1.
Amity Township, Erie County, Pennsylvania
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Amity Township is a township in Erie County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 1,073 at the 2010 census, there are no longer any boroughs or villages in the township, after the disappearance of Arbuckle and Hatch Hollow. The latter was the birthplace of famed muckraker Ida M. Tarbell, Amity Township is in southeastern Erie County. According to the United States Census Bureau, the it has an area of 28.2 square miles, of which 28.0 square miles is land and 0.2 square miles. French Creek flows through the township, impounded by Union City Dam in neighboring Waterford Township, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,140 people,387 households, and 315 families residing in the township. The population density was 40.3 people per square mile, there were 408 housing units at an average density of 14. 4/sq mi. The racial makeup of the township was 99. 30% White,0. 09% African American,0. 35% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 61% of the population. 13. 4% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.94 and the average family size was 3.19. In the township the population was out, with 28. 7% under the age of 18,6. 3% from 18 to 24,28. 5% from 25 to 44,26. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 106.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.3 males, the median income for a household in the township was $42,569, and the median income for a family was $44,861. Males had an income of $32,375 versus $21,125 for females. The per capita income for the township was $15,186, about 6. 6% of families and 10. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13. 0% of those under age 18 and 4. 9% of those age 65 or over. Map of Amity Township in 1896
2.
Bridgeport, Connecticut
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Bridgeport is a seaport city in the U. S. state of Connecticut. It is the largest city in the state and is located in Fairfield County at the mouth of the Pequonnock River on Long Island Sound, Bridgeport had a population of 144,229 during the 2010 Census, making it also the 5th-most populous in New England. It is bordered by the towns of Trumbull to the north, Fairfield to the west, the Greater Bridgeport area is the 48th-largest urban area in the United States and forms part of the Greater New York City Area. Bridgeport was inhabited by the Paugussett Indian tribe at the time of its English colonization, the English farming community became a center of trade, shipbuilding, and whaling. The town incorporated itself to subsidize the Housatonic Railroad and rapidly industrialized following its connection to the New York, manufacturing was the mainstay of the local economy until the 1970s. Industrial restructuring and suburbanization caused the loss of jobs and affluent residents, leaving Bridgeport struggling with problems of poverty. In the 21st century, conversion of office and factory buildings to residential use, the showman P. T. Barnum was a resident of the city and served as the towns mayor in the late 19th century. Barnum built four houses in Bridgeport, and housed his circus in town during winter, the first Subway restaurant opened in the North End section of the city in 1965. The Frisbie Pie Company was located here, and Bridgeport is credited as the birthplace of the Frisbee, the first documented English settlement within the present city limits of Bridgeport took place in 1644, centered at Black Rock Harbor along North Avenue and between Park and Briarwood Avenues. The place was called Pequonnock, after a band of the Paugussett, one of their sacred sites was Golden Hill, which overlooked the harbor and was the location of natural springs and their planting fields. The Golden Hill Indians were granted a reservation here by the Colony of Connecticut in 1639 that survived until 1802, a village called Newfield began to coalesce around the corner of State and Water Streets in the 1760s. The area officially known as Stratfield in 1695 or 1701 due to its location between the already existing towns of Stratford and Fairfield. During the American Revolution, Newfield Harbor was a center of privateering, Newfield initially expanded around the coasting trade with Boston, New York, and Baltimore and the international trade with the West Indies. The commercial activity of the village was clustered around the wharves on the west bank of the Pequonnock, in 1800, the village became the Borough of Bridgeport, the first so incorporated in the state. It was named for the Newfield or Lottery Bridge across the Pequonnock, Bridgeport Bank was established in 1806. In 1821, the township of Bridgeport became independent of Stratford, the West India trade died down around 1840, but by that time the Bridgeport Steamship Company and Bridgeport Whaling Company had been incorporated and the Housatonic Railroad chartered. The HRRC ran upstate along the Housatonic Valley, connecting with Massachusettss Berkshire Railroad at the state line, Bridgeport was chartered as Connecticuts fifth city in 1836 in order to enable the town council to secure funding to provide to the HRRC and ensure that it would terminate in Bridgeport. The Naugatuck Railroad—connecting Bridgeport to Waterbury and Winsted along the Naugatuck—was chartered in 1845, the same year, the New York and New Haven Railroad began operation, connecting Bridgeport to New York and the other towns along the north shore of the Long Island Sound
3.
The History of the Standard Oil Company
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The History of the Standard Oil Company is a 1904 book by journalist Ida Tarbell. It is an exposé about the Standard Oil Company, run at the time by oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller, the subsequent decision splintered the company into 34 baby Standards. The value of Rockefellers shares rose after the breakup as the new companies had a development on the stock exchange. The original book was a hardcover set. An abridged paperback edition was released later, the inspiration behind The History of Standard Oil Company was largely fueled by Ida Tarbells childhood experiences. Her father, Franklin Tarbell, worked for Standard Oil and lived through what Ida called hate, suspicion, after her education and accumulate writing experience, Tarbell began working at McClures Magazine, where she wrote several successful series on historical figures. After this initial success, her shift turned to John D. Rockefeller and she began by interviewing Henry H. Eventually, Tarbell uncovered a crucial piece of evidence proving that Standard Oil was rigging railroad prices and preying on its competition. Public outcry erupted at the conclusion of Tarbells 19-part exposure of Standard Oil published in McClures, journalists, politicians, and citizens alike celebrated the accomplishments of Tarbell - a woman outside the inner workings of business and without significant money or influence. These reactions are immortalized in political cartoons utilizing imagery of Rockefellers hidden agendas being demolished by investigative journalism, Rockefeller but critical of Standard Oils unfair and business strategies of questionable legality. So careful is she in her facts, so sane in her judgements, as such, The History of Standard Oil Company harbors great significance as a standard-bearer of modern investigative journalism
4.
Teacher
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A teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone, in some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family, rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching, in most countries, formal teaching is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their role, to teach others in a formal education context. A teachers role may vary among cultures, Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills. Formal teaching tasks include preparing lessons according to agreed curricula, giving lessons, a teachers professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline, Teaching is a highly complex activity. This is in part because teaching is a practice, that takes place in a specific context. Factors that influence what is expected of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, so the competences required by a teacher are affected by the different ways in which the role is understood around the world. Broadly, there seem to be four models, the teacher as manager of instruction, the teacher as caring person, the teacher as expert learner, some evidence-based international discussions have tried to reach such a common understanding. Scholarly consensus is emerging that what is required of teachers can be grouped under three headings, knowledge craft skills and dispositions and it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can create a positive learning experience. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the materials on a daily basis. One of the challenges facing teachers is that they may have covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didnt show much enthusiasm for the course materials, Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom, students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation, teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere of energy and enthusiasm which feeds student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teachers enthusiasm may contribute to the expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning
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Journalist
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A journalist is a person who collects, writes, or distributes news or other current information. A journalists work is called journalism, a journalist can work with general issues or specialize in certain issues. However, most journalists tend to specialize, and by cooperating with other journalists, for example, a sports journalist covers news within the world of sports, but this journalist may be a part of a newspaper that covers many different topics. A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes, and reports on information in order to present in sources, conduct interviews, engage in research, and make reports. The information-gathering part of a job is sometimes called reporting. Reporters may split their time working in a newsroom and going out to witness events or interviewing people. Reporters may be assigned a beat or area of coverage. Depending on the context, the term journalist may include various types of editors, editorial writers, columnists, Journalism has developed a variety of ethics and standards. While objectivity and a lack of bias are of concern and importance, more liberal types of journalism, such as advocacy journalism and activism. This has become prevalent with the advent of social media and blogs, as well as other platforms that are used to manipulate or sway social and political opinions. These platforms often project extreme bias, as sources are not always held accountable or considered necessary in order to produce a written, nor did they often directly experience most social problems, or have direct access to expert insights. These limitations were made worse by a media that tended to over-simplify issues and to reinforce stereotypes, partisan viewpoints. As a consequence, Lippmann believed that the public needed journalists like himself who could serve as analysts, guiding “citizens to a deeper understanding of what was really important. ”Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom, as of November 2011, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that 887 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 by murder, crossfire or combat, or on dangerous assignment. The ten deadliest countries for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq, Philippines, Russia, Colombia, Mexico, Algeria, Pakistan, India, Somalia, Brazil and Sri Lanka. The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of December 1st 2010,145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. The ten countries with the largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey, China, Iran, Eritrea, Burma, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Cuba, Ethiopia, apart from the physical harm, journalists are harmed psychologically. This applies especially to war reporters, but their offices at home often do not know how to deal appropriately with the reporters they expose to danger
6.
Muckraker
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The term muckraker was used in the Progressive Era to characterize reform-minded American journalists who attacked established institutions and leaders as corrupt. They typically had large audiences in popular magazines. The muckrakers played a visible role during the Progressive Era period. Investigative journalists view the muckrakers as early influences and a continuation of watchdog journalism, the term is a reference to a character in John Bunyans classic Pilgrims Progress, the Man with the Muck-rake that rejected salvation to focus on filth. While a literature of reform had already appeared by the mid-19th century, by the 1900s, magazines such as Colliers Weekly, Munseys Magazine and McClures Magazine were already in wide circulation and read avidly by the growing middle class. The January 1903 issue of McClures is considered to be the beginning of muckraking journalism. Ida M. Tarbell, Lincoln Steffens and Ray Stannard Baker, claude H. Wetmore and Lincoln Steffens previous article Tweed Days in St. Louis, in McClures October 1902 issue was called the first muckraking article. The muckrakers would become known for their investigative journalism, the muckrakers were influenced by both eras. One of the biggest urban scandals of the post-Civil War era was the corruption, Lincoln Steffens titled his first muckraking article Tweed Days in St. Louis in comparison with the New York case. Publishers of yellow journals, such as Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, were intent on increasing circulation through scandal, crime, entertainment. Note that in journalism, the idea was to stir up the public with sensationalism. If, in the process, a wrong was exposed that the average man could get indignant about, that was fine. Julius Chambers, New York Tribune, is considered by many to be the original muckraker, Chambers undertook a journalistic investigation of Bloomingdale Asylum in 1872, having himself committed with the help of some of his friends and his newspapers city editor. His intent was to obtain information about alleged abuse of inmates and this later led to the publication of the book A Mad World and Its Inhabitants. From this time onward, Chambers was frequently invited to speak on the rights of the mentally ill, Nellie would go on to write more articles on corrupt politicians, sweat-shop working conditions and other societal injustices. Helen Hunt Jackson – A Century of Dishonor, U. S. policy regarding Native Americans, henry Demarest Lloyd – Wealth Against Commonwealth, exposed the corruption within the Standard Oil Company. Ida B. B. O. Flower - author of articles in The Arena from 1889 through 1909 advocating for prison reform, the muckrakers appeared at a moment when journalism was undergoing changes in style and practice. The growth of services had also contributed to the spread of the objective reporting style
7.
