1.
Roman villa
–
A Roman villa was a country house built for the upper class in the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. The villa rustica centered on the villa itself, perhaps only seasonally occupied, under the Empire a concentration of Imperial villas grew up near the Bay of Naples, especially on the Isle of Capri, at Monte Circeo on the coast and at Antium. Wealthy Romans escaped the heat in the hills round Rome. Cicero allegedly possessed no fewer than seven villas, the oldest of them, Pliny the Younger had three or four, of which the example near Laurentium is the best known from his descriptions. The Empire contained many kinds of villas, not all of them lavishly appointed with mosaic floors, in the provinces, any country house with some decorative features in the Roman style may be called a villa by modern scholars. Some villas were more like the houses of England or Poland. These early suburban villas, such as the one at Romes Auditorium site or at Grottarossa in Rome, demonstrate the antiquity and it is possible that these early, suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power of regional strongmen or heads of important families. A third type of villa provided the organizational center of the large holdings called latifundia, by the first century BC, the classic villa took many architectural forms, with many examples employing atrium or peristyle, for enclosed spaces open to light and air. Upper class, wealthy Roman citizens in the countryside around Rome and throughout the Empire lived in villa complexes, the villa-complex consisted of three parts. The pars urbana where the owner and his family lived and this would be similar to the wealthy-persons in the city and would have painted walls. The pars rustica where the chef and slaves of the villa worked and lived and this was also the living quarters for the farms animals. There would usually be other rooms here that might be used as store rooms, the villa fructuaria would be the storage rooms. These would be where the products of the farm were stored ready for transport to buyers, storage rooms here would have been used for oil, wine, grain, grapes and any other produce of the villa. Other rooms in the villa might include an office, a temple for worship, several bedrooms, a dining room, Villas were often furnished with plumbed bathing facilities and many would have had an under-floor central heating known as the hypocaust. Smaller in the countryside, even non-commercial villas operated as largely self-supporting units, with associated farms, olive groves, Roman writers refer with satisfaction to the self-sufficiency of their villas, where they drank their own wine and pressed their own oil, a commonly used literary topos. The late Roman Republic witnessed an explosion of villa construction in Italy, especially in the following the dictatorship of Sulla. In Etruria, the villa at Settefinestre has been interpreted as being the centre of one of the latifundia that were involved in agricultural production. At Settefinestre and elsewhere, the housing of such villas was not richly appointed
Roman villa
–
Roman Villa Rustica Model. Remnants of these types of villas can be found in the vicinity of
Valjevo,
Serbia
Roman villa
–
Floor mosaics: Camino de Albalate,
Calanda, Spain
Roman villa
–
Some sumptuous Roman villas featured complex floor mosaics, such as
Villa Armira in modern
Bulgaria
Roman villa
–
Late Roman owners of villas had luxuries like
hypocaust -heated rooms with mosaics
2.
Caen
–
Caen is a commune in northwestern France. It is the prefecture of the Calvados department, the city proper has 108,365 inhabitants, while its urban area has 420,000, making Caen the largest city in former Lower Normandy. It is also the second largest municipality in all of Normandy after Le Havre, the metropolitan area of Caen, in turn, is the second largest in Normandy after that of Rouen, the 21st largest in France. It is located 15 kilometres inland from the English Channel, two hours north-west of Paris, and connected to the south of England by the Caen--Portsmouth ferry route. Caen is located in the centre of its region, and it is a centre of political, economic. Located a few miles from the coast, the landing beaches, the city has now preserved the memory by erecting a memorial and a museum dedicated to peace, the Memorial de Caen. Current arms, Gules, an open castle Or, windowed and masoned sable. Under the Ancien Régime, Per fess, gules and azure,3 fleurs de lys Or, during the First French Empire, Gules, a single-towered castle Or, a chief of Good Imperial Cities. Today, Caen has no motto, but it used to have one, as a result, its spelling is archaic and has not been updated, Un Dieu, un Roy, une Foy, une Loy. This motto is reflected in a notable old Chant royal, Caens home port code is CN In 1346, King Edward III of England led his army against the city, hoping to loot it. During the attack, English officials searched its archives and found a copy of the 1339 Franco-Norman plot to invade England, devised by Philip VI of France and this was subsequently used as propaganda to justify the supplying and financing of the conflict and its continuation. Only the castle of Caen held out, despite attempts to besiege it, a few days later, the English left, marching to the east and on to their victory at the Battle of Crécy. It was later captured by Henry V in 1417 and treated harshly for being the first town to put up any resistance to his invasion. During the Battle of Normandy in the Second World War, Caen was liberated from the Nazis in early July, British and Canadian troops had intended to capture the town on D-Day. However they were held up north of the city until 9 July, the Allies seized the western quarters, a month later than Field Marshal Montgomerys original plan. During the battle, many of the inhabitants sought refuge in the Abbaye aux Hommes. Both the cathedral and the university were destroyed by the British. Post-Second World War work included the reconstruction of complete districts of the city and it took 14 years and led to the current urbanization of Caen
Caen
–
View of downtown Caen and the Abbey of St. Étienne
Caen
–
Ruins of Caen
Caen
–
Hôtel d'Escoville, 16th century, Caen
Caen
–
Anonymous pen-and-ink bird's-eye view of the fortifications of Caen (
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris)
3.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
4.
Ancient Greek
–
Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
Ancient Greek
–
Inscription about the construction of the statue of
Athena Parthenos in the
Parthenon, 440/439 BC
Ancient Greek
–
Ostracon bearing the name of
Cimon,
Stoa of Attalos
Ancient Greek
–
The words ΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ as they are inscribed on the marble of the 1955
Leonidas Monument at
Thermopylae
5.
Vitruvius
–
His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body, led to the famous Renaissance drawing by Da Vinci of Vitruvian Man. By his own description Vitruvius served as an artilleryman, the class of arms in the military offices. He probably served as a officer of artillery in charge of doctores ballistarum. Little is known about Vitruvius life, most inferences about him are extracted from his only surviving work De Architectura. Even his first name Marcus and his cognomen Pollio are uncertain. Cetius Faventinus writes of Vitruvius Polio aliique auctores, this can be read as Vitruvius Polio, and others or, less likely, as Vitruvius, Polio, Vitruvius was a military engineer, or a praefect architectus armamentarius of the apparitor status group. He is mentioned in Pliny the Elders table of contents for Naturalis Historia, frontinus refers to Vitruvius the architect in his late 1st-century work De aquaeductu. Likely born a free Roman citizen, by his own account, Vitruvius served the Roman army under Caesar with the otherwise poorly identified Marcus Aurelius, Publius Minidius and these names vary depending on the edition of De architectura. Publius Minidius is also written as Publius Numidicus and Publius Numidius, as an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is speculated that Vitruvius served with Caesars chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus, the locations where he served can be reconstructed from, for example, descriptions of the building methods of various foreign tribes. Although he describes places throughout De Architectura, he not say he was present. His service likely included north Africa, Hispania, Gaul and Pontus, the position of the camp, the direction of the entrenchments, the inspection of the tents or huts of the soldiers and the baggage were comprehended in his province. His authority extended over the sick, and the physicians who had the care of them and he had the charge of providing carriages, bathhouses and the proper tools for sawing and cutting wood, digging trenches, raising parapets, sinking wells and bringing water into the camp. He likewise had the care of furnishing the troops with wood and straw, as well as the rams, onagri, balistae, at various locations described by Vitruvius, battles and sieges occurred. He is the source for the siege of Larignum in 56 BC. The broken siege at Gergovia in 52 BC, and the siege of Uxellodunum in 51 BC. These are all sieges of large Gallic oppida, a legion that fits the same sequence of locations is the Legio VI Ferrata, of which ballista would be an auxiliary unit. Mainly known for his writings, Vitruvius was himself an architect, frontinus mentions him in connection with the standard sizes of pipes
Vitruvius
–
A 1684 depiction of Vitruvius (right) presenting
De Architectura to
Augustus
Vitruvius
–
Vitruvian Man by
Leonardo da Vinci, an illustration of the human body inscribed in the circle and the square derived from a passage about geometry and human proportions in Vitruvius' writings
Vitruvius
–
Greek house plan after Vitruvius
Vitruvius
–
Drainage wheel from
Rio Tinto mines
6.
