–
A bandage is a piece of material used either to support a medical device such as a dressing or splint, or on its own to provide support to or to restrict the movement of a part of the body. When used with a dressing, the dressing is applied directly on a wound, other bandages are used without dressings, such as elastic bandages that are used to reduce swelling or provide support to a sprained ankle. Tight bandages can be used to slow blood flow to an extremity, bandages are available in a wide range of types, from generic cloth strips to specialized shaped bandages designed for a specific limb or part of the body. Bandages can often be improvised as the demands, using clothing. In American English, the bandage is often used to indicate a small gauze dressing attached to an adhesive bandage. The most common type of bandage is the bandage, a simple woven strip of material. A gauze bandage can come in any number of widths and lengths, the United States Pharmacopeia lists it as a form in which Absorbent Gauze may be provided. It is prepared from type 1 Absorbent gauze in various widths and lengths, the term compression bandage describes a wide variety of bandages with many different applications. Short stretch compression bandages are applied to a limb and this type of bandage is capable of shortening around the limb after application and is therefore not exerting ever-increasing pressure during inactivity. This dynamic is called resting pressure and is considered safe and comfortable for long-term treatment, conversely, the stability of the bandage creates a very high resistance to stretch when pressure is applied through internal muscle contraction and joint movement. This force is called working pressure, long stretch compression bandages have long stretch properties, meaning their high compressive power can be easily adjusted. However, they also have a high resting pressure and must be removed at night or if the patient is in a resting position. Also known as a bandage, a triangular bandage is a piece of cloth put into a right-angled triangle. It can be used fully unrolled as a sling, folded as a bandage, or for specialized applications. One advantage of this type of bandage is that it can be makeshift, the Boy Scouts popularized use of this bandage in many of their first aid lessons, as a part of the uniform is a neckerchief that can easily be folded to form a cravat. A tube bandage is applied using an applicator, and is woven in a continuous circle and it is used to hold dressings or splints on to limbs, or to provide support to sprains and strains, so that it stops bleeding. Bandage scissors Tulle gras Adhesive bandage Liquid bandage How to apply a bandage in a figure of 8 around an ankle, how to apply a bandage in circular style around a wrist
28.
Dressing (medical)
–
A dressing is a sterile pad or compress applied to a wound to promote healing and protect the wound from further harm. A dressing is designed to be in contact with the wound, as distinguished from a bandage. A dressing can have a number of purposes, depending on the type, severity and position of the wound, although all purposes are focused towards promoting recovery and protecting from further harm. Ultimately, the aim of a dressing is to promote healing of the wound by providing a sterile, breathable and this will then reduce the risk of infection, help the wound heal more quickly, and reduce scarring. Historically, dressings were made of a piece of material, usually a cloth, however, modern dressings include dry or impregnated gauze, plastic films, gels, foams, hydrocolloids, alginates, hydrogels, and polysaccharide pastes, granules and beads. Pressure dressings are used to treat burns and after skin grafts. They apply pressure and prevent fluids from collecting in the tissue, dressings can also regulate the chemical environment of a wound, usually with the aim of preventing infection by the impregnation of topical antiseptic chemicals. Commonly used antiseptics include povidone-iodine, boracic lint dressings or historically castor oil, antibiotics are also often used with dressings to prevent bacterial infection. Medical grade honey is another option, and there is moderate evidence that honey dressings are more effective than common antiseptic. Bioelectric dressings can be effective in attacking certain antibiotic-resistant bacteria and speeding up the healing process, dressings are also often impregnated with analgesics to reduce pain. The physical features of a dressing can impact the efficacy of such topical medications, occlusive dressings, made from substances impervious to moisture such as plastic or latex, can be used to increase their rate of absorption into the skin. Dressings are usually secured with adhesive tape and/or a bandage, many dressings today are produced as an island surrounded by an adhesive backing, ready for immediate application – these are known as island dressings. Gauze dressings are the most commonly used dressing due to their simplicity and inexpensiveness, constructed from an open-weave fabric, usually cotton, traditional gauze dressings function as an absorbent, breathable and protective pad for a wound. Non-stick gauze island dressings are the most common type of dressing today – an example is the Band-Aid, advancements in understanding of wounds have commanded biomedical innovations in the treatment of acute, chronic, and other types of wounds. Many biologics, skin substitutes, biomembranes and scaffolds have been developed to facilitate wound healing through various mechanisms, applying a dressing is a first aid skill, although many people undertake the practice with no training – especially on minor wounds. Modern dressings will almost all come in a prepackaged sterile wrapping, sterility is necessary to prevent infection from pathogens resident within the dressing. Historically, and still the case in less developed areas and in an emergency. This can consist of anything, including clothing or spare material, applying and changing dressings is one common task in nursing
29.