Progressive Era
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The Progressive Era was a period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States, from the 1890s to the 1920s. The main objectives of the Progressive movement were eliminating problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, the movement primarily targeted political machines and their bosses. By taking down these corrupt representatives in office a further means of democracy would be established. They also sought regulation of monopolies and corporations through antitrust laws and these antitrust laws were seen as a way to promote equal competition for the advantage of legitimate competitors. Many progressives supported prohibition in the United States, ostensibly to destroy the power of local bosses based in saloons. At the same time, womens suffrage was promoted to bring a purer female vote into the arena, many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made scientific the social sciences, especially history, economics, in academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M, La Follette, Sr. and Charles Evans Hughes on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith on the Democratic side. Yet, leaders of the movement also existed far from presidential politics, jane Addams, Grace Abbott, Edith Abbott and Sophonisba Breckinridge were among the most influential Progressive Era reformers. Initially the movement operated chiefly at local levels, later, it expanded to state, Progressives drew support from the middle class, and supporters included many lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers and business people. Some Progressives strongly supported scientific methods as applied to economics, government, industry, finance, medicine, schooling, theology, education, reformers felt that old-fashioned ways meant waste and inefficiency, and eagerly sought out the one best system. S. Magazines were not a new medium but they became more popular around 1900. It was an age of Mass media, thanks to the rapid expansion of national advertising, the cover price fell sharply to about 10 cents. One cause was the coverage of corruption in politics, local government and big business. They were journalists who wrote for magazines to expose social and political sins. They relied on their own investigative journalism reporting, muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate, the journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like Ray Stannard Baker, George Creel, and Brand Whitlock. Other like Lincoln Steffens exposed political corruption in many large cities, Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they were not being helpful by raking up all the muck. The Progressives were avid modernizers, with a belief in science and they looked to education as the key
8.
Investigative journalism
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Investigative journalism is a form of journalism in which reporters deeply investigate a single topic of interest, such as serious crimes, political corruption, or corporate wrongdoing. An investigative journalist may spend months or years researching and preparing a report, Investigative journalism is a primary source of information. Most investigative journalism is conducted by newspapers, wire services, practitioners sometimes use the term accountability reporting. In many cases, the subjects of the wish the matters under scrutiny to remain undisclosed. There are currently university departments for teaching investigative journalism, conferences are conducted presenting peer reviewed research into investigative journalism. American journalism textbooks point out that muckraking standards promoted by McClures Magazine around 1902, furthermore, the successes of the early muckrakers continued to inspire journalists. John M. Crewdson of the Chicago Tribune wrote a 1996 article proposing the installment of defibrillators on American airliners, Crewdson argued that based on his research and analysis, Medical kits and defibrillators would be economically justified if they saved just 3 lives each year. Soon after the publication, airlines began installing defibrillators on planes. Ten years after installing defibrillators, American Airlines reported that 80 lives had been saved by the machines. S, since the 1980s has been accompanied by massive cuts in the budgets for investigative journalism. A2002 study concluded that investigative journalism has all but disappeared from the nations commercial airwaves, the major media conglomerates have found ways to retain their audience without the risks of offending advertisers inherent in investigative journalism. C. Raising Hell, Straight Talk with Investigative Journalists, by Ron Chepesiuk, Haney Howell, tell Me No Lies, Investigative Journalism That Changed the World, John Pilger, ed.2005
9.
McClure's
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McClures or McClures Magazine was an American illustrated monthly periodical popular at the turn of the 20th century. The magazine is credited with having started the tradition of muckraking journalism, in this way, McClures published such writers as Willa Cather, Arthur Conan Doyle, Herminie T. Kavanagh, Rudyard Kipling, Jack London, Lincoln Steffens, Robert Louis Stevenson, and Mark Twain. At the beginning of the 20th century, its competitors included Colliers. From January 1907 to June 1908, McClures published the first detailed history of Christian Science, the articles were later published in book form as The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science. In 1906, the writing staff defected over disputes with McClure, McClures began to lose readers and went into debt. S. S. McClure was forced to sell the magazine to creditors in 1911 and it was re-styled as a womens magazine and ran inconsistently in this format, with publication from October 1921 to February 1922, September 1924 and April 1925, and February to May 1926. The later issues, from July 1928 until March 1929, were published under the name New McClures Magazine, the last issue was in March 1929, after which the magazine was taken over by The Smart Set. Ray Stannard Baker Willa Cather Lincoln Steffens Ida Tarbell William Allen White J. M. Barrie Stephen Crane Arthur Conan Doyle Herminie T. volumes McClures Magazine at Hathi Trust, volumes McClures Magazine at Google Books, misc. PDFs of these issues may be downloaded for free from the MJP website
10.
John D. Rockefeller
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John Davison Rockefeller Sr. was an American oil industry business magnate and philanthropist. He is widely considered the wealthiest American of all time, born into a large family in upstate New York, he was shaped by his con man father and religious mother. His family moved several times before settling in Cleveland, Ohio. Rockefeller became an assistant bookkeeper at the age of 16, and went into a partnership with Maurice B. Clark. After buying them out, he and his brother William founded Rockefeller & Andrews with Samuel Andrews, instead of drilling for oil, he concentrated on refining. In 1867, Henry Flagler entered the partnership, the Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler company grew by incorporating local refineries. As kerosene and gasoline grew in importance, Rockefellers wealth soared and he became the richest person in the country, Oil was used throughout the country as a light source until the introduction of electricity and as a fuel after the invention of the automobile. Furthermore, Rockefeller gained enormous influence over the industry, which transported his oil around the country. Standard Oil was the first great business trust in the United States, Rockefeller revolutionized the petroleum industry, and along with other key contemporary industrialists such as steel magnate Andrew Carnegie, defined the structure of modern philanthropy. His peak net worth was estimated at $336 billion in 1913, Rockefeller spent the last 40 years of his life in retirement at his estate in Westchester County, New York. His foundations pioneered the development of research and were instrumental in the eradication of hookworm. Rockefeller was also the founder of both the University of Chicago and Rockefeller University and funded the establishment of Central Philippine University in the Philippines and he was a devout Northern Baptist, and supported many church-based institutions. Rockefeller adhered to total abstinence from alcohol and tobacco throughout his life and he was a faithful congregant of the Erie Street Baptist Mission Church, where he taught Sunday school, and served as a trustee, clerk, and occasional janitor. Religion was a force throughout his life, and Rockefeller believed it to be the source of his success. Rockefeller was the second of six children and eldest son born in Richford, New York, to con artist William Avery Bill Rockefeller and his siblings were Lucy, William Jr. Mary, and twins Franklin and Frances. His father was of English and German descent while his mother was of Scots-Irish descent, Bill was first a lumberman and then a traveling salesman who identified himself as a botanic physician and sold elixirs. The locals referred to the mysterious but fun-loving man as Big Bill and he was a sworn foe of conventional morality who had opted for a vagabond existence and who returned to his family infrequently. Throughout his life, Bill was notorious for shady schemes, in between the births of Lucy and John, Bill and his mistress/housekeeper Nancy Brown had a daughter named Clorinda who died young
11.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
12.
Erie County, Pennsylvania
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Erie County is a county located in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 280,566, the county was created in 1800 and later organized in 1803. Erie County comprises the Erie, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area, Erie County was established on March 12,1800 from part of Allegheny County, which absorbed the lands of the disputed Erie Triangle in 1792. Prior to 1792, the region was claimed by both New York and Pennsylvania, so no county demarcations were made until the government intervened. Erie elected its own county officials in 1803, the county was originally settled by immigrants of Yankee stock. Erie County resembled upstate New York more than it did Pennsylvania with its population consisting of settlers from Connecticut, Rhode Island. Roads were laid out, post routes established, public buildings erected and this resulted in Erie County being culturally very contiguous with early New England culture. Today, the Journey to Freedom educational program provides a program on the Underground Railroad experience. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,558 square miles. It is the largest county in Pennsylvania by total area, with the exception of a high ridge several miles from the lake, running nearly parallel with its shore, the terrain is generally rolling and well watered. There are two cities in Erie County, the city of Erie and the city of Corry, Other notable population centers include Millcreek, Harborcreek and Fairview townships, and the boroughs of Edinboro, North East, Girard, Waterford and Union City. Erie County is bordered on the northeast by Chautauqua County, New York, on the east by Warren County, on the south by Crawford County, directly north of the county is Lake Erie. This position on the water makes Erie County the only county in Pennsylvania to share a border with Canada and it is the only county in the state that occupies a significant amount of land north of the 42nd parallel. The population density was 351.2 inhabitants per square mile, There were 119,138 housing units at an average density of 149.1 per square mile. A further 3.4 percent of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 24. 4% were of German,12. 5% Polish,12. 3% Italian,10. 1% Irish,6. 5% English and 6. 4% American ancestry according to Census 2000. 29.3 percent of all households were made up of individuals and 11.3 percent had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 3.00. In the county, the population was out with 26.5 percent under the age of 20
13.
