1.
Excellency
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Excellency is an honorific style given to certain members of an organisation or state. Generally people addressed as Excellency are heads of state, heads of government, governors, ambassadors, certain ecclesiastics, royalty, and others holding equivalent rank and the FIFA President. It is sometimes misinterpreted as a title of office in itself, in reference to such an official, it takes the form His or Her Excellency, in direct address, Your Excellency, or, less formally, simply Excellency. The abbreviation HE is often used instead of His/Her Excellency, alternatively it may stand for His/Her Eminence, in most republican nations, the head of state is formally addressed as His Excellency. If a republic has a head of government, that official is often addressed as Excellency as well. If the nation is a monarchy, however, the customs may vary, in the case of Australia, all ambassadors, high commissioners, governors and the governor-general and their spouses are entitled to the use of Excellency. Governors of colonies in the British Empire were entitled to be addressed as Excellency, in various international organizations, notably the UN and its agencies, Excellency is used as a generic form of address for all republican heads of state and heads of government. Judges of the International Court of Justice are also called Your Excellency, in some monarchies the husbands, wives, or children, of a royal prince or princess, who do not possess a princely title themselves, may be entitled to the style. For example, in Spain spouses or children of a born infante or infanta are addressed as Excellency, also, former members of a royal house or family, who did have a royal title but forfeited it, may be awarded the style afterwards. Examples are former husbands or wives of a prince or princess, including Alexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg. In some emirates, only the Emir, heir apparent and prime minister are called His Highness and their children are styled with the lower treatment of His/Her Excellency. In Spain members of the nobility, holding the dignity of grandee, are addressed as The Most Excellent Lord/Lady. Some of the high ranking counts, Excellency can also attach to a prestigious quality, notably in an order of knighthood. By a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Ceremonial of 31 December 1930 the Holy See granted bishops of the Roman Catholic Church the title of Most Reverend Excellency. In the years following the First World War, the title of Excellency. The adjective Most Reverend was intended to distinguish the title from that of Excellency given to civil officials. The instruction Ut sive sollicite of the Holy Sees Secretariat of State, dated 28 March 1969, cardinals, even those who were bishops, continued to use the title of Eminence. In some English-speaking countries, the honorific of Excellency does not apply to other than the nuncio
2.
Order of St Michael and St George
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It is named in honour of two military saints, St Michael and St George. People are appointed to the Order rather than awarded it, British Ambassadors to foreign nations are regularly appointed as KCMGs or CMGs. It is the award for members of the FCO. The Orders motto is Auspicium melioris ævi and its patron saints, as the name suggests, are St. Michael the Archangel, and St. George, patron saint of England. One of its symbols is that of St Michael trampling over. The third of the aforementioned Orders—which relates to Ireland, no longer fully a part of the United Kingdom—still exists but is in disuse, the last of the Orders on the list, related to India, has also been in disuse since that countrys independence in 1947. In 1864, however, the protectorate ended and the Ionian Islands became a part of Greece, accordingly, numerous Governors-General and Governors feature as recipients of awards in the order. In 1965, the order was open for women, with Evelyn Bark becoming the first CMG, the British Sovereign is the Sovereign of the Order and appoints all other members of the Order. The next-most senior member is the Grand Master, the office was formerly filled by the Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands, now, however, Grand Masters are chosen by the Sovereign. Members of the Royal Family who are appointed to the Order do not count towards the limit, the Orders King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, like many other heraldic officers. The Usher of the Order is known as the Gentleman Usher of the Blue Rod, he not, unlike his Order of the Garter equivalent. On the left side is a representation of the star, the mantle is bound with two large tassels. The collar, worn only by Knights and Dames Grand Cross, is made of gold and it consists of depictions of crowned lions, Maltese Crosses, and the cyphers SM and SG, all alternately. In the centre are two winged lions, each holding a book and seven arrows, at less important occasions, simpler insignia are used, The star is an insignia used only by Knights and Dames Grand Cross and Knights and Dames Commanders. It is worn pinned to the left breast, the Knight and Dame Grand Cross star includes seven-armed, silver-rayed Maltese Asterisk, with a gold ray in between each pair of arms. The Knight and Dame Commanders star is a slightly smaller eight-pointed silver figure formed by two Maltese Crosses, it does not include any gold rays, in each case, the star bears a red cross of St George. In the centre of the star is a blue ring bearing the motto of the Order. Within the ring is a representation of St Michael trampling on Satan, the badge is the only insignia used by all members of the Order, it is suspended on a blue-crimson-blue ribbon
3.
Governor-General of Tuvalu
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The Governor-General of Tuvalu is the representative of the Tuvaluan monarch and performs the duties of the Queen in her absence. The office has existed since Tuvalu was granted independence from the United Kingdom on 1 October 1978, the current incumbent is Iakoba Italeli. Notes The Monarchy of Tuvalu exists in a framework of a representative democracy. As a constitutional monarch, The Queen acts entirely on the advice of her government ministers in Tuvalu, the Head of State is recognised in section 50 of the Constitution of Tuvalu, as a symbol of the unity and identity of Tuvalu. The powers of the head of state are set out in section 52 of the Constitution, part IV of the Constitution confirms the head of state of Tuvalu is Queen Elizabeth II as the sovereign of Tuvalu and provides for the rules for succession to the Crown. As set out in section 54 of the Constitution, the Queen’s representative is the governor-general, section 58 of the Constitution requires the governor-general to perform the functions of the head of state when the sovereign is outside Tuvalu or otherwise incapacitated. The governor-general of Tuvalu is appointed by the monarch upon the advice of the Prime Minister of Tuvalu, however the holder has constitutional responsibilities and reserve powers in relation to the ordering parliament to convene and the appointment and dismissal of the prime minister. That is, the governor-general could consider whether it was appropriate to exercise his powers in calling parliament. The governor-general Iakoba Italeli was called on to exercise the reserve powers when prime minister Willy Telavi refused to recall parliament after the Nukufetau by-election,2013, tuvalus opposition then requested the governor-general to intervene against the prime ministers decision. On 3 July, Italeli exercised his powers in ordering parliament to convene, against the prime ministers wishes. When the parliament met on 30 July, the speaker refused to allow a debate on a motion in the government of Willy Telavi. The governor-general also ordered that parliament sit on Friday 2 August to allow a vote of no-confidence in Telavi, Telavi then proceeded to write to Queen Elizabeth II informing her that he was dismissing Italeli from his position as governor-general. On 4 August the parliament elected Enele Sopoaga as prime minister
4.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
5.
