1.
Amity Township, Erie County, Pennsylvania
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Amity Township is a township in Erie County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 1,073 at the 2010 census, there are no longer any boroughs or villages in the township, after the disappearance of Arbuckle and Hatch Hollow. The latter was the birthplace of famed muckraker Ida M. Tarbell, Amity Township is in southeastern Erie County. According to the United States Census Bureau, the it has an area of 28.2 square miles, of which 28.0 square miles is land and 0.2 square miles. French Creek flows through the township, impounded by Union City Dam in neighboring Waterford Township, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,140 people,387 households, and 315 families residing in the township. The population density was 40.3 people per square mile, there were 408 housing units at an average density of 14. 4/sq mi. The racial makeup of the township was 99. 30% White,0. 09% African American,0. 35% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 61% of the population. 13. 4% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.94 and the average family size was 3.19. In the township the population was out, with 28. 7% under the age of 18,6. 3% from 18 to 24,28. 5% from 25 to 44,26. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 106.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.3 males, the median income for a household in the township was $42,569, and the median income for a family was $44,861. Males had an income of $32,375 versus $21,125 for females. The per capita income for the township was $15,186, about 6. 6% of families and 10. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13. 0% of those under age 18 and 4. 9% of those age 65 or over. Map of Amity Township in 1896
2.
Bridgeport, Connecticut
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Bridgeport is a seaport city in the U. S. state of Connecticut. It is the largest city in the state and is located in Fairfield County at the mouth of the Pequonnock River on Long Island Sound, Bridgeport had a population of 144,229 during the 2010 Census, making it also the 5th-most populous in New England. It is bordered by the towns of Trumbull to the north, Fairfield to the west, the Greater Bridgeport area is the 48th-largest urban area in the United States and forms part of the Greater New York City Area. Bridgeport was inhabited by the Paugussett Indian tribe at the time of its English colonization, the English farming community became a center of trade, shipbuilding, and whaling. The town incorporated itself to subsidize the Housatonic Railroad and rapidly industrialized following its connection to the New York, manufacturing was the mainstay of the local economy until the 1970s. Industrial restructuring and suburbanization caused the loss of jobs and affluent residents, leaving Bridgeport struggling with problems of poverty. In the 21st century, conversion of office and factory buildings to residential use, the showman P. T. Barnum was a resident of the city and served as the towns mayor in the late 19th century. Barnum built four houses in Bridgeport, and housed his circus in town during winter, the first Subway restaurant opened in the North End section of the city in 1965. The Frisbie Pie Company was located here, and Bridgeport is credited as the birthplace of the Frisbee, the first documented English settlement within the present city limits of Bridgeport took place in 1644, centered at Black Rock Harbor along North Avenue and between Park and Briarwood Avenues. The place was called Pequonnock, after a band of the Paugussett, one of their sacred sites was Golden Hill, which overlooked the harbor and was the location of natural springs and their planting fields. The Golden Hill Indians were granted a reservation here by the Colony of Connecticut in 1639 that survived until 1802, a village called Newfield began to coalesce around the corner of State and Water Streets in the 1760s. The area officially known as Stratfield in 1695 or 1701 due to its location between the already existing towns of Stratford and Fairfield. During the American Revolution, Newfield Harbor was a center of privateering, Newfield initially expanded around the coasting trade with Boston, New York, and Baltimore and the international trade with the West Indies. The commercial activity of the village was clustered around the wharves on the west bank of the Pequonnock, in 1800, the village became the Borough of Bridgeport, the first so incorporated in the state. It was named for the Newfield or Lottery Bridge across the Pequonnock, Bridgeport Bank was established in 1806. In 1821, the township of Bridgeport became independent of Stratford, the West India trade died down around 1840, but by that time the Bridgeport Steamship Company and Bridgeport Whaling Company had been incorporated and the Housatonic Railroad chartered. The HRRC ran upstate along the Housatonic Valley, connecting with Massachusettss Berkshire Railroad at the state line, Bridgeport was chartered as Connecticuts fifth city in 1836 in order to enable the town council to secure funding to provide to the HRRC and ensure that it would terminate in Bridgeport. The Naugatuck Railroad—connecting Bridgeport to Waterbury and Winsted along the Naugatuck—was chartered in 1845, the same year, the New York and New Haven Railroad began operation, connecting Bridgeport to New York and the other towns along the north shore of the Long Island Sound
3.
The History of the Standard Oil Company
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The History of the Standard Oil Company is a 1904 book by journalist Ida Tarbell. It is an exposé about the Standard Oil Company, run at the time by oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller, the subsequent decision splintered the company into 34 baby Standards. The value of Rockefellers shares rose after the breakup as the new companies had a development on the stock exchange. The original book was a hardcover set. An abridged paperback edition was released later, the inspiration behind The History of Standard Oil Company was largely fueled by Ida Tarbells childhood experiences. Her father, Franklin Tarbell, worked for Standard Oil and lived through what Ida called hate, suspicion, after her education and accumulate writing experience, Tarbell began working at McClures Magazine, where she wrote several successful series on historical figures. After this initial success, her shift turned to John D. Rockefeller and she began by interviewing Henry H. Eventually, Tarbell uncovered a crucial piece of evidence proving that Standard Oil was rigging railroad prices and preying on its competition. Public outcry erupted at the conclusion of Tarbells 19-part exposure of Standard Oil published in McClures, journalists, politicians, and citizens alike celebrated the accomplishments of Tarbell - a woman outside the inner workings of business and without significant money or influence. These reactions are immortalized in political cartoons utilizing imagery of Rockefellers hidden agendas being demolished by investigative journalism, Rockefeller but critical of Standard Oils unfair and business strategies of questionable legality. So careful is she in her facts, so sane in her judgements, as such, The History of Standard Oil Company harbors great significance as a standard-bearer of modern investigative journalism
4.