Petroleum industry
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The petroleum industry includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting, and marketing of petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline, Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, synthetic fragrances, and plastics. The industry is divided into three major components, upstream, midstream and downstream. Midstream operations are included in the downstream category. Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrial civilization in its current configuration, and thus is a critical concern for many nations. Oil accounts for a percentage of the world’s energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32% for Europe and Asia. Other geographic regions consumption patterns are as follows, South and Central America, Africa, the world consumes 30 billion barrels of oil per year, with developed nations being the largest consumers. The United States consumed 25% of the oil produced in 2007, the production, distribution, refining, and retailing of petroleum taken as a whole represents the worlds largest industry in terms of dollar value. Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock formations and it consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds. It is generally accepted that oil is formed mostly from the carbon rich remains of ancient plankton after exposure to heat, Petroleum in an unrefined state has been utilized by humans for over 5000 years. Oil in general has been used since early history to keep fires ablaze. Its importance to the world economy evolved slowly, with oil used for lighting in the 19th century and wood. The Industrial Revolution generated an increasing need for energy which was met mainly by coal, Imperial Russia produced 3,500 tons of oil in 1825 and doubled its output by mid-century. Batum is renamed to Batumi in 1936, at the turn of the 20th century, Imperial Russias output of oil, almost entirely from the Apsheron Peninsula, accounted for half of the worlds production and dominated international markets. Nearly 200 small refineries operated in the suburbs of Baku by 1884, as a side effect of these early developments, the Apsheron Peninsula emerged as the worlds oldest legacy of oil pollution and environmental negligence. In 1846, Baku the first ever well drilled with percussion tools to a depth of 21 meters for oil exploration, in 1878, Ludvig Nobel and his Branobel company revolutionized oil transport by commissioning the first oil tanker and launching it on the Caspian Sea. Samuel Kier established Americas first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh avenue near Grant Street, one of the first modern oil refineries were built by Ignacy Łukasiewicz near Jasło, Poland in 1854–56. These were initially small as demand for refined fuel was limited, the refined products were used in artificial asphalt, machine oil and lubricants, in addition to Łukasiewiczs kerosene lamp
14.
Rouseville, Pennsylvania
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Rouseville is a borough in Venango County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 472 at the 2000 census, rouseville is located at 41°28′17″N 79°41′22″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 0.9 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 472 people,204 households, the population density was 520.4 people per square mile. There were 240 housing units at a density of 264.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 98. 73% White,0. 42% African American and 0. 85% Native American, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 64% of the population. 29. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.76. In the borough the population was out with 20. 8% under the age of 18,5. 9% from 18 to 24,24. 8% from 25 to 44,23. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 44 years, for every 100 females there were 95.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.1 males, the median income for a household in the borough was $22,917, and the median income for a family was $30,341. Males had an income of $29,250 versus $18,125 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $13,286, about 16. 3% of families and 25. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 38. 2% of those under age 18 and 20. 1% of those age 65 or over
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Venango County, Pennsylvania
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Venango County is a county located in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 54,984, the county was created in 1800 and later organized in 1805. Venango County comprises the Oil City, PA Micropolitan Statistical Area and it is defined as part of the Pittsburgh media market. Venango County was created on March 12,1800 from parts of Allegheny, the name Venango comes from the Native American name of the region, Onenge, meaning Otter. This was corrupted in English as the Venango River, the settlement at its mouth was likewise called Venango, and is the site of present-day South Side of Oil City, Pennsylvania. Venango County was home to an oil boom in the years following discovery of oil in the mid-1850s. This single well soon exceeded the entire cumulative oil output of Europe since the 1650s, within weeks oil derricks were erected all over the area. Other oil boom towns located in Venango County included Franklin, Oil City, the principal product of the oil was kerosene. McClintocksville was a community in Cornplanter Township in Venango County. Rogers and his young wife Abbie Palmer Gifford Rogers lived in a one-room shack there along Oil Creek for several years beginning in 1862, shortly later, Rogers met oil pioneer Charles Pratt who purchased the entire output of the tiny Wamsutta Oil Refinery. In 1867, Rogers joined Pratt in forming Charles Pratt and Company, Rogers became one of the key men in John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Trust. After joining Standard Oil, Rogers invested heavily in various industries, including copper, steel, mining, the Virginian Railway is widely considered his final lifes achievement. Rogers amassed a fortune, estimated at over $100 million. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 683 square miles. French Creek is formed near French Creek, New York and extends for a length of 117 miles with an area of 1,270 square miles. It joins the Allegheny River near Franklin, Pennsylvania, the watershed area includes parts of Erie, Crawford, Venango, and Mercer Counties in Pennsylvania as well as Chautauqua County, New York. The population density was 85 people per square mile, there were 26,904 housing units at an average density of 40 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 97. 64% White,1. 09% Black or African American,0. 18% Native American,0. 23% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 17% from other races, and 0. 67% from two or more races
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Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
17.
Standard Oil Company
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Standard Oil Co. Inc. was an American oil producing, transporting, refining, and marketing company. Established in 1870 by John D. Rockefeller as a corporation in Ohio and its controversial history as one of the worlds first and largest multinational corporations ended in 1911, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that Standard Oil was an illegal monopoly. The Standard Oil trust streamlined production and logistics, lowered costs, trust-busting critics accused Standard Oil of using aggressive pricing to destroy competitors and form a monopoly that threatened other businesses. John D. Rockefeller was a founder, chairman and major shareholder and its successors such as ExxonMobil, BP, and Chevron are still counted among the companies with the largest income worldwide. By 1882, his top aide was John Dustin Archbold, after 1896, Rockefeller disengaged from business to concentrate on his philanthropy, leaving Archbold in control. Other notable Standard Oil principals include Henry Flagler, developer of the Florida East Coast Railway and resort cities, and Henry H. Rogers, Standard Oils name came from the companys manufacturing standards, which preceded todays ASTM standards. In 1870 Rockefeller incorporated Standard Oil in Ohio, of the initial 10,000 shares, John D. In the early years, John D. Rockefeller dominated the combine and he quickly distributed power and the tasks of policy formation to a system of committees, but always remained the largest shareholder. Authority was centralized in the main office in Cleveland. In response to state trying to limit the scale of companies, Rockefeller and his associates developed innovative ways of organizing. On January 2,1882, they combined their disparate companies, spread across dozens of states and this organization proved so successful that other giant enterprises adopted this trust form. The company grew by increasing sales and also through acquisitions, after purchasing competing firms, Rockefeller shut down those he believed to be inefficient and kept the others. Smaller companies decried such deals as unfair because they were not producing enough oil to qualify for discounts, in 1872, Rockefeller joined the South Improvement Co. which would have allowed him to receive rebates for shipping and receive drawbacks on oil his competitors shipped. But when this became known, competitors convinced the Pennsylvania Legislature to revoke South Improvements charter. No oil was shipped under this arrangement. Standards actions and secret transport deals helped its kerosene price to drop from 58 to 26 cents from 1865 to 1870, competitors disliked the companys business practices, but consumers liked the lower prices. Standard Oil, being formed well before the discovery of the Spindletop oil field, the company was perceived to own and control all aspects of the trade. In 1885, Standard Oil of Ohio moved its headquarters from Cleveland to its permanent headquarters at 26 Broadway in New York City
18.
Prohibition
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The earliest records of prohibition of alcohol date to the Xia Dynasty in China. Yu the Great, the first ruler of the Xia Dynasty and it was legalized again after his death, during the reign of his son Qi. Another record was in the Code of Hammurabi specifically banning the selling of beer for money, in the early twentieth century, much of the impetus for the prohibition movement in the Nordic countries and North America came from moralistic convictions of pietistic Protestants. Rum-running became widespread and organized crime control of the distribution of alcohol. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean flourished as their products were consumed by visiting Americans or illegally exported to the United States. Chicago became notorious as a haven for prohibition dodgers during the known as the Roaring Twenties. Prohibition generally came to an end in the late 1920s or early 1930s in most of North America and Europe, in some countries where the dominant religion forbids the use of alcohol, the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages is prohibited or restricted today. For example, in Saudi Arabia and Libya alcohol is banned, Sale of alcohol is banned in Afghanistan. In Bangladesh, alcohol is prohibited due to its proscription in the Islamic faith. However, the purchase and consumption is allowed in the country, the Garo tribe consume a type of rice beer, and Christians in this country drink and purchase wine for their holy communion. In Brunei, alcohol consumption and sale is banned in public, in India alcohol is a state subject and individual states can legislate prohibition, but currently most states do not have prohibition. Prohibition is in force in the states of Gujarat, Bihar and Nagaland, parts of Manipur, the state of Kerala has placed some limitations on sale of alcohol. All other States and union territories of India permit the sale of alcohol, election days and certain national holidays such as Gandhi Jayanti are meant to be dry days when liquor sale is not permitted. The state of Andhra Pradesh had imposed Prohibition under the Chief Ministership of N. T. Rama Rao, Prohibition was also observed from 1996 to 1998 in Haryana. Some Indian states observe dry days on major religious festivals/occasions depending on the popularity of the festival in that region, since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the sale and consumption of alcohol is banned in Iran. Alcohol is banned for people who use small shops and convenience stores, the consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. Alcohol is banned for Muslims in Malaysia due to its Islamic faith, the Maldives ban the import of alcohol, x-raying all baggage on arrival. Alcoholic beverages are available only to tourists on resort islands
19.