Apisai Ielemia
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Apisai Ielemia is a Tuvaluan politician. He served as the tenth Prime Minister of Tuvalu from 2006 to 2010 and he was re-elected to parliament in the Tuvaluan general election,2015. The abuse of office charges related to payments deposited into a National Bank of Tuvalu personal account, the appeal to the High Court held that the conviction was “manifestly unsafe, ” with the court quashing the 12 month jail term. Ielemia said he is appealing against the decision and still considers himself to be an member of parliament. In general elections held on 3 August 2006 prime minister Maatia Toafas government was defeated, Ielemia has continued Tuvalus pursuit of close relations with the Republic of China, and in December 2007 visited that country, where various bilateral issues were addressed. He gained an international profile during the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen by highlighting the dangers of rising sea levels. In September 2008 Ielemia and the President of Kiribati, Anote Tong, Ielemia was one of 10 MPs who were re-elected to parliament in the 2010 general election. Ielemia was among Telavis supporters, and was appointed to Telavis Cabinet as Minister for Foreign Affairs, the Environment, Trade, Labour and Tourism
6.
Willy Telavi
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Willy Telavi is a Tuvaluan politician who was Prime Minister of Tuvalu from 2010 to 2013. Telavi was first elected to parliament in 2006 and was re-elected in 2010 and he became prime minister on 24 December 2010 and the Telavi Ministry retained government until August 2013. The opposition then requested the governor-general of Tuvalu, Sir Iakoba Italeli, on 3 July, Italeli exercised his reserve powers in ordering parliament to convene, against the prime minister Telavis wishes, on 30 July. On 1 August 2013 Italeli again exercised his powers and dismissed Telavi as prime minister. A day later, on 2 August 2013, Telavis government was brought down through a vote of no confidence in parliament. He resigned from parliament in August 2014 and he was absent for much of the parliamentary year tending to his sick wife in Hawaii, and he resigned in order to remain at his wifes side. His career in the Tuvalu police force culminated in his appointment as commissioner in 1993. He earned a degree in studies from the University of the South Pacific in 1999. Willy Telavi was appointed to his current position in May 1993, Telavi stood for the Parliament of Tuvalu in 2006 and was elected to serve the constituency of Nanumea. The government of prime minister Apisai Ielemia came to following the election. Telavi was appointed minister for home affairs in the Ielemia administration and he retained his seat in parliament in the 2010 general election, and was appointed minister for home affairs in the cabinet of the new prime minister, Maatia Toafa. The motion was initiated due to MPs concerns over certain aspects of the budget. On 24 December Telavi was elected as the minister, defeating foreign affairs. Appointing his cabinet on the day, he appointed himself to continue as minister for home affairs. In March 2012, Telavi paid a visit to Abkhazia. Under Telavis leadership, in September 2011, Tuvalu had become one of six countries to grant diplomatic recognition to Abkhazia as a sovereign state. The two countries, during Telavis visit, agreed on free movement of each others citizens between them, without the need for visas, in addition, Telavi was leading a Tuvaluan delegation of electoral monitors for that months Abkhazian parliamentary election. As a response, Georgia cut off relations with Tuvalu
7.
Enele Sopoaga
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Enele Sosene Sopoaga is a Tuvaluan diplomat and politician who has been Prime Minister of Tuvalu since 2013. Sopoaga was elected to Parliament in the 2010 general election and he served as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs, the Environment and Labour in Prime Minister Maatia Toafas short-lived government from September to December 2010. Following an unsuccessful bid for the premiership in December 2010, he became leader of the Opposition to prime minister Willy Telavis government and he became caretaker prime minister on 1 August 2013 following Telavis removal by the Governor General, in the context of a political crisis. A day later, on 2 August 2013, the opposition successfully voted out Telavis government in a no confidence vote, following this, a ballot was held to elect the new prime minister of Tuvalu and Sopoaga won with 8 votes to 4. He was sworn in on 5 August 2013, and created his ministry the same day, Sopoaga received a Certificate in Diplomatic Studies from Oxford University in 1990, and a masters degree from the University of Sussex in 1994. Sopoaga and his wife, Salilo Enele, have three children and he is the younger brother of Saufatu Sopoaga, who was prime minister from 2002 to 2004. From 1980 until 1986, Sopoaga served as an Education Administrator within the Ministry of Social Services and he became the Assistant Secretary of the Ministry of Social Services in 1986. He was the Assistant Secretary and European Union National Authorizing Officer, Department of Foreign Affairs, Sopoaga was the acting officer within the Minister of Foreign Affairs and Economic Planning from 1991 until 1992. He then served as the Permanent Secretary and European Union National Authorizing Officer within the Tuvaluan Ministry of Foreign Affairs, additionally, Sopoaga served as Tuvalus High Commissioner to Fiji. He also simultaneously served as the Tuvaluan High Commissioner to both Papua New Guinea and Samoa, from 1995 to 1996, he was the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Health, Sports and Human Resource Development. He subsequently served as his countrys Permanent Representative to the United Nations from 2001 to 2010 and he also served as the Vice-Chairman of the Alliance of Small Island States from January 2002. He has been described as Tuvalus climate change negotiator, tasked with raising the profile of the dangers posed by climate change in Tuvalu, in 2010, he decided to go into politics, and stood for Parliament in the general election on 16 September 2010. Sopoaga, who was elected to parliament for the Nukufetau constituency was expected to pose a challenge to Ielemia for the office of prime minister during the formation of a new government. In the event, however, neither Ielemia nor Sopoaga stood for the premiership, Toafa formed a cabinet composed largely of first time MPs who had given him their support, and appointed Sopoaga as deputy prime minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs, the Environment and Labour. Maatia Toafas government was brought down on 21 December 2010 by a motion of no confidence in Parliament, the motion was reportedly due to MPs concerns about the budget, and in particular possible restrictions on the governments funding of Tuvaluans medical costs abroad. With a new prime minister due to be chosen on 24 December, Toafa announced that he would not be standing for the job, Sopoaga stood for the premiership, but lost to Willy Telavi by seven votes to eight. Sopoaga thus became leader of the Opposition and he continued to call for international initiatives to tackle climate change, including adaptation techniques, a transfer of affordable sustainable technologies to vulnerable developing nations. This would enable sustainable living, he said, and address the issue of Tuvalus dependence on donor countries and he told Radio Australia that Tuvalu was now suffering from long, serious periods of drought, affecting crops
8.