La Olmeda
–
The palatial Late Antique Roman villa at La Olmeda is situated in Pedrosa de la Vega in the province of Palencia, near the banks of the Carrión. Long known as the provenance of chance finds, it was professionally excavated from 1968. It is open to the public, while a dedicated to the finds is housed in the nearby church of San Pedro de Saldaña. The agrarian villa was effected in several stages, beginning in the quarter of the fourth century. This main building housed the poentior, with its oecus or reception hall, slightly raised semicircular apses mark its northeastern and northwestern end rooms. The main body of the communicated with a baths by a grand passageway. The principal front of the main block faces south, with a porticoed gallery ending in octagonal tower blocks, the residential quarters face north with two rectangular corner towers. The complex also included working and living quarters of more rustic aspect, kilns for baking roof tiles on the site, three burial grounds, and a section of paved roadway
La Olmeda
–
The hunt mosaic from La Olmeda
La Olmeda
–
Floor plan of the Roman villa of the 4th century BC of La Olmeda in
Pedrosa de la Vega (Palencia, Castile and León).
La Olmeda
–
The protective housing, designed by Ángela García de Paredes and Ignacio García-Pedrosa
La Olmeda
–
Storing area at Roman villae of La Olmeda.
7.
Province of Palencia
–
Palencia is a province of northern Spain, in the northern part of the autonomous community of Castile and León in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. It is bordered by the provinces of León, Cantabria, Burgos, of the population of 176,125, 45% live in the capital, Palencia which is located on the Castilla Canal. There are 191 municipalities in the province, of more than half are villages with fewer than 200 people. During the Middle Ages, the Visigoths ruled Palencia, basílica de San Juan, the oldest Visigothic church in Spain, was built in 661 in the provinces Baños de Cerrato. During the thirteenth century a university was founded in the province and it was the first university in Spain and one of the first in the world. It was later shifted to Valladolid, the province is bordered on the north by Cantabria, on the west by the province of León, on the east by the province of Burgos and on the south by the province of Valladolid. In Palencia large protected areas such as the Natural Park of Fuentes Carrionas, the term historical region in Palencia, refers to those regions created in the fourteenth century, under the name merindades. Cantabrian Mountains are located in the parts of the province. The 8,268 feet high Curavacas peak is located in the province, the major commercial products produced in the province are barley, wheat, sugar beets, hemp, linen and woolen clothes, porcelain, leather, paper, and rugs. Food processing and metallurgy are major industries, the province has three judicial districts–one each in Palencia, Carrión de los Condes and Cervera de Pisuerga. List of municipalities in Palencia Media related to Province of Palencia at Wikimedia Commons
Province of Palencia
–
Palencia
8.
Ancient Rome
–
In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
Ancient Rome
–
Senātus Populus que Rōmānus
Ancient Rome
–
Roman Republic
Ancient Rome
–
According to legend,
Rome was founded in 753 BC by
Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.
Ancient Rome
–
This bust from the
Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of
Lucius Junius Brutus.
9.
Pilae stacks
–
Pilae stacks are stacks of pilae tiles, square or round tiles, that were used in Roman times as an element of the underfloor heating system, common in Roman bathhouses, called the hypocaust. The concept of the Pilae stacks is that the floor is constructed at a position, allowing air to freely circulate underneath and up, through the hollow bricks. Examples of such baths are not only in Rome, but also in Roman Britain and distant parts of the Roman Empire such as the baths at Chellah. This architectural technique was the first form of heating and the same principle is still used today. Ceramic building material Roman bath Suspensura C. Michael Hogan, Chellah, The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham J. H. Middleton. The Remains of Ancient Rome, Published by Adam and Charles Black, v.2
Pilae stacks
–
Pilae stacks in the
Roman Baths at
Bath, England.
10.
Caldarium
–
A caldarium was a room with a hot plunge bath, used in a Roman bath complex. This was a hot and steamy room heated by a hypocaust. This was the hottest room in the sequence of bathing rooms, after the caldarium. In the caldarium, there would be a bath of hot water sunk into the floor and there was even a laconicum—a hot. The baths patrons would use olive oil to cleanse themselves by applying it to their bodies and this was sometimes left on the floor for the slaves to pick up or put back in the pot for the women to use for their hair. The hot floor and water would have most likely been heated by fires which slaves underneath kept burning or from the hot air from outside. The temperature of the caldarium is not known exactly, however, since the Romans used sandals with wooden sole, the bather waited long enough for the perspiration to start, in order to guard against the danger of passing too suddenly into the high temperature of the next room. Tepidarium Frigidarium Thermae Greek and Roman baths at the Perseus Project
Caldarium
–
Caldarium from the Roman Baths at
Bath, England. The floor has been removed to reveal the empty space where the hot air flowed through to heat the floor.
11.
Roman Baths (Bath)
–
The Roman Baths complex is a site of historical interest in the English city of Bath. The house is a well-preserved Roman site for public bathing, the Roman Baths themselves are below the modern street level. There are four main features, the Sacred Spring, the Roman Temple, the Roman Bath House, the buildings above street level date from the 19th century. The Baths are a major tourist attraction and, together with the Grand Pump Room and it was featured on the 2005 TV program Seven Natural Wonders as one of the wonders of the West Country. Visitors can see the Baths and Museum but cannot enter the water, an audio guide is available in 12 languages. The water which bubbles up from the ground at Bath falls as rain on the nearby Mendip Hills and it percolates down through limestone aquifers to a depth of between 2,700 and 4,300 metres where geothermal energy raises the water temperature to between 69 and 96 °C. Under pressure, the water rises to the surface along fissures. This process is similar to a one known as Enhanced Geothermal System which also makes use of the high pressures and temperatures below the Earths crust. Hot water at a temperature of 46 °C rises here at the rate of 1,170,000 litres every day, in 1983 a new spa water bore-hole was sunk, providing a clean and safe supply of spa water for drinking in the Pump Room. The first shrine at the site of the hot springs was built by Celts, and was dedicated to the goddess Sulis, whom the Romans identified with Minerva. Geoffrey of Monmouth in his largely fictional Historia Regum Britanniae describes how in 836 BC the spring was discovered by the British king Bladud who built the first Moorish baths. The name Sulis continued to be used after the Roman invasion, the temple was constructed in 60-70 AD and the bathing complex was gradually built up over the next 300 years. In the 2nd century it was enclosed within a wooden barrel-vaulted building, and included the caldarium, tepidarium, after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the first decade of the 5th century, these fell into disrepair and were eventually lost due to silting up, and flooding. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle suggests the original Roman baths were destroyed in the 6th century, about 130 curse tablets have been found. Many of the related to thefts of clothes whilst the victim was bathing. The spring is now housed in 18th-century buildings, designed by architects John Wood, the Elder and John Wood, visitors drank the waters in the Grand Pump Room, a neo-classical salon which remains in use, both for taking the waters and for social functions. Victorian expansion of the baths complex followed the tradition established by the Woods. In 1810 the Hot Springs failed and William Smith opened up the Hot Bath Spring to the bottom, Smith restored the water to its original course and the Baths filled in less time than formerly
Roman Baths (Bath)
–
The entrance to the Roman Baths
Roman Baths (Bath)
–
Roman Baths, as without any new architectural elements
Roman Baths (Bath)
–
The statue of King
Bladud overlooking the King's Bath carries the date of 1699, but its inclusion in earlier pictures shows that it is much older than this.
Roman Baths (Bath)
–
The Great Bath — the entire structure above the level of the pillar bases is a later construction.
12.
