1.
Internet Protocol
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The Internet Protocol is the principal communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for relaying datagrams across network boundaries. Its routing function enables internetworking, and essentially establishes the Internet, IP has the task of delivering packets from the source host to the destination host solely based on the IP addresses in the packet headers. For this purpose, IP defines packet structures that encapsulate the data to be delivered and it also defines addressing methods that are used to label the datagram with source and destination information. The Internet protocol suite is often referred to as TCP/IP. The first major version of IP, Internet Protocol Version 4, is the dominant protocol of the Internet and its successor is Internet Protocol Version 6. The Internet Protocol is responsible for addressing hosts and for routing datagrams from a source host to a destination host across one or more IP networks. For this purpose, the Internet Protocol defines the format of packets, each datagram has two components, a header and a payload. The IP header is tagged with the source IP address, the destination IP address, the payload is the data that is transported. This method of nesting the data payload in a packet with a header is called encapsulation, IP addressing entails the assignment of IP addresses and associated parameters to host interfaces. The address space is divided into networks and subnetworks, involving the designation of network or routing prefixes, IP routing is performed by all hosts, as well as routers, whose main function is to transport packets across network boundaries. Routers communicate with one another via specially designed routing protocols, either interior gateway protocols or exterior gateway protocols, IP routing is also common in local networks. For example, many Ethernet switches support IP multicast operations and these switches use IP addresses and Internet Group Management Protocol to control multicast routing but use MAC addresses for the actual routing. The versions currently relevant are IPv4 and IPv6, in May 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers published a paper entitled A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication. The papers authors, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, described a protocol for sharing resources using packet switching among network nodes. A central control component of this model was the Transmission Control Program that incorporated both connection-oriented links and datagram services between hosts, the model became known as the Department of Defense Internet Model and Internet protocol suite, and informally as TCP/IP. IP versions 0 to 3 were experimental versions, used between 1977 and 1979, IEN26, dated February 1978 describes a version of the IP header that uses a 1-bit version field. IEN28, dated February 1978 describes IPv2, IEN41, dated June 1978 describes the first protocol to be called IPv4. The IP header is different from the modern IPv4 header, IEN44, dated June 1978 describes another version of IPv4, also with a header different from the modern IPv4 header
2.
Domain Name System
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The Domain Name System is a hierarchical decentralized naming system for computers, services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participating entities, by providing a worldwide, distributed directory service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet, that has been in use since 1985. The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names, Network administrators may delegate authority over sub-domains of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and fault tolerant service and was designed to avoid a large central database. The Domain Name System also specifies the technical functionality of the service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS. Historically, other directory services preceding DNS were not scalable to large or global directories as they were based on text files. The Internet maintains two principal namespaces, the domain name hierarchy and the Internet Protocol address spaces, the Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a communication protocol implement the Domain Name System, a DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain, a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database. The most common types of stored in the DNS database are for Start of Authority, IP addresses, SMTP mail exchangers, name servers, pointers for reverse DNS lookups. As a general purpose database, the DNS has also used in combating unsolicited email by storing a real-time blackhole list. The DNS database is stored in a structured zone file. An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the name www. example. com translates to the addresses 93.184.216.119 and 2606,2800,220, 6d, 26bf,1447,1097. Unlike a phone book, DNS can be updated, allowing a services location on the network to change without affecting the end users. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators, an important and ubiquitous function of DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as cloud services and content delivery networks. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL and this process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services. The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility in the Internet, each subdomain is a zone of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager
3.
Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
4.
President (corporate title)
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The President is a leader of an organization, company, community, club, trade union, university or other group. In many organizations, it is the legally recognized highest titled corporate officer, the president may also be the chairman. The relationship between the president and the Chief Executive Officer varies, depending on the structure of the specific organization, in a similar vein to the Chief Operating Officer, the title of corporate President as a separate position is also loosely defined. The powers of the president vary widely across organizations and such powers come from specific authorization in the bylaws, originally, the term president was used to designate someone who presided over a meeting, and was used in the same way that foreman or overseer is used now. It has now come to mean chief officer in terms of administrative or executive duties. In addition to the administrative or executive duties in organizations, the president has the duties of presiding over meetings, in committees or small boards, the president votes along with the other members. However, in assemblies or larger boards, the president should vote only when it can affect the result, at a meeting, the president only has one vote. The powers of the president vary widely across organizations, the amount of power given to the president depends on the type of organization, its structure, and the rules it has created for itself. If the president exceeds the given authority, engages in misconduct, or fails to perform the duties, such procedures may include censure, suspension, or removal from office. The rules of the organization would provide details on who can perform these disciplinary procedures. Usually, whoever appointed or elected the president has the power to discipline this officer, some organizations may have a position of President-Elect in addition to the position of President. Generally the membership of the organization elects a President-Elect and when the term of the President-Elect is complete, some organizations may have a position of Immediate Past President in addition to the position of President. In those organizations, when the term of the President is complete, the organization can have such a position only if the bylaws provide it. The duties of such a position would also have to be provided in the bylaws, riding Shotgun, The Role of the COO. National Association of Parliamentarians®, Education Committee, independence, MO, National Association of Parliamentarians®
5.
Chairman
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The chairman is the highest officer of an organized group such as a board, a committee, or a deliberative assembly. The person holding the office is elected or appointed by the members of the group. The chair presides over meetings of the group and conducts its business in an orderly fashion. When the group is not in session, the officers duties include acting as its head, its representative to the outside world. In some organizations, this position is called president, in others, where a board appoints a president. Other terms sometimes used for the office and its holder include chair, chairperson, chairwoman, presiding officer, president, moderator, facilitator, the chairman of a parliamentary chamber is often called the speaker. The term chair is used in lieu of chairman, in response to criticisms that using chairman is sexist. In his 1992 State of the Union address, then-U. S, president George H. W. Bush used chairman for men and chair for women. A1994 Canadian study found the Toronto Star newspaper referring to most presiding men as chairman, the Chronicle of Higher Education uses chairman for men and chairperson for women. An analysis of the British National Corpus found chairman used 1,142 times, chairperson 130 times, the National Association of Parliamentarians does not approve using chairperson. In World Schools Style debating, male chairs are called Mr. Chairman, the FranklinCovey Style Guide for Business and Technical Communication, as well as the American Psychological Association style guide, advocate using chair or chairperson, rather than chairman. The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style suggests that the forms are gaining ground. It advocates using chair to refer both to men and to women, the word chair can refer to the place from which the holder of the office presides, whether on a chair, at a lectern, or elsewhere. During meetings, the person presiding is said to be in the chair and is referred to as the chair. Major dictionaries state that the word derives from chair and man, some authorities, however, including Riddicks Rules of Procedure, suggest that the second part of chairman derives from the Latin manus, and thus claim gender-neutrality for the word. Vladimir Lenin, for example, officially functioned as the head of Soviet Russia not as tsar or as president, note in particular the popular standard method for referring to Mao Zedong, Chairman Mao. In the absence of the chairman and vice chairman, groups sometimes elect a chairman pro tempore to fill the role for a single meeting. In some organizations that have titles, deputy chairman ranks higher than vice chairman, as there are often multiple vice chairs
6.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
7.
Opte Project
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The Opte Project is a project created by Barrett Lyon that seeks to make an accurate representation of the extent of the Internet using visual graphics. The project was started in October 2003 in an effort to provide a useful Internet map with open source code, Lyon believes that the network mapping can help teach students more about the Internet. Additionally it can be used as a gauge for the growth of the Internet, the project has gathered support worldwide and is part of the catalogs of the Boston Museum of Science, The Museum of Modern Art and The Louvre
8.