Kamuta Latasi
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Sir Kamuta Latasi KCMG OBE PC MP is a political figure from the Pacific nation of Tuvalu from Funafuti atoll. He was elected to the Parliament of Tuvalu in 1992, Latasi served as the 4th Prime Minister of Tuvalu from 1993 until 1996. He has served as the Speaker of parliament from 2006 to September 2010, the general election held on 25 November 1993 resulted in the members being evenly split in their support of the incumbent prime minister Bikenibeu Paeniu and the former prime minister Tomasi Puapua. As a consequence, the governor-general dissolved the parliament on 22 September, the subsequent parliament elected Kamuta Latasi as prime minister on 10 December 1993, with a 7,5 majority over the group a members of parliament headed by former prime minister Bikenibeu Paeniu. Kamuta Latasi was the minister until 24 December 1996. As the result of the vote on a motion of no confidence Kamuta Latasi resigned, in the general election of 26 March 1998 Latasi lost his seat. While many Tuvaluan politicians tend to avoid organising themselves along partisan lines, Latasi is noted for his republican leanings, together with former prime minister, the late Ionatana Ionatana. One notable issue during the premiership of Latasi was the question of the design of the flag of Tuvalu. In a manner which some Tuvaluans regarded as arbitrary, Latasi changed the flag to another design which omitted the Union Jack, supporters of Latasi held that this measure symbolically distanced Tuvalu from the colonial period. This change, however, proved to be short-lived, since Latasis successor implemented a reversion to the former design, Sir Kamuta Latasi is a landowner and long-time politician. His wife Lady Naama Maheu Latasi was also a member of the Parliament of Tuvalu from 1989 to 1997 and she died on 16 March 2012. From 2006 to 2010, Latasi was the Speaker of parliament and he was re-elected to parliament by his constituency of Funafuti in the 2010 general election. Latasi was not the speaker during the term of the government of Maatia Toafa. On 25 December 2010 Willy Telavi was elected prime minister with an majority over Enele Sopoaga, Prime minister Telavi lost his majority as the result of the death of Lotoala Metia. The Nukufetau by-election,2013 was won by the opposition candidate, on 30 July 2013, during the attempts of the opposition to present a no-confidence motion in the government of Willy Telavi, Latasi refused to allow a debate on the motion. The governor-general also ordered that parliament sit on Friday 2 August to allow a vote of no-confidence in Mr Telavi and his government. Again on 2 August 2013 Willy Tevali faced a motion of no confidence, on 4 March 2014 Latasi was replaced as Speaker by Otinielu Tausi, with Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stating that the government needed a Speaker who shared its general viewpoints. He thenceforth sat on the Opposition benches, despite Latasis republican stance he did accept several honours, including the KCMG in 2008
9.
Parliament of Tuvalu
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The Parliament of Tuvalu, or Palamene o Tuvalu is the unicameral national legislature of Tuvalu. In 1974, the Ellice Islanders voted for separate British dependency status, as a consequence Tuvalu separated from the Gilbert Islands which became Kiribati. Tuvalu became fully independent within the Commonwealth on 1 October 1978, on 5 September 2000, Tuvalu became the 189th member of the United Nations. During the time of the British colony of Tuvalu until independence the parliament of Tuvalu was called the House of the Assembly or Fale I Fono, the parliament was first established when Tuvalu separated from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands in 1975. Following independence in October 1978 the House of the Assembly was renamed the Parliament of Tuvalu or Palamene o Tuvalu, the parliament was dissolved in July 1978 and thereafter the government of Toaripi Lauti was acting in a caretaker capacity only until the Tuvaluan general election,1981 was held. At the date of independence there were 12 members of the Parliament of Tuvalu, the Electoral Act was amended in December 1999 to increase the membership of parliament from 12 to 15 MPs. In August 2007 the Constitution was changed to increase the number of ministers from 5 to 7, the Constitution of Tuvalu states that it is “the supreme law of Tuvalu” and that “all other laws shall be interpreted and applied subject to this Constitution”. It sets out the Principles of the Bill of Rights and the Protection of the Fundamental Rights, in 1986, the Constitution adoption of independence was amended in order to give attention to Tuvaluan custom and tradition as well as the aspirations and values of the Tuvaluan people. The changes placed greater emphasis on Tuvaluan community values rather than Western concepts of individual entitlement, ‘Applied law’ is defined in Section 7 of that Act as “imperial enactments which have effect as part of the law of Tuvalu”. The exercise of judgment in the calling of by-elections and the summoning of parliament was again tested in 2013. The Nukufetau by-election,2013 was won by the opposition candidate, the Tuvaluan constitutional crisis continued until August 2013. The governor-general Iakoba Italeli then proceeded to exercise his powers to order Mr Telavis removal. The Governor General also ordered that Parliament sit on Friday 2 August to allow a vote of no-confidence in Mr Telavi and he is elected because a majority of the voters regard him as the candidate best equipped to represent them and their interests in the government of their country. He is bound by the rules of parliament and answerable to parliament for the manner in which he acts. Should he lose the confidence of the electorate, he cannot be obliged to resign, the political system is based on personal alliances and loyalties derived from clan and family connections. The Parliament of Tuvalu is rare among national legislatures in that it is non-partisan in nature, however he was forced to call parliament following the intervention of the governor-general. On 2 August 2013 Willy Tevali faced a motion of no confidence in the parliament, on 4 August the parliament elected Enele Sopoaga as prime minister. In 2015 the parliament was dissolved with an election set down for March
10.