Harper's Weekly
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Harpers Weekly, A Journal of Civilization was an American political magazine based in New York City. Published by Harper & Brothers from 1857 until 1916, it featured foreign and domestic news, fiction, essays on many subjects and it carried extensive coverage of the American Civil War, including many illustrations of events from the war. During its most influential period, it was the forum of the political cartoonist Thomas Nast, along with his brothers James, John, and Wesley, Fletcher Harper began the publishing company Harper & Brothers in 1825. Following the successful example of the Illustrated London News, Harper started publishing Harpers Magazine in 1850, in 1857, his company began publishing Harpers Weekly in New York City. By 1860 the circulation of the Weekly had reached 200,000, among the recurring features were the political cartoons of Thomas Nast, who was recruited in 1862 and worked with the Weekly for more than 20 years. Nast was a feared caricaturist, and is called the father of American political cartooning. He was the first to use an elephant as the symbol of the Republican Party and he also drew the legendary character of Santa Claus, his version became strongly associated with the figure, who was popularized as part of Christmas customs in the late nineteenth century. Harpers Weekly was the most widely read journal in the United States throughout the period of the Civil War, so as not to upset its wide readership in the South, Harpers took a moderate editorial position on the issue of slavery. Publications that supported abolition referred to it as Harpers Weakly, the Weekly had supported the Stephen A. Douglas presidential campaign against Abraham Lincoln, but as the American Civil War broke out, it fully supported Lincoln and the Union. The photograph inspired many free blacks in the North to enlist, some of the most important articles and illustrations of the time were Harpers reporting on the war. Besides renderings by Homer and Nast, the magazine also published illustrations by Theodore R. Davis, Henry Mosler, and the brothers Alfred and William Waud. In 1863, George William Curtis, one of the founders of the Republican Party, became the editor of the magazine. His editorials advocated civil service reform, low tariffs, and adherence to the gold standard, after the war, Harpers Weekly more openly supported the Republican Party in its editorial positions, and contributed to the election of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868 and 1872. It supported the Radical Republican position on Reconstruction, in the 1870s, the cartoonist Thomas Nast began an aggressive campaign in the journal against the corrupt New York political leader William Boss Tweed. Nast turned down a $500,000 bribe to end his attack, Tweed was arrested in 1873 and convicted of fraud. Nast and Harpers also played an important part in securing Rutherford B. Hayes 1876 presidential election, later on Hayes remarked that Nast was the most powerful, single-handed aid had. After the election, Nasts role in the magazine diminished considerably, since the late 1860s, Nast and George W. Curtis had frequently differed on political matters and particularly on the role of cartoons in political discourse. Harpers publisher Fletcher Harper strongly supported Nast in his disputes with Curtis, in 1877, Harper died, and his nephews, Joseph W. Harper Jr. and John Henry Harper, assumed control of the magazine
20.
Harper's Magazine
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Harpers Magazine is a monthly magazine of literature, politics, culture, finance, and the arts. Launched in June 1850, it is the second-oldest continuously published monthly magazine in the U. S, the current editor is James Marcus, who replaced Christopher Cox in March 2016. Harpers Magazine has won twenty National Magazine Awards, Harpers Magazine was launched as Harpers New Monthly Magazine in June 1850, by the New York City publisher Harper & Brothers. The company also founded the magazines Harpers Weekly and Harpers Bazaar, the first press run of Harpers Magazine—7,500 copies—sold out almost immediately. Circulation was some 50,000 issues six months later, the early issues reprinted material pirated from English authors such as Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, and the Brontë sisters. The magazine soon was publishing the work of American artists and writers, portions of Herman Melvilles novel Moby Dick were first published in the October 1851 issue of Harpers under the title, The Town-Hos Story. In 1962, Harper & Brothers merged with Row, Peterson & Company, in 1965, the magazine was separately incorporated, and became a division of the Minneapolis Star and Tribune Company, owned by the Cowles Media Company. In the 1970s, Harpers Magazine published Seymour Hershs reporting of the My Lai Massacre by United States forces in Vietnam, robert Shnayerson, a senior editor at Time magazine, was hired to replace Morris as Harpers ninth editor, serving in that position from 1971 until 1976. Lewis H. Lapham served as managing editor from 1976 until 1981, on June 17,1980, the Star Tribune announced it would cease publishing Harpers Magazine after the August 1980 issue. As of the March 2011 issue, contributing editor Zadie Smith, under the Lapham-MacArthur leadership, Harpers Magazine continued publishing literary fiction by John Updike, George Saunders, and others. Politically, Harpers was a vocal critic of U. S. domestic. Editor Laphams monthly Notebook columns have lambasted the Clinton and the George W. Bush administrations. Since 2003, the magazine has concentrated on reportage about U. S. war in Iraq, with articles about the battle for Fallujah. Other reporting has covered abortion issues, cloning, and global warming, in 2007, Harpers added the No Comment blog, by attorney Scott Horton, about legal controversies, Central Asian politics, and German studies. Since that time these two blogs have ceased publication, Lapham left shortly thereafter and launched Laphams Quarterly. The August 2004 issue contained an essay by noted photojournalist Peter Turnley. The eight-page spread in August 2004 showed images of death, grieving, on the U. S. side, Turnley visited the funeral of an Oklahoma National Guard member, Spc. Kyle Brinlee,21, who was killed when his vehicle ran over an improvised explosive device in Afghanistan, during his funeral, Turnley shot the open casket as it lay in the back of the auditorium and this photo was used in the photo essay
21.
New-York Tribune
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The New-York Tribune was an American newspaper, first established by Horace Greeley in 1841. Between 1842 and 1866, the newspaper bore the name New-York Daily Tribune, from the 1840s through the 1860s it was the dominant Whig Party and then Republican newspaper in the U. S. The paper achieved a circulation of approximately 200,000 during the decade of the 1850s, making it the largest in New York City, the Tribunes editorials were widely read and helped shape national opinion. In 1924 it was merged with the New York Herald to form the New York Herald Tribune, Greeley had previously published a weekly newspaper, The New Yorker, in 1833, and was also publisher of the Whig Partys political organ, Log Cabin. In 1841, he merged operations of two publications into a new newspaper, the New-York Tribune. The Tribune did reflect some of Horace Greeleys idealist views, the journal retained Karl Marx as its London-based European correspondent in 1852. The arrangement provided Marx with much needed income during a period of his life in which his friend, the arrangement, whereby Engels also submitted articles under Marxs by-line, lasted ten years, with the final Marx column being published in February 1862. In 1854 the paper joined the newly formed Republican Party—Greeley chose the partys name—and emphasized opposition to slavery, during the American Civil War the Tribune usually spoke for the Radical Republican faction that was very hostile to the Confederacy and wanted slavery abolished immediately. The paper generated a large readership, with a circulation of approximately 200,000 during the decade of the 1850s. This made the paper the largest circulation daily in New York City and perhaps in the entire United States — gaining commensurate influence among voters and political decision-makers in the process. After the failure of the Peninsular Campaign in the spring of 1862, during the 1863 Draft Riots a mob tried to burn down the Tribune building which lacked the Gatling guns of the nearby New York Times. Following Greeleys defeat by Ulysses S. Grant for the presidency of the United States in 1872, Greeley checked into Dr. Choates Sanitarium where he died a few weeks later. In 1886, the Tribune became the first publication to be printed on a linotype machine, which allowed it to exceed the standard newspaper size of eight pages. Under Reids son, Ogden Mills Reid, the acquired the New York Herald in 1924 to form the New York Herald Tribune. Copies of the New-York Tribune are available on microfilm at large libraries. Also, indices from selected years in the nineteenth century are available on the Library of Congress website. The original paper articles from the newspapers morgue are kept at The Center for American History at the University of Texas at Austin, a new New York Tribune debuted in 1976 in New York City. The paper, which was originally named The News World and later changed to The New York City Tribune, was published by News World Communications, Inc. owned by the Unification Church
22.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
23.