Internet access
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Internet access is the process that enables individuals and organisations to connect to the Internet using computer terminals, computers, mobile devices, sometimes via computer networks. Once connected to the Internet, users can access Internet services, such as email, Internet service providers offer Internet access through various technologies that offer a wide range of data signaling rates. Consumer use of the Internet first became popular through dial-up Internet access in the 1990s, by the first decade of the 21st century, many consumers in developed nations used faster, broadband Internet access technologies. By 2014 this was almost ubiquitous worldwide, with an average connection speed exceeding 4 Mbit/s. Use by a wider audience came in 1995 when restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic were lifted. LANs typically operated at 10 Mbit/s, while modem data-rates grew from 1200 bit/s in the early 1980s, initially, dial-up connections were made from terminals or computers running terminal emulation software to terminal servers on LANs. These dial-up connections did not support use of the Internet protocols. Broadband connections are made using a computers built in Ethernet networking capabilities. Most broadband services provide a continuous always on connection, there is no dial-in process required, made broadband Internet access a public policy issue. In 2000, most Internet access to homes was provided using dial-up, while many businesses, in 2000 there were just under 150 million dial-up subscriptions in the 34 OECD countries and fewer than 20 million broadband subscriptions. By 2004, broadband had grown and dial-up had declined so that the number of subscriptions were roughly equal at 130 million each, the broadband technologies in widest use are ADSL and cable Internet access. Newer technologies include VDSL and optical fibre extended closer to the subscriber in telephone and cable plants. In areas not served by ADSL or cable, some community organizations, Wireless and satellite Internet are often used in rural, undeveloped, or other hard to serve areas where wired Internet is not readily available. Newer technologies being deployed for fixed and mobile broadband access include WiMAX, LTE, starting in roughly 2006, mobile broadband access is increasingly available at the consumer level using 3G and 4G technologies such as HSPA, EV-DO, HSPA+, and LTE. Some libraries provide stations for physically connecting users laptops to local area networks, Wireless Internet access points are available in public places such as airport halls, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Some access points may also provide coin-operated computers, various terms are used, such as public Internet kiosk, public access terminal, and Web payphone. Many hotels also have public terminals, usually fee based and these services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A Wi-Fi hotspot need not be limited to a location since multiple ones combined can cover a whole campus or park
9.
Internet censorship
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Internet censorship is the control or suppression of what can be accessed, published, or viewed on the Internet enacted by regulators, or on their own initiative. The extent of Internet censorship varies on a country-to-country basis, while most democratic countries have moderate Internet censorship, other countries go as far as to limit the access of information such as news and suppress discussion among citizens. Internet censorship also occurs in response to or in anticipation of such as elections, protests. An example is the increased censorship due to the events of the Arab Spring, other areas of censorship include copyrights, defamation, harassment, and obscene material. Support for and opposition to Internet censorship also varies, in a 2012 Internet Society survey 71% of respondents agreed that censorship should exist in some form on the Internet. In the same survey 83% agreed that access to the Internet should be considered a human right. According to GlobalWebIndex, over 400 million people use virtual private networks to circumvent censorship or for increased level of privacy. Many of the associated with Internet censorship are similar to those for offline censorship of more traditional media such as newspapers, magazines, books, music, radio, television. One difference is that borders are more permeable online, residents of a country that bans certain information can find it on websites hosted outside the country. Thus censors must work to prevent access to even though they lack physical or legal control over the websites themselves. This in turn requires the use of technical censorship methods that are unique to the Internet, such as site blocking, in contrast, a 2011 report by researchers at the Oxford Internet Institute published by UNESCO concludes. The control of information on the Internet and Web is certainly feasible, blocking and filtering can be based on relatively static blacklists or be determined more dynamically based on a real-time examination of the information being exchanged. Blacklists may be produced manually or automatically and are not available to non-customers of the blocking software. Blocking or filtering can be done at a national level, at a decentralized sub-national level, or at an institutional level. Blocking and filtering may also vary within a country across different ISPs, Countries may filter sensitive content on an ongoing basis and/or introduce temporary filtering during key time periods such as elections. In some cases the authorities may surreptitiously block content to mislead the public into believing that censorship has not been applied. This is achieved by returning a fake Not Found error message when an attempt is made to access a blocked website, pseudonymity and data havens protect free speech using technologies that guarantee material cannot be removed and prevents the identification of authors. Technologically savvy users can find ways to access blocked content
10.
E-democracy
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E-democracy, also known as digital democracy or Internet democracy, incorporates 21st-century information and communications technology to promote democracy. It is a form of government in all adult citizens are presumed to be eligible to participate equally in the proposal, development. E-democracy encompasses social, economic and cultural conditions that enable the free, a speech given by Hillary Clinton on January 21,2010, addressed the issue of internet freedom and the role that new technologies have played in shaping democratic practices. The spread of information through the internet has encouraged freedom. The internet is used for promoting human rights, including speech, religion, expression, peaceful assembly, to governments accountability. Clinton supports the freedom to connect, the freedom to connect – the idea that governments should not prevent people from connecting to the internet, to websites, or to each other. The freedom to connect is like the freedom of assembly, only in cyberspace and it allows individuals to get online, come together, and hopefully cooperate. Once youre on the internet, you dont need to be a tycoon or a star to have a huge impact on society. The Internet has several attributes that encourage thinking about it as a democratic medium, the lack of centralized control makes censorship difficult. Another example is the mass communication on the internet, such as through newsgroups, chat rooms. This communication ignored the boundaries established with broadcast media, such as newspapers or radio, finally, because Internet is a massive digital network with open standards, universal and inexpensive access to a wide variety of communication media and models could actually be attained. Some practical issues involving e-democracy include, effective participation, voting equality at decision stage, enlightened understanding, control of the agenda, systemic issues may include cyber-security concerns and protection of sensitive data from third parties. Strictly speaking, modern democracies are generally republics, where the people elect representatives, they are not true democracies and they may be referred to as more or less democratic depending on how well the government represents the will of the people. A shift to E-democracy would resemble a change in the form of government as much as an improvement in the existing system, Democracy in America has become reliant on the Internet, because the Internet is a primary source of information for most Americans. The Internet educates people on democracy, helping people stay up to date with what is happening in their government, Online advertising is becoming more popular for political candidates and groups opinions on propositions. The Internet is the first place that most people look for information, the reason for this, and especially for younger voters, is that it is easy and reliable when used correctly, thus lowering an individuals workload. This gives the user a sense of instant gratification that is crucial in the era of multitasking on computers, if the information is not easy to find then most people will not look for it. Because the Internet is so friendly, people are more likely to research
11.
Digital divide
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A digital divide is an economic and social inequality with regard to access to, use of, or impact of information and communication technologies. The divide within countries may refer to inequalities between individuals, households, businesses, or geographic areas, usually at different socioeconomic levels or other demographic categories, the term digital divide describes a gap in terms of access to and usage of information and communication technology. Which characteristics or attributes are distinguished to describe the divide, income, education, age, geographic location, motivation, reason not to use, how sophisticated is the usage, mere access, retrieval, interactivity, intensive and extensive in usage, innovative contributions, etc. To what does the subject connect, fixed or mobile, Internet or telephony, digital TV, broadband, different authors focus on different aspects, which leads to a large variety of definitions of the digital divide. Each one of them seems equally reasonable and depends on the objective pursued by the analyst, traditionally the nature of the divide has been measured in terms of the existing numbers of subscriptions and digital devices. Given the increasing number of devices, some have concluded that the digital divide among individuals has increasingly been closing as the result of a natural. Recent studies have measured the digital divide not in terms of technological devices, as shown in the Figure on the side, the digital divide in kbit/s is not monotonically decreasing, but re-opens up with each new innovation. This is because a new kind of connectivity is never introduced instantaneously and uniformly to society as a whole at once, as shown by the Figure, during the mid-2000s, communication capacity was more unequally distributed than during the late 1980s, when only fixed-line phones existed. The most recent increase in digital equality stems from the diffusion of the latest digital innovations. The upper graph of the Figure on the shows that the divide between developed and developing countries has been diminishing when measured in terms of subscriptions per capita. In 2001, fixed-line telecommunication penetration reached 70% of society in developed OECD countries and this resulted in a ratio of 7 to 1 or a difference of 60%. During the next decade, fixed-line penetration stayed almost constant in OECD countries, while the rest of the started a catch-up. The lower graph shows the divide not in terms of ICT devices, while the average member of developed countries counted with 29 kbit/s more than a person in developing countries in 2001, this difference got multiplied by a factor of one thousand. This shows the importance of measuring the divide in terms of kbit/s, the International Telecommunications Union concludes that the bit becomes a unifying variable enabling comparisons and aggregations across different kinds of communication technologies. However, research shows that the divide is more than just an access issue. There are at least three factors at play, information accessibility, information utilization and information receptiveness, more than just accessibility, individuals need to know how to make use of the information and communication tools once they exist within a community. Internet connectivity can be utilized at a variety of such as homes, offices, schools, libraries, public spaces, Internet cafe. There are also varying levels of connectivity in rural, suburban, the gap in a digital divide may exist for a number of reasons
12.