Nui (atoll)
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Nui is an atoll and one of nine districts of the Pacific Ocean state of Tuvalu. It has an area of 3.37 km² and a population of 542. Traditionally Nuian culture is organised in three family circles - Tekaubaonga, Tekaunimala and Tekaunibiti families, most people live on the western end of Fenua Tapu. In the 2012 census,321 people live in Alamoni - Maiaki and 221 people live in Manutalake - Meang, the junior school is Vaipuna Primary School. Nui consists of at least 21 islets, the people of Nui speak the Gilbertese language, the language of Kiribati, and Tuvaluan, the official language of Tuvalu. The ancestors of Nui came from both Samoa and the Gilbert Islands in what is now Kiribati. When we drew near, we found it so small that it was no more than six leagues in circumference. This island was full of trees like palms, towards the north it had a reef, which entered the sea a quarter of a league. On the west side it had a strand lying lengthways, with reefs in different parts and this is on the west side, for we could not go round the east side because of the weather. Mendaña thereupon ordered signals to be made to them with a cloth to try to get them to return, instead of which they landed. At night one of the ships showed a light, it was copied by a fire, hernán Gallego, Mendañas pilot, says the natives were naked and mulattoes and Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, cosmographer in the expedition reported that the island had a large fishery. As it was late Mendaña decided to defer landing until the morning, with the dawn, however, a strong westerly storm blew up, and although they tried all day to regain the island they were at length compelled to give up. A Dutch expedition found Nui on the morning of June 14,1825, the atoll has been called Egg or Netherland Island. The population of Nui from 1860–1900 is estimated to be between 250 and 300 people, martin Kleis was the resident trader on Nui in the late 19th Century who sold copra to Henderson and Macfarlane. Thomas Andrew visited Nui in about 1885-86, Nui Post Office opened around 1919. Celebrations are held on Nui on the 16 February - Bogin te Ieka - to commemorate the Tsunami that struck the island on that day in 1882. Nui was affected by storm surges caused by Cyclone Pam in early March 2015, on 22 March,71 families of Nui remained displaced and were living in 3 evacuation centres or with other families. The Situation Report published on 30 March reported that Nui suffered the most damage of the three islands, with Nui suffering the loss of 90% of the crops. Health assessment teams visited Nui and the islands affected by Cyclone Pam
11.
Law of Tuvalu
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The land tenure system is largely based on kaitasi. By virtue of section 42 of the Laws of Tuvalu Act 1987, schedule 1 paragraph 3 and 4 of the Laws of Tuvalu Act 1987 require that courts must take customary law into account when considering specified matters in criminal and civil proceedings. This provision is reinforced by the Laws of Tuvalu Act 1987, ‘Applied law’ is defined in section 7 of that Act as “imperial enactments which have effect as part of the law of Tuvalu”. Courts are established in Tuvalu to resolve disputes and to interpret the laws of Tuvalu, there are eight Island Courts and Lands Courts, appeals in relation to land disputes are made to the Lands Courts Appeal Panel. Appeals from the Island Courts and the Lands Courts Appeal Panel are made to the Magistrates Court, the superior court is the High Court of Tuvalu as it has unlimited original jurisdiction and hears appeals from the lower courts. Hon Charles Sweeney QC is the current Chief Justice of Tuvalu, rulings of the High Court can be appealed to the Court of Appeal of Tuvalu. From the Court of Appeal there is a right of appeal to Her Majesty in Council, crime in Tuvalu Law enforcement in Tuvalu Jennifer Corrin-Care, Tess Newton, Don Paterson, Introduction to South Pacific Law, London, Cavendish Publishing Tuvalu - Tuvalu Legislation On-line. Office of the Attorney General of Tuvalu, Tuvalu - Laws of Tuvalu 2008 Revised Edition. Tuvalu – Current Legislation - alphabetical Index, Tuvalu National Human Rights Action Plan 2016-2020. Attorney General of Tuvalu and Pacific Community
12.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
13.