Mary Livermore
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Mary Livermore, born Mary Ashton Rice, was an American journalist, abolitionist, and advocate of womens rights. Mary Ashton Rice was born in Boston, Massachusetts on December 19,1821 to Timothy Rice and she was a direct descendant of Edmund Rice, an early Puritan immigrant to Massachusetts Bay Colony. Livermore came from a family, her father fought in the War of 1812. Livermore was incredibly intelligent, graduating from Boston public schools at age 14 and she graduated from the seminary in 1836, but stayed there as a teacher for two years. In 1839, she started a job as a tutor on a Virginia plantation and she also began work with the temperance movement at this time, identified with the Washington Temperance Reform and an editor for a juvenile temperance paper. In 1842, she left the plantation to take charge of a school in Duxbury, Massachusetts. She married Daniel P. Livermore, a Universalist minister in May 1845 and she published a collection of nineteen essays entitled Pen Pictures in 1863. As a member of the Republican party, Livermore campaigned for Abraham Lincoln in the 1860 presidential election, during the Civil War, she volunteered as an associate member of the United States Sanitary Commission at 40 years old. President Lincoln donated his own copy of the Emancipation Proclamation, which was auctioned off at $10,000, Livermore eventually became the co-director of the Chicago branch with Jane Hoge, another soldiers aid advocate. The two women completed an inspection tour across Illinois, Kentucky, and Missouri. With a thorough understanding of the needs of the hospitals, Hoge and Livermore sent $1 million worth of food and supplies to hospitals, in addition to her nursing services, Livermore was also a prolific writer. She authored numerous books of poetry, essays, and stories, though Livermore had to sacrifice much of her social justice work for nursing, she still managed to publish some kind of content once a week throughout the entirety of the war. Livermore became the first president of the Association for Advancement of Women, like many Universalists of the time, she was interested in spiritualism, and following her husbands death in 1899, she became convinced that he had communicated with her through a medium. Nearly four decades after her death, she became the namesake of a World War II Liberty ship, the Twin Sisters, or, The History of Two Families, collected in The Two Families, and The Duty that Lies Nearest. What Shall We Do With Our Daughters. and Other Lectures My Story of the War, The Civil War Memories of the Famous Nurse, Relief Organizer, the story of my life, or, The sunshine and shadow of seventy years. North American Review 153 pp. 283–295, List of suffragists and suffragettes List of womens rights activists Timeline of womens suffrage Eggleston, Larry G. Women in the Civil War, Extraordinary Stories of Soldiers, Spies, Nurses, Doctors, Crusaders, jefferson, North Carolina, McFarland & Company. Lincoln, Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, Mary Livermore A Legacy of Caring and Cooperative Womanhood in Outstanding Women in Public Administration, Leaders, Mentors and Pioneers
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Frances Willard
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Frances Elizabeth Caroline Willard was an American educator, temperance reformer, and womens suffragist. Her influence was instrumental in the passage of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution, Willard became the national president of Womans Christian Temperance Union in 1879, and remained president until her death in 1898. She developed the slogan Do Everything for the WCTU, encouraging its membership to engage in an array of social reforms through lobbying, petitioning, preaching, publishing. Willard was born in 1839 to Josiah Flint Willard and Mary Thompson Hill Willard in Churchville, near Rochester and she was named after English novelist Frances Burney, the American poet Frances Osgood, and her sister, Elizabeth Caroline, who had died the previous year. She had two siblings, her older brother, Oliver, and her younger sister, Mary. Her father was a farmer, naturalist, and legislator, in 1841 the family moved to Oberlin, Ohio, where, at Oberlin College Josiah Willard studied for the ministry, and Mary Hill Willard took classes. They moved to Janesville, Wisconsin in 1846 for Josiah Willards health, in Wisconsin, the family, formerly Congregationalists, became Methodists. Frances and her sister Mary attended Milwaukee Normal Institute, where their mothers sister taught, in 1858, the Willard family moved to Evanston, Illinois, and Josiah Willard became a banker. Frances and Mary attended the North Western Female College and their brother Oliver attended the Garrett Biblical Institute, after graduating from North Western Female College, Willard held various teaching positions throughout the country. She was appointed president of the newly founded Evanston College for Ladies in 1871, when the Evanston College for Ladies became the Womans College of Northwestern University in 1873, Willard was named the first Dean of Women at the university. However, that position was to be short-lived with her resignation in 1874 after confrontations with the University President, Willard had previously been engaged to Fowler and had broken off the engagement. After her resignation, Willard focused her energies on a new career, in 1874, Willard participated in the founding convention of the Womans Christian Temperance Union where she was elected the first Corresponding Secretary. In 1876, she became head of the WCTU Publications Department, focusing on publishing and building an audience for the WCTUs weekly newspaper. Willard joined with Elizabeth Boynton Harbert, Mary Ellen West, Frances Conant and 43 others in 1885 in the founding the Illinois Womans Press Association, in 1879, she sought and successfully obtained presidency of the National WCT. Once elected, she held the post until her death, the devastation she was referencing was the prevalence of violent acts against women committed by intoxicated men, both in and outside the home. Willard argued that it was too easy for men to get away with their crimes without womens suffrage, the desire for home protection gave the average woman a socially appropriate avenue to seek enfranchisement. Willard insisted that women must forgo the notion that they were the weaker sex and she encouraged women to join the movement to improve society, Politics is the place for woman. Willards suffrage argument also hinged on her feminist interpretation of Scripture and she claimed that natural and divine laws called for equality in the American household, with the mother and father sharing leadership
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Allegheny College
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Allegheny College is a private, coeducational liberal arts college in northwestern Pennsylvania in the town of Meadville, approximately 35 miles south of Erie. Founded in 1815, Allegheny is the oldest college in existence under the same name west of the Allegheny Mountains. Allegheny is a member of the Great Lakes Colleges Association and the North Coast Athletic Conference, Allegheny was founded in April 1815 by the Reverend Timothy Alden, a graduate of Harvards School of Divinity. The college was affiliated with the United Methodist Church after 1833. The first class, consisting of four students, began their studies on July 4,1816. Within six years, Alden accumulated sufficient funds to building a campus. The first building erected, the library, was designed by Alden himself, Bentley Hall is named in honor of Dr. William Bentley, who donated his private library to the College, a collection of considerable value and significance. In 1824, Thomas Jefferson wrote to Alden, expressing the hope that his University of Virginia could someday possess the richness of Alleghenys library, Alden served as president of the college until 1831, when financial and enrollment difficulties forced his resignation. Ruter Hall was built in 1853, Allegheny began admitting women in 1870, early for a US college, a woman was valedictorian of the Allegheny class of 1875. One source suggests that Ida Tarbell, the pioneering journalist who exposed the practices of Rockefellers Standard Oil Company, was the first woman to attend Allegheny. In 1905, Allegheny built Alden Hall as a new and improved preparatory school, over the decades, the college has grown in size and significance while still maintaining ties to the community. In 1971 the film Been Down So Long It Looks Like Up to Me based on the Richard Farina novel was filmed on college grounds. While the word Allegheny is a brand for the college, it is also the name of a county, a river, and a range. For example, Allegheny objected in 2006 when Penn State tried to rename one of its campuses Allegheny, Allegheny president Richard Cook said Allegheny was our brand. It sued the Philadelphias Allegheny Health and Research Foundation in 1997 to change its name, under president Richard J. Cook, Allegheny was reported to have had a stronger endowment, optimal enrollment, record retention rates, innovative new programs and many physical campus improvements. These years were marked by growth in the endowment, marked by a $115-million fund-raising drive. In February 2008, James H. Mullen Jr. was named the 21st president of Allegheny and he took office Aug.1,2008. The college and the town cooperate in many ways, one study suggested the Allegheny College generates approximately $93 million annually into Meadville and the local economy
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Kappa Alpha Theta
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Kappa Alpha Theta, also known simply as Theta, is an international sorority founded on Jan. 27,1870 at DePauw University, formerly Indiana Asbury, Kappa Alpha Theta was the first Greek-letter fraternity for women. The organization currently has more than 145 chapters at colleges and universities in the United States, Thetas total living initiated membership as of January 23,2017, totals more than 211,000. There are more than 200 alumnae chapters and circles worldwide, Kappa Alpha Theta is a member of the National Panhellenic Conference. Kappa Alpha Theta was founded in 1870 to give women a support group in the mostly male college world at Indiana Asbury. Indiana Asbury officially opened its doors to women in 1867, thirty years after the college was first established, Locke had many friends in FIJI, and when the members asked her to wear their badge she asked if it meant she was a member of their fraternity. They informed her, no it would be simply as a mascot or token of her friendship and she said she could not wear it as she did not know the secrets and purposes the badge represented. The brothers of FIJI took a vote to whether to admit. They decided they wished to remain a fraternity, and gave Locke a silver fruit basket instead as a symbol of their special relationship with her. At the suggestion of her father, a professor at Indiana Asbury, discovering that only literary societies for women existed at the time, Locke decided to begin her own Greek letter fraternity for women, and Kappa Alpha Theta was conceived. Locke and her friend Alice Allen together wrote a constitution, planned ceremonies, designed a badge, along with Hannah Fitch and Bettie Tipton, they were initiated in secret on Jan. 27,1870, creating the Alpha Chapter of Kappa Alpha Theta, in 1887, Theta became an international organization with the establishment of the Sigma Chapter at The University of Toronto. This became the first Canadian sorority, since its founding, the organization has been associated with a number of firsts, The first women admitted to the Phi Beta Kappa Society were Thetas. Kappa Alpha Theta was the first womens organization to use Greek letters in its name, nancy Kassebaum, who was a member, was the first woman elected to the U. S. Senate who had not succeeded her husband or first been appointed to fill an unexpired term. G. William Domhoff, writing in Who Rules America, listed Kappa Alpha Theta as one of the four or five sororities with nationwide prestige in the mid-1960s. Kappa Alpha Thetas colors are black and gold, the official symbols are both the kite and twin stars, while the official flower is the black and gold pansy. ΚΑΘ does not have an official stone, Kappa Alpha Theta has more than 135 active college chapters and more than 180 alumnae chapters across the United States and Canada. Alumnae chapters are alumnae groups that have been granted charters from Grand Council, the following is a list of the chapters of Kappa Alpha Theta, Theta Kappa Alpha Theta Foundation, founded in 1960, is the philanthropic arm of the organization
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Poland, Ohio
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Poland is a village located about 7 miles southeast of Youngstown in Mahoning County, Ohio, United States. The population was 2,555 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Youngstown-Warren-Boardman, OH-PA Metropolitan Statistical Area. In 1796, Poland Township was the first charted township in the Connecticut Western Reserve, the township was founded by Jonathan Fowler, who fell in love with Yellow Creek which flows through Poland. Fowler owned an inn near the river still stands as the oldest building in Poland. The historical buildings of Poland can be identified by a sign in the shape of Ohio located by the front door of the building, the Village of Poland was founded in 1802. Poland Seminary was originally a secondary school, Poland Academy. Its main building has incorporated into Poland Middle School on College Street. Its dormitory is incorporated into the Poland Public Library on Main Street, former distinguished faculty include the journalist Ida Tarbell, graduates include William McKinley, President of the United States. The former medical school and Ohio Law College is now a private residence also on College Street, Poland is the home to the Poland Seminary High School Bulldogs. The girls softball team won the OHSAA Division II state championship in 2011, the Poland Local School District currently has three elementary schools, North, Dobbins, and Union. Poland also has a school for 5th and 6th graders, Poland McKinley. Poland Middle School is home for the 7th and 8th grade classes and Poland Seminary High School, often referred to as PSHS, a Catholic school located in Poland, Holy Family, serves children in pre-kindergarten through the 8th grade. Poland has been designated Top School in Ohio along with Canfield, Struthers, Niles, Springfield, Austintown, Sebring, Youngstown, South Range, and Beaver Local. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has an area of 1.65 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 2,555 people,1,066 households, the population density was 1,567.5 inhabitants per square mile. There were 1,135 housing units at a density of 696.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 98. 5% White,0. 2% African American,0. 4% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 1% of the population. 25. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 2.88
28.