Digital rights
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Internet access is recognized as a right by the laws of several countries. A number of rights have been identified as relevant with regard to the Internet. These include freedom of expression, data protection and privacy and freedom of association, furthermore, the right to education and multilingualism, consumer rights, and capacity building in the context of the right to development have also been identified. The Internet is a public good that should be accessible to all and respectful of the rights of others. What the law permits or prohibits offline must also be the case online, the only widespread international consensus on online material to be censored regards child pornography and cyberterrorism, the article said. This includes the right of access to these technologies, in particular. Estonia, In 2000, the parliament launched a program to expand access to the countryside. The Internet, the government argues, is essential for life in the 21st century, Finland, By July 2010, every person in Finland was to have access to a one-megabit per second broadband connection, according to the Ministry of Transport and Communications. And by 2015, access to a 100 Mbit/s connection, the APC Internet Rights Charter was established by the Association for Progressive Communications at the APC Europe Internet Rights Workshop, held in Prague, February 2001. In December 2003 the World Summit on the Information Society was convened under the auspice of the United Nations and we also reaffirm that democracy, sustainable development, and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms as well as good governance at all levels are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. Communication is a social process, a basic human need. It is central to the Information Society, everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the benefits of the Information Society offers. In 2005, the United Kingdoms Open Rights Group published a digital landscape, documenting the range of organizations. The diagram related groups, individuals, and websites to interest areas, on October 29,2008 the Global Network Initiative was founded upon its Principles on Freedom of Expression and Privacy. Participants in the Initiative include the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Human Rights Watch, Google, Microsoft, Yahoo, other companies, human rights NGOs, investors. According to reports Cisco Systems was invited to the initial discussions, Harrington Investments, which proposed that Cisco establish a human rights board, has dismissed the GNI as a voluntary code of conduct having any impact. Chief executive John Harrington called the GNI meaningless noise and instead calls for bylaws to be introduced that force boards of directors to accept human rights responsibilities. GlobeScan Chairman Doug Miller felt, overall, that the poll showed that, Despite worries about privacy and fraud and they think the web is a force for good, and most don’t want governments to regulate it
13.
Freedom of information
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This means that the protection of freedom of speech as a right includes not only the content, but also the means of expression. Freedom of information refers to the right to privacy in the content of the Internet. As with the right to freedom of expression, the right to privacy is a human right. Lastly, freedom of information can include opposition to patents, opposition to copyrights or opposition to intellectual property in general, the international and United States Pirate Party have established political platforms based largely on freedom of information issues. In June 2006 nearly 70 countries had freedom of information legislations applying to information held by government bodies, in 19 of these countries the freedom of information legislation also applied to private bodies. This has led a number of countries to enact freedom of information legislation in the past 10 years. In recent years, private bodies have started to perform functions which were carried out by public bodies. As of 2006,70 countries had freedom of information legislation for public bodies. Such legislation was pending in a further 50 countries, in the Czech Republic, the Dominican Republic, Finland, Trinidad and Tobago, Slovakia, Poland and Iceland private bodies that receive public funding are subject to freedom of information legislation. Freedom of information legislation in Estonia, France and UK covers private bodies in certain sectors, in South Africa the access provisions of the Promotion of Access to Information Act have been used by individuals to establish why their loan application has been denied. Access to information became regarded as a basic right, and preventive disclosure, i. e. the disclosure of information on threats to human lives, health and safety. Secretive decision making by directors and corporate scandal led to freedom of information legislation to be published for the benefits of investors. Such legislation was first adopted in Britain in the early 20th century, disclosure regimes for the benefit of investors regained attention at the beginning of the 21st century as a number of corporate scandals were linked to accounting fraud and company director secrecy. Freedom of information refers to the protection of the right to freedom of expression with regard to the Internet. Freedom of information may also concern censorship in an information technology context, i. e. the ability to access Web content, communication is a fundamental social process, a basic human need and the foundation of all social organisation. It is central to the Information Society, everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the benefits the Information Society offers. The digital rights group Hacktivismo, founded in 1999, argues that access to information is a human right. The Declaration recalls the duty of states to the ICCPR to protect the right to freedom of expression with regard to the internet
14.
History of the Internet
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The history of the Internet begins with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s. Initial concepts of packet networking originated in several science laboratories in the United States, United Kingdom. The US Department of Defense awarded contracts as early as the 1960s for packet network systems, including the development of the ARPANET. Packet switching networks such as ARPANET, NPL network, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, Donald Davies first designed a packet-switched network at the National Physics Laboratory in the UK, which became a testbed for UK research for almost two decades. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network. In 1982, the Internet protocol suite was introduced as the networking protocol on the ARPANET. Commercial Internet service providers began to emerge in the very late 1980s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. The research and education community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as NSFs very high speed Backbone Network Service, Internet2, increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. Today the Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of information, commerce, entertainment. Such communication systems were limited to point to point communication between two end devices. Telegraph systems and telex machines can be considered precursors of this kind of communication. The Telegraph in the late 19th century was the first fully digital communication system, fundamental theoretical work in data transmission and information theory was developed by Claude Shannon, Harry Nyquist, and Ralph Hartley in the early 20th century. Early computers had a processing unit and remote terminals. As the technology evolved, new systems were devised to allow communication over longer distances or with higher speed that were necessary for the computer model. These technologies made it possible to exchange data between remote computers, however, the point-to-point communication model was limited, as it did not allow for direct communication between any two arbitrary systems, a physical link was necessary. The technology was considered unsafe for strategic and military use because there were no alternative paths for the communication in case of an enemy attack. With limited exceptions, the earliest computers were connected directly to terminals used by individual users, such networks became known as local-area networks. Networking beyond this scope, known as wide-area networks, emerged during the 1950s, J. C. R. Licklider, Vice President at Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc
15.
Net neutrality
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Research suggests that a combination of policy instruments will help realize the range of valued political and economic objectives central to the network neutrality debate. Network neutrality is the principle that all Internet traffic should be treated equally, Internet traffic includes all of the different messages, files and data sent over the Internet, including, for example, emails, digital audio files, digital video files, etc. The idea of an open Internet is the idea that the resources of the Internet and means to operate on it should be easily accessible to all individuals, companies. This often includes ideas such as net neutrality, open standards, transparency, lack of Internet censorship, a closed Internet refers to the opposite situation, in which established persons, corporations or governments favor certain uses. A closed Internet may have restricted access to necessary web standards, artificially degrade some services, some countries block certain websites or types of sites and monitor and/or censor Internet use using Internet police, a specialized type of law enforcement or secret police. The concept of a network made up of dumb pipes has been around since at least the early 1990s. The term dumb network refers to a network which is set up, in 2013 the software company MetroTech Net, Inc. coined the term dumb wave, which is the 2010s-era application of the dumb pipe concept to the ubiquitous wireless network. The end-to-end principle is a principle of design was first set out in the 1981 paper End-to-end arguments in system design by Jerome H. Saltzer, David P. Reed. They argued that reliable systems tend to require end-to-end processing to operate correctly and this leads to the model of a minimal dumb network with smart terminals, a completely different model from the previous paradigm of the smart network with dumb terminals. The end-to-end principle is related, and sometimes seen as a direct precursor to the principle of net neutrality. Traffic shaping is the control of network traffic to optimize or guarantee performance, improve latency. In practice, traffic shaping is accomplished by throttling certain types of data. More specifically, traffic shaping is any action on a set of packets which imposes additional delay on those packets such that they conform to some predetermined constraint. If the core of a network has more bandwidth than is permitted to enter at the edges, for example, landline telephone network employs admission control to limit user demand on the network core by refusing to create a circuit for the requested connection. During a natural disaster, for example, most users will get a signal if they pick up a landline phone, as the phone company prioritizes 9-1-1. Over-provisioning is a form of statistical multiplexing that makes liberal estimates of peak user demand, over-provisioning is used in private networks such as WebEx and the Internet 2 Abilene Network, an American university network. David Isenberg believes that continued over-provisioning will always provide more capacity for less expense than QoS, discrimination by protocol is the favoring or blocking information based on aspects of the communications protocol that the computers are using to communicate. Comcast admitted no wrongdoing in its settlement of up to US$16 dollars per share in December 2009
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Internet privacy
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Internet privacy is a subset of data privacy. Privacy concerns have been articulated from the beginnings of large scale computer sharing, Privacy can entail either Personally Identifying Information or non-PII information such as a site visitors behavior on a website. PII refers to any information that can be used to identify an individual, some experts such as Steve Rambam, a private investigator specializing in Internet privacy cases, believe that privacy no longer exists, saying, Privacy is dead – get over it. In fact, it has suggested that the appeal of online services is to broadcast personal information on purpose. Internet and digital privacy are viewed differently from traditional expectations of privacy, Internet privacy is primarily concerned with protecting user information. Law Professor Jerry Kang explains that the term privacy expresses space, decision, in terms of space, individuals have an expectation that their physical spaces not be intruded. Privacy within the realm of decision is best illustrated by the landmark case Roe v. Wade, lastly, information privacy is in regards to the collection of user information from a variety of sources, which produces great discussion. At the end of the 1990s, with the rise of the internet, it clear that the internet. With the rise of the internet and mobile networks the salience of internet privacy is a concern for users. People with only a concern for Internet privacy need not achieve total anonymity. Internet users may protect their privacy through controlled disclosure of personal information, on the other hand, some people desire much stronger privacy. In order to keep their private, people need to be careful with what they submit to. There are also several organizations that protect individuals privacy and anonymity on the Internet. In an article presented by the FTC, in October 2011, posting things on the Internet can be harmful or in danger of malicious attack. Some information posted on the Internet is permanent, depending on the terms of service and this can include comments written on blogs, pictures, and Internet sites, such as Facebook and Twitter. It is absorbed into cyberspace and once it is posted, anyone can find it. Some employers may research a potential employee by searching online for the details of their online behaviours, companies are hired to watch what internet sites people visit, and then use the information, for instance by sending advertising based on ones browsing history. There are many ways in which people can divulge their personal information, for instance by use of media and by sending bank
17.