Bath, Somerset
–
Bath is a city in the ceremonial county of Somerset, England, known for its Roman-built baths. In 2011, the population was 88,859, Bath is in the valley of the River Avon,97 miles west of London and 11 miles south-east of Bristol. The city became a World Heritage Site in 1987, the city became a spa with the Latin name Aquæ Sulis c. AD60 when the Romans built baths and a temple in the valley of the River Avon, Bath Abbey was founded in the 7th century and became a religious centre, the building was rebuilt in the 12th and 16th centuries. In the 17th century, claims were made for the properties of water from the springs. Many of the streets and squares were laid out by John Wood, the Elder, and in the 18th century the city became fashionable, Jane Austen lived in Bath in the early 19th century. Further building was undertaken in the 19th century and following the Bath Blitz in World War II, the city has software, publishing and service-oriented industries. Theatres, museums, and other cultural and sporting venues have helped make it a centre for tourism with more than one million staying visitors and 3.8 million day visitors to the city each year. There are several museums including the Museum of Bath Architecture, Victoria Art Gallery, Museum of East Asian Art, the city has two universities, the University of Bath and Bath Spa University, with Bath College providing further education. Sporting clubs include Bath Rugby and Bath City F. C. while TeamBath is the name for all of the University of Bath sports teams. Bath became part of the county of Avon in 1974, and, the hills in the locality such as Bathampton Down saw human activity from the Mesolithic period. Several Bronze Age round barrows were opened by John Skinner in the 18th century, solsbury Hill overlooking the current city was an Iron Age hill fort, and the adjacent Bathampton Camp may also have been one. A long barrow site believed to be from the Beaker people was flattened to make way for RAF Charmy Down, messages to her scratched onto metal, known as curse tablets, have been recovered from the sacred spring by archaeologists. The tablets were written in Latin, and cursed people whom the writers felt had wronged them, for example, if a citizen had his clothes stolen at the baths, he might write a curse, naming the suspects, on a tablet to be read by the goddess. A temple was constructed in AD 60–70, and a complex was built up over the next 300 years. Engineers drove oak piles into the mud to provide a stable foundation, in the 2nd century, the spring was enclosed within a wooden barrel-vaulted structure that housed the caldarium, tepidarium, and frigidarium. The town was given defensive walls, probably in the 3rd century. After the failure of Roman authority in the first decade of the 5th century, in March 2012 a hoard of 30,000 silver Roman coins, one of the largest discovered in Britain, was unearthed in an archaeological dig
Bath, Somerset
–
The
Royal Crescent in Bath
Bath, Somerset
–
A nineteenth century
Photochrom of the Great Bath at the
Roman Baths. The entire structure above the level of the pillar bases is a later construction and was not a feature of the building in Roman days.
Bath, Somerset
–
Bath Abbey
Bath, Somerset
–
Map of Bath by
John Speed published in 1610
13.
De architectura
–
It contains a variety of information on Greek and Roman buildings, as well as prescriptions for the planning and design of military camps, cities, and structures both large and small. Derived partially from Latin rhetoric, Vitruvian terms for order, arrangement, proportion, and fitness for intended purposes have guided architects for centuries, the Roman author also gave advice on the qualifications of an architect and on types of architectural drawing. The ten books or scrolls are organized as follows, De architectura – Ten Books on Architecture Roman architects were skilled in engineering, art, Vitruvius was very much of this type, a fact reflected in De architectura. He covered a variety of subjects he saw as touching on architecture. This included many aspects that may seem irrelevant to modern eyes, ranging from mathematics to astronomy, meteorology, in the Roman conception, architecture needed to take into account everything touching on the physical and intellectual life of man and his surroundings. Vitruvius, thus, deals with many issues concerning architecture. Book IX relates the abstract geometry of Plato to the work of the surveyor. Astrology is cited for its insights into the organisation of human life, likewise, Vitruvius cites Ctesibius of Alexandria and Archimedes for their inventions, Aristoxenus for music, Agatharchus for theatre, and Varro for architecture. Vitruvius sought to address the ethos of architecture, declaring that quality depends on the relevance of the artists work. Perhaps the most famous declaration from De architectura is one still quoted by architects, a modern interpretation of Wottons English might render it thus, The ideal building has three elements, it is sturdy, useful, and beautiful. Vitruvius also studied human proportions and his canones were later encoded in a famous drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. Vitruvius also described the construction of sundials and water clocks, numerous such massive structures occur across the former empire, a testament to the power of Roman engineering. Vitruvius description of Roman aqueduct construction is short, but mentions key details especially for the way they were surveyed, and his book would have been of assistance to Frontinus, a general who was appointed in the late 1st century AD to administer the many aqueducts of Rome. The Roman Empire went far in exploiting water power, as the set of no fewer than 16 water mills at Barbegal in France demonstrates, the mills ground grain in a very efficient operation, and many other mills are now known, such as the much later Hierapolis sawmill. Vitruvius described many different construction materials used for a variety of different structures. Cement, concrete, and lime received in-depth descriptions, the longevity of many Roman structures being mute testimony to their skill in building materials, Vitruvius advised that lead should not be used to conduct drinking water, clay pipes being preferred. He comes to conclusion in Book VIII of De architectura after empirical observation of the apparent laborer illnesses in the plumbum foundries of his time. In 1986, the United States banned the use of lead in plumbing due to lead poisonings neurological damage, however, much of the water used by Rome and many other cities was very hard, and coated the inner surfaces of the pipes, so lead poisoning was unlikely
De architectura
–
A 1521
Italian language edition of De architectura, translated and illustrated by
Cesare Cesariano
De architectura
–
Greek house plan by Vitruvius
De architectura
–
Pont du Gard
De architectura
–
Drainage wheel from Rio Tinto mines
14.
Tepidarium
–
The tepidarium in the Roman thermae was the great central hall round which all the other halls were grouped, and which gave the key to the plans of the thermae. It was probably the hall where the bathers first assembled prior to passing through the hot baths or taking the cold bath. Caldarium Frigidarium This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
Tepidarium
–
The Tepidarium (1881), by
Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema
Tepidarium
–
The Tepidarium of the thermae in the Pompeii
15.
Bronze
–
These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as stiffness, ductility, or machinability. The archeological period where bronze was the hardest metal in use is known as the Bronze Age. In the ancient Near East this began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC, with India and China starting to use bronze around the same time, everywhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting from about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, the discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the process could be more easily controlled. Also, unlike arsenic, metallic tin and fumes from tin refining are not toxic, the earliest tin-alloy bronze dates to 4500 BCE in a Vinča culture site in Pločnik. Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Africa, Susa and some ancient sites in China, Luristan, ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together, so serious bronze work has always involved trade. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall. In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artefacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value, in Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes, are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources and these were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. Pure iron is soft, and the process of beating and folding sponge iron to wrought iron removes from the metal carbon. Careful control of the alloying and tempering eventually allowed for wrought iron with properties comparable to modern steel, Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. Among other advantages, it does not rust, the weaker wrought iron was found to be sufficiently strong for many uses. Archaeologists suspect that a disruption of the tin trade precipitated the transition. The population migrations around 1200–1100 BC reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean, limiting supplies, there are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin
Bronze
–
Yoruba bronze head sculpture, Ife, Nigeria c. 12th century AD
Bronze
–
Bronze deer figurine dating from between the 9th and 6th centuries BC,
National Archaeological Museum of
Sofia
Bronze
–
A hoard of bronze socketed axes from the
Bronze Age found in modern Germany. This was the top tool of the period, and also seems to have been used as a store of value.
Bronze
–
Chinese Ding,
Western Zhou (1046–771 BC)
16.