Waste management
–
Waste management or Waste disposal is all the activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes amongst other things, collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste together with monitoring and it also encompasses the legal and regulatory framework that relates to waste management encompassing guidance on recycling etc. Waste management is intended to reduce effects of waste on health. Waste management practices are not uniform among countries, regions, there are a number of concepts about waste management which vary in their usage between countries or regions. The waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste minimisation strategies, the aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste, see, resource recovery. The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the premise is for policy to take action first. The next step or preferred action is to reduce the generation of waste i. e. by re-use, the next is recycling which would include composting. Following this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy, energy can be recovered from processes i. e. landfill and combustion, at this level of the hierarchy. The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without energy recovery and this last step is the final resort for waste which has not been prevented, diverted or recovered. The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product, the life-cycle begins with design, then proceeds through manufacture, distribution, use and then follows through the waste hierarchys stages of reduce, reuse and recycle. Each of the stages of the life-cycle offers opportunities for policy intervention, to rethink the need for the product, to redesign to minimize waste potential. The key behind the life-cycle of a product is to optimize the use of the limited resources by avoiding the unnecessary generation of waste. Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that current, global, economic growth, globally, we are extracting more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to last use. This process of resource efficiency can address sustainability, the Polluter pays principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impact caused to the environment. With respect to management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable material. Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans was insignificant due to low population density, common waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human biodegradable waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with minimum environmental impact
30.
Hazardous waste
–
Hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment. In the United States, the treatment, storage, and disposal of waste are regulated under the Resource Conservation. Hazardous wastes are defined under RCRA in 40 CFR261 where they are divided into two categories, characteristic wastes and listed wastes. The requirements of RCRA apply to all the companies that generate hazardous waste as well as companies that store or dispose hazardous waste in the United States. Many types of businesses generate hazardous waste, dry cleaners, automobile repair shops, hospitals, exterminators, and photo processing centers may all generate hazardous waste. Some hazardous waste generators are larger companies such as manufacturers, electroplating companies. These wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids, a hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it cannot be disposed of by common means like other by-products of our everyday lives. Depending on the state of the waste, treatment and solidification processes might be required. Worldwide, the United Nations Environmental Programme estimated that more than 400 million tons of wastes are produced universally each year. About 1 percent of this is shipped across international boundaries, with the majority of the transfers occurring between countries in the Organization for the Economic Cooperation and Development. One of the reasons for industrialized countries to ship the waste to industrializing countries for disposal is the rising cost of disposing hazardous waste in the home country. Hazardous wastes are wastes with properties that make them dangerous or potentially harmful to health or the environment. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, contained gases, or sludges and they can be by-products of manufacturing processes or simply discarded commercial products, like cleaning fluids or pesticides. Hazardous wastes are regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Subtitle C, by definition, EPA determined that some specific wastes are hazardous. These wastes are incorporated into lists published by the Agency, rCRAs record keeping system helps to track the life cycle of hazardous waste and reduces the amount of hazardous waste illegally disposed. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, was enacted in 1980, the primary contribution of CERCLA was to create a Superfund and provide for the clean-up and remediation of closed and abandoned hazardous waste sites. CERCLA addresses historic releases of hazardous materials, but does not specifically manage hazardous wastes, a U. S. facility that treats, stores, or disposes of hazardous waste must obtain a permit for doing so under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Generators and transporters of hazardous waste must meet requirements for handling, managing
31.