Teacher
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A teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone, in some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family, rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching, in most countries, formal teaching is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their role, to teach others in a formal education context. A teachers role may vary among cultures, Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills. Formal teaching tasks include preparing lessons according to agreed curricula, giving lessons, a teachers professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline, Teaching is a highly complex activity. This is in part because teaching is a practice, that takes place in a specific context. Factors that influence what is expected of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, so the competences required by a teacher are affected by the different ways in which the role is understood around the world. Broadly, there seem to be four models, the teacher as manager of instruction, the teacher as caring person, the teacher as expert learner, some evidence-based international discussions have tried to reach such a common understanding. Scholarly consensus is emerging that what is required of teachers can be grouped under three headings, knowledge craft skills and dispositions and it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can create a positive learning experience. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the materials on a daily basis. One of the challenges facing teachers is that they may have covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didnt show much enthusiasm for the course materials, Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom, students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation, teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere of energy and enthusiasm which feeds student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teachers enthusiasm may contribute to the expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning
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Journalist
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A journalist is a person who collects, writes, or distributes news or other current information. A journalists work is called journalism, a journalist can work with general issues or specialize in certain issues. However, most journalists tend to specialize, and by cooperating with other journalists, for example, a sports journalist covers news within the world of sports, but this journalist may be a part of a newspaper that covers many different topics. A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes, and reports on information in order to present in sources, conduct interviews, engage in research, and make reports. The information-gathering part of a job is sometimes called reporting. Reporters may split their time working in a newsroom and going out to witness events or interviewing people. Reporters may be assigned a beat or area of coverage. Depending on the context, the term journalist may include various types of editors, editorial writers, columnists, Journalism has developed a variety of ethics and standards. While objectivity and a lack of bias are of concern and importance, more liberal types of journalism, such as advocacy journalism and activism. This has become prevalent with the advent of social media and blogs, as well as other platforms that are used to manipulate or sway social and political opinions. These platforms often project extreme bias, as sources are not always held accountable or considered necessary in order to produce a written, nor did they often directly experience most social problems, or have direct access to expert insights. These limitations were made worse by a media that tended to over-simplify issues and to reinforce stereotypes, partisan viewpoints. As a consequence, Lippmann believed that the public needed journalists like himself who could serve as analysts, guiding “citizens to a deeper understanding of what was really important. ”Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom, as of November 2011, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that 887 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 by murder, crossfire or combat, or on dangerous assignment. The ten deadliest countries for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq, Philippines, Russia, Colombia, Mexico, Algeria, Pakistan, India, Somalia, Brazil and Sri Lanka. The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of December 1st 2010,145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. The ten countries with the largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey, China, Iran, Eritrea, Burma, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Cuba, Ethiopia, apart from the physical harm, journalists are harmed psychologically. This applies especially to war reporters, but their offices at home often do not know how to deal appropriately with the reporters they expose to danger
6.
Muckraker
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The term muckraker was used in the Progressive Era to characterize reform-minded American journalists who attacked established institutions and leaders as corrupt. They typically had large audiences in popular magazines. The muckrakers played a visible role during the Progressive Era period. Investigative journalists view the muckrakers as early influences and a continuation of watchdog journalism, the term is a reference to a character in John Bunyans classic Pilgrims Progress, the Man with the Muck-rake that rejected salvation to focus on filth. While a literature of reform had already appeared by the mid-19th century, by the 1900s, magazines such as Colliers Weekly, Munseys Magazine and McClures Magazine were already in wide circulation and read avidly by the growing middle class. The January 1903 issue of McClures is considered to be the beginning of muckraking journalism. Ida M. Tarbell, Lincoln Steffens and Ray Stannard Baker, claude H. Wetmore and Lincoln Steffens previous article Tweed Days in St. Louis, in McClures October 1902 issue was called the first muckraking article. The muckrakers would become known for their investigative journalism, the muckrakers were influenced by both eras. One of the biggest urban scandals of the post-Civil War era was the corruption, Lincoln Steffens titled his first muckraking article Tweed Days in St. Louis in comparison with the New York case. Publishers of yellow journals, such as Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, were intent on increasing circulation through scandal, crime, entertainment. Note that in journalism, the idea was to stir up the public with sensationalism. If, in the process, a wrong was exposed that the average man could get indignant about, that was fine. Julius Chambers, New York Tribune, is considered by many to be the original muckraker, Chambers undertook a journalistic investigation of Bloomingdale Asylum in 1872, having himself committed with the help of some of his friends and his newspapers city editor. His intent was to obtain information about alleged abuse of inmates and this later led to the publication of the book A Mad World and Its Inhabitants. From this time onward, Chambers was frequently invited to speak on the rights of the mentally ill, Nellie would go on to write more articles on corrupt politicians, sweat-shop working conditions and other societal injustices. Helen Hunt Jackson – A Century of Dishonor, U. S. policy regarding Native Americans, henry Demarest Lloyd – Wealth Against Commonwealth, exposed the corruption within the Standard Oil Company. Ida B. B. O. Flower - author of articles in The Arena from 1889 through 1909 advocating for prison reform, the muckrakers appeared at a moment when journalism was undergoing changes in style and practice. The growth of services had also contributed to the spread of the objective reporting style
7.