Mohenjo-daro
–
Mohenjo-daro is an archeological site in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated an UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. The site is threatened by erosion and improper restoration. Mohenjo-daro, the name for the site, has been variously interpreted as Mound of the Dead Men in Sindhi. The citys original name is unknown, based on his analysis of a Mohenjo-daro seal, Iravatham Mahadevan speculates that the citys ancient name could have been Kukkutarma. Cock-fighting may have had ritual and religious significance for the city, with domesticated chickens bred there for sacred purposes, Mohenjo-daro may also have been a point of diffusion for the eventual worldwide domestication of chickens. Mohenjo-daro is located west of the Indus River in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan and it is sited on a Pleistocene ridge in the middle of the flood plain of the Indus River Valley, around 28 kilometres from the town of Larkana. The Indus still flows east of the site, but the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed on the side is now dry. Mohenjo-daro was built in the 26th century BCE and it was one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, which developed around 3,000 BCE from the prehistoric Indus culture. Mohenjo-daro was the most advanced city of its time, with remarkably sophisticated civil engineering, when the Indus civilization went into sudden decline around 1900 BCE, Mohenjo-daro was abandoned. The ruins of the city remained undocumented for around 3,700 years until R. D and this led to large-scale excavations of Mohenjo-daro led by Kashinath Narayan Dikshit in 1924–25, and John Marshall in 1925–26. In the 1930s, major excavations were conducted at the site under the leadership of Marshall, D. K. Dikshitar, further excavations were carried out in 1945 by Ahmad Hasan Dani and Mortimer Wheeler. The last major series of excavations were conducted in 1964 and 1965 by Dr. George F. Dales, a dry core drilling conducted in 2015 by Pakistans National Fund for Mohenjo-daro revealed that the site is larger than the unearthed area. Mohenjo-daro has a layout based on a street grid of rectilinear buildings. Most were built of fired and mortared brick, some incorporated sun-dried mud-brick, the covered area of Mohenjo-daro is estimated at 300 hectares. The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History offers an estimate of a peak population of around 40,000. The sheer size of the city, and its provision of buildings and facilities. The city is divided into two parts, the so-called Citadel and the Lower City
Mohenjo-daro
–
The excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, Pakistan, in 2010.
Mohenjo-daro
–
Map showing the major sites and theorised extent of the
Indus Valley Civilisation, including the location of the Mohenjo-daro site.
Mohenjo-daro
–
"The Dancing Girl", a bronze statuette at the
National Museum of Pakistan collection.
Mohenjo-daro
–
"The Priest-King", a seated stone sculpture at the
National Museum, Karachi.
17.
Bitumen
–
Asphalt, also known as bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in deposits or may be a refined product. Until the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used, the word is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos. The primary use of asphalt/bitumen is in construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt, the terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, asphalt is the carefully refined residue from the process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called bitumen, geologists often prefer the term bitumen. Common usage often refers to forms of asphalt/bitumen as tar. Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is sometimes specified by the crude bitumen. Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C is sometimes referred to as refined bitumen. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the reserves of natural bitumen, covering 142,000 square kilometres. Additionally, most natural bitumens contain organosulfur compounds, resulting in a sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found in the <10 ppm level, as is typical of some petroleum, the substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase, and it is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large. Asphalt/bitumen can sometimes be confused with tar, which is a visually similar black. During the early and mid-20th century when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct, the addition of tar to macadam roads led to the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, other examples of this confusion include the La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian oil sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. Pitch is another term used at times to refer to asphalt/bitumen
Bitumen
–
Natural asphalt/bitumen from the
Dead Sea
Bitumen
–
refined asphalt/bitumen
Bitumen
–
The University of Queensland
pitch drop experiment, demonstrating the
viscosity of asphalt/bitumen
Bitumen
–
Bituminous outcrop of the Puy de la Poix,
Clermont-Ferrand, France
18.
Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic
–
Georgia, formally the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, also commonly known as Soviet Georgia was one of the republics of the Soviet Union from its inception in 1922 to its breakup in 1991. From November 18,1989, the Georgian SSR declared its sovereignty over Soviet laws, geographically, the Georgian SSR was bordered by Turkey to the south-west and the Black Sea to the west. Within the Soviet Union it bordered the Russian SFSR to the north, Armenian SSR to the south, on November 28,1917, after the October Revolution in Russia, there was a Transcaucasian Commissariat established in Tiflis. A moderate, multi-party democratic system led by the Social Democratic Party of Georgia operated in the Democratic Republic of Georgia, but in February 1921, the Red Army invaded Georgia. The Socialist Soviet Republic of Georgia was established on February 25,1921, on March 2 of the following year the first constitution of Soviet Georgia was accepted. From March 12,1922 to December 5,1936 it was part of the Transcaucasian SFSR together with the Armenian SSR, in 1936, the TSFSR was dissolved. In 1936, the TSFSR was dissolved and Georgia became the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, lavrentiy Beria became head of the Georgian OGPU and purged Georgia until he was transferred to Moscow in 1938. Reaching the Caucasus oilfields was one of the objectives of Hitlers invasion of the USSR in June 1941. The country contributed almost 700,000 fighters to the Red Army and he abolished their respective autonomous republics. The Georgian SSR was briefly granted some of their territory until 1957, the decentralisation program introduced by Khrushchev in the mid-1950s was soon exploited by Georgian Communist Party officials to build their own regional power base. A thriving pseudo-capitalist shadow economy emerged alongside the official state-owned economy, corruption was at a high level. Among all the republics, Georgia had the highest number of residents with high or special secondary education. Although corruption was hardly unknown in the Soviet Union, it became so widespread, shevardnadze ascended to the post of First Secretary with the blessings of Moscow. He was an effective and able ruler of Georgia from 1972 to 1985, improving the official economy, Soviet power and Georgian nationalism clashed in 1978 when Moscow ordered revision of the constitutional status of the Georgian language as Georgias official state language. Bowing to pressure from street demonstrations on April 14,1978. April 14 was established as a Day of the Georgian Language, on April 9,1989, Soviet troops were used to break up a peaceful demonstration at the government building in Tbilisi. Twenty Georgians were killed and hundreds wounded and poisoned, the event radicalised Georgian politics, prompting many - even some Georgian communists - to conclude that independence was preferable to continued Soviet unity. On October 28,1990, democratic elections were held
Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic
–
Map of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1931-1943
Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic
–
Flag
19.
Dzalisi
–
Dzalisi is a historic village in Georgia, located in the Mukhrani valley,50 km northwest of Tbilisi, and 20 km northwest of Mtskheta. It is the Zalissa of Ptolemy who mentions it as one of towns of Iberia. Archaeological digs have revealed the remains of four palaces and hypocaustic baths, acropolis, swimming pool, administrative part, barracks for soldiers, water supply system and burial grounds. One of the villas is notable for its mosaics, which, together with the mosaics of Pityus, are, by far. The style of the dates to around AD300. Its central part depicts Ariadne and Dionysus in a banquet scene, armazi Manana Dzumberovna Odiseli, edited by Renate Pillinger and Barbara Zimmermann. Spätanike und frühchristliche Mosaike in Georgien, temples and Palaces in the Ancient Georgia, Interpretation difficulties in the Context of the Near Eastern Archaeology
Dzalisi
–
A mosaic from Dzalisi
20.