Sociology of the Internet
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The sociology of the Internet involves the application of sociological theory and method to the Internet as a source of information and communication. Sociologists are concerned with the implications of the technology, new social networks, virtual communities and ways of interaction that have arisen. Online communities can be studied statistically through network analysis and at the time interpreted qualitatively. Social change can be studied through statistical demographics or through the interpretation of changing messages, the Internet is a relatively new phenomenon. As Robert Darnton wrote, it is a change that took place yesterday, or the day before. The Internet developed from the ARPANET, dating back to 1969, the World Wide Web as we know it was shaped in the mid-1990s, when graphical interface and services like email became popular and reached wider audiences and commerce. Internet Explorer was first released in 1995, Netscape a year earlier, Facebook, MySpace, and YouTube in the mid-2000s. The amount of information available on the net and the number of Internet users worldwide has continued to grow rapidly, the term digital sociology is now becoming increasingly used to denote new directions in sociological research into digital technologies since Web 2.0. This has meant a rethinking of the 1990s ideas of convergence of new, further, the Internet offers a rare opportunity to study changes caused by the newly emerged - and likely, still evolving - information and communication technology. In March 2014, researchers from the Benedictine University at Mesa in Arizona studied how online interactions affect face-to-face meetings and they analyzed 26 female students with electrodes to measure social anxiety. Prior to meeting people, the students were shown pictures of the subject they were expected to meet, researchers found that meeting someone face-to-face after looking at their photos increases arousal, which the study linked to an increase in social anxiety. These findings confirm previous studies found that socially anxious people prefer online interactions. The study also recognized that the stimulated arousal can be associated with positive emotions, recent research has taken the Internet of Things within its purview, as global networks of interconnected everyday objects are said to be the next step in technological advancement. Certainly, global space- and earth-based networks are expanding coverage of the IoT at a fast pace and this has a wide variety of consequences, with current applications in the health, agriculture, traffic and retail fields. Issues of privacy, right to information, legislation and content creation will come into public scrutiny in light of technological changes. The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool, the presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004 in the United States became famous for its ability to generate donations via the Internet, and the 2008 campaign of Barack Obama became even more so. Increasingly, social movements and other organizations use the Internet to carry out both traditional and the new Internet activism, in the United Kingdom, they also use software to locate and arrest various individuals they perceive as a threat. Other countries including the United States, have enacted laws making the possession or distribution of material such as child pornography illegal
18.
Internet governance
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Internet governance is the development and application of shared principles, norms, rules, decision-making procedures, and programs that shape the evolution and use of the Internet. Internet governance should not be confused with E-Governance, which refers to use of technology to carry out their governing duties. No one person, company, organization or government runs the Internet and it is a globally distributed network comprising many voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks. It operates without a governing body with each constituent network setting and enforcing its own policies. They work cooperatively from their roles to create shared policies. This seeks to create a globally unified namespace to ensure the global reach of the Internet, ICANN is governed by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internets technical, business, academic, and other non-commercial communities. However, the National Telecommunications and Information Administration, an agency of the U. S. Department of Commerce and this authority over the root zone file makes ICANN one of a few bodies with global, centralized influence over the otherwise distributed Internet. While ICANN itself interpreted this as a declaration of its independence, since WSIS, the term Internet governance has been broadened beyond narrow technical concerns to include a wider range of Internet-related policy issues. The definition of Internet governance has been contested by differing groups across political and ideological lines, One of the main debates concerns the authority and participation of certain actors, such as national governments, corporate entities and civil society, to play a role in the Internets governance. To understand how the Internet is managed today, it is necessary to know a little of its history, the original ARPANET is one of the components which eventually evolved to become the Internet. As its name suggests the ARPANET was sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency within the U. S. Department of Defense, during the development of ARPANET, a numbered series of Request for Comments memos documented technical decisions and methods of working as they evolved. The standards of todays Internet are still documented by RFCs, between 1984 and 1986 the U. S. National Science Foundation created the NSFNET backbone, using TCP/IP, to connect their supercomputing facilities. The combined networks became known as the Internet. By the end of 1989, Australia, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and the UK were connected to the Internet, in 1990, the ARPANET was formally terminated. In 1991 the NSF began to relax its restrictions on commercial use on NSFNET, the final restrictions on carrying commercial traffic ended on 30 April 1995, when the NSF ended its sponsorship of the NSFNET Backbone Service and the service ended. Today almost all Internet infrastructure in the United States, and large portion in other countries, is provided and owned by the private sector, traffic is exchanged between these networks, at major interconnection points, in accordance with established Internet standards and commercial agreements. During 1979 the Internet Configuration Control Board was founded by DARPA to oversee the networks development, during 1984 it was renamed the Internet Advisory Board, and during 1986 it became the Internet Activities Board. The Internet Engineering Task Force was formed during 1986 by the U. S. government to develop and it consisted initially of researchers, but by the end of the year participation was available to anyone, and its business was performed largely by email
19.
Internet Engineering Task Force
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The Internet Engineering Task Force develops and promotes voluntary Internet standards, in particular the standards that comprise the Internet protocol suite. It is a standards organization, with no formal membership or membership requirements. All participants and managers are volunteers, though their work is funded by their employers or sponsors. Each working group has a chairperson, along with a charter that describes its focus, and what. It is open to all who want to participate, and holds discussions on a mailing list or at IETF meetings. Rough consensus is the basis for decision making. There are no formal voting procedures, because the majority of the IETFs work is done via mailing lists, meeting attendance is not required for contributors. Each working group is intended to work on its topic. In some cases, the WG will instead have its charter updated to take on new tasks as appropriate, the working groups are organized into areas by subject matter. Current areas are Applications, General, Internet, Operations and Management, Real-time Applications and Infrastructure, Routing, Security, each area is overseen by an area director, with most areas having two co-ADs. The ADs are responsible for appointing working group chairs, the area directors, together with the IETF Chair, form the Internet Engineering Steering Group, which is responsible for the overall operation of the IETF. The IETF is overseen by the Internet Architecture Board, which oversees its external relationships, the IAB is also jointly responsible for the IETF Administrative Oversight Committee, which oversees the IETF Administrative Support Activity, which provides logistical, etc. support for the IETF. The IAB also manages the Internet Research Task Force, with which the IETF has a number of cross-group relations. A Nominating Committee of ten randomly chosen volunteers who participate regularly at meetings is vested with the power to appoint, reappoint, and remove members of the IESG, IAB, IASA, and the IAOC. To date, no one has been removed by a NomCom, although people have resigned their positions. Because the IETF itself does not have members, nor is it an organization per se, IETF activities are funded by meeting fees, meeting sponsors and by the Internet Society via its organizational membership and the proceeds of the Public Interest Registry. In December 2005 the IETF Trust was established to manage the copyrighted materials produced by the IETF, the first IETF meeting was attended by 21 U. S. -government-funded researchers on 16 January 1986. It was a continuation of the work of the earlier GADS Task Force, representatives from non-governmental entities were invited to attend starting with the fourth IETF meeting in October 1986
20.