Progressive Era
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The Progressive Era was a period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States, from the 1890s to the 1920s. The main objectives of the Progressive movement were eliminating problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, the movement primarily targeted political machines and their bosses. By taking down these corrupt representatives in office a further means of democracy would be established. They also sought regulation of monopolies and corporations through antitrust laws and these antitrust laws were seen as a way to promote equal competition for the advantage of legitimate competitors. Many progressives supported prohibition in the United States, ostensibly to destroy the power of local bosses based in saloons. At the same time, womens suffrage was promoted to bring a purer female vote into the arena, many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made scientific the social sciences, especially history, economics, in academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M, La Follette, Sr. and Charles Evans Hughes on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith on the Democratic side. Yet, leaders of the movement also existed far from presidential politics, jane Addams, Grace Abbott, Edith Abbott and Sophonisba Breckinridge were among the most influential Progressive Era reformers. Initially the movement operated chiefly at local levels, later, it expanded to state, Progressives drew support from the middle class, and supporters included many lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers and business people. Some Progressives strongly supported scientific methods as applied to economics, government, industry, finance, medicine, schooling, theology, education, reformers felt that old-fashioned ways meant waste and inefficiency, and eagerly sought out the one best system. S. Magazines were not a new medium but they became more popular around 1900. It was an age of Mass media, thanks to the rapid expansion of national advertising, the cover price fell sharply to about 10 cents. One cause was the coverage of corruption in politics, local government and big business. They were journalists who wrote for magazines to expose social and political sins. They relied on their own investigative journalism reporting, muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate, the journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like Ray Stannard Baker, George Creel, and Brand Whitlock. Other like Lincoln Steffens exposed political corruption in many large cities, Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they were not being helpful by raking up all the muck. The Progressives were avid modernizers, with a belief in science and they looked to education as the key
8.
Investigative journalism
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Investigative journalism is a form of journalism in which reporters deeply investigate a single topic of interest, such as serious crimes, political corruption, or corporate wrongdoing. An investigative journalist may spend months or years researching and preparing a report, Investigative journalism is a primary source of information. Most investigative journalism is conducted by newspapers, wire services, practitioners sometimes use the term accountability reporting. In many cases, the subjects of the wish the matters under scrutiny to remain undisclosed. There are currently university departments for teaching investigative journalism, conferences are conducted presenting peer reviewed research into investigative journalism. American journalism textbooks point out that muckraking standards promoted by McClures Magazine around 1902, furthermore, the successes of the early muckrakers continued to inspire journalists. John M. Crewdson of the Chicago Tribune wrote a 1996 article proposing the installment of defibrillators on American airliners, Crewdson argued that based on his research and analysis, Medical kits and defibrillators would be economically justified if they saved just 3 lives each year. Soon after the publication, airlines began installing defibrillators on planes. Ten years after installing defibrillators, American Airlines reported that 80 lives had been saved by the machines. S, since the 1980s has been accompanied by massive cuts in the budgets for investigative journalism. A2002 study concluded that investigative journalism has all but disappeared from the nations commercial airwaves, the major media conglomerates have found ways to retain their audience without the risks of offending advertisers inherent in investigative journalism. C. Raising Hell, Straight Talk with Investigative Journalists, by Ron Chepesiuk, Haney Howell, tell Me No Lies, Investigative Journalism That Changed the World, John Pilger, ed.2005
9.
New York University
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New York University is a private nonprofit research university based in New York City. Founded in 1831, NYU is considered one of the worlds most influential research universities, University rankings compiled by Times Higher Education, U. S. News & World Report, and the Academic Ranking of World Universities all rank NYU amongst the top 32 universities in the world. NYU is a part of the creativity, energy and vibrancy that is Manhattan, located with its core in Greenwich Village. Among its faculty and alumni are 37 Nobel Laureates, over 30 Pulitzer Prize winners, over 30 Academy Award winners, alumni include heads of state, royalty, eminent mathematicians, inventors, media figures, Olympic medalists, CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, and astronauts. NYU alumni are among the wealthiest in the world, according to The Princeton Review, NYU is consistently considered by students and parents as a Top Dream College. Albert Gallatin, Secretary of Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, declared his intention to establish in this immense, a system of rational and practical education fitting and graciously opened to all. A three-day-long literary and scientific convention held in City Hall in 1830 and these New Yorkers believed the city needed a university designed for young men who would be admitted based upon merit rather than birthright or social class. On April 18,1831, an institution was established, with the support of a group of prominent New York City residents from the merchants, bankers. Albert Gallatin was elected as the institutions first president, the university has been popularly known as New York University since its inception and was officially renamed New York University in 1896. In 1832, NYU held its first classes in rented rooms of four-story Clinton Hall, in 1835, the School of Law, NYUs first professional school, was established. American Chemical Society was founded in 1876 at NYU and it became one of the nations largest universities, with an enrollment of 9,300 in 1917. NYU had its Washington Square campus since its founding, the university purchased a campus at University Heights in the Bronx because of overcrowding on the old campus. NYU also had a desire to follow New York Citys development further uptown, NYUs move to the Bronx occurred in 1894, spearheaded by the efforts of Chancellor Henry Mitchell MacCracken. The University Heights campus was far more spacious than its predecessor was, as a result, most of the universitys operations along with the undergraduate College of Arts and Science and School of Engineering were housed there. NYUs administrative operations were moved to the new campus, but the schools of the university remained at Washington Square. In 1914, Washington Square College was founded as the undergraduate college of NYU. In 1935, NYU opened the Nassau College-Hofstra Memorial of New York University at Hempstead and this extension would later become a fully independent Hofstra University. In 1950, NYU was elected to the Association of American Universities, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, financial crisis gripped the New York City government and the troubles spread to the citys institutions, including NYU
10.