University of Malta
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The University of Malta is the highest educational institution in Malta. It offers undergraduate degrees, postgraduate masters degrees and postgraduate doctorates. In post-nominals the Universitys name is abbreviated as Melit, a form of Melita. The administrative set up of the university academic and administrative. The main governing bodies are the Council, the Senate and the Faculty Boards, as the supreme governing body of the University, the Council is responsible for the administration of the University. Faculties group together departments concerned with an area of knowledge. The council is responsible for appointing staff members to academic posts. The senate is responsible for the academic matters of the University primarily regulating studies, research, documentation. The senate also establishes the entry regulations, the faculty board directs the academic tasks of the faculty. The board presents plans and proposals to the senate and the council, besides, it determines the studies, teaching and research within the faculty. In March 2016, it was announced that Professor Alfred J. Vella was elected by the members of the University Council as the next Rector of the University of Malta, Grade 1 is awarded for the highest level of achievement, whereas Grade 7 indicates the minimum satisfactory performance. However, entry on basis of maturity and experience is granted for certain courses in the arts, the Faculty of Dental Surgery allows for a maximum of six European students per year chosen according to merit and only after the students have passed an admissions interview. Full-time undergraduate courses are free-of-charge to citizens of Malta and the European Union, maltese students enrolled in higher education in Malta are entitled to a stipend. Fees are charged in the case of higher courses and to nationals from non-EU states, there are 600 international students studying at the university, comprising around 7% of the student population. There are 11,500 students including 750 international students from 82 countries, following full-time or part-time degree and diploma courses, the university hosts Erasmus and other exchange students. There are a further 2,500 pre-tertiary students at the Junior College, the university has fourteen Faculties, a number of institutes and centres and the School of Performing Arts. The floor area occupied by the building is between 5,000 and 6,000 square metres. A collection of one million volumes is housed throughout the Main Library, the library subscribes to 60,000 e-journals,308 print journal titles and a collection of e-books
14.
Tuvaluan general election, 2006
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General elections were held in Tuvalu on 3 August 2006 to elect fifteen members to the Parliament. There were 5,765 eligible voters on the electoral roll,32 candidates, including 2 women, competed for the 15 seats. All fifteen candidates elected were Independents, as there are no parties in the country. The years before the election has involved an uncertain economic situation with questions about the stability with frequent changes of prime minister. There had also questions about the integrity of some government ministers. The election saw eight of the fifteen incumbent MPs defeated, including the entire cabinet of the incumbent Prime Minister Maatia Toafa, Apisai Ielemia was elected the prime minister. The Tuvaluan general election was held on 3 August 2006, Maatia Toafa, the incumbent prime minister, was re-elected to his seat in parliament, however all his cabinet members were defeated. Eight new members were elected to the parliament, the new members of parliament are predominantly experienced civil servants, including Taukelina Finikaso, Iakoba Italeli, Lotoala Metia, Namoliki Sualiki, Willy Telavi, and Falesa Pitoi. Incumbents are indicated with * Additional source, Adam Carr On 14 August 2006 Apisai Ielemia was elected as minister, he had been a diplomat, clerk to parliament. Kamuta Latasi was appointed the Speaker of the parliament, sir Tomu Sione acted as Chairman of the Caucus
15.
Prime Minister of Tuvalu
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The Prime Minister of Tuvalu is the head of government of Tuvalu. According to Tuvalus constitution, the prime minister must always be a member of the Parliament, because there are no political parties in Tuvalu, any member of parliament can be nominated for the role. Following parliament vote the Governor-General of Tuvalu is responsible for swearing the prime minister in, if the prime minister dies, as has happened on one occasion, the deputy prime minister becomes acting prime minister until a new one is elected by parliament. The prime minister can lose his office by resigning, being defeated in a no vote by parliament. Several former prime ministers have been appointed the Governor-General of Tuvalu, notes Governor-General of Tuvalu Politics of Tuvalu
16.
Politics of Tuvalu
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Executive power is exercised by the government. In 1986 the Constitution adopted upon independence was amended in order to give attention to Tuvaluan custom and tradition as well as the aspirations, the changes placed greater emphasis on Tuvaluan community values rather than Western concepts of individual freedom. Tuvalu follows the Westminster system of representative democracy although Tuvalu is a partisan democracy, the Electoral Act was amended in December 1999 to increase the membership of parliament from 12 to 15 MPs. In August 2007 the Constitution was changed to increase the number of ministers from 5 to 7, Tuvaluans participated in the political institutions of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony during the transition to self-determination. A referendum was held in December 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands, as a consequence of the referendum the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony ceased to exist on 1 January 1976 and the separate British colonies of Kiribati and Tuvalu came into existence. In 2008 Tuvaluans rejected a referendum that proposed replacing the Queen of Tuvalu. Queen Elizabeth II—as the Queen of Tuvalu—is the head of state, represented by the governor-general, the prime minister is elected by the members of the parliament. The members also elect the Speaker of the Parliament of Tuvalu who is the officer of the parliament. The ministers that form the cabinet are appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister, the Attorney-General sits in parliament, but does not vote, the parliamentary role of the Attorney-General is purely advisory. The current Attorney-General is Eselealofa Apinelu, the Office of the Prime Minister supports the prime minister and the deputy prime minister and also has responsibility for the public service, the police, immigration, broadcasting and media. Appeals in relation to land disputes are made to the Lands Courts Appeal Panel, appeals from the Island Courts and the Lands Courts Appeal Panel are made to the Magistrates Court, which has jurisdiction to hear civil cases involving up to $10,000. The superior court is the High Court of Tuvalu as it has unlimited original jurisdiction, hon Charles Sweeney QC is the current Chief Justice of Tuvalu. Rulings of the High Court can be appealed to the Court of Appeal of Tuvalu, from the Court of Appeal there is a right of appeal to Her Majesty in Council, i. e. the Privy Council in London. The legislative branch is the unicameral Parliament of Tuvalu or Palamene o Tuvalu has 15 members, during the time that Tuvalu was a British Dependency the parliament was called the House of Assembly or Fale I Fono. In 2014 the office of the Chief Ombudsman was established, with the appointment of Saaga Talu Teafa, the primary role of the Chief Ombudsman is to work to achieve good governance through the enforcement of the Leadership Code Act. Democratic values in Tuvalu are strong with free elections every 4 years by universal adult suffrage, there are no formal political parties so all candidates are non-partisan, and election campaigns are largely on the basis of personal/family ties and reputation. Tuvalu has about 6,000 eligible voters – a little over half the countrys population, members of parliament have very close ties to the island they represent. Often the northern islands in the country compete against the islands with the center holding the balance of power