Internet Governance Forum
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The Internet Governance Forum is a multi-stakeholder forum for policy dialogue on issues of Internet governance. The establishment of the IGF was formally announced by the United Nations Secretary-General in July 2006 and it was first convened in October–November 2006 and has held an annual meeting since then. It came to the conclusion that there would be merit in creating such a space for dialogue among all stakeholders, the WGIG report was one of the inputs to the second phase of the World Summit on the Information Society held in Tunis in 2005. Recognizing the rapid development of technology and institutions, we propose that the forum mechanism periodically be reviewed to determine the need for its continuation. ”The second phase of WSIS, held in Tunis in November 2005, formally called for the creation of the IGF and set out its mandate. Paragraph 72 of the Tunis Agenda called on the UN Secretary-General to convene a meeting with regards to the new forum to be known as the IGF. The mandate for the IGF is contained in the 2005 WSIS Tunis Agenda, the IGF was mandated to be principally a discussion forum for facilitating dialogue between the Forums participants. In this mandate, different stakeholders are encouraged to strengthen engagement, in paragraph 72, the mandate focused on capacity-building for developing countries and the drawing out of local resources. The United Nations published its endorsement of a mandate for the IGF in April 2006. There were two rounds of consultations with regards to the convening of the first IGF,16 –17 of February 2006 – The first round of consultations was held in Geneva, the transcripts of the two-day consultations are available in the IGF site. 19 May 2006 – The second round of consultations was open to all stakeholders and was coordinated for the preparations of the inaugural IGF meeting, the meeting chairman was Nitin Desai who is the United Nations Secretary-Generals Special Adviser for Internet Governance. The convening of the IGF was announced on 18 July 2006, with the meeting of the Forum to be held in Athens. Takes note that the CSTD Working Group on improvements to the Internet Governance Forum successfully completed its task,26, notes the necessity to appoint the Special Advisor to the Secretary-General on Internet Governance and the Executive Coordinator to the IGF. The second five-year mandate of the IGF ended in 2015, on 16 December 2015 the United Nations General Assembly adopted the outcome document on the 10-year review of the implementation of the outcomes of the World Summit on the Information Society. It acknowledges the role the Internet Governance Forum has played as a platform for discussion of Internet governance issues. And it extends the mandate of the IGF as set out in paragraphs 72 to 78 of the Tunis Agenda for a third period of ten years. During the ten-year period, the IGF should continue to progress on working modalities. Following an open meeting called in February 2006, the UN Secretary-General established an Advisory Group. The MAGs mandate has been renewed or extended each year to provide assistance in the preparations for each upcoming IGF meeting, the MAG meets for two days three times each year — in February, May and September
21.
Internet Society
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The Internet Society is an American, non-profit organization founded in 1992 to provide leadership in Internet-related standards, education, access, and policy. It states that its mission is to promote the development, evolution. The Internet Society has its headquarters in Reston, Virginia, United States and it has a membership base of more than 140 organizations and more than 80,000 individual members. Members also form chapters based on either common geographical location or special interests, there are over 110 chapters around the world. The Internet Society was formed officially in 1992 by Vint Cerf, Vint Cerf, Bob Kahn, Lyman Chapin released a document, Announcing ISOC, which explained the rationale for establishing the Internet Society. To educate the academic and scientific communities and the public concerning the technology, use, to promote scientific and educational applications of Internet technology for the benefit of educational institutions at all grade levels, industry, and the public at large. To provide a forum for exploration of new Internet applications and to collaboration among organizations in their operation. Many of the forces of the Internet, such as the Internet Engineering Task Force. There was a growing need for support and organization structure. However, the Internet Society itself grew out of the IETF, the then Internet Activities Board sought to create a non-profit institution that could provide financial support for the IETF Secretariat among other things. CNRI served as the first host for the Internet Societys operation, the Internet Society conducts a great range of activities under three main categories, namely standards, public policy, access, and education. The Internet Society also seeks to promote understanding and appreciation of the Internet model of open, transparent processes, the Internet Society has a prominent function in Internet governance discussions, including significant involvement in the World Summit on the Information Society and Internet Governance Forum. The Internet Society is the parent company for the Public Interest Registry, ISOC has joint offices in Reston, Virginia, United States and Geneva, Switzerland. It has also established Regional Bureaus for Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, North America, the Internet Society is governed by a board of trustees. The current list of trustees and their committee memberships is found on the organizations website
22.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
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The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext, development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989. Standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force and the World Wide Web Consortium, culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments. The first definition of HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in RFC2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC2616 in 1999 and then again by RFC7230 and family in 2014. A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in 2015, HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client, the client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, the response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body. A web browser is an example of a user agent, other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers, voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content. HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers, high-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, however HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol, for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol. HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators, using the Uniform Resource Identifiers schemes http, uRIs and hyperlinks in HTML documents form inter-linked hypertext documents. HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP, in HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets, HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead. Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the technology for a web server. Berners-Lee first proposed the WorldWideWeb project in 1989—now known as the World Wide Web, the first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server
23.
Internet exchange point
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An Internet exchange point is a physical infrastructure through which Internet service providers and Content Delivery Networks exchange Internet traffic between their networks. IXPs reduce the portion of an ISPs traffic which must be delivered via their upstream transit providers, furthermore, the increased number of paths available through the IXP improves routing efficiency and fault-tolerance. In addition to that, IXPs exhibit the characteristics of what economists call the network effect, the primary purpose of an IXP is to allow networks to interconnect directly, via the exchange, rather than through one or more third-party networks. The advantages of the direct interconnection are numerous, but the reasons are cost, latency. Traffic passing through an exchange is not billed by any party. The direct interconnection, often located in the city as both networks, avoids the need for data to travel to other cities to get from one network to another. The third advantage, speed, is most noticeable in areas that have poorly developed long-distance connections, ISPs in these regions might have to pay between 10 or 100 times more for data transport than ISPs in North America, Europe or Japan. Therefore, these ISPs typically have slower, more limited connections to the rest of the Internet, however, a connection to a local IXP may allow them to transfer data without limit, and without cost, vastly improving the bandwidth between customers of the two adjacent ISPs. A typical IXP consists of one or more network switches, to each of the participating ISPs connect. Ports with 100 Gbit/s are available, for example, at the AMS-IX in Amsterdam, the technical and business logistics of traffic exchange between ISPs is governed by mutual peering agreements. Under such agreements, traffic is often exchanged without compensation, when an IXP incurs operating costs, they are typically shared among all of its participants. At the more expensive exchanges, participants pay a monthly or annual fee, fees based on volume of traffic are less common because they provide a counterincentive to growth of the exchange. Some exchanges charge a fee to offset the costs of the switch port. Internet traffic exchange between two participants on an IXP is facilitated by Border Gateway Protocol routing configurations between them. They choose to announce routes via the peering relationship – either routes to their own addresses, or routes to addresses of other ISPs that they connect to, possibly via other mechanisms. In many cases, an ISP will have both a link to another ISP and accept a route to the other ISP through the IXP, if the direct link fails. In this way, the IXP acts as a backup link, when these conditions are met, and a contractual structure exists to create a market to purchase network services, the IXP is sometimes called a transit exchange. The VTE is run by BCNET, a public entity, Euro-IX, the first association of Internet exchange points, was formed in May 2001
24.