McClure's
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McClures or McClures Magazine was an American illustrated monthly periodical popular at the turn of the 20th century. The magazine is credited with having started the tradition of muckraking journalism, in this way, McClures published such writers as Willa Cather, Arthur Conan Doyle, Herminie T. Kavanagh, Rudyard Kipling, Jack London, Lincoln Steffens, Robert Louis Stevenson, and Mark Twain. At the beginning of the 20th century, its competitors included Colliers. From January 1907 to June 1908, McClures published the first detailed history of Christian Science, the articles were later published in book form as The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science. In 1906, the writing staff defected over disputes with McClure, McClures began to lose readers and went into debt. S. S. McClure was forced to sell the magazine to creditors in 1911 and it was re-styled as a womens magazine and ran inconsistently in this format, with publication from October 1921 to February 1922, September 1924 and April 1925, and February to May 1926. The later issues, from July 1928 until March 1929, were published under the name New McClures Magazine, the last issue was in March 1929, after which the magazine was taken over by The Smart Set. Ray Stannard Baker Willa Cather Lincoln Steffens Ida Tarbell William Allen White J. M. Barrie Stephen Crane Arthur Conan Doyle Herminie T. volumes McClures Magazine at Hathi Trust, volumes McClures Magazine at Google Books, misc. PDFs of these issues may be downloaded for free from the MJP website
11.
John D. Rockefeller
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John Davison Rockefeller Sr. was an American oil industry business magnate and philanthropist. He is widely considered the wealthiest American of all time, born into a large family in upstate New York, he was shaped by his con man father and religious mother. His family moved several times before settling in Cleveland, Ohio. Rockefeller became an assistant bookkeeper at the age of 16, and went into a partnership with Maurice B. Clark. After buying them out, he and his brother William founded Rockefeller & Andrews with Samuel Andrews, instead of drilling for oil, he concentrated on refining. In 1867, Henry Flagler entered the partnership, the Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler company grew by incorporating local refineries. As kerosene and gasoline grew in importance, Rockefellers wealth soared and he became the richest person in the country, Oil was used throughout the country as a light source until the introduction of electricity and as a fuel after the invention of the automobile. Furthermore, Rockefeller gained enormous influence over the industry, which transported his oil around the country. Standard Oil was the first great business trust in the United States, Rockefeller revolutionized the petroleum industry, and along with other key contemporary industrialists such as steel magnate Andrew Carnegie, defined the structure of modern philanthropy. His peak net worth was estimated at $336 billion in 1913, Rockefeller spent the last 40 years of his life in retirement at his estate in Westchester County, New York. His foundations pioneered the development of research and were instrumental in the eradication of hookworm. Rockefeller was also the founder of both the University of Chicago and Rockefeller University and funded the establishment of Central Philippine University in the Philippines and he was a devout Northern Baptist, and supported many church-based institutions. Rockefeller adhered to total abstinence from alcohol and tobacco throughout his life and he was a faithful congregant of the Erie Street Baptist Mission Church, where he taught Sunday school, and served as a trustee, clerk, and occasional janitor. Religion was a force throughout his life, and Rockefeller believed it to be the source of his success. Rockefeller was the second of six children and eldest son born in Richford, New York, to con artist William Avery Bill Rockefeller and his siblings were Lucy, William Jr. Mary, and twins Franklin and Frances. His father was of English and German descent while his mother was of Scots-Irish descent, Bill was first a lumberman and then a traveling salesman who identified himself as a botanic physician and sold elixirs. The locals referred to the mysterious but fun-loving man as Big Bill and he was a sworn foe of conventional morality who had opted for a vagabond existence and who returned to his family infrequently. Throughout his life, Bill was notorious for shady schemes, in between the births of Lucy and John, Bill and his mistress/housekeeper Nancy Brown had a daughter named Clorinda who died young
12.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
13.
Erie County, Pennsylvania
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Erie County is a county located in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 280,566, the county was created in 1800 and later organized in 1803. Erie County comprises the Erie, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area, Erie County was established on March 12,1800 from part of Allegheny County, which absorbed the lands of the disputed Erie Triangle in 1792. Prior to 1792, the region was claimed by both New York and Pennsylvania, so no county demarcations were made until the government intervened. Erie elected its own county officials in 1803, the county was originally settled by immigrants of Yankee stock. Erie County resembled upstate New York more than it did Pennsylvania with its population consisting of settlers from Connecticut, Rhode Island. Roads were laid out, post routes established, public buildings erected and this resulted in Erie County being culturally very contiguous with early New England culture. Today, the Journey to Freedom educational program provides a program on the Underground Railroad experience. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,558 square miles. It is the largest county in Pennsylvania by total area, with the exception of a high ridge several miles from the lake, running nearly parallel with its shore, the terrain is generally rolling and well watered. There are two cities in Erie County, the city of Erie and the city of Corry, Other notable population centers include Millcreek, Harborcreek and Fairview townships, and the boroughs of Edinboro, North East, Girard, Waterford and Union City. Erie County is bordered on the northeast by Chautauqua County, New York, on the east by Warren County, on the south by Crawford County, directly north of the county is Lake Erie. This position on the water makes Erie County the only county in Pennsylvania to share a border with Canada and it is the only county in the state that occupies a significant amount of land north of the 42nd parallel. The population density was 351.2 inhabitants per square mile, There were 119,138 housing units at an average density of 149.1 per square mile. A further 3.4 percent of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 24. 4% were of German,12. 5% Polish,12. 3% Italian,10. 1% Irish,6. 5% English and 6. 4% American ancestry according to Census 2000. 29.3 percent of all households were made up of individuals and 11.3 percent had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 3.00. In the county, the population was out with 26.5 percent under the age of 20
14.