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Tuvalu
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It comprises three reef islands and six true atolls spread out between the latitude of 5° to 10° south and longitude of 176° to 180°, west of the International Date Line. Tuvalu has a population of 10,640, the total land area of the islands of Tuvalu is 26 square kilometres. The first inhabitants of Tuvalu were Polynesians, in 1568, Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to sail through the archipelago, sighting the island of Nui during his expedition in search of Terra Australis. In 1819 the island of Funafuti was named Ellices Island, the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay. A referendum was held in December 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands, as a consequence of the referendum, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony ceased to exist on 1 January 1976 and the separate British colonies of Kiribati and Tuvalu came into existence. Tuvalu became fully independent within the Commonwealth on 1 October 1978, on 5 September 2000 Tuvalu became the 189th member of the United Nations. The origins of the people of Tuvalu are addressed in the theories regarding migration into the Pacific that began about 3000 years ago, during pre-European-contact times there was frequent canoe voyaging between the nearer islands including Samoa and Tonga. Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu were inhabited, thus the name, Tuvalu, possible evidence of fire in the Caves of Nanumanga may indicate human occupation for thousands of years. The stories as to the ancestors of the Tuvaluans vary from island to island, on Niutao, Funafuti and Vaitupu the founding ancestor is described as being from Samoa, whereas on Nanumea the founding ancestor is described as being from Tonga. Mendaña made contact with the islanders but was unable to land, during Mendañas second voyage across the Pacific he passed Niulakita on 29 August 1595, which he named La Solitaria. Captain John Byron passed through the islands of Tuvalu in 1764 during his circumnavigation of the globe as captain of the Dolphin, Byron charted the atolls as Lagoon Islands. Chambers and Doug Munro identified Niutao as the island that Francisco Mourelle de la Rúa sailed past on 5 May 1781, mourelles map and journal named the island El Gran Cocal, however, the latitude and longitude was uncertain. Longitude could only be reckoned crudely as accurate chronometers were unavailable until the late 18th century, the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay. In 1820 the Russian explorer Mikhail Lazarev visited Nukufetau as commander of the Mirny, Louis Isidore Duperrey, captain of La Coquille, sailed past Nanumanga in May 1824 during a circumnavigation of the earth. A Dutch expedition found Nui on the morning of 14 June 1825, whalers began roving the Pacific, although visiting Tuvalu only infrequently because of the difficulties of landing on the atolls. Captain George Barrett of the Nantucket whaler Independence II has been identified as the first whaler to hunt the waters around Tuvalu, in November 1821 he bartered coconuts from the people of Nukulaelae and also visited Niulakita. A shore camp was established on Sakalua islet of Nukufetau, where coal was used to melt down the whale blubber, the Rev. A. W. Elekana began proselytising Christianity. He was trained at Malua Theological College, a London Missionary Society school in Samoa, in 1865 the Rev. A. W. Murray of the LMS – a Protestant congregationalist missionary society – arrived as the first European missionary where he too proselytised among the inhabitants of Tuvalu
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Multilingualism
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Multilingualism is the use of two or more languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the worlds population, more than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one other language in addition to their mother tongue. Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of globalization, people who speak several languages are also called polyglots. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the first language is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals, even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates the other. People who know more than one language have been reported to be adept at language learning compared to monolinguals. Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization, the definition of multilingualism is a subject of debate in the very same way as the definition of language fluency. On one end of a sort of continuum, one may define multilingualism as complete competence. The speaker would presumably have complete knowledge and control over the language so as to sound native, on the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions, in addition, there is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language. For instance, scholars disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or a dialect of English. Many small independent nations schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions, for example, in, all children are required to learn at least two foreign languages, the other national language and one alien language. Many Finnish schoolchildren also select further languages, such as German or Russian, in some large nations with multiple languages, such as India, school children may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country. In major metropolitan areas of Central, South and East India, thus a child of Telugu parents living in Bangalore will end up speaking his or her mother tongue at home and the state language, Hindi and English in school and his or her surroundings. Many myths and much prejudice has grown around the notions of bi- and these are all harmful convictions which have long been debunked, yet still persist among many parents. A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than one language, more specifically, the terms bilingual and trilingual are used to describe comparable situations in which two or three languages are involved. A multilingual person is referred to as a polyglot. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the first language is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed
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Kiribati