Internet protocol suite
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The Internet protocol suite is the conceptual model and set of communications protocols used on the Internet and similar computer networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP because the protocols in the suite are the Transmission Control Protocol. It is occasionally known as the Department of Defense model, because the development of the model was funded by DARPA. The Internet protocol suite provides end-to-end data communication specifying how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed and received and this functionality is organized into four abstraction layers which are used to sort all related protocols according to the scope of networking involved. Technical standards specifying the Internet protocol suite and many of its constituent protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force, the Internet protocol suite model is a simpler model developed prior to the OSI model. The Internet protocol suite resulted from research and development conducted by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in the late 1960s, after initiating the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmermann and Louis Pouzin, designer of the CYCLADES network, the protocol was implemented as the Transmission Control Program, first published in 1974. Initially, the TCP managed both datagram transmissions and routing, but as the protocol grew, other researchers recommended a division of functionality into protocol layers, postel stated, “we are screwing up in our design of Internet protocols by violating the principle of layering”. Encapsulation of different mechanisms was intended to create an environment where the layers could access only what was needed from the lower layers. A monolithic design would be inflexible and lead to scalability issues, the Transmission Control Program was split into two distinct protocols, the Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol. The new suite replaced all protocols used previously and this design is known as the end-to-end principle. Using this design, it possible to connect almost any network to the ARPANET, irrespective of the local characteristics. One popular expression is that TCP/IP, the product of Cerf and Kahns work. A computer called a router is provided with an interface to each network and it forwards packets back and forth between them. Originally a router was called gateway, but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of gateways, from 1973 to 1974, Cerfs networking research group at Stanford worked out details of the idea, resulting in the first TCP specification. A significant technical influence was the early networking work at Xerox PARC, DARPA then contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms. Four versions were developed, TCP v1, TCP v2, TCP v3 and IP v3, the last protocol is still in use today. In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London, in November,1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and Norway
25.
Internet service provider
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An Internet service provider is an organization that provides services for accessing and using the Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non-profit, Internet services typically provided by ISPs include Internet access, Internet transit, domain name registration, web hosting, Usenet service, and colocation. The Internet was developed as a network between government research laboratories and participating departments of universities, by the late 1980s, a process was set in place towards public, commercial use of the Internet. The remaining restrictions were removed by 1995,4 years after the introduction of the World Wide Web, in 1989, the first ISPs were established in Australia and the United States. In Brookline, Massachusetts, The World became the first commercial ISP in the US and its first customer was served in November 1989. On 23 April 2014, the U. S, a possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School. On 10 November 2014, President Barack Obama recommended that the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a service in order to preserve net neutrality. On 31 January 2015, AP News reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 to the internet in a vote expected on 26 February 2015. Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of the telecommunications and, according to Tom Wheeler, chairman of the FCC, the FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to the New York Times. On 26 February 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by adopting Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 in the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to the Internet. The FCC Chairman, Tom Wheeler, commented, This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to free speech. They both stand for the same concept, on 12 March 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules. On 13 April 2015, the FCC published the rule on its new Net Neutrality regulations. ISPs provide Internet access, employing a range of technologies to connect users to their network, available technologies have ranged from computer modems with acoustic couplers to telephone lines, to television cable, wireless Ethernet, and fiber optics. For users and small businesses, traditional options include copper wires to provide dial-up, DSL, typically asymmetric digital subscriber line, using fiber-optics to end users is called Fiber To The Home or similar names. Wireless access is another option, including cellular and satellite Internet access, a mailbox provider is an organization that provides services for hosting electronic mail domains with access to storage for mail boxes. It provides email servers to send, receive, accept, many mailbox providers are also access providers, while others are not. Internet hosting services provide email, web-hosting, or online storage services, other services include virtual server, cloud services, or physical server operation
26.
IP address
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An IP address is an identifier assigned to each computer and other device connected to a TCP/IP network that is used to locate and identify the node in communications with other nodes on the network. IP addresses are written and displayed in human-readable notations, such as 172.16.254.1 in IPv4. Version 4 of the Internet Protocol defines an IP address as a 32-bit number and its deployment commenced in the mid-2000s and is ongoing. Addresses have been distributed by IANA to the RIRs in blocks of approximately 16.8 million addresses each, each ISP or private network administrator assigns an IP address to each device connected to its network. Such assignments may be on a static or dynamic basis, depending on its software, an IP address serves two principal functions, host or network interface identification and location addressing. Its role has been characterized as follows, A name indicates what we seek, an address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there, the header of each IP packet sent over the Internet must contain the IP address of both the destination server or website and of the sender. The Domain Name System translates domain names to the corresponding destination IP address, both the source address and the destination address may be changed in transit by a network address translation device. The senders IP address is available to the server and becomes the destination address when the server responds to a client request. A sender wanting to remain anonymous to the server may use a proxy server, when the destination server responds to the proxy server, it would forward it on to the true client—ie. Change the IP address to that of the originator of the request, a reverse DNS lookup involves the querying of DNS to determine the domain name associated with an IP address. There are two versions of the Internet Protocol, IP version 4 and IP version 6, each version defines an IP address differently. Because of its prevalence, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4. The gap in version sequence between IPv4 and IPv6 resulted from the assignment of number 5 to the experimental Internet Stream Protocol in 1979, an IP address in IPv4 is 32-bits in size, which limits the address space to 4294967296 IP addresses. Of this number, IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks or multicast addresses. IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation, consisting of four numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots. Each part represents a group of 8 bits of the address, in some cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in various hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations. In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol, network administrators interpreted an IP address in two parts, network number portion and host number portion
27.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
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Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is an Internet standard for electronic mail transmission. First defined by RFC821 in 1982, it was last updated in 2008 with Extended SMTP additions by RFC5321, for retrieving messages, client applications usually use either IMAP or POP3. SMTP communication between mail servers uses TCP port 25, Mail clients on the other hand, often submit the outgoing emails to a mail server on port 587. Despite being deprecated, mail providers sometimes still permit the use of nonstandard port 465 for this purpose, SMTP connections secured by SSL, known as SMTPS, can be made using STARTTLS. Various forms of electronic messaging were used in the 1960s. People communicated with one another using systems developed for specific mainframe computers, as more computers were interconnected, especially in the US Governments ARPANET, standards were developed to allow users of different systems to email one another. SMTP grew out of these standards developed during the 1970s, fewer than 50 hosts were connected to the ARPANET at this time. Further implementations include FTP Mail and Mail Protocol, both from 1973, development work continued throughout the 1970s, until the ARPANET transitioned into the modern Internet around 1980. Jon Postel then proposed a Mail Transfer Protocol in 1980 that began to remove the reliance on FTP. SMTP was published as RFC788 in November 1981, also by Postel, the SMTP standard was developed around the same time as Usenet, a one-to-many communication network with some similarities. SMTP became widely used in the early 1980s, at the time, it was a complement to Unix to Unix Copy Program mail, which was better suited for handling email transfers between machines that were intermittently connected. SMTP, on the hand, works best when both the sending and receiving machines are connected to the network all the time. Both use a store and forward mechanism and are examples of push technology, though Usenets newsgroups are still propagated with UUCP between servers, UUCP as a mail transport has virtually disappeared along with the bang paths it used as message routing headers. Sendmail, released with 4. 1cBSD, right after RFC788, was one of the first mail transfer agents to implement SMTP, over time, as BSD Unix became the most popular operating system on the Internet, sendmail became the most common MTA. Some other popular SMTP server programs include Postfix, qmail, Novell GroupWise, Exim, Novell NetMail, Microsoft Exchange Server, Message submission and SMTP-AUTH were introduced in 1998 and 1999, both describing new trends in email delivery. Originally, SMTP servers were typically internal to an organization, receiving mail for the organization from the outside and this behavior is helpful when the message being fixed is an initial submission, but dangerous and harmful when the message originated elsewhere and is being relayed. Cleanly separating mail into submission and relay was seen as a way to permit, as spam became more prevalent, it was also seen as a way to provide authorization for mail being sent out from an organization, as well as traceability. This separation of relay and submission quickly became a foundation for modern email security practices, as this protocol started out purely ASCII text-based, it did not deal well with binary files, or characters in many non-English languages
28.
Blog
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A blog is a discussion or informational website published on the World Wide Web consisting of discrete, often informal diary-style text entries. Posts are typically displayed in chronological order, so that the most recent post appears first. Until 2009, blogs were usually the work of an individual, occasionally of a small group. In the 2010s, multi-author blogs have developed, with posts written by large numbers of authors, MABs from newspapers, other media outlets, universities, think tanks, advocacy groups, and similar institutions account for an increasing quantity of blog traffic. The rise of Twitter and other microblogging systems helps integrate MABs, Blog can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add content to a blog. In the 2010s, the majority are interactive Web 2.0 websites, allowing visitors to leave online comments, in that sense, blogging can be seen as a form of social networking service. Indeed, bloggers do not only produce content to post on their blogs, however, there are high-readership blogs which do not allow comments. Many blogs provide commentary on a subject or topic, ranging from politics to sports. Others function as more personal online diaries, and others function more as online brand advertising of an individual or company. A typical blog combines text, digital images, and links to blogs, web pages. The ability of readers to leave publicly viewable comments, and interact with other commenters, is an important contribution to the popularity of many blogs, however, blog owners or authors often moderate and filter online comments to remove hate speech or other offensive content. Most blogs are primarily textual, although focus on art, photographs, videos, music. In education, blogs can be used as instructional resources and these blogs are referred to as edublogs. Microblogging is another type of blogging, featuring very short posts, on 16 February 2011, there were over 156 million public blogs in existence. On 20 February 2014, there were around 172 million Tumblr and 75.8 million WordPress blogs in existence worldwide, according to critics and other bloggers, Blogger is the most popular blogging service used today. However, Blogger does not offer public statistics, Technorati lists 1.3 million blogs as of February 22,2014. The term weblog was coined by Jorn Barger on 17 December 1997, the short form, blog, was coined by Peter Merholz, who jokingly broke the word weblog into the phrase we blog in the sidebar of his blog Peterme. com in April or May 1999. Shortly thereafter, Evan Williams at Pyra Labs used blog as both a noun and verb and devised the term blogger in connection with Pyra Labs Blogger product, in the 1990s, Internet forum software, created running conversations with threads
29.