Titusville, Pennsylvania
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Titusville is a city in Crawford County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 5,601 at the 2010 census, Titusville is where the modern oil industry began. The area was first settled in 1796 by Jonathan Titus, within 14 years, others bought and improved the land lying near him, along the banks of the now-named Oil Creek. He named the village Edinburg, but as the village grew, the village was incorporated as a borough in 1849. Lumber was the industry with at least 17 sawmills in the area. The Titusville City Hall and Titusville Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, Titusville was a slow-growing community until the 1850s, when petroleum was discovered in the region. Oil was known to exist here, but there was no way to extract it. Its main use at that time had been as a medicine for animals and humans. In the late 1850s Seneca Oil Company sent Col. Edwin L. Drake, Drake hired a salt well driller, William A. Smith, in the summer of 1859. They had many difficulties, but on August 27 at the site of an oil spring just south of Titusville, teamsters were needed immediately to transport the oil to markets. Transporting methods improved and in 1862 the Oil Creek & Titusville Railroad was built between Titusville and Corry where it was transferred to other, larger east-west lines, in 1865 pipelines were laid directly to the rail line and the demand for teamsters practically ended. The next year the line was extended south to Petroleum Centre. The Union City & Titusville Railroad was built in 1865 and that line became part of the Philadelphia & Erie Railroad in 1871. That fall, President U. S. Grant visited Titusville to view this important region, other oil-related businesses quickly exploded on the scene. Eight refineries were built between 1862 and 1868, drilling tools were needed and several iron works were built. Titusville grew from 250 residents to 10,000 almost overnight, in 1871, the first oil exchange in the United States was established here. The exchange moved from the city, but returned in 1881 in a new, the first oil millionaire was Jonathan Watson, a resident of Titusville. He owned the land where Drakes well was drilled and he had been a partner in a lumber business prior to the success of the Drake well
15.
Petroleum industry
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The petroleum industry includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting, and marketing of petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline, Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, synthetic fragrances, and plastics. The industry is divided into three major components, upstream, midstream and downstream. Midstream operations are included in the downstream category. Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrial civilization in its current configuration, and thus is a critical concern for many nations. Oil accounts for a percentage of the world’s energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32% for Europe and Asia. Other geographic regions consumption patterns are as follows, South and Central America, Africa, the world consumes 30 billion barrels of oil per year, with developed nations being the largest consumers. The United States consumed 25% of the oil produced in 2007, the production, distribution, refining, and retailing of petroleum taken as a whole represents the worlds largest industry in terms of dollar value. Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock formations and it consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds. It is generally accepted that oil is formed mostly from the carbon rich remains of ancient plankton after exposure to heat, Petroleum in an unrefined state has been utilized by humans for over 5000 years. Oil in general has been used since early history to keep fires ablaze. Its importance to the world economy evolved slowly, with oil used for lighting in the 19th century and wood. The Industrial Revolution generated an increasing need for energy which was met mainly by coal, Imperial Russia produced 3,500 tons of oil in 1825 and doubled its output by mid-century. Batum is renamed to Batumi in 1936, at the turn of the 20th century, Imperial Russias output of oil, almost entirely from the Apsheron Peninsula, accounted for half of the worlds production and dominated international markets. Nearly 200 small refineries operated in the suburbs of Baku by 1884, as a side effect of these early developments, the Apsheron Peninsula emerged as the worlds oldest legacy of oil pollution and environmental negligence. In 1846, Baku the first ever well drilled with percussion tools to a depth of 21 meters for oil exploration, in 1878, Ludvig Nobel and his Branobel company revolutionized oil transport by commissioning the first oil tanker and launching it on the Caspian Sea. Samuel Kier established Americas first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh avenue near Grant Street, one of the first modern oil refineries were built by Ignacy Łukasiewicz near Jasło, Poland in 1854–56. These were initially small as demand for refined fuel was limited, the refined products were used in artificial asphalt, machine oil and lubricants, in addition to Łukasiewiczs kerosene lamp
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Venango County, Pennsylvania
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Venango County is a county located in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 54,984, the county was created in 1800 and later organized in 1805. Venango County comprises the Oil City, PA Micropolitan Statistical Area and it is defined as part of the Pittsburgh media market. Venango County was created on March 12,1800 from parts of Allegheny, the name Venango comes from the Native American name of the region, Onenge, meaning Otter. This was corrupted in English as the Venango River, the settlement at its mouth was likewise called Venango, and is the site of present-day South Side of Oil City, Pennsylvania. Venango County was home to an oil boom in the years following discovery of oil in the mid-1850s. This single well soon exceeded the entire cumulative oil output of Europe since the 1650s, within weeks oil derricks were erected all over the area. Other oil boom towns located in Venango County included Franklin, Oil City, the principal product of the oil was kerosene. McClintocksville was a community in Cornplanter Township in Venango County. Rogers and his young wife Abbie Palmer Gifford Rogers lived in a one-room shack there along Oil Creek for several years beginning in 1862, shortly later, Rogers met oil pioneer Charles Pratt who purchased the entire output of the tiny Wamsutta Oil Refinery. In 1867, Rogers joined Pratt in forming Charles Pratt and Company, Rogers became one of the key men in John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Trust. After joining Standard Oil, Rogers invested heavily in various industries, including copper, steel, mining, the Virginian Railway is widely considered his final lifes achievement. Rogers amassed a fortune, estimated at over $100 million. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 683 square miles. French Creek is formed near French Creek, New York and extends for a length of 117 miles with an area of 1,270 square miles. It joins the Allegheny River near Franklin, Pennsylvania, the watershed area includes parts of Erie, Crawford, Venango, and Mercer Counties in Pennsylvania as well as Chautauqua County, New York. The population density was 85 people per square mile, there were 26,904 housing units at an average density of 40 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 97. 64% White,1. 09% Black or African American,0. 18% Native American,0. 23% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 17% from other races, and 0. 67% from two or more races