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Kiribati, officially the Republic of Kiribati, is an island nation in the central Pacific Ocean. The permanent population is just over 100,000, more than half of live on Tarawa Atoll. The nation comprises 33 atolls and reef islands and one raised coral island and they have a total land area of 800 square kilometres and are dispersed over 3.5 million square kilometers. Their spread straddles the equator and the 180th meridian, although the International Date Line is indented to bring the Line Islands in the day as the Kiribati Islands. The International Date Line circumscribes Kiribati by swinging far to the east, almost reaching the 150°W meridian, Kiribatis easternmost islands, the southern Line Islands south of Hawaii, have the most advanced time on Earth, UTC+14 hours. Kiribati became independent from the United Kingdom in 1979, the capital and now most populated area, South Tarawa, consists of a number of islets, connected by a series of causeways. These comprise about half the area of Tarawa Atoll, Kiribati is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the IMF and the World Bank, and became a full member of the United Nations in 1999. The name Kiribati was adopted at independence and it is local enunciation of Gilberts. This name derives from the archipelago that forms the nation. It was named the Gilbert Islands after the British explorer Thomas Gilbert and he sighted many of the islands in 1788 while mapping out the Outer Passage route from Port Jackson to Canton. The Kiribati archipelago was named Îles Gilbert, in about 1820, by Russian admiral Adam von Krusenstern, both their maps, published in 1820, were written in French. The archipelagos name was incorporated in the entire Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony from 1916, the spelling of Gilberts in the Gilbertese language as Kiribati may be found in books in Gilbertese prepared by missionaries and others. It is often suggested that the name for the Gilbert Islands proper is Tungaru. The pronunciation differs, Kiribas is the pronunciation as ti in Kiribatese makes an s sound. The area now called Kiribati has been inhabited by Micronesians speaking the same Oceanic language since sometime between 3000 BC and AD1300, the area was not isolated, invaders from Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji, later introduced Polynesian and Melanesian cultural aspects, respectively. Intermarriage tended to blur cultural differences and resulted in a significant degree of cultural homogenisation, chance visits by European ships occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries, as these ships attempted circumnavigations of the world or sought sailing routes from the south to north Pacific Ocean. The passing trade gave rise to European, Chinese, Samoan and other residents from the 1830s, they included beachcombers, castaways, traders and missionaries. In 1892 local authorities on each of the Gilbert Islands agreed to Captain Davis RN declaring them part of a British protectorate with the nearby Ellice Islands
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Tuvaluan general election, 2010
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A parliamentary election was held in Tuvalu on 16 September 2010. Voters elected fifteen members of the Parliament to a four-year term, all candidates were independents, as there are no political parties in the country. Ten out of the fifteen incumbent members were re-elected, the remaining five incumbents, including Deputy Prime Minister Tavau Teii, did not retain their seats. The incumbent Prime Minister, Apisai Ielemia, retained his seat in Vaitupu constituency, on 29 September, Maatia Toafa from Nanumea won eight of the fifteen votes to become Prime Minister. However, on 24 December 2010, after a motion of no confidence, carried by eight votes to seven, Willy Telavi retained a bare majority through the term of his ministry until by-elections were won by candidates that supported the opposition. Willy Telavi attempted to avoid facing a vote of the parliament until he was forced to call parliament following the intervention of the governor-general, on 2 August 2013 Willy Tevali faced a motion of no confidence in the parliament, the voting was eight for the motion, four against. On 4 August the parliament elected Enele Sopoaga as Prime Minister, Parliament was dissolved on 13 August 2010, and registration began on 28 August. There are no parties in Tuvalu, so all candidates are non-partisan. Twenty-six candidates, including all sitting Members of Parliament, stood for the fifteen seats in Parliament, Tuvalu has about 6,000 eligible voters - a little over half the countrys population. Sopoaga stood for election in the Nukufetau constituency, and is considered a national hero for his diplomatic work at the Copenhagen Summit on climate change in December 2009. Enele Sopoaga was elected by the voters of Nukufetau, Prime Minister Apisai Ielemia and Communications Minister Taukelina Finikaso, who are relatives, stood for election in the same Vaitupu constituency in the 2010 election. Finikaso filed a complaint against Ielemia prior to the election, accusing the Prime Minister of distributing voter registration forms before the registration date. There were 6,008 registered voters in the election, voting began at 8 a. m. and closed at 4 p. m. before counting commenced at the countrys twelve polling stations. Prime Minister Ielemia retained his seat to win re-election from his Vaitupu constituency, ielemias re-election prospects had been thought to be tenuous before the election. In total, ten MPs were re-elected, including Speaker Kamuta Latasi, the announcement that ten sitting MPs had been re-elected was made by Speaker Kamuta Latasi the following day. Candidates in boldface were elected, Additional source, Adam Carr Speaker Latasi originally announced that all fifteen MPs will meet the following week to form a new government, however, the election of a new Prime Minister was not be held until 29 September 2010. Incumbent Apisai Ielemia, who became prime minister after the election, hoped to form a new government. Enele Sopoaga was reported as being a challenger for the premiership
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Monarchy of Tuvalu
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The monarchy of Tuvalu is a system of government in which a hereditary monarch is the sovereign and head of state of Tuvalu. The present monarch of Tuvalu is Queen Elizabeth II, who is also the Sovereign of 15 other Commonwealth realms, the Queens constitutional roles are mostly delegated to the Governor-General of Tuvalu. Royal succession is governed by the English Act of Settlement of 1701, fifty-four states are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Sixteen of these countries are specifically Commonwealth realms who recognise, individually, despite sharing the same person as their respective national monarch, each of the Commonwealth realms—including Tuvalu—is sovereign and independent of the others. The Monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it has often been called British since this time for historical, legal. The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act,1927 was the first indication of this shift in law, Tuvalu achieved independence in 1978 but retained the Queen as Head of State. Under the Statute of Westminster, Tuvalu has a common monarchy with Britain, on all matters of the Tuvaluan State, the monarch is advised solely by Tuvaluan ministers. 16 June remains a holiday as the Queens Official Birthday. The Queen of Tuvalu and the Duke of Edinburgh toured Tuvalu between 26–27 October 1982, the royal couple were carried around in ceremonial litters and later served with traditional local dishes on a banquet. A sheet of stamps was issued for the royal visit by the Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau. By the Act 1 of 1987 of the Parliament of Tuvalu her style and title are, Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Tuvalu and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth. Typically, the Sovereign is styled Queen of Tuvalu, and is addressed as such when in Tuvalu, under the Constitution of Tuvalu, the oath of allegiance is a declaration of allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, Her Heirs and Successors. The Monarchy of Tuvalu exists in a framework of a representative democracy. As a constitutional monarch, The Queen acts entirely on the advice of her Government ministers in Tuvalu, the Head of State is recognised in section 50 of the Constitution of Tuvalu, as a symbol of the unity and identity of Tuvalu. The powers of the Head of State are set out in section 52 of the Constitution, part IV of the Constitution confirms the Head of State of Tuvalu is Queen Elizabeth II as the Sovereign of Tuvalu and provides for the rules for succession to the Crown. As set out in section 54 of the Constitution, the Queen’s representative is the governor general, section 58 of the Constitution requires the governor general to perform the functions of the Head of State when the Sovereign is outside Tuvalu or otherwise incapacitated. The governor general of Tuvalu is appointed by the monarch upon the advice of the Prime Minister of Tuvalu, in 1986 the Constitution adopted upon independence was amended in order to give attention to Tuvaluan custom and tradition as well as the aspirations and values of the Tuvaluan people. The changes placed greater emphasis on Tuvaluan community values rather than Western concepts of individual entitlement, the preamble was change and an introductory ‘Principles of the Constitution’ was added