Email
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Electronic mail, or email, is a method of exchanging digital messages between people using digital devices such as computers and mobile phones. Email first entered use in the 1960s and by the mid-1970s had taken the form now recognized as email. Email operates across computer networks, which today is primarily the Internet, some early email systems required the author and the recipient to both be online at the same time, in common with instant messaging. Todays email systems are based on a store-and-forward model, Email servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. Originally an ASCII text-only communications medium, Internet email was extended by Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions to carry text in character sets. International email, with internationalized email addresses using UTF-8, has been standardized, the history of modern Internet email services reaches back to the early ARPANET, with standards for encoding email messages published as early as 1973. An email message sent in the early 1970s looks very similar to an email sent today. Email played an important part in creating the Internet, and the conversion from ARPANET to the Internet in the early 1980s produced the core of the current services, historically, the term electronic mail was used generically for any electronic document transmission. For example, several writers in the early 1970s used the term to describe fax document transmission, as a result, it is difficult to find the first citation for the use of the term with the more specific meaning it has today. This spelling also appears in most dictionaries, Mail was the form used in the original protocol standard, RFC524. The service is referred to as mail, and a piece of electronic mail is called a message. EMail is a form that has been used in RFCs for the Authors Address and is expressly required for historical reasons. E-mail is sometimes used, capitalizing the initial E as in similar abbreviations like E-piano, E-guitar, A-bomb, by 1968, AUTODIN linked more than 300 sites in several countries. With the introduction of MITs Compatible Time-Sharing System in 1961, multiple users could log in to a system from remote dial-up terminals. Informal methods of using this to pass messages were developed and expanded,1965 – MITs CTSS MAIL and it used the Unix mail client to send messages between system users. The concept was extended to communicate remotely over the Berkeley Network,1979 – EMAIL, an application written by Shiva Ayyadurai for the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. 1979 – MH Message Handling System developed at RAND provided several tools for managing electronic mail on Unix, most of them only allowed communication between users logged into the same host or mainframe, although there might be hundreds or thousands of users within an organization. In the early 1980s, networked personal computers on LANs became increasingly important, server-based systems similar to the earlier mainframe systems were developed
30.
File sharing
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File sharing is the practice of distributing or providing access to digital media, such as computer programs, multimedia, documents or electronic books. File sharing may be achieved in a number of ways, peer-to-peer file sharing is based on the peer-to-peer application architecture. Shared files on the computers of users are indexed on directory servers. P2P technology was used by services like Napster, Spotify. The most popular protocol for P2P sharing is BitTorrent, cloud-based file syncing and sharing services implement automated file transfers by updating files from a dedicated sharing directory on each users networked devices. Files placed in this folder also are accessible through a website and mobile app. Such services have become popular via consumer-oriented file hosting services such as Dropbox, rsync is a more traditional program released in 1996 which synchronizes files on a direct machine-to-machine basis. Data synchronization in general can use other approaches to share files, such as distributed filesystems, version control, files were first exchanged on removable media. Computers were able to access remote files using filesystem mounting, bulletin board systems, Usenet, Internet Relay Chat and Hotline enabled users to communicate remotely through chat and to exchange files. The mp3 encoding, which was standardized in 1991 and which reduced the size of audio files. In 1998, MP3. com and Audiogalaxy were established, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act was unanimously passed, in June 1999, Napster was released as an unstructured centralized peer-to-peer system, requiring a central server for indexing and peer discovery. It is generally credited as being the first peer-to-peer file sharing system, gnutella, eDonkey2000, and Freenet were released in 2000, as MP3. com and Napster were facing litigation. Gnutella, released in March, was the first decentralized file sharing network, in the gnutella network, all connecting software was considered equal, and therefore the network had no central point of failure. In July, Freenet was released and became the first anonymity network, in September the eDonkey2000 client and server software was released. In 2001, Kazaa and Poisoned for the Mac was released and its FastTrack network was distributed, though unlike gnutella, it assigned more traffic to supernodes to increase routing efficiency. The network was proprietary and encrypted, and the Kazaa team made substantial efforts to other clients such as Morpheus off of the FastTrack network. In July 2001, Napster was sued by several recording companies and lost in A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc. In the case of Napster, it has ruled that an online service provider could not use the transitory network transmission safe harbor in the DMCA if they had control of the network with a server
31.
Instant messaging
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Instant messaging is a type of online chat that offers real-time text transmission over the Internet. A LAN messenger operates in a way over a local area network. Short messages are typically transmitted bi-directionally between two parties, when each user chooses to complete a thought and select send, some IM applications can use push technology to provide real-time text, which transmits messages character by character, as they are composed. More advanced instant messaging can add file transfer, clickable hyperlinks, Voice over IP, non-IM types of chat include multicast transmission, usually referred to as chat rooms, where participants might be anonymous or might be previously known to each other. Instant messaging systems tend to facilitate connections between specified known users, depending on the IM protocol, the technical architecture can be peer-to-peer or client-server. Instant messaging is a set of technologies used for text-based communication between two or more participants over the Internet or other types of networks. Of importance is that online chat and instant messaging differ from other such as email due to the perceived quasi-synchrony of the communications by the users. Some systems permit messages to be sent to users not then logged on, IM allows effective and efficient communication, allowing immediate receipt of acknowledgment or reply. However IM is basically not necessarily supported by transaction control, in many cases, instant messaging includes added features which can make it even more popular. For example, users may see each other via webcams, or talk directly for free over the Internet using a microphone, many applications allow file transfers, although they are usually limited in the permissible file-size. It is usually possible to save a text conversation for later reference, Instant messages are often logged in a local message history, making it similar to the persistent nature of emails. Initially, some of these systems were used as notification systems for services like printing, as networks developed, the protocols spread with the networks. Some of these used a peer-to-peer protocol, while others required peers to connect to a server, the Zephyr Notification Service was invented at MITs Project Athena in the 1980s to allow service providers to locate and send messages to users. Parallel to instant messaging were early online chat facilities, the earliest of which was Talkomatic on the PLATO system, during the bulletin board system phenomenon that peaked during the 1980s, some systems incorporated chat features which were similar to instant messaging, Freelancin Roundtable was one prime example. The first such general-availability commercial online service was the CompuServe CB Simulator in 1980, created by CompuServe executive Alexander Sandy Trevor in Columbus. Early instant messaging programs were primarily real-time text, where appeared as they were typed. This includes the Unix talk command line program, which was popular in the 1980s, some BBS chat programs also used a similar interface. Modern implementations of real-time text also exist in instant messengers, such as AOLs Real-Time IM as an optional feature, (Quantum Link later became America Online and made AOL Instant Messenger
32.