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Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
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Standard Oil Company
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Standard Oil Co. Inc. was an American oil producing, transporting, refining, and marketing company. Established in 1870 by John D. Rockefeller as a corporation in Ohio and its controversial history as one of the worlds first and largest multinational corporations ended in 1911, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that Standard Oil was an illegal monopoly. The Standard Oil trust streamlined production and logistics, lowered costs, trust-busting critics accused Standard Oil of using aggressive pricing to destroy competitors and form a monopoly that threatened other businesses. John D. Rockefeller was a founder, chairman and major shareholder and its successors such as ExxonMobil, BP, and Chevron are still counted among the companies with the largest income worldwide. By 1882, his top aide was John Dustin Archbold, after 1896, Rockefeller disengaged from business to concentrate on his philanthropy, leaving Archbold in control. Other notable Standard Oil principals include Henry Flagler, developer of the Florida East Coast Railway and resort cities, and Henry H. Rogers, Standard Oils name came from the companys manufacturing standards, which preceded todays ASTM standards. In 1870 Rockefeller incorporated Standard Oil in Ohio, of the initial 10,000 shares, John D. In the early years, John D. Rockefeller dominated the combine and he quickly distributed power and the tasks of policy formation to a system of committees, but always remained the largest shareholder. Authority was centralized in the main office in Cleveland. In response to state trying to limit the scale of companies, Rockefeller and his associates developed innovative ways of organizing. On January 2,1882, they combined their disparate companies, spread across dozens of states and this organization proved so successful that other giant enterprises adopted this trust form. The company grew by increasing sales and also through acquisitions, after purchasing competing firms, Rockefeller shut down those he believed to be inefficient and kept the others. Smaller companies decried such deals as unfair because they were not producing enough oil to qualify for discounts, in 1872, Rockefeller joined the South Improvement Co. which would have allowed him to receive rebates for shipping and receive drawbacks on oil his competitors shipped. But when this became known, competitors convinced the Pennsylvania Legislature to revoke South Improvements charter. No oil was shipped under this arrangement. Standards actions and secret transport deals helped its kerosene price to drop from 58 to 26 cents from 1865 to 1870, competitors disliked the companys business practices, but consumers liked the lower prices. Standard Oil, being formed well before the discovery of the Spindletop oil field, the company was perceived to own and control all aspects of the trade. In 1885, Standard Oil of Ohio moved its headquarters from Cleveland to its permanent headquarters at 26 Broadway in New York City
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United Methodist Church
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The United Methodist Church is a mainline Protestant denomination, and a major part of Methodism. In the 19th century, its main predecessor—the Methodist Church—was a leader in Evangelicalism and it was founded in 1968 in Dallas, Texas, United States, by union of the Methodist Church and the Evangelical United Brethren Church. The UMC traces its roots back to the movement of John. As such, the theological orientation is decidedly Wesleyan. It embraces both liturgical and evangelical elements and it has a connectional polity, a typical feature of a number of Methodist denominations. The United Methodist Church, with at least 12 million members as of 2014, is the largest denomination within the wider Methodist movement of approximately 80 million people across the world. In the United States, the UMC ranks as the largest mainline Protestant denomination, the largest Protestant church after the Southern Baptist Convention, and the third largest Christian denomination. In 2014, its membership was distributed as follows,7.2 million in the United States. It is a member of the World Council of Churches, the World Methodist Council, the movement which would become The United Methodist Church began in the mid-18th century within the Church of England. A small group of students, including John Wesley, Charles Wesley and George Whitefield and they focused on Bible study, methodical study of scripture and living a holy life. Other students mocked them, saying they were the Holy Club, eventually, the so-called Methodists started individual societies or classes for members of the Church of England who wanted to live a more religious life. In 1735, John and Charles Wesley went to America, hoping to teach the gospel to the American Indians in the colony of Georgia, instead, John became vicar of the church in Savannah. His preaching was very legalistic and full of rules. After two years in America, he returned to England dejected and confused, Peter believed a person is saved solely through the grace of God and not by works, and John had many conversations with Peter about this topic. On May 25,1738, after listening to a reading of Martin Luthers preface to Romans, John finally understood that his works could not save him. For the first time in his life, he felt complete peace, in less than two years, the Holy Club disbanded. John Wesley met with a group of clergy, the ministers retained their membership in the Church of England. Though not always emphasized or appreciated in the Anglican churches of their day, their teaching emphasized salvation by Gods grace, three teachings they saw as the foundation of Christian faith were, People are all by nature dead in sin and consequently, children of wrath
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Prohibition
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The earliest records of prohibition of alcohol date to the Xia Dynasty in China. Yu the Great, the first ruler of the Xia Dynasty and it was legalized again after his death, during the reign of his son Qi. Another record was in the Code of Hammurabi specifically banning the selling of beer for money, in the early twentieth century, much of the impetus for the prohibition movement in the Nordic countries and North America came from moralistic convictions of pietistic Protestants. Rum-running became widespread and organized crime control of the distribution of alcohol. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean flourished as their products were consumed by visiting Americans or illegally exported to the United States. Chicago became notorious as a haven for prohibition dodgers during the known as the Roaring Twenties. Prohibition generally came to an end in the late 1920s or early 1930s in most of North America and Europe, in some countries where the dominant religion forbids the use of alcohol, the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages is prohibited or restricted today. For example, in Saudi Arabia and Libya alcohol is banned, Sale of alcohol is banned in Afghanistan. In Bangladesh, alcohol is prohibited due to its proscription in the Islamic faith. However, the purchase and consumption is allowed in the country, the Garo tribe consume a type of rice beer, and Christians in this country drink and purchase wine for their holy communion. In Brunei, alcohol consumption and sale is banned in public, in India alcohol is a state subject and individual states can legislate prohibition, but currently most states do not have prohibition. Prohibition is in force in the states of Gujarat, Bihar and Nagaland, parts of Manipur, the state of Kerala has placed some limitations on sale of alcohol. All other States and union territories of India permit the sale of alcohol, election days and certain national holidays such as Gandhi Jayanti are meant to be dry days when liquor sale is not permitted. The state of Andhra Pradesh had imposed Prohibition under the Chief Ministership of N. T. Rama Rao, Prohibition was also observed from 1996 to 1998 in Haryana. Some Indian states observe dry days on major religious festivals/occasions depending on the popularity of the festival in that region, since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the sale and consumption of alcohol is banned in Iran. Alcohol is banned for people who use small shops and convenience stores, the consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. Alcohol is banned for Muslims in Malaysia due to its Islamic faith, the Maldives ban the import of alcohol, x-raying all baggage on arrival. Alcoholic beverages are available only to tourists on resort islands