Distance education
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Distance education or distance learning is the education of students who may not always be physically present at a school. Traditionally this usually involved correspondence courses wherein the student corresponded with the school via post, courses that are conducted are either hybrid, blended or 100% whole instruction. Massive open online courses, offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through the World Wide Web or other technologies, are recent developments in distance education. A number of terms are used roughly synonymously with distance education. The element of student feedback was an innovation of Pitmans system. This scheme was made possible by the introduction of postage rates across England in 1840. This early beginning proved extremely successful, and the Phonographic Correspondence Society was founded three years later to establish these courses on a formal basis. The Society paved the way for the formation of Sir Isaac Pitman Colleges across the country. The first correspondence school in the United States was the Society to Encourage Studies at Home, the University of London was the first university to offer distance learning degrees, establishing its External Programme in 1828. The issue soon boiled down to which institutions had degree-granting powers, as Sheldon Rothblatt states, thus arose in nearly archetypal form the famous English distinction between teaching and examining, here embodied in separate institutions. Enrollment increased steadily during the late 19th century, and its example was copied elsewhere. In 1892 he also encouraged the concept of correspondence courses to further promote education. Enrollment in the largest private school based in Scranton, Pennsylvania. Founded in 1888 to provide training for immigrant coal miners aiming to become state mine inspectors or foremen, it enrolled 2500 new students in 1894, by 1906 total enrollments reached 900,000. The growth was due to sending out complete textbooks instead of single lessons, and the use of 1200 aggressive in-person salesmen. There was a stark contrast in pedagogy, The regular technical school or college aims to educate a man broadly, our aim and we, on the contrary, are aiming to make our courses fit the particular needs of the student who takes them. Education was a priority in the Progressive Era, as American high schools. For men who were older or were too busy with family responsibilities, night schools were opened, outside the big cities, private correspondence schools offered a flexible, narrowly focused solution
29.
Chautauqua, New York
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Chautauqua is a town and lake resort community in Chautauqua County, New York, United States. The population was 4,464 at the 2010 census, the town is named after Chautauqua Lake. The traditional meaning remains bag tied in the middle, the town of Chautauqua is in the western part of the county on the northwestern end of Chautauqua Lake. Chautauqua is famous as the home of the Chautauqua Institution, the birthplace in 1875 of the Chautauqua Movement of educational and cultural centers, the town of Chautauqua was formed on April 11,1805, from the town of Batavia, while still part of Genesee County. The first settler arrived the year before, near the current village of Mayville, when Chautauqua County was created on March 11,1808, the towns territory was increased to include the eastern tier of townships, so that the town and the new county were coextensive. The town is the mother of towns in Chautauqua County since all other towns in the county towns were part of it. The town is one of the largest in the county. The Lewis Miller Cottage of the Chautauqua Institution was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the Chautauqua Institution Historic District was listed in 1974. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 67.2 square miles, of which 67.1 square miles of it is land and 0.077 square miles. Portland Stockton, Ellery North Harmony, Sherman Westfield As of the census of 2000, there were 4,666 people,1,881 households, the population density was 69.4 people per square mile. There were 4,174 housing units at a density of 62.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 25% White,1. 59% African American,0. 24% Native American,0. 39% Asian,0. 09% Pacific Islander,0. 19% from other races, and 1. 26% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 05% of the population,28. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the family size was 2.87. In the town, the population was out with 22. 4% under the age of 18,7. 3% from 18 to 24,25. 4% from 25 to 44,26. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 females there were 105.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.2 males, the median income for a household in the town was $36,379, and the median income for a family was $41,923. Males had an income of $30,767 versus $23,561 for females
30.
Chautauqua movement
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Chautauqua was an adult education movement in the United States, highly popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Chautauqua assemblies expanded and spread throughout rural America until the mid-1920s, the Chautauqua brought entertainment and culture for the whole community, with speakers, teachers, musicians, entertainers, preachers and specialists of the day. Former U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt was quoted as saying that Chautauqua is the most American thing in America, two years earlier, Vincent, editor of the Sunday School Journal, had begun to train Sunday school teachers in an outdoor summer school format. The organization founded by Vincent and Miller later became known as the Chautauqua Institution and it was called the Mother Chautauqua, because many independent, or daughter Chautauquas were developed under the same fashion. The educational summer camp format proved to be a choice for families and was widely copied by the daughter Chautauquas. Within a decade Chautauqua assemblies, named for the location in New York State. The Chautauqua movement may be regarded as a successor to the Lyceum movement earlier in the 19th century, as the Chautauqua assemblies began to compete for the best performers and lecturers, lyceum bureaus assisted with bookings. The original site in Chautauqua, New York, near Jamestown, has hosted such diverse speakers and performers as Bill Monroe, independent Chautauquas operated at permanent facilities, usually fashioned after the Chautauqua Institute in New York. Such a Chautauqua was generally built in an attractive semi-rural location a short distance outside a town with good rail service. At the height of the Chautauqua movement in the 1920s, several hundred of these existed, an addition to the list is the Pennsylvania Chautauqua in Mt. Gretna, Pennsylvania, which had operated continuously since 1892. Circuit Chautauquas were an itinerant manifestation of the Chautauqua movement, founded by Keith Vawter, although Vawter and Ellison were unsuccessful in their initial attempts to commercialize Chautauqua, by 1907 they had found a great amount of success in their adaptation of the concept. The program would be presented in tents pitched on a field near town. After several days, the Chautauqua would fold its tents and move on, the method of organizing a series of touring Chautauquas is attributed to Vawter. Among early Redpath comedians was Boob Brasfield, reactions to tent Chautauqua were mixed. That purpose, bluntly, was to make a million, frank Gunsaulus attacked Vawter, Youre ruining a splendid movement, Gunsaulus roared at Keith Vawter, whom he met at a railroad junction. Youre cheapening Chautauqua, breaking it down, replacing it with something what will have neither dignity nor permanence, in Vawters scheme, each performer or group appeared on a particular day of the program. First day talent would move on to other Chautauquas, followed by the second day performers, and so on, throughout the touring season. By the mid-1920s, when circuit Chautauquas were at their peak, they appeared in over 10,000 communities to audiences of more than 45 million, lectures were the mainstay of the Chautauqua
31.
Edgar Degas
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Edgar Degas was a French artist famous for his paintings, sculptures, prints, and drawings. He is especially identified with the subject of dance, more than half of his works depict dancers and he is regarded as one of the founders of Impressionism, although he rejected the term, preferring to be called a realist. He was a draftsman, and particularly masterly in depicting movement, as can be seen in his rendition of dancers, racecourse subjects. His portraits are notable for their complexity and for their portrayal of human isolation. At the beginning of his career, Degas wanted to be a history painter, in his early thirties, he changed course, and by bringing the traditional methods of a history painter to bear on contemporary subject matter, he became a classical painter of modern life. Degas was born in Paris, France, into a wealthy family. He was the oldest of five children of Célestine Musson De Gas, a Creole from New Orleans, Louisiana, and Augustin De Gas and his maternal grandfather Germain Musson, was born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti of French descent and had settled in New Orleans in 1810. Degas began his schooling at age eleven, enrolling in the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and his mother died when he was thirteen, and his father and grandfather became the main influences on him for the remainder of his youth. Degas began to paint early in life, by the time he graduated from the Lycée with a baccalauréat in literature in 1853, at age 18, he had turned a room in his home into an artists studio. Upon graduating, he registered as a copyist in The Louvre Museum, Degas duly enrolled at the Faculty of Law of the University of Paris in November 1853, but applied little effort to his studies. In April of that year Degas was admitted to the École des Beaux-Arts and he studied drawing there with Louis Lamothe, under whose guidance he flourished, following the style of Ingres. In July 1856, Degas traveled to Italy, where he would remain for the three years. In 1858, while staying with his aunts family in Naples and he also began work on several history paintings, Alexander and Bucephalus and The Daughter of Jephthah in 1859–60, Sémiramis Building Babylon in 1860, and Young Spartans around 1860. In 1861 Degas visited his childhood friend Paul Valpinçon in Normandy and he exhibited at the Salon for the first time in 1865, when the jury accepted his painting Scene of War in the Middle Ages, which attracted little attention. The change in his art was influenced primarily by the example of Édouard Manet, upon the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Degas enlisted in the National Guard, where his defense of Paris left him little time for painting. During rifle training his eyesight was found to be defective, after the war, Degas began in 1872 an extended stay in New Orleans, Louisiana, where his brother René and a number of other relatives lived. Staying at the home of his Creole uncle, Michel Musson, on Esplanade Avenue, Degas produced a number of works, many depicting family members. One of Degass New Orleans works, A Cotton Office in New Orleans, garnered favorable attention back in France, Degas returned to Paris in 1873 and his father died the following year, whereupon Degas learned that his brother René had amassed enormous business debts
32.
Claude Monet
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Monets ambition of documenting the French countryside led him to adopt a method of painting the same scene many times in order to capture the changing of light and the passing of the seasons. From 1883 Monet lived in Giverny, where he purchased a house and property, Claude Monet was born on 14 November 1840 on the fifth floor of 45 rue Laffitte, in the 9th arrondissement of Paris. He was the son of Claude Adolphe Monet and Louise Justine Aubrée Monet. On 20 May 1841, he was baptized in the parish church, Notre-Dame-de-Lorette, as Oscar-Claude. Despite being baptized Catholic, Monet later became an atheist, in 1845, his family moved to Le Havre in Normandy. His father wanted him to go into the familys ship-chandling and grocery business and his mother was a singer, and supported Monets desire for a career in art. On 1 April 1851, Monet entered Le Havre secondary school of the arts, locals knew him well for his charcoal caricatures, which he would sell for ten to twenty francs. Monet also undertook his first drawing lessons from Jacques-François Ochard, a student of Jacques-Louis David. On the beaches of Normandy around 1856 he met fellow artist Eugène Boudin, Boudin taught Monet en plein air techniques for painting. Both received the influence of Johan Barthold Jongkind, on 28 January 1857, his mother died. At the age of sixteen, he left school and went to live with his widowed, childless aunt, when Monet traveled to Paris to visit the Louvre, he witnessed painters copying from the old masters. Having brought his paints and other tools with him, he would go and sit by a window. Monet was in Paris for several years and met other painters, including Édouard Manet and others who would become friends. After drawing a low number in March 1861, Monet was drafted into the First Regiment of African Light Cavalry in Algeria for a seven-year period of military service. His prosperous father could have purchased Monets exemption from conscription but declined to do so when his son refused to give up painting. While in Algeria Monet did only a few sketches of scenes, a single landscape. In a Le Temps interview of 1900 however he commented that the light, after about a year of garrison duty in Algiers, Monet contracted typhoid fever and briefly went absent without leave. Following convalescence, Monets aunt intervened to get him out of the army if he agreed to complete a course at an art school and it is possible that the Dutch painter Johan Barthold Jongkind, whom Monet knew, may have prompted his aunt on this matter
33.