Ondol
–
Ondol, also called gudeul, in Korean traditional architecture, is underfloor heating that uses direct heat transfer from wood smoke to heat the underside of a thick masonry floor. In modern usage it refers to any type of underfloor heating, the heated floor, supported by stone piers or baffles to distribute the smoke, is covered by stone slabs, clay and an impervious layer such as oiled paper. Use of the ondol has been found at sites in present-day North Korea. Early ondols began as gudeul that contained the heating for a home, when a fire was lit in the furnace to cook rice for dinner, the flame would be sent horizontally. This was achieved by having a flue entry located beside the furnace and this was essential, as it would not allow the smoke to travel upward, which would cause the flame to go out too soon. As the flame would pass through the entrance, it would be guided through the network of passages with the smoke. Entire rooms would be built on the flue to create ondol floored rooms. The term gudeul used colloquially for the modern day ondol in Korea for over two years, and called by many alternate names, the term ondol was introduced around the end of the 19th century. Ondol was first written in Hanja by modern-day writers, Ondol had traditionally been used as a living space for sitting, eating, sleeping and pastimes in most Korean homes before the 1960s. Koreans are accustomed to sitting on the floor, sleeping on the floor, the furnace burned mainly rice paddy straws, agricultural crop waste, biomass or any kind of dried firewood. For short-term cooking, rice paddy straws or crop waste was preferred, while hours of cooking. Unlike modern-day water heaters, the burning was either sporadically or regularly done, dependent on frequency of cooking. With the traditional ondol heating, floor spots closer to the furnace were normally warm enough, with warmer spots reserved for elders, Ondol had problems such as carbon monoxide poisoning resulting from burning coal briquette and environmental pollution. For these reasons, other technology heats modern Korean homes, the ondol, which is the radiant floor heating system, was suitable to the lifestyle of the Koreans. The famous American architect, Frank Lloyd Wright, was building a hotel in Japan, one day, he was invited to a Japanese familys house. The owner of the house experienced the ondol in Korea, and he could not forget it, Wright was so impressed by ondol that he invented radiant floor heating which uses hot water to heat up the floor. This system applied to Wrights buildings, instead of ondol-hydronic radiant floor heating, modern-day houses such as high-rise apartments have a developed version of the ondol system. Many architects know the advantages and benefits of ondol, and they are using ondol in modern houses, since the ondol has been introduced to many countries in the world, it is beginning to be considered as one of the systems of home heating
Ondol
–
High exhaust vents jutting sideways
Ondol
–
Chimney for fumes
Ondol
–
Exhaust vents as sideways-oriented pipes
21.
Kang bed-stove
–
The kang is a traditional long platform for general living, working, entertaining and sleeping used in northern part of China, where there is cold climate in winter. It is made of bricks or other forms of fired clay, a separate stove may be used for controlling the amount of smoke circulating through the kang, maintaining comfort in warmer weather. Typically, a kang occupies one-third to one half the area the room, a kang which covers the entire floor is called a dikang. Like the European ceramic stove, a block of masonry is used to retain heat. However, archeological sites in Shenyang, Liaoning, show humans using the heated bed floor as early as 7,200 years ago, the bed at this excavation is made of 10 cm pounded clay on the floor. The bed was heated by zhidi which is simply the process of placing an open fire on the bed floor and it is mentioned by Tang poet Meng Jiao in his poem titled Handi Baixing Yin. No fuel to heat the floor to sleep, standing and crying with cold at midnight instead, in the excavated example the repeated burning is believed to have turned the bed surface hard and moisture resistant. The first known type of heated platform appeared in modern-day Northeast of China and used a single flue systems found in the hypocaust of Ancient Rome, an example of this type of heated platform was unearthed in 1st-century building remains in the Heilongjiang Province. Its single flue is L shaped, built from adobe and cobblestones, heated walls with a double flue system was found in a 4th-century ancient palace building in the Jilin Province. It has an L shaped adobe bench with a double flue system and it is structurally more complex than a single flue system and has functionality similar to a kang. The word kang means to dry, first documented in the Chinese dictionary in AD121, the earliest kang remains have been discovered at Ninghai, Heilongjiang Province, in the Longquanfu Palace of Balhae origin. It is very high and wide to accommodate a thousand monks, the platform of the hall was constructed with stones arranged as a network of channels, and the floor was finished with a coat of clay. Fires are set at outdoor openings at the four sides of the platform, the construction was established by a benefactor to enable the monks to study in cold winters. In particular, Russians have traditionally used a sort of stove/bed, known as the Russian oven. Traditional Chinese Dwellings has a few drawings of kangs. It says that the kang is used to cook meals and heat the room, the kang produces radiant heat to heat the interior space indirectly in addition to the bed mass itself. It has been speculated that one of the oldest forms of Chinese housing, heated cave dwellings known as yaodong, widespread throughout northern China would have been uninhabitable without the kang. The Kang was also an important feature of traditional dwellings in the often frigid northeastern region of Manchuria and it plays an important role in Manchus mourning customs
Kang bed-stove
–
The blessing of the good and the joyfullness. The lady of the house is accompanied by a maid. The children are playing around the mother on the kang (heated platform). The artist Gao Yinzhang lived 1835-1906.
Kang bed-stove
–
A large kang shared by the guests of a one-room inn in a then-wild area east of
Tonghua, Jilin, as seen by
Henry E.M. James in 1887
Kang bed-stove
–
A European sitting on the Kang in his room in a Chinese inn
22.
Decline of the Roman Empire
–
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which it failed to enforce its rule, and its vast territory was divided into several successor polities. Increasing pressure from barbarians outside Roman culture also contributed greatly to the collapse, the reasons for the collapse are major subjects of the historiography of the ancient world and they inform much modern discourse on state failure. Relevant dates include 117 CE, when the Empire was at its greatest territorial extent, irreversible major territorial loss, however, began in 376 with a large-scale irruption of Goths and others. In 395, after winning two destructive civil wars, Theodosius I died, leaving a field army and the Empire, still plagued by Goths. Invading barbarians had established their own power in most of the area of the Western Empire, while its legitimacy lasted for centuries longer and its cultural influence remains today, the Western Empire never had the strength to rise again. The Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events, the Fall of the Western Roman Empire was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which it failed to enforce its rule. The Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events, for Dio Cassius, the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 CE marked the descent from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron. Gibbon started his story in 98 and Theodor Mommsen regarded the whole of the period as unworthy of inclusion in his Nobel Prize-winning History of Rome. Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke argue that the entire Imperial era was one of decay of institutions founded in republican times. Gibbon gave a formulation of reasons why the Fall happened. He began a controversy about the role of Christianity, but he gave great weight to other causes of internal decline. The story of its ruin is simple and obvious, and, instead of inquiring why the Roman empire was destroyed, we should rather be surprised that it had subsisted so long. The victorious legions, who, in distant wars, acquired the vices of strangers and mercenaries, first oppressed the freedom of the republic, alexander Demandt enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, and new ideas have emerged since. Historians still try to analyze the reasons for loss of control over a vast territory. Comparison has also made with the Han Empire in China. At least from the time of Henri Pirenne, scholars have described continuity of culture and of political legitimacy, Pirenne postponed the demise of classical civilization to the 8th century. The more recent formulation of a period characterized as Late Antiquity emphasizes the transformations of ancient to medieval worlds within a cultural continuity. In recent decades archaeologically-based argument even extends the continuity in material culture, observing the political reality of lost control, but also the cultural and archaeological continuities, the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall
Decline of the Roman Empire
–
Romulus Augustus was deposed as
Western Roman Emperor in 476 while still young. However,
Julius Nepos continued to claim the title of Western Emperor after his deposition.
Decline of the Roman Empire
–
The
Western and
Eastern Roman Empires by 476 CE
Decline of the Roman Empire
–
Europe in 476, from Muir's Historical Atlas (1911).
23.
Iberian Peninsula
–
The Iberian Peninsula /aɪˈbɪəriən pəˈnɪnsjᵿlə/, also known as Iberia /aɪˈbɪəriə/, is located in the southwest corner of Europe. The peninsula is divided between Portugal and Spain, comprising most of their territory. With an area of approximately 582,000 km2, it is the second largest European peninsula, at that time, the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabos Iberia was delineated from Keltikē by the Pyrenees and included the land mass southwest of there. The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the Phoenicians, hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term Iberia, which he wrote about circa 500 BC. Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with. According to Strabo, prior historians used Iberia to mean the country side of the Ἶβηρος as far north as the river Rhône in France. Polybius respects that limit, but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar, elsewhere he says that Saguntum is on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia. Strabo refers to the Carretanians as people of the Iberian stock living in the Pyrenees, according to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use Hispania and Hiberia as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political, the Latin word Hiberia, similar to the Greek Iberia, literally translates to land of the Hiberians. This word was derived from the river Ebro, which the Romans called Hiberus, hiber was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro. The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BC. Virgil refers to the Ipacatos Hiberos in his Georgics, the Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania. As they became interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names Hispania Citerior. At the time Hispania was made up of three Roman provinces, Hispania Baetica, Hispania Tarraconensis, and Lusitania, Strabo says that the Romans use Hispania and Iberia synonymously, distinguishing between the near northern and the far southern provinces. Whatever language may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the Vascones, the Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the Ebro, Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin. The association was so known it was hardly necessary to state, for example. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called the whole of Spain Hiberia because of the Hiberus River, the river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BC between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian, uses Ibērus, with reference to this border, Polybius states that the native name is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination
Iberian Peninsula
–
Satellite image of the Iberian Peninsula.