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Allegheny College
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Allegheny College is a private, coeducational liberal arts college in northwestern Pennsylvania in the town of Meadville, approximately 35 miles south of Erie. Founded in 1815, Allegheny is the oldest college in existence under the same name west of the Allegheny Mountains. Allegheny is a member of the Great Lakes Colleges Association and the North Coast Athletic Conference, Allegheny was founded in April 1815 by the Reverend Timothy Alden, a graduate of Harvards School of Divinity. The college was affiliated with the United Methodist Church after 1833. The first class, consisting of four students, began their studies on July 4,1816. Within six years, Alden accumulated sufficient funds to building a campus. The first building erected, the library, was designed by Alden himself, Bentley Hall is named in honor of Dr. William Bentley, who donated his private library to the College, a collection of considerable value and significance. In 1824, Thomas Jefferson wrote to Alden, expressing the hope that his University of Virginia could someday possess the richness of Alleghenys library, Alden served as president of the college until 1831, when financial and enrollment difficulties forced his resignation. Ruter Hall was built in 1853, Allegheny began admitting women in 1870, early for a US college, a woman was valedictorian of the Allegheny class of 1875. One source suggests that Ida Tarbell, the pioneering journalist who exposed the practices of Rockefellers Standard Oil Company, was the first woman to attend Allegheny. In 1905, Allegheny built Alden Hall as a new and improved preparatory school, over the decades, the college has grown in size and significance while still maintaining ties to the community. In 1971 the film Been Down So Long It Looks Like Up to Me based on the Richard Farina novel was filmed on college grounds. While the word Allegheny is a brand for the college, it is also the name of a county, a river, and a range. For example, Allegheny objected in 2006 when Penn State tried to rename one of its campuses Allegheny, Allegheny president Richard Cook said Allegheny was our brand. It sued the Philadelphias Allegheny Health and Research Foundation in 1997 to change its name, under president Richard J. Cook, Allegheny was reported to have had a stronger endowment, optimal enrollment, record retention rates, innovative new programs and many physical campus improvements. These years were marked by growth in the endowment, marked by a $115-million fund-raising drive. In February 2008, James H. Mullen Jr. was named the 21st president of Allegheny and he took office Aug.1,2008. The college and the town cooperate in many ways, one study suggested the Allegheny College generates approximately $93 million annually into Meadville and the local economy
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Kappa Alpha Theta
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Kappa Alpha Theta, also known simply as Theta, is an international sorority founded on Jan. 27,1870 at DePauw University, formerly Indiana Asbury, Kappa Alpha Theta was the first Greek-letter fraternity for women. The organization currently has more than 145 chapters at colleges and universities in the United States, Thetas total living initiated membership as of January 23,2017, totals more than 211,000. There are more than 200 alumnae chapters and circles worldwide, Kappa Alpha Theta is a member of the National Panhellenic Conference. Kappa Alpha Theta was founded in 1870 to give women a support group in the mostly male college world at Indiana Asbury. Indiana Asbury officially opened its doors to women in 1867, thirty years after the college was first established, Locke had many friends in FIJI, and when the members asked her to wear their badge she asked if it meant she was a member of their fraternity. They informed her, no it would be simply as a mascot or token of her friendship and she said she could not wear it as she did not know the secrets and purposes the badge represented. The brothers of FIJI took a vote to whether to admit. They decided they wished to remain a fraternity, and gave Locke a silver fruit basket instead as a symbol of their special relationship with her. At the suggestion of her father, a professor at Indiana Asbury, discovering that only literary societies for women existed at the time, Locke decided to begin her own Greek letter fraternity for women, and Kappa Alpha Theta was conceived. Locke and her friend Alice Allen together wrote a constitution, planned ceremonies, designed a badge, along with Hannah Fitch and Bettie Tipton, they were initiated in secret on Jan. 27,1870, creating the Alpha Chapter of Kappa Alpha Theta, in 1887, Theta became an international organization with the establishment of the Sigma Chapter at The University of Toronto. This became the first Canadian sorority, since its founding, the organization has been associated with a number of firsts, The first women admitted to the Phi Beta Kappa Society were Thetas. Kappa Alpha Theta was the first womens organization to use Greek letters in its name, nancy Kassebaum, who was a member, was the first woman elected to the U. S. Senate who had not succeeded her husband or first been appointed to fill an unexpired term. G. William Domhoff, writing in Who Rules America, listed Kappa Alpha Theta as one of the four or five sororities with nationwide prestige in the mid-1960s. Kappa Alpha Thetas colors are black and gold, the official symbols are both the kite and twin stars, while the official flower is the black and gold pansy. ΚΑΘ does not have an official stone, Kappa Alpha Theta has more than 135 active college chapters and more than 180 alumnae chapters across the United States and Canada. Alumnae chapters are alumnae groups that have been granted charters from Grand Council, the following is a list of the chapters of Kappa Alpha Theta, Theta Kappa Alpha Theta Foundation, founded in 1960, is the philanthropic arm of the organization
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Poland, Ohio