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Tuvaluan constitutional crisis
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The dispute was eventually resolved in August 2013 by a motion of no confidence in Prime Minister Willy Telavi, following which Enele Sopoaga was elected Prime Minister. Queen Elizabeth II—as the Queen of Tuvalu—is the head of state, represented by the Governor-General, the Prime Minister is elected by the members of the Parliament but it is within the Governor-Generals reserve powers to unilaterally dismiss him. The decision was delivered by Senior Magistrate Afele Kitiona on behalf of Chief Justice Sir Gordon Ward, tuvalus opposition then requested the Governor-General Iakoba Italeli to intervene against the Prime Ministers decision. On 3 July, Italeli exercised his powers in ordering Parliament to convene, against the Prime Ministers wishes. Opposition member Finikaso said, It looks like we have seen the end of the uncertainty that reigned in Tuvalu for the last six months. He continued by announcing that the opposition were planning to move a motion of no confidence in the incumbent prime minister and that they would put forward their candidate for the job. In an attempt to avoid a vote of no confidence, Prime Minister Willy Telavi tabled a motion to dissolve Parliament, Opposition member Finikaso described how the resignation shocked parliament. I have already acted on the advice of the Governor-General, the Governor-General has ordered that Parliament sit on the 30th of this month, which we sat yesterday. That order has been carried out by the Speaker of Parliament, the Attorney-General told the opposition that despite the Health Ministers resignation, the motion of no confidence could still go ahead. The Speakers response prompted the opposition to seek assistance from the Governor-General for a time so that parliament could be reconvened once again. The opposition claimed that the minister had given no indication that he would call a by-election for Nui, which, in Tuvalu. Responding to this, Governor-General Italeli, acting on behalf of the Queen sent out a proclamation dismissing Telavi as the Prime Minister of Tuvalu, the Queen chose to delay officially accepting the Prime Ministers advice, though she cannot reject it outright. Until then, the Governor-General was still incumbent, Up until now I have not received anything from Telavi so I have decided to use my own powers and make the proclamation, minutes later, Opposition leader Enele Sopoaga was appointed as acting prime minister. Although advice from the Prime Minister to the Queen is binding and it is suspected the Queen deliberately chose to take time before officially accepting the advice in order to allow Itelali to remove Telavi. Once Telavi was removed his pending advice to the Queen becomes moot, on Friday 2 August, Willy Tevali faced a motion of no confidence, the voting was eight for the motion, four against and one abstention - the Speaker abstained for voting on the motion. He appointed his new cabinet to the Sopoaga Ministry the same day, a High Court challenged to Telavis removal was considered, but never eventuated. Politics of Tuvalu Elections and political parties in Tuvalu Parliament of Tuvalu Nukufetau by-election,2013
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Inter-Parliamentary Union
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The Inter-Parliamentary Union is a global inter-parliamentary institution established in 1889 by Frédéric Passy and William Randal Cremer. It was the first permanent forum for political multilateral negotiations, initially, the organization was for individual parliamentarians, but has since transformed into an international organization of the parliaments of sovereign states. The national parliaments of 171 countries are members of the IPU, the IPU has permanent observer status at the United Nations General Assembly. The IPU played an important part in setting up the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague, over time, its mission has evolved towards the promotion of democracy and inter-parliamentary dialogue. The Liberal International also considers this as an option, the headquarters of the union have been moved several times since its inception. The decision to admit or readmit a Parliament shall be taken by the Governing Council, associate Members The participating parliamentary assemblies other than national parliaments are the following, The organs of the Inter-Parliamentary Union are, the Assembly, meets twice a year. The Assembly shall be composed of parliamentarians designated as delegates by the Members of the Union, no one delegate may record more than ten votes. The Governing Council shall normally hold two sessions a year, the Governing Council shall be composed of three representatives from each Member of the Union. The term of office of a member of the Governing Council shall last from one Assembly to the next, the Governing Council shall elect the President of the Inter-Parliamentary Union for a period of three years. It elects the members of the Executive Committee and appoints the Secretary General of the Union, the fifteen elected seats will be assigned to the geopolitical groups. Only parliamentarians from States where women have both the right to vote and the right to stand for election are eligible to the Executive Committee, the Executive Committee shall be the administrative organ of the Inter-Parliamentary Union. The Secretariat of the Union comprises the totality of the staff of the organisation under the direction of the Secretary General of the Union, the Association of Secretaries General of Parliaments shall be a consultative body of the Inter-Parliamentary Union. As of March 2014, the Secretary General of IPU is Mr. Martin Chungong and he is the first African to hold the post in the IPUs 125-year history. He took over from Mr. Anders B, johnsson, who had been in the post since 1998 until his retirement in June 2014. Standing Committee on democracy and human rights, President, Mr. O. Kyei-Mensah-Bonsu, African Group. Committee on human rights of parliamentarians, as the first Filipino and Asian to head it, she ran unopposed and takes over from Uruguays Monica Xavier. The IPU Assembly is the statutory body that expresses the views of the Inter-Parliamentary Union on political issues. Any proposal to amend the Statutes shall be submitted in writing to the Secretariat of the Union at least three months before the meeting of the Assembly, the Secretariat will immediately communicate all such proposals to the Members of the Union
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
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Central Intelligence Agency
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