Podcast
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The word arose as a portmanteau of iPod and broadcast. Thus, the files distributed are typically in audio or video formats, the distributor of a podcast maintains a central list of the files on a server as a web feed that can be accessed through the Internet. This process can be automated so that new files are downloaded automatically, files are stored locally on the users device, ready for offline use. Podcasting contrasts with webcasting or streaming which do not allow for offline listening, many podcast players allow listeners to adjust the playback speed. Podcasts are usually free of charge to listeners and can often be created for little to no cost and it is very much a horizontal media form, producers are consumers, consumers may become producers, and both can engage in conversations with each other. Podcast is a portmanteau, invented by BBC journalist Ben Hammersley in 2004, of the words pod — from iPod, despite the etymology, the content can be accessed using any computer or similar device that can play media files. Use of the term podcast predated Apples addition of support for podcasting to the iPod. Other names for podcasting include net cast, intended as a term without the loose reference to the Apple iPod. The name is used by shows from the TWiT. tv network, some sources have suggested the backronym portable on demand for POD, for similar reasons. Podcasting, once a method of spreading information, has become a recognized medium for distributing audio content. Podcasts are similar to programs, but they are audio files. Listeners can play them at their convenience, using devices that have more common than portable broadcast receivers. The first application to make this process feasible was iPodderX, developed by August Trometer, by 2007, audio podcasts were doing what was historically accomplished via radio broadcasts, which had been the source of radio talk shows and news programs since the 1930s. This shift occurred as a result of the evolution of internet capabilities along with increased access to cheaper hardware and software for audio recording and editing. In August 2004, Adam Curry launched his show Daily Source Code and it was a show focused on chronicling his everyday life, delivering news and discussions about the development of podcasting, as well as promoting new and emerging podcasts. Daily Source Code is believed to be the first podcast produced on a consistent basis, Curry published it in an attempt to gain traction in the development of what would come to be known as podcasting and as a means of testing the software outside of a lab setting. The name Daily Source Code was chosen in the hope that it would attract an audience with an interest in technology, Daily Source Code started at a grassroots level of production and was initially directed at podcast developers. As its audience became interested in the format, these developers were inspired to create and produce their own projects and, as a result, as more people learned how easy it was to produce podcasts, a community of pioneer podcasters quickly appeared
33.
Online shopping
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Online shopping is a form of electronic commerce which allows consumers to directly buy goods or services from a seller over the Internet using a web browser. As of 2016, customers can shop online using a range of different computers and devices, including computers, laptops, tablet computers. An online shop evokes the physical analogy of buying products or services at a regular bricks-and-mortar retailer or shopping center, when an online store is set up to enable businesses to buy from another businesses, the process is called business-to-business online shopping. Online stores typically enable shoppers to use search features to specific models. Online customers must have access to the Internet and a method of payment in order to complete a transaction, such as a credit card. The largest of these online retailing corporations are Alibaba, Amazon. com, alternative names for the activity are e-tailing, a shortened form of electronic retail or e-shopping, a shortened form of electronic shopping. An online store may also be called an e-web-store, e-shop, e-store, Internet shop, web-shop, web-store, online store, online storefront, mobile commerce describes purchasing from an online retailers mobile device-optimized website or software application. These websites or apps are designed to enable customers to browse through a companies products and services on tablet computers, the growth of the internet as a secure shopping channel has developed since 1994, with the first sales of Sting album Ten Summoners Tales. Wine, chocolates and flowers soon followed and were among the pioneering retail categories which fueled the growth of online shopping, researchers found that having products that are appropriate for e-commerce was a key indicator of Internet success. Many of these products did well as they are products which shoppers didnt need to touch. But also importantly in the early days there were few shoppers online and they were from a segment, affluent, male. Online shopping has come along way since early days and -in the UK- accounts for significant percents. They focused on shopping motivations and found that the variety of products available and this was different for offline shoppers, who were more motivated by time saving and recreational motives. Digital High Street 2020 English entrepreneur Michael Aldrich was a pioneer of online shopping in 1979 and his system connected a modified domestic TV to a real-time transaction processing computer via a domestic telephone line. During the 1980s he designed, manufactured, sold, installed, maintained and supported many online shopping systems, the first World Wide Web server and browser, created by Tim Berners-Lee in 1990, opened for commercial use in 1991. The first secure retail transaction over the Web was either by NetMarket or Internet Shopping Network in 1994, immediately after, Amazon. com launched its online shopping site in 1995 and eBay was also introduced in 1995. Alibabas sites Taobao and Tmall were launched in 2003 and 2008, retailers are increasingly selling goods and services prior to availability through pretail for testing, building, and managing demand. Statistics show that in 2012, Asia-Pacific increased their sales over 30% giving them over $433 billion in revenue
34.
World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
35.
Web search engine
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A web search engine is a software system that is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web. The search results are presented in a line of results often referred to as search engine results pages. The information may be a mix of web pages, images, some search engines also mine data available in databases or open directories. Unlike web directories, which are maintained only by human editors, Internet search engines themselves predate the debut of the Web in December 1990. The Who is user search dates back to 1982 and the Knowbot Information Service multi-network user search was first implemented in 1989, the first well documented search engine that searched content files, namely FTP files was Archie, which debuted on 10 September 1990. Prior to September 1993 the World Wide Web was entirely indexed by hand, there was a list of webservers edited by Tim Berners-Lee and hosted on the CERN webserver. One historical snapshot of the list in 1992 remains, but as more and more web servers went online the central list could no longer keep up, on the NCSA site, new servers were announced under the title Whats New. The first tool used for searching content on the Internet was Archie, the name stands for archive without the v. It was created by Alan Emtage, Bill Heelan and J. Peter Deutsch, the rise of Gopher led to two new search programs, Veronica and Jughead. Like Archie, they searched the file names and titles stored in Gopher index systems, Veronica provided a keyword search of most Gopher menu titles in the entire Gopher listings. Jughead was a tool for obtaining information from specific Gopher servers. While the name of the search engine Archie Search Engine was not a reference to the Archie comic book series, Veronica and Jughead are characters in the series, thus referencing their predecessor. In the summer of 1993, no search engine existed for the web, oscar Nierstrasz at the University of Geneva wrote a series of Perl scripts that periodically mirrored these pages and rewrote them into a standard format. This formed the basis for W3Catalog, the webs first primitive search engine, in June 1993, Matthew Gray, then at MIT, produced what was probably the first web robot, the Perl-based World Wide Web Wanderer, and used it to generate an index called Wandex. The purpose of the Wanderer was to measure the size of the World Wide Web, the webs second search engine Aliweb appeared in November 1993. Aliweb did not use a web robot, but instead depended on being notified by website administrators of the existence at each site of a file in a particular format. NCSAs Mosaic™ - Mosaic wasnt the first Web browser, but it was the first to make a major splash. In November 1993, Mosaic v 1, jumpStation used a web robot to find web pages and to build its index, and used a web form as the interface to its query program
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Headquarters
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Headquarters denotes the location where most, if not all, of the important functions of an organization are coordinated. In the United States, the corporate headquarters represents the entity at the center or the top of a corporation taking full responsibility for managing all business activities, in the UK, the term head office is most commonly used for the HQs of large corporations. The term is also used regarding military organizations, a headquarters is the entity at the top of a corporation that takes full responsibility for the overall success of the corporation, and ensures corporate governance. Many companies have an office at a different address to their corporate office. A headquarters normally includes the leader of business unit and his or her staff as well as all functions to manage the business unit, the head of the business unit is responsible for overall result of the business unit. Military headquarters take many forms depending on the size and nature of the unit or formation they command, typically, they are split into the forward, main and rear components, both within NATO nations, and those following the organization and doctrine of the former Soviet Union. The forward or tactical HQs is a group of staff. The main HQs is less mobile and is involved in both the planning and execution of operations, there are a number of staff assembled here from various staff branches to advise the commander, and to control the various aspects of planning and the conduct of discrete operations. A main HQ for a large formation will have a chief of staff who coordinates the staff effort, the rear or logistic HQs is some distance from the battle or front line in conventional operations. The headquarters of the Catholic Church is Vatican City, the headquarters of the Russian Orthodox Church is in Danilov Monastery, Moscow. The World Council of Churches, including Orthodox Churches, has its headquarters in Geneva, the headquarters of Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople is located in Istanbul, Turkey. The headquarters of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is located in Salt Lake City, Utah, the Anglican Communion Office is in London. In Japanese budō martial arts such as karate, judo, aikido, kendo, there is usually a headquarters for each organization or region. The Japanese word honbu is generally used for that, also outside Japan, sometimes they refer to this headquarters as honbu dojo in which dojo is a facility provided for practicing discipline, the training ground. Sometimes honbu is written as hombu, the way it is pronounced, but according to the Hepburn transcription, weapons and Tactics of the Soviet Army Janes, London,516 pp. Wanner, Herbert Global and regional corporate headquarters in, Kählin, Christian, H. Switzerland Business & Investment Handbook, Orell Füssli and Wiley, Wanner, Herbert, LeClef, Xavier, & Shimizu, Hiroshi Global Headquarters on the Move, From Administrators to Facilitators Prims Second Semester 2004, Arthur D. Little
Internet portal