Vincent van Gogh
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Vincent Willem van Gogh was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter who is among the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. In just over a decade he created about 2,100 artworks, including around 860 oil paintings and his suicide at 37 followed years of mental illness and poverty. Born into a family, Van Gogh drew as a child and was serious, quiet. As a young man he worked as an art dealer, often travelling and he turned to religion, and spent time as a Protestant missionary in southern Belgium. He drifted in ill health and solitude before taking up painting in 1881 and his younger brother Theo supported him financially, and the two kept up a long correspondence by letter. His early works, mostly still lifes and depictions of peasant labourers, in 1886 he moved to Paris, where he met members of the avant-garde, including Émile Bernard and Paul Gauguin, who were reacting against the Impressionist sensibility. As his work developed he created a new approach to still lifes and his paintings grew brighter in colour as he developed a style that became fully realised during his stay in Arles in the south of France in 1888. During this period he broadened his subject matter to include trees, cypresses, wheat fields. Van Gogh suffered from episodes and delusions and though he worried about his mental stability, he often neglected his physical health, did not eat properly. His friendship with Gauguin ended after a confrontation with a razor and he spent time in psychiatric hospitals, including a period at Saint-Rémy. After he discharged himself and moved to the Auberge Ravoux in Auvers-sur-Oise near Paris and his depression continued and on 27 July 1890, Van Gogh shot himself in the chest with a revolver. He died from his injuries two days later, Van Gogh was unsuccessful during his lifetime, and was considered a madman and a failure. He became famous after his suicide, and exists in the imagination as the quintessential misunderstood genius. His reputation began to grow in the early 20th century as elements of his style came to be incorporated by the Fauves. The most comprehensive source on Van Gogh is the correspondence between him and his younger brother, Theo. Their lifelong friendship, and most of what is known of Vincents thoughts, Theo van Gogh was an art dealer and provided his brother with financial and emotional support, and access to influential people on the contemporary art scene. Theo kept all of Vincents letters to him, Vincent kept few of the letters he received, after both had died, Theos widow Johanna arranged for the publication of some of their letters. A few appeared in 1906 and 1913, the majority were published in 1914, Vincents letters are eloquent and expressive and have been described as having a diary-like intimacy, and read in parts like autobiography
34.
Pittsburgh Dispatch
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The Pittsburgh Dispatch was a leading newspaper in Pittsburgh, operating from 1846 to 1923. After being enlarged by publisher Daniel ONeill it was one of the largest and most prosperous newspapers in the United States. The paper was independent and was particularly known for its in-depth court reporting. Established by Col. J. Heron Foster, the Dispatch made its first appearance on 9 February 1846 and it was the first penny paper published in western Pennsylvania, initially comprising only four pages. The paper was almost unique in the industry for being profitable almost from the beginning despite being started during an economic recession. Foster was an opponent to slavery in the United States and. He was also a supporter of woman suffrage. His daughter Rachel Foster Avery became a prominent worker in the National American Woman Suffrage Association and he hired a woman to work in the newsroom and invited the protesting men to leave if they did not wish to work alongside her. Initially Foster acted not only as manager and financier of the paper. In 1849 Foster brought in a partner, RC Fleeson and the firm changed names to Foster & Fleeson, at the outbreak of the American Civil War Foster joined the Army, but production of the paper continued. In 1857 the Dispatch was Pittsburghs leading newspaper with a daily and weekly circulation of 14,000. Fleeson remained with the paper until his death in 1863, following the war, in 1865 two employees of the paper, Daniel ONeill and Alexander W. Rook bought a half interest in the paper, eventually taking full control when Foster died in 1868. ONeill had been city editor for years and had his finger on the pulse of the city. Additionally, ONeill forged an independent path on state and national issues, the two partners ran the paper until ONeills death in 1877. Following ONeills death, Eugene M ONeill, Daniels brother, took a leading role in the paper along with Rook. E. M. ONeill continued his brothers independent approach to political, the same year as Daniels death,1877, the firm suffered the loss of the printing plant due to fire. ONeill replaced the rotary press with a state-of-the-art perfecting press which could print both sides of the paper at the same time and they simultaneously reduced the size of the printed sheet and doubled the number of pages. The smaller size and greater bulk made the Dispatch stand out from the competition most of whom were using the older blanket press in a broad sheet format, another advantage gained by introducing new technology came from the press ability to print and fold the paper
35.
The Cincinnati Times-Star
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The Cincinnati Times-Star was an afternoon daily newspaper in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States, from 1880 to 1958. The Northern Kentucky edition was known as The Kentucky Times-Star, the Times-Star was owned by the Taft family and originally edited by Charles Phelps Taft, then, by his nephew, Hulbert Taft, Sr. The Taft familys investments in media would later grow into Taft Broadcasting, a conglomerate that owned radio, television. The Times-Star first published on June 15,1880, after the merger of The Times, Charles Phelps Taft had purchased both papers the previous year, and named his brother, Peter Rawson Taft II, publisher. The Times-Star strongly supported political boss George B, cox, to the embarrassment of Charles Phelps Tafts half-brother, progressive reformer and future President William Howard Taft. On November 23,1895, the Times-Star ran an editorial proposing a contest to choose a flag for the City of Cincinnati, on January 24,1896, the commission awarded the $50 to influential illustrator Emil Rothengatter for the design that is in use today. The newspapers offices were located on Sixth and Walnut streets. On January 1,1933, the Times-Star moved into the 16-story Cincinnati Times-Star Building on Broadway, in 1939, the Times-Star purchased WKRC radio from CBS and subsequently became an affiliate and shareholder of the Mutual Broadcasting System through subsidiary Radio Cincinnati. In 1952, Hulbert Taft, Sr. owner and publisher of the Times-Star, attempted to acquire The Cincinnati Enquirer from its owner, a bidding war ensued when Enquirer employees pooled their assets in order to make a counter offer. The offer was accepted by the trust, and the acquisition was unsuccessful. On August 3,1958, the Times-Star was sold to Scripps-Howard Newspapers, owners of The Cincinnati Post, Hulbert Taft Sr. was reportedly the only family member who opposed the sale. Radio Cincinnati was reorganized as Taft Broadcasting, the Post moved into the Times-Star Building and published under the name The Cincinnati Post and Times-Star until December 31,1974, when it reverted to The Cincinnati Post. 1840-1841 About The Cincinnati Daily Star
36.
Chicago Tribune
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The Chicago Tribune is a daily newspaper based in Chicago, Illinois, United States, owned by tronc, Inc. formerly Tribune Publishing. The Tribune was founded by James Kelly, John E. Wheeler, forrest, publishing its first edition on June 10,1847. The paper saw numerous changes in ownership and editorship over the eight years. Initially, the Tribune was not politically affiliated but tended to either the Whig or Free Soil parties against the Democrats in elections. By late 1853, it was frequently running xenophobic editorials that criticized foreigners, about this time it also became a strong proponent of temperance. Ray became editor-in-chief, Medill became the editor, and Alfred Cowles, Sr. brother of Edwin Cowles. Each purchased one third of the Tribune, under their leadership the Tribune distanced itself from the Know Nothings and became the main Chicago organ of the Republican Party. However, the continued to print anti-Catholic and anti-Irish editorials. Between 1858 and 1860, the paper was known as the Chicago Press & Tribune, on October 25,1860, it became the Chicago Daily Tribune. Before and during the American Civil War, the new editors pushed an abolitionist agenda and strongly supported Abraham Lincoln, the paper remained a force in Republican politics for years afterwards. In 1861, the Tribune published new lyrics for the song John Browns Body by William W. Patton, Medill served as mayor of Chicago for one term after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. Under the 20th-century editorship of Colonel Robert R. Joseph McCarthy, when McCormick assumed the position of co-editor in 1910, the Tribune was the third-best-selling paper among Chicagos eight dailies, with a circulation of only 188,000. At the same time, the Tribune competed with the Hearst paper, by 1914, the cousins succeeded in forcing out Managing Editor William Keeley. By 1918, the Examiner was forced to merge with the Chicago Herald, in 1919, Patterson left the Tribune and moved to New York to launch his own newspaper, the New York Daily News. In a renewed war with Hearsts Herald-Examiner, McCormick and Hearst ran rival lotteries in 1922. The Tribune won the battle, adding 250,000 readers to its ranks, also in 1922, the Chicago Tribune hosted an international design competition for its new headquarters, the Tribune Tower. The competition worked brilliantly as a publicity stunt, and more than 260 entries were received, the winner was a neo-Gothic design by New York architects John Mead Howells and Raymond Hood. The newspaper sponsored an attempt at Arctic aviation in 1929
37.