Biomedical waste
–
Biomedical waste is any kind of waste containing infectious materials. Biomedical waste is a type of biowaste, Biomedical waste may be solid or liquid. Waste sharps include potentially contaminated used needles, scalpels, lancets, Biomedical waste is generated from biological and medical sources and activities, such as the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. In healthcare facilities, waste with these characteristics may alternatively be called medical or clinical waste, Biomedical waste is distinct from normal trash or general waste, and differs from other types of hazardous waste, such as chemical, radioactive, universal or industrial waste. Medical facilities generate waste hazardous chemicals and radioactive materials, while such wastes are normally not infectious, they require proper disposal. Some wastes are considered multihazardous, such as tissue samples preserved in formalin, disposal of this waste is an environmental concern, as many medical wastes are classified as infectious or biohazardous and could potentially lead to the spread of infectious disease. The most common danger for humans is the infection also affects other living organisms in the region. Daily exposure to the leads to accumulation of harmful substances or microbes in the persons body. A1990 report by the U. S, agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry concluded that the general public is not likely to be adversely affected by biomedical waste generated in the traditional healthcare setting. Steps in the management of biomedical waste include generation, accumulation, handling, storage, treatment, transport, disposal occurs off-site, at a location that is different from the site of generation. Treatment may occur on-site or off-site, Biomedical waste should be collected in containers that are leak-proof and sufficiently strong to prevent breakage during handling. Containers of biomedical waste are marked with a biohazard symbol, the container, marking, and labels are often red. Discarded sharps are usually collected in specialized boxes, often called needle boxes, specialized equipment is required to meet OSHA29 CFR1910.1450 and EPA40 CFR264.173. Minimal recommended equipment include a hood and primary and secondary waste containers to capture potential overflow. Even beneath the hood, containers containing chemical contaminants should remain closed when not in use. S. should be utilized in any department which deals with chemical waste. It is to be dumped after treatment, handling refers to the act of manually moving biomedical waste between the point of generation, accumulation areas, storage locations and on-site treatment facilities. Workers who handle biomedical waste should observe standard precautions, the goals of biomedical waste treatment are to reduce or eliminate the wastes hazards, and usually to make the waste unrecognizable. Treatment should render the waste safe for subsequent handling and disposal, there are several treatment methods that can accomplish these goals
32.
HACCP
–
In this manner, HACCP attempts to avoid hazards rather than attempting to inspect finished products for the effects of those hazards. The HACCP system can be used at all stages of a chain, from food production and preparation processes including packaging, distribution. Meat HACCP systems are regulated by the USDA, while seafood, HACCP itself was conceived in the 1960s when the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration asked Pillsbury to design and manufacture the first foods for space flights. Since then, HACCP has been recognized internationally as a tool for adapting traditional inspection methods to a modern, science-based. Based on risk-assessment, HACCP plans allow both industry and government to allocate their resources efficiently in establishing and auditing safe food production practices, hence, HACCP has been increasingly applied to industries other than food, such as cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. HACCP is focused only on the safety issues of a product and not the quality of the product. In the United States, HACCP compliance is regulated by 21 CFR part 120 and 123, similarly, FAO/WHO published a guideline for all governments to handle the issue in small and less developed food businesses. In the early 1960s, an effort between the Pillsbury Company, NASA, and the U. S. Army Laboratories began with the objective to provide safe food for space expeditions. In order to ensure that the food that would be sent to space was safe, Lachance imposed strict microbial requirements, including pathogen limits. Using the traditional end product testing method, it was realized that almost all of the food manufactured was being used for testing. Therefore, a new approach was needed, nASAs own requirements for Critical Control Points in engineering management would be used as a guide for food safety. CCP derived from Failure mode and effects analysis from NASA via the industry to test weapon. Using that information, NASA and Pillsbury required contractors to identify critical areas and eliminate them from the system. Baumann, a microbiologist by training, was so pleased with Pillsburys experience in the program that he advocated for his company to adopt what would become HACCP at Pillsbury. Soon thereafter, Pillsbury was confronted with a safety issue of its own when glass contamination was found in farina. Baumanns leadership promoted HACCP in Pillsbury for producing commercial foods, and this led to a panel discussion at the 1971 National Conference on Food Protection that included examining CCPs and Good Manufacturing Practices in producing safe foods. Several botulism cases were attributed to under-processed low-acid canned foods in 1970-71, the United States Food and Drug Administration asked Pillsbury to organize and conduct a training program on the inspection of canned foods for FDA inspectors. This 21-day program was first held in September 1972 with 11 days of classroom lecture and 10 days of canning plant evaluations, canned food regulations were first published in 1969
33.