Iberian Peninsula
–
Iberian Peninsula and southern France, satellite photo on a cloudless day in March 2014
Iberian Peninsula
–
Map of Spain and Portugal, Atlas historique, dated approximately 1705–1739, of H.A. Chatelain.
Iberian Peninsula
–
An 18th-century map of the peninsula depicting various topographical features of the land, as published in Robert Wilkinson's General Atlas, circa 1794.
24.
Al Andalus
–
Al-Andalus, also known as Muslim Spain or Islamic Iberia, was a medieval Muslim territory and cultural domain occupying at its peak most of what are today Spain and Portugal. At its greatest geographical extent in the century, southern France—Septimania—was briefly under its control. Rule under these kingdoms led to a rise in cultural exchange, a number of achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from al-Andalus including major advances in trigonometry, astronomy, surgery, pharmacology, and other fields. Al-Andalus became an educational center for Europe and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea as well as a conduit for culture. For much of its history, al-Andalus existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms to the north, after the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented into a number of minor states and principalities. Attacks from the Christians intensified, led by the Castilians under Alfonso VI, the Almoravid empire intervened and repelled the Christian attacks on the region, deposing the weak Andalusi Muslim princes and included al-Andalus under direct Berber rule. In the next century and a half, al-Andalus became a province of the Berber Muslim empires of the Almoravids and Almohads, ultimately, the Christian kingdoms in the north of the Iberian Peninsula overpowered the Muslim states to the south. In 1085, Alfonso VI captured Toledo, starting a gradual decline of Muslim power, with the fall of Córdoba in 1236, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule and the Emirate of Granada became a tributary state of the Kingdom of Castile two years later. In 1249, the Portuguese Reconquista culminated with the conquest of the Algarve by Afonso III, finally, on January 2,1492, Emir Muhammad XII surrendered the Emirate of Granada to Queen Isabella I of Castile, completing the Christian Reconquista of the peninsula. The toponym al-Andalus is first attested to by inscriptions on coins minted by the new Muslim government in Iberia, the etymology of the name has traditionally been derived from the name of the Vandals. A number of proposals since the 1980s have contested this, Vallvé proposed a corruption of the name Atlantis, halm derives the name from a Gothic term *landahlauts. Bossong suggests derivation from a pre-Roman substrate and they crossed the Pyrenees and occupied Visigothic Septimania in southern France. Most of the Iberian peninsula became part of the expanding Umayyad Empire and it was organized as a province subordinate to Ifriqiya, so, for the first few decades, the governors of al-Andalus were appointed by the emir of Kairouan, rather than the Caliph in Damascus. Visigothic lords who agreed to recognize Muslim suzerainty were allowed to retain their fiefs, resistant Visigoths took refuge in the Cantabrian highlands, where they carved out a rump state, the Kingdom of Asturias. In the 720s, the al-Andalus governors launched several raids into Aquitaine. At the Battle of Poitiers in 732, the al-Andalus raiding army was defeated by Charles Martel, in 734, the Andalusi launched raids to the east, capturing Avignon and Arles and overran much of Provence. In 737, they climbed up the Rhône valley, reached as far as Burgundy, Charles Martel of the Franks, with the assistance of Liutprand of the Lombards, invaded Burgundy and Provence and expelled the raiders by 739. Relations between Arabs and Berbers in al-Andalus had been tense in the years after the conquest
Al Andalus
–
Al-Andalus and Christian kingdoms circa 1000 AD
Al Andalus
–
Islamic-period garden in the
Alhambra.
Al Andalus
–
A
gold Dinar minted in al-Andalus
25.
Castile (historical region)
–
Castile is a vaguely defined historical region of Spain. There are different conceptions and definitions of Castile, and since it lacks modern day official recognition, historically, Kingdom of Castile occupied the area. In modern Spain, it is considered to comprise the majority of the autonomous communities of Castile and León. Modern Spanish monarchs are numbered according to the system of Castile, castiles name is thought to derive from Spanish for land of castles in reference to the castles built in the area to consolidate the Christian Reconquest from the oncoming Moors. Originally an eastern county of the kingdom of León, in the 11th century Castile became an independent realm with its capital at Burgos, the County of Castile, which originally included most of Burgos and parts of Vizcaya, Álava, Cantabria and La Rioja. The capture of Toledo in 1085 added New Castile to the territories. León was finally reunited with Castile in 1230, and the following decades saw the capture of Córdoba, Murcia, by the Treaty of Alcaçovas with Portugal on March 6,1460, the ownership of the Canary Islands was transferred to Castile. See List of Spanish monarchs and Kings of Spain family tree, the Muslim Kingdom of Granada was conquered in 1492, formally passing to the Crown of Castile in that year. At the present time there are two nominally Castilian autonomous communities in Spain, as they hold the toponym in their own name, Castile and Leon. Other territories in the former Crown of Castile are left out for different reasons, however, in 1833, Spain was organised into administrative regions with specific official borders. The language of Castile emerged as the language of Spain—known to many of its speakers as castellano and in English sometimes as Castilian. See Names given to the Spanish language, Castilians are defined as a community with a shared culture and history. Their origin is, as well as most of parts of the Spain. Thus, it is not correct to establish a common origin. Over time, most Castilians have mixed with other Spaniards due to their past political dominance, Castilians and their cultural influence spread throughout the entire plateau of central Spain during the Reconquista, carried out principally by the Kingdom of Toledo which was renamed New Castile. Castilian ethnicity is the product of the conquest, by a kingdom in northern Spain. These lands were populated, during the reconquest, by peoples all over the peninsula. The Castilian language, now known as Spanish, gradually became the main language of Spain
Castile (historical region)
–
Castile and other Iberian regions in 1770
Castile (historical region)
–
The territory of Castile in 2 possible interpretations
Castile (historical region)
–
Castillian folk dancers from
Zamarramala,
Segovia.
Castile (historical region)
–
Cantar de Mio Cid is the oldest preserved
epic poem in Castilian language.
26.
Combustion
–
Combustion in a fire produces a flame, and the heat produced can make combustion self-sustaining. Combustion is often a sequence of elementary radical reactions. Solid fuels, such as wood, first undergo endothermic pyrolysis to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot enough that light in the form of either glowing or a flame is produced, a simple example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen into water vapor, a reaction commonly used to fuel rocket engines. The bond energies in the play only a minor role, since they are similar to those in the combustion products. The heat of combustion is approximately -418 kJ per mole of O2 used up in the combustion reaction, uncatalyzed combustion in air requires fairly high temperatures. Complete combustion is stoichiometric with respect to the fuel, where there is no remaining fuel, thermodynamically, the chemical equilibrium of combustion in air is overwhelmingly on the side of the products. Thus, the smoke is usually toxic and contains unburned or partially oxidized products. Since combustion is rarely clean, flue gas cleaning or catalytic converters may be required by law, fires occur naturally, ignited by lightning strikes or by volcanic products. Combustion was the first controlled chemical reaction discovered by humans, in the form of campfires and bonfires, usually, the fuel is carbon, hydrocarbons or more complicated mixtures such as wood that contains partially oxidized hydrocarbons. Combustion is also currently the only used to power rockets. Combustion is also used to destroy waste, both nonhazardous and hazardous, oxidants for combustion have high oxidation potential and include atmospheric or pure oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, chlorine trifluoride, nitrous oxide and nitric acid. For instance, hydrogen burns in chlorine to form hydrogen chloride with the liberation of heat, although usually not catalyzed, combustion can be catalyzed by platinum or vanadium, as in the contact process. In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen, producing a number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will yield carbon dioxide. When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides, carbon will yield carbon dioxide, sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide, and iron will yield iron oxide. Nitrogen is not considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the oxidant, Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example, sulfur trioxide is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur, NOx species appear in significant amounts above about 2,800 °F, and more is produced at higher temperatures
Combustion
–
The
flames caused as a result of a
fuel undergoing combustion (burning)
Combustion
–
The combustion of
methane, a
hydrocarbon.