Scribner's Magazine
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Scribners Magazine was an American periodical published by the publishing house of Charles Scribners Sons from January 1887 to May 1939. Scribners Magazine was the magazine out of the Scribners firm. Charles Scribners Sons spent over $500,000 setting up the magazine, to compete with the already successful Harpers Monthly, Scribners Magazine was launched in 1887, and was the first of any magazine to introduce color illustrations. The magazine ceased publication in 1939, the magazine had high sales when Roosevelt started contributing, reaching over 200,000, but gradually lost circulation after World War I. Scribners Magazine was the periodical publication of the Scribners firm. Scribners Monthly was later moved to publisher, and was renamed The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine. Charles Scribner announced to a New York Times reporter that they would make a new monthly publication as soon as the arrangements could be perfected. It was also announced that the editor would be Edward Burlingame, the son of Anson Burlingame, Charles Scribner also noted that the magazine would not be a revival of the formerly published Scribners Monthly. Charles Scribners Sons spent over $500,000 in launching Scribners Magazine, to complete with the already successful pictorials, Atlantic Monthly and Harpers Magazine. Edward L. Burlingame hired the best artists in his country for the magazine, Howard Pyle, Howard Chandler Christy, Charles Marion Russell, Walter Everett, Maxfield Parrish and Frederic Remington. Before the first issue was released, Charles Scribners Sons had their first annual Scribners Magazine dinner held at their main offices, Scribners Magazine was launched in January 1887, the first issue of which was to be published from January to June of that year. The magazine was printed and bound by Trows Printing and Bookbinding Company, Scribners Magazine was also the first magazine to introduce color illustrations later on. The first issue opens with the literary article The Downfall to the Empire, washburne, the former minister to France. An early morning fire on the Charles Scribners Sons offices heavily burned the third, in May 1914, the magazines editor, Edward L. Burlingame retired and Robert Bridges took over as editor of the publication. During the first World War, Scribners Magazine employed authors, Richard Harding Davis, Edith Wharton and John Galsworthy, during the time of 1917, when the United States joined the war, the magazine had four to six articles on the subject. On the date of November 19,1922 the first editor of the magazine, on January 1928 the magazine had a change in format, with the first of the newly formatted issue having a cover design by Rockwell Kent. The June issue of 1929 was banned in Boston, Massachusetts due to the article A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway, the article was deemed salacious by the public and Boston police barred the magazine from book stands. Mr. Hemingway is one of the finest and most highly regarded of the modern writers, a Farewell to Arms is in its effect distinctly moral
38.
Madame Roland
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She fell out of favour during the Reign of Terror and died on the guillotine. Madame Roland, born Marie-Jeanne Phlippon, the surviving child of eight pregnancies, was born to Gratien Phlippon. From her early years she was a successful, enthusiastic, in her youth she studied literature, music and drawing. From the beginning she was strong willed and frequently challenged her father, enthusiastically supporting her education, Jeannes parents enrolled her in the convent school of the Sisterhood of the Congregation in Paris - for one year only. She was enthusiastically religious, leading John Abbott to state God thus became in Janes mind a vision of poetic beauty, several literary figures influenced Rolands philosophy, including Voltaire, Montesquieu, Plutarch, and others. Manon Phlippon also, as she traveled, developed an awareness of the outside world. Ah but we are going to be happy, in the winter of 1780, Manon Phlippon married the philosopher Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière. She collaborated on a number of M. Rolands works, the Dictionnaire des Manufactures, Arts et Métiers, and her most significant influence flowed through her husbands political writings. Nevertheless, attempting to conform to Rousseaus model of femininity, she also carefully restricted herself well within the limits of a domestic function. Thus, with him and through him, she proved both powerful and influential in the era of the French Revolution, in 1784, she obtained a promotion for her husband which transferred him to Lyon, where she began building her network of friends and associates. In Lyon, the Rolands began to express their support for the revolution through letters to the journal Patriote Français. Their voice was noticed and in November 1790, Jean-Marie was elected to represent Lyon in Paris, when the couple moved from Lyon to Paris in 1791, she began to take an even more active role. Her salon at the Hotel Britannique in Paris became the rendezvous of Brissot, Pétion, Robespierre, an especially esteemed guest was Buzot, whom she loved with platonic enthusiasm. In person, Madame Roland is said to have been attractive but not beautiful, her ideas were clear and far-reaching, her manner calm, and her power of observation extremely acute. Madame Roland’s ability to weave social networks fed the Rolands growing popularity and it was through Manon that one gained access to the inner circle of the growing Gironde. Inevitably, her activity placed her in the centre of political aspirations where she swayed a company of the most talented men of progress, as time went on she realised that she could tweak a number of her husband’s letters and still sign them in his name. M. Roland’s rise in politics and the Girondin faction subsequently improved Madame Roland’s influence, in maintenance of her feminist beliefs she never spoke during formal meetings. Instead she listened intently at her desk, taking notes, thus educating herself on political matters, independently, M. Roland performed sufficiently in his duties as a minister, possessing reasonable knowledge, activity, and integrity
39.
Salon (gathering)
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These gatherings often consciously followed Horaces definition of the aims of poetry, either to please or to educate. Salons, commonly associated with French literary and philosophical movements of the 17th and 18th centuries, were carried on until as recently as the 1940s in urban settings, the salon was an Italian invention of the 16th century which flourished in France throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. The salon continued to flourish in Italy throughout the 19th century, one important place for the exchange of ideas was the salon. The word salon first appeared in France in 1664, Literary gatherings before this were often referred to by using the name of the room in which they occurred, like cabinet, réduit, ruelle and alcôve. Before the end of the 17th century, these gatherings were held in the bedroom. This practice may be contrasted with the formalities of Louis XIVs petit lever. She established the rules of etiquette of the salon which resembled the earlier codes of Italian chivalry, the historiography of the salons is far from straightforward. The salons have been studied in depth by a mixture of feminist, Marxist, each of these methodologies focus on different aspects of the salons, and thus have varying analyses of the salons’ importance in terms of French history and the Enlightenment as a whole. Major historiographical debates focus on the relationship between the salons and the sphere, as well as the role of women within the salons. Breaking down the salons into historical periods is complicated due to the various historiographical debates that surround them, most studies stretch from the early 16th century up until around the end of the 18th century. Goodman is typical in ending her study at the French Revolution where, she writes, Steven Kale is relatively alone in his recent attempts to extend the period of the salon up until Revolution of 1848. This world did not disappear in 1789, as recently as the 1940s, salons hosted by Gertrude Stein gained notoriety for including Pablo Picasso and other twentieth-century luminaries like Alice B. The content and form of the salon to some extent defines the character, contemporary literature about the salons is dominated by idealistic notions of politesse, civilité and honnêteté, but whether the salons lived up to these standards is matter of debate. Older texts on the salons tend to paint a picture of the salons. Today, however, this view is considered an adequate analysis of the salon. Dena Goodman claims that rather than being leisure based or schools of civilité salons were instead at the heart of the philosophic community. In short, Goodman argues, the 17th and 18th century saw the emergence of the academic, Enlightenment salons, politeness, argues Goodman, took second-place to academic discussion. The period in which salons were dominant has been labeled the age of conversation, the topics of conversation within the salons - that is, what was and was not polite to talk about - are thus vital when trying to determine the form of the salons
40.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
41.
S. S. McClure
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Samuel Sidney McClure was an American publisher who became known as a key figure in investigative, or muckraking, journalism. He co-founded and ran McClures Magazine from 1893 to 1911 and he was born to an Ulster Scots family in County Antrim, Northern Ireland, and emigrated with his widowed mother to Indiana when he was nine years old. He grew up in poverty on a farm and graduated from Valparaiso High School in 1875. He worked his way through Knox College, where he co-founded its student newspaper, in 1884, he established the McClure Syndicate, the first U. S. newspaper syndicate, which serialized books. McClure created a new form of writing for his journalists that we still use today. Instead of demanding that his writers give him articles for his paper immediately, kipling was also present when McClure began to contemplate the launch of a new literary magazine. He founded McClures Magazine in 1893 and ran it successfully until 1911 when poor health, through his magazine, he introduced Dr. Maria Montessoris new teaching methods to North America in 1911. McClure was a partner of Frank Nelson Doubleday in Doubleday & McClure. After he was ousted in 1911, McClures Magazine serialized his ghost-written autobiography and he died in 1949 in New York City, U. S. A. The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science Lyon, success Story, The Life and Times of S. S. McClure. New York, Frederick A. Stokes Co, McClure Publishing Company Archives - Special Collections, University of Delaware Library Samuel McClure biography
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Louis Pasteur
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Louis Pasteur was a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization. He is remembered for his breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of diseases. He reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and created the first vaccines for rabies and his medical discoveries provided direct support for the germ theory of disease and its application in clinical medicine. He is best known to the public for his invention of the technique of treating milk and wine to stop bacterial contamination. He is regarded as one of the three founders of bacteriology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch, and is popularly known as the father of microbiology. Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation and he performed experiments that showed that without contamination, microorganisms could not develop. Under the auspices of the French Academy of Sciences, he demonstrated that in sterilized and sealed flasks nothing ever developed, although Pasteur was not the first to propose the germ theory, his experiments indicated its correctness and convinced most of Europe that it was true. Today, he is regarded as one of the fathers of germ theory. Pasteur also made significant discoveries in chemistry, most notably on the basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals. Early in his career, his investigation of tartaric acid resulted in the first resolution of what is now called optical isomers and his work led the way to the current understanding of a fundamental principle in the structure of organic compounds. He was the director of the Pasteur Institute, established in 1887, till his death, although Pasteur made groundbreaking experiments, his reputation became associated with various controversies. Historical reassessment of his notebook revealed that he practiced deception to overcome his rivals, Louis Pasteur was born on December 27,1822, in Dole, Jura, France, to a Catholic family of a poor tanner. He was the child of Jean-Joseph Pasteur and Jeanne-Etiennette Roqui. The family moved to Marnoz in 1826 and then to Arbois in 1827, Pasteur entered primary school in 1831. He was a student in his early years, and not particularly academic. He drew many pastels and portraits of his parents, friends, Pasteur attended secondary school at the Collège dArbois. In October 1838, he left for Paris to join the Pension Barbet, in 1839, he entered the Collège Royal de Besançon to study philosophy and earned his Bachelor of Letters degree in 1840. He was appointed a tutor at the Besançon college while continuing a degree course with special mathematics
43.
Napoleon
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Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
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Twin Oaks (Washington, D.C.)
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The Twin Oaks is an 18.1 acre estate located in the Cleveland Park neighborhood in Washington, D. C. The estate was the residence of nine Republic of China ambassadors to the United States from 1937 until 1979, on 1 January 2015, the flag of the Republic of China was raised for the first time since the end of diplomatic relations in 1979. The ceremony was held by Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the U. S. a move symbolizing significant progress in Taiwan–United States relations, Representative Shen Lyu-shun said that they not only returned, but they did it with dignity, respect and honor. The United States Department of States spokesperson responded at the press briefing that The ceremony is not consistent with U. S. policy. We remain fully committed to the U. S, one China Policy, based on the three communiques and the Taiwan Relations Act. No U. S. Government personnel attended the event in any capacity
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