Towel
–
A towel is a piece of absorbent fabric or paper used for drying or wiping a body or a surface. It draws moisture through direct contact, often using a blotting or a rubbing motion, in households, several types of fabric towels are used, including hand towels, bath towels and kitchen towels, which are used for drying dishes. In warm climates, people may also use beach towels, which are large towels used for drying off after swimming, common household textile towels are made from cotton, rayon, bamboo, non-woven fibers, and a few other materials. Paper towels are provided in commercial or office bathrooms for users to dry their hands, paper towels are also used in households for a range of wiping, cleaning and drying tasks. According to Middle Ages archaeological studies, closely held personal items included the ever present knife and a towel. However, the invention of the towel is commonly associated with the city of Bursa, Turkey and these Turkish towels began as a flat, woven piece of cotton or linen called a pestamel, often hand-embroidered. Long enough to wrap around the body, pestamel were originally fairly narrow, pestamel were used in Turkish baths as they stayed light when wet and were very absorbent. As the Ottoman Empire grew, so did the use of the towel, weavers were asked to embroider more elaborate designs, aided by their knowledge of carpet-weaving. By the 18th century, towels began to feature loops sticking up from the pile of the material and these looped towels became known as havly, over time, this word has changed to havlu, the Turkish word for towel, and means ‘with loops’. Towels didnt become affordable until the 19th century, with the cotton trade, with mechanization, cotton terry-towelling became available by the yard as well as being stocked in shops as pre-made towels. Now, towels are available in a variety of sizes, materials, some hotels which provide towel and bath robes embed washable RFID tags into their linens to deter theft. A bath towel is used for drying the body when it is wet and it is typically rectangular, with a typical size around 30 in ×60 in. A beach towel is usually a bit larger than a bath towel. Although it is used for drying off after being in the water. They are also worn for privacy while changing clothes in a public area, beach towels often have colorful patterns. A foot towel is a small, rectangular towel which, in the absence of a rug, a hand towel is significantly smaller than a bath towel, and is used for drying the hands after washing them. An oven towel or confectioners mitten is a multipurpose household towel used for a kitchen or shop applications, the term came into use within Irish communities after a textile mogul, Owen Valley, created the line based on his own towel experiences. A paper towel is a piece of paper that can be used once as a towel, paper towels can also be found packaged like facial tissues, as individual folded sheets
34.
Sanitation
–
These hazards may be physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause problems include human and animal excreta, solid wastes, domestic wastewater, industrial wastes. Hygienic means of prevention may involve engineering solutions, simple technologies, or even simply by behavior changes in personal hygiene practices, providing sanitation to people requires a systems approach, rather than only focusing on the toilet or wastewater treatment plant itself. The experience of the user, excreta and wastewater collection methods, transportation or conveyance of waste, treatment, the main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. The World Health Organization defines the term sanitation as follows, Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the disposal of human urine. The word sanitation also refers to the maintenance of conditions, through services such as garbage collection. There are some variations on the definition of sanitation in use. For example, for many organisations, hygiene promotion is seen as an part of sanitation. Despite the fact that sanitation includes wastewater treatment, the two terms are often use side by side as sanitation and wastewater management, Sanitation should be regarded with a systems approach in mind which includes collection/containment, conveyance/transport, treatment, disposal or reuse. Effective sanitation systems provide barriers between excreta and humans in such a way as to break the transmission cycle. This aspect is visualised with the F-diagram where all routes of fecal-oral disease transmission begin with the letter F, feces, fingers, flies, fields, fluids. Container-based sanitation is usually provided as a service involving provision of types of portable toilets. In most cases, CBS is based on the use of urine-diverting dry toilets, the term dry sanitation is somewhat misleading as sanitation includes hand-washing and can never be dry. A more precise term would be dry excreta management, when people speak of dry sanitation they usually mean sanitation systems with dry toilets with urine diversion, in particular the urine-diverting dry toilet. Put in other words, Ecosan systems safely recycle excreta resources to crop production in such a way that the use of resources is minimised. Ecosan is also called resource-oriented sanitation, environmental sanitation encompasses the control of environmental factors that are connected to disease transmission. Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water and wastewater treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise, improved sanitation and unimproved sanitation refers to the management of human feces at the household level. This terminology is the used to describe the target of the Millennium Development Goal on sanitation, by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply
35.
Soap
–
In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, in industry they are also used in textile spinning and are important components of some lubricants. Metal soaps are also included in modern artists oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier, soaps for cleaning are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in an aqueous solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, three molecules of fatty acids attach to a molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye, induces saponification, the glycerin, a useful byproduct, can remain in the soap product as a softening agent, or be isolated for other uses. Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases, which are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap, many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures of them. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils, in ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil. When used for cleaning, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in water, for example, oil/fat is insoluble in water, but when a couple of drops of dish soap are added to the mixture, the oil/fat solubilizes into the water. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water, the type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard—these are used exclusively in greases, soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have made from triglycerides. Triglyceride is the name for the triesters of fatty acids. Tallow, i. e. rendered beef fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals and its saponified product is called sodium tallowate. Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are palm oil, coconut oil, olive oil, each species offers quite different fatty acid content and hence, results in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps, Soap made from pure olive oil is sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, and is reputed for being extra mild. The term Castile is also applied to soaps from a mixture of oils. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon, a formula for soap consisting of water, alkali, and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC
36.