Combustion
–
Container of ethanol vapour mixed with air, undergoing rapid combustion
Combustion
–
Colourized gray-scale composite image of the individual frames from a video of a backlit fuel droplet burning in microgravity.
27.
De Architectura
–
It contains a variety of information on Greek and Roman buildings, as well as prescriptions for the planning and design of military camps, cities, and structures both large and small. Derived partially from Latin rhetoric, Vitruvian terms for order, arrangement, proportion, and fitness for intended purposes have guided architects for centuries, the Roman author also gave advice on the qualifications of an architect and on types of architectural drawing. The ten books or scrolls are organized as follows, De architectura – Ten Books on Architecture Roman architects were skilled in engineering, art, Vitruvius was very much of this type, a fact reflected in De architectura. He covered a variety of subjects he saw as touching on architecture. This included many aspects that may seem irrelevant to modern eyes, ranging from mathematics to astronomy, meteorology, in the Roman conception, architecture needed to take into account everything touching on the physical and intellectual life of man and his surroundings. Vitruvius, thus, deals with many issues concerning architecture. Book IX relates the abstract geometry of Plato to the work of the surveyor. Astrology is cited for its insights into the organisation of human life, likewise, Vitruvius cites Ctesibius of Alexandria and Archimedes for their inventions, Aristoxenus for music, Agatharchus for theatre, and Varro for architecture. Vitruvius sought to address the ethos of architecture, declaring that quality depends on the relevance of the artists work. Perhaps the most famous declaration from De architectura is one still quoted by architects, a modern interpretation of Wottons English might render it thus, The ideal building has three elements, it is sturdy, useful, and beautiful. Vitruvius also studied human proportions and his canones were later encoded in a famous drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. Vitruvius also described the construction of sundials and water clocks, numerous such massive structures occur across the former empire, a testament to the power of Roman engineering. Vitruvius description of Roman aqueduct construction is short, but mentions key details especially for the way they were surveyed, and his book would have been of assistance to Frontinus, a general who was appointed in the late 1st century AD to administer the many aqueducts of Rome. The Roman Empire went far in exploiting water power, as the set of no fewer than 16 water mills at Barbegal in France demonstrates, the mills ground grain in a very efficient operation, and many other mills are now known, such as the much later Hierapolis sawmill. Vitruvius described many different construction materials used for a variety of different structures. Cement, concrete, and lime received in-depth descriptions, the longevity of many Roman structures being mute testimony to their skill in building materials, Vitruvius advised that lead should not be used to conduct drinking water, clay pipes being preferred. He comes to conclusion in Book VIII of De architectura after empirical observation of the apparent laborer illnesses in the plumbum foundries of his time. In 1986, the United States banned the use of lead in plumbing due to lead poisonings neurological damage, however, much of the water used by Rome and many other cities was very hard, and coated the inner surfaces of the pipes, so lead poisoning was unlikely
De Architectura
–
A 1521
Italian language edition of De architectura, translated and illustrated by
Cesare Cesariano
De Architectura
–
Greek house plan by Vitruvius
De Architectura
–
Pont du Gard
De Architectura
–
Drainage wheel from Rio Tinto mines
28.
Roman engineering
–
Romans are famous for their advanced engineering accomplishments, although some of their own inventions were improvements on older ideas, concepts and inventions. Technology for bringing running water into cities was developed in the east, the architecture used in Rome was strongly influenced by Greek and Etruscan sources. Roads were common at time, but the Romans improved their design. Moreover, their contributions were described in detail by authors such as Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, so there is a printed record of their many inventions. 1,000 cubic metres of water were brought into Rome by 14 different aqueducts each day, per capita water usage in ancient Rome matched that of modern-day cities like New York City or modern Rome. Most water was for use, such as baths and sewers. De aquaeductu is the two volume treatise on 1st century aqueducts of Rome, written by Frontinus. The aqueducts could stretch from 10–100 km long, and typically descended from an elevation of 300 m above sea level at the source, Roman engineers used inverted siphons to move water across a valley if they judged it impractical to build a raised aqueduct. The Roman legions were largely responsible for building the aqueducts, maintenance was often done by slaves. The Romans were among the first civilizations to harness the power of water and they built some of the first watermills outside of Greece for grinding flour and spread the technology for constructing watermills throughout the Mediterranean region. It is known that they were capable of building and operating mining equipment such as crushing mills. Large diameter vertical wheels of Roman vintage, for raising water, have been excavated from the Rio Tinto mines in Southwestern Spain, Roman bridges were among the first large and lasting bridges ever built. They were built with stone, employing the arch as basic structure, built in 142 BC, the Pons Aemilius, later named Ponte Rotto is the oldest Roman stone bridge in Rome, Italy. They were normally at least 18 meters above the body of water, an example of temporary military bridge construction are the two Caesars Rhine bridges. The Romans built many dams for water collection, such as the Subiaco dams, one of the Subiaco dams was reputedly the highest ever found or inferred. They built 72 dams in Spain, such as those at Mérida, at one site, Montefurado in Galicia, they appear to have built a dam across the river Sil to expose alluvial gold deposits in the bed of the river. The site is near the spectacular Roman gold mine of Las Medulas, tanks for holding water are also common along aqueduct systems, and numerous examples are known from just one site, the gold mines at Dolaucothi in west Wales. Masonry dams were common in North Africa for providing a water supply from the wadis behind many settlements
Roman engineering
–
Reconstruction of a 420.4m high Roman
Polyspastos in
Germany
Roman engineering
–
Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain.
Roman engineering
–
Alcántara Bridge, Spain
Roman engineering
–
The
Colosseum in
Rome.
29.
Roman technology
–
Roman technology is the engineering practice which supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible for over a millennium. The Romans achieved high levels of technology in large part because they borrowed technologies from the Greeks, Etruscans, Celts, all technology uses energy to transform the material into a desirable object or uses some form of mechanics combined with another form to make something better. The cheaper energy is, the wider the class of technologies that are considered economic and this is why technological history can be seen as a succession of ages defined by energy type i. e. human, animal, water, peat, coal, and oil. The Romans used water power, and watermills were common throughout the Empire and they were used for cereals milling, sawing timber and crushing ore. They exploited wood and coal for heating, there were huge reserves of wood, peat and coal in the Roman Empire, but they were all in the wrong place. Wood could be floated down rivers to the urban centres but otherwise it was a very poor fuel. If this was improved by being processed into charcoal, it was bulky, nor was wood ever available in any concentration. Diocletians Price Edict can give us a glimpse of the economics of transporting wood, the maximum price of a wagon load of 1,200 lbs of wood was 150 d. The maximum freight charge per mile for the wagon load was 20 d. per mile. Room heating was better done by charcoal braziers than hypocausts. But hypocausts did allow them to exploit any poor-quality smoky fuels like straw, vine prunings, hypocausts also allowed them to generate a humid heat for their baths. The Romans worked almost all the coalfields of England that outcropped on the surface, but there is no evidence that this exploitation was on any scale. After c.200 AD the commercial heart of the Empire was in Africa, there was no large coalfield on the edge of the Mediterranean. However, the aeolipile was an engine, inefficient as a stationary engine. The first useful steam engine did not use steam pressure at all, Roman technology was largely based on a system of crafts, although the term engineering is used today to describe the technical feats of the Romans. The Greek words used were mechanic or machine-maker or even mathematician which had a wider meaning than now. There were a number of engineers employed by the army. The most famous engineer of this period was the Greek Apollodorus of Damascus, normally each trade, each group of artisans—stonemasons, glass blowers, surveyors, etc
Roman technology
–
The
Pont du Gard in
France is a Roman aqueduct built in c. 19 BC.