Detergent
–
A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleaning properties in dilute solutions. In most household contexts, the term detergent by itself refers specifically to laundry detergent or dish detergent, detergents are commonly available as powders or concentrated solutions. Detergents, like soaps, work because they are amphiphilic, partly hydrophilic and their dual nature facilitates the mixture of hydrophobic compounds with water. Because air is not hydrophilic, detergents are also foaming agents to varying degrees, detergents are classified into three broad groupings, depending on the electrical charge of the surfactants. The alkylbenzene portion of these anions is lipophilic and the sulfonate is hydrophilic, two different varieties have been popularized, those with branched alkyl groups and those with linear alkyl groups. The former were phased out in economically advanced societies because they are poorly biodegradable. An estimated 6 billion kilograms of detergents are produced annually for domestic markets. Bile acids, such as acid, are anionic detergents produced by the liver to aid in digestion and absorption of fats. The ammonium center is positively charged, non-ionic detergents are characterized by their uncharged, hydrophilic headgroups. Typical non-ionic detergents are based on polyoxyethylene or a glycoside, common examples of the former include Tween, Triton, and the Brij series. These materials are known as ethoxylates or PEGlyates and their metabolites. Glycosides have a sugar as their uncharged hydrophilic headgroup, examples include octyl thioglucoside and maltosides. HEGA and MEGA series detergents are similar, possessing an alcohol as headgroup. Zwitterionic detergents possess a net zero charge arising from the presence of numbers of +1. In World War I, there was a shortage of oils, synthetic detergents were first made in Germany. One of the largest applications of detergents is for household cleaning including dish washing and washing laundry, the formulations are complex, reflecting the diverse demands of the application and the highly competitive consumer market. Both carburetors and fuel injector components of Otto engines benefit from detergents in the fuels to prevent fouling, typical detergents are long-chain amines and amides such as polyisobuteneamine and polyisobuteneamide/succinimide. Reagent grade detergents are employed for the isolation and purification of integral membrane proteins found in biological cells, solubilization of cell membrane bilayers requires a detergent that can enter the inner membrane monolayer
37.
Disinfectant
–
Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents that are applied to the surface of non-living objects to destroy microorganisms that are living on the objects. Disinfectants are different from other agents such as antibiotics, which destroy microorganisms within the body, and antiseptics. Disinfectants are also different from biocides — the latter are intended to destroy all forms of life, Disinfectants work by destroying the cell wall of microbes or interfering with the metabolism. Sanitizer are substances that simultaneously clean and disinfect, Disinfectants are frequently used in hospitals, dental surgeries, kitchens, and bathrooms to kill infectious organisms. Bacterial endospores are most resistant to disinfectants, but some viruses, an alternative term used in the sanitation sector for disinfection of waste streams, sewage sludge or fecal sludge is sanitisation or sanitization. A perfect disinfectant would also complete and full microbiological sterilisation, without harming humans and useful form of life, be inexpensive. However, most disinfectants are also, by nature, potentially harmful to humans or animals, most modern household disinfectants contain Bitrex, an exceptionally bitter substance added to discourage ingestion, as a safety measure. Those that are used indoors should never be mixed with other cleaning products as chemical reactions can occur, the choice of disinfectant to be used depends on the particular situation. Some disinfectants have a spectrum, while others kill a smaller range of disease-causing organisms but are preferred for other properties. There are arguments for creating or maintaining conditions that are not conducive to survival and multiplication. Bacteria can increase in very quickly, which enables them to evolve rapidly. Should some bacteria survive an attack, they give rise to new generations composed completely of bacteria that have resistance to the particular chemical used. Under a sustained attack, the surviving bacteria in successive generations are increasingly resistant to the chemical used. For this reason, some question the wisdom of impregnating cloths, cutting boards, air disinfectants are typically chemical substances capable of disinfecting microorganisms suspended in the air. Disinfectants are generally assumed to be limited to use on surfaces, in 1928, a study found that airborne microorganisms could be killed using mists of dilute bleach. An air disinfectant must be dispersed either as an aerosol or vapour at a sufficient concentration in the air to cause the number of infectious microorganisms to be significantly reduced. In principle, these substances are ideal air disinfectants because they have both high lethality to microorganisms and low mammalian toxicity. The engineering challenge associated with creating a sufficient concentration of the glycol vapours in the air have not to date been sufficiently addressed, Alcohols are most effective when combined with distilled water to facilitate diffusion through the cell membrane, 100% alcohol typically denatures only external membrane proteins
.jpg)
.jpg)
.