Roman technology
–
Mercury gilded statue –
Marcus Aurelius
Roman technology
–
The
sixteen overshot wheels at Barbegal are considered the biggest
ancient mill complex. Their capacity was sufficient to feed the whole nearby city of
Arles.
Roman technology
–
The 4th-century Roman
Lycurgus cup is one of the earliest known examples of
nanoengineering.
30.
Masonry heater
–
The technology has existed in different forms, from back into the Neoglacial and Neolithic periods. Archeological digs have revealed excavations of ancient inhabitants utilizing hot smoke from fires in their subterranean dwellings and these early forms have evolved into modern systems. Evidence found from 5,000 B. C. of massive blocks of masonry used to retain heat foreshadowed early forms of fire hearths that were used as multifunctional heating sources, later evolutions came in the Roman hypocaust, Austrian/German using the smoke and exhaust of a single fire. The Chinese developed the principle into their Kang bed-stove. The masonry heater has gained renewed domestic popularity recently because of its heating efficiency, ASTM International calls a masonry heater a vented heating system of predominantly masonry construction having a mass of at least 800 kg, excluding the chimney and masonry heater base. The stove is made of such as brick, soapstone, tile, stone, stucco, or a combination of materials. It is freestanding, and usually requires special support to bear its weight and it consists of a firebox and heat-exchange channels or partitions that provide additional surface area. These absorb heat from the hot exhaust gases before the exit into the chimney. The fire in a masonry heater burns much hotter than in a metal stove, very hot fires reduce emissions significantly. When not being fired, the connection from the heater to the chimney sometimes has a damper to prevent heat from escaping up the chimney. Masonry takes longer to heat than metal, but once warm, a masonry heater is warmed by fires that burn for a short time, it is mostly the heat stored by the heaters mass that heats the living space. Both in Europe and in America seating and even beds are occasionally built adjoining the masonry stove and this cycle of short firings and long periods of heat-release makes a masonry heater a much more convenient option for actually heating a house with wood, than a metal wood stove. Masonry stoves can release heat from anywhere up to 36 hours after the fire has gone out and this means that a householder might typically light a fire in the evening on returning home. In a more modern masonry heater with a door, this means that they can enjoy the fire during the evening. But overnight and throughout the day when the fire is no longer alight the heater will still be warming the house. Compare this to a stove which is either often too hot or too cold and the requirement for the owner to be present to load with logs at regular intervals. Heat stress is a concern during the construction of masonry heaters. Differences in temperature inside the core of the heater can result in differential expansion
Masonry heater
–
A classic Scandinavian style round ceramic stove which fits in the corner of a room.
Masonry heater
–
A kachelofen used for
central heating, built around 1959.
Masonry heater
–
Modern masonry heater
Masonry heater
31.
Underfloor heating
–
Underfloor heating and cooling is a form of central heating and cooling which achieves indoor climate control for thermal comfort using conduction, radiation and convection. Underfloor heating has a history back into the Neoglacial and Neolithic periods. The hot smoke heated the floor stones which then radiated into the living spaces and these early forms have evolved into modern systems using fluid filled pipes or electrical cables and mats. Below is an overview of under floor heating from around the world. Modern underfloor heating systems use electrical resistance elements or fluid flowing in pipes to heat the floor. Either type can be installed as the primary, whole-building heating system or as localized floor heating for thermal comfort, electrical resistance can only be used for heating, when space cooling is also required, hydronic systems must be used. A range of heating systems and designs are available to suit different types of flooring. Electric heating elements or hydronic piping can be cast in a floor slab. They can also be placed under the covering or attached directly to a wood sub floor. Some commercial buildings are designed to take advantage of mass which is heated or cooled during off peak hours when utility rates are lower. With the heating/cooling system turned off during the day, the concrete mass, such systems are known as thermally activated building systems or TABS. Hydronic systems use water or a mix of water and anti-freeze such as propylene glycol as the transfer fluid in a closed loop that is recirculated between the floor and the boiler. Various types of pipes are available specifically for hydronic underfloor heating and cooling systems and are made from polyethylene including PEX, PEX-Al-PEX. Older materials such as Polybutylene and copper or steel pipe are used in some locales or for specialized applications. Hydronic systems require skilled designers and tradespeople familiar with boilers, circulators, controls, fluid pressures, hydronic systems can use a single source or combination of energy sources to help manage energy costs. Propane mainly made from oil, less efficient than natural gas by volume, produces more Carbon Dioxide than methane on a b. t. u. basis. Due to their low profile they can be installed in a mass or directly under floor finishes. Large electric systems also require skilled designers and tradespeople but this is less so for small floor warming systems, electric systems use fewer components and are simpler to install and commission than hydronic systems
Underfloor heating
–
Underfloor heating pipes, before they are covered by the screed
Underfloor heating
–
Radiant tubing layout, Project: BCIT Aerospace Hangar, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Underfloor heating
–
Manifold assembly
Underfloor heating
–
Electric floor heating installation, cement being applied
32.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
33.
Winston Churchill
–
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD PC DL FRS RA was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his overall, in 1963, he was the first of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. Churchill was born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough and his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young officer, he saw action in British India, the Anglo–Sudan War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns, at the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, during the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government under Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, at the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister and he led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured. After the Conservative Party suffered a defeat in the 1945 general election. He publicly warned of an Iron Curtain of Soviet influence in Europe, after winning the 1951 election, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His second term was preoccupied by foreign affairs, including the Malayan Emergency, Mau Mau Uprising, Korean War, domestically his government laid great emphasis on house-building. Churchill suffered a stroke in 1953 and retired as Prime Minister in 1955. Upon his death aged ninety in 1965, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral and his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate intense debate amongst writers and historians. Born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, Churchill was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy, Churchills brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland
Winston Churchill
–
The Right Honourable Sir Winston Churchill
KG OM CH TD DL FRS RA
Winston Churchill
–
Jennie Jerome (1854–1921), the American-born mother of Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill
–
Churchill, aged seven, in 1881
Winston Churchill
–
Blenheim Palace, the Churchill family home
34.
A History of the English Speaking Peoples
–
It was started in 1937 and finally published 1956–58, delayed several times by war and his work on other texts. The volumes have been abridged into a single-volume, concise edition and his book thus dealt with the resulting two divisions of the English-speaking peoples. Work was interrupted in 1939 when the Second World War broke out, the later volumes were completed when Churchill was over eighty. A full one-third of the last volume was devoted to the minutiae of the American Civil War. Social history, the revolution, and the industrial revolution hardly get a mention. Political opponent Clement Attlee suggested the work should have been titled Things in history that interested me, despite these criticisms, the books were bestsellers and reviewed favourably on both sides of the Atlantic. In the Daily Telegraph, J. H. However, the quality of the productions was judged to be poor and the series received low ratings. Also in the early 1970s, the work was published in format in 112 weekly issues with articles by other historians in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand. A sequel to Churchills work, A History of the English-Speaking Peoples Since 1900, anglosphere History of England Transatlantic relations Winston Churchill as historian Winston Churchill as writer Peter Clarke. Mr. Churchills Profession, The Statesman as Author and the Book that Defined the Special Relationship 347 pages, a history of how the book was written & its reception
A History of the English Speaking Peoples
–
First editions of the four volumes published 1956–58 by
Cassell
A History of the English Speaking Peoples
–
Life
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