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Poland is a village located about 7 miles southeast of Youngstown in Mahoning County, Ohio, United States. The population was 2,555 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Youngstown-Warren-Boardman, OH-PA Metropolitan Statistical Area. In 1796, Poland Township was the first charted township in the Connecticut Western Reserve, the township was founded by Jonathan Fowler, who fell in love with Yellow Creek which flows through Poland. Fowler owned an inn near the river still stands as the oldest building in Poland. The historical buildings of Poland can be identified by a sign in the shape of Ohio located by the front door of the building, the Village of Poland was founded in 1802. Poland Seminary was originally a secondary school, Poland Academy. Its main building has incorporated into Poland Middle School on College Street. Its dormitory is incorporated into the Poland Public Library on Main Street, former distinguished faculty include the journalist Ida Tarbell, graduates include William McKinley, President of the United States. The former medical school and Ohio Law College is now a private residence also on College Street, Poland is the home to the Poland Seminary High School Bulldogs. The girls softball team won the OHSAA Division II state championship in 2011, the Poland Local School District currently has three elementary schools, North, Dobbins, and Union. Poland also has a school for 5th and 6th graders, Poland McKinley. Poland Middle School is home for the 7th and 8th grade classes and Poland Seminary High School, often referred to as PSHS, a Catholic school located in Poland, Holy Family, serves children in pre-kindergarten through the 8th grade. Poland has been designated Top School in Ohio along with Canfield, Struthers, Niles, Springfield, Austintown, Sebring, Youngstown, South Range, and Beaver Local. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has an area of 1.65 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 2,555 people,1,066 households, the population density was 1,567.5 inhabitants per square mile. There were 1,135 housing units at a density of 696.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 98. 5% White,0. 2% African American,0. 4% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 1% of the population. 25. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 2.88
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Distance education
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Distance education or distance learning is the education of students who may not always be physically present at a school. Traditionally this usually involved correspondence courses wherein the student corresponded with the school via post, courses that are conducted are either hybrid, blended or 100% whole instruction. Massive open online courses, offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through the World Wide Web or other technologies, are recent developments in distance education. A number of terms are used roughly synonymously with distance education. The element of student feedback was an innovation of Pitmans system. This scheme was made possible by the introduction of postage rates across England in 1840. This early beginning proved extremely successful, and the Phonographic Correspondence Society was founded three years later to establish these courses on a formal basis. The Society paved the way for the formation of Sir Isaac Pitman Colleges across the country. The first correspondence school in the United States was the Society to Encourage Studies at Home, the University of London was the first university to offer distance learning degrees, establishing its External Programme in 1828. The issue soon boiled down to which institutions had degree-granting powers, as Sheldon Rothblatt states, thus arose in nearly archetypal form the famous English distinction between teaching and examining, here embodied in separate institutions. Enrollment increased steadily during the late 19th century, and its example was copied elsewhere. In 1892 he also encouraged the concept of correspondence courses to further promote education. Enrollment in the largest private school based in Scranton, Pennsylvania. Founded in 1888 to provide training for immigrant coal miners aiming to become state mine inspectors or foremen, it enrolled 2500 new students in 1894, by 1906 total enrollments reached 900,000. The growth was due to sending out complete textbooks instead of single lessons, and the use of 1200 aggressive in-person salesmen. There was a stark contrast in pedagogy, The regular technical school or college aims to educate a man broadly, our aim and we, on the contrary, are aiming to make our courses fit the particular needs of the student who takes them. Education was a priority in the Progressive Era, as American high schools. For men who were older or were too busy with family responsibilities, night schools were opened, outside the big cities, private correspondence schools offered a flexible, narrowly focused solution
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Chautauqua, New York
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Chautauqua is a town and lake resort community in Chautauqua County, New York, United States. The population was 4,464 at the 2010 census, the town is named after Chautauqua Lake. The traditional meaning remains bag tied in the middle, the town of Chautauqua is in the western part of the county on the northwestern end of Chautauqua Lake. Chautauqua is famous as the home of the Chautauqua Institution, the birthplace in 1875 of the Chautauqua Movement of educational and cultural centers, the town of Chautauqua was formed on April 11,1805, from the town of Batavia, while still part of Genesee County. The first settler arrived the year before, near the current village of Mayville, when Chautauqua County was created on March 11,1808, the towns territory was increased to include the eastern tier of townships, so that the town and the new county were coextensive. The town is the mother of towns in Chautauqua County since all other towns in the county towns were part of it. The town is one of the largest in the county. The Lewis Miller Cottage of the Chautauqua Institution was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the Chautauqua Institution Historic District was listed in 1974. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 67.2 square miles, of which 67.1 square miles of it is land and 0.077 square miles. Portland Stockton, Ellery North Harmony, Sherman Westfield As of the census of 2000, there were 4,666 people,1,881 households, the population density was 69.4 people per square mile. There were 4,174 housing units at a density of 62.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 25% White,1. 59% African American,0. 24% Native American,0. 39% Asian,0. 09% Pacific Islander,0. 19% from other races, and 1. 26% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 05% of the population,28. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the family size was 2.87. In the town, the population was out with 22. 4% under the age of 18,7. 3% from 18 to 24,25. 4% from 25 to 44,26. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 females there were 105.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.2 males, the median income for a household in the town was $36,379, and the median income for a family was $41,923. Males had an income of $30,767 versus $23,561 for females
26.
Chautauqua movement
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Chautauqua was an adult education movement in the United States, highly popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Chautauqua assemblies expanded and spread throughout rural America until the mid-1920s, the Chautauqua brought entertainment and culture for the whole community, with speakers, teachers, musicians, entertainers, preachers and specialists of the day. Former U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt was quoted as saying that Chautauqua is the most American thing in America, two years earlier, Vincent, editor of the Sunday School Journal, had begun to train Sunday school teachers in an outdoor summer school format. The organization founded by Vincent and Miller later became known as the Chautauqua Institution and it was called the Mother Chautauqua, because many independent, or daughter Chautauquas were developed under the same fashion. The educational summer camp format proved to be a choice for families and was widely copied by the daughter Chautauquas. Within a decade Chautauqua assemblies, named for the location in New York State. The Chautauqua movement may be regarded as a successor to the Lyceum movement earlier in the 19th century, as the Chautauqua assemblies began to compete for the best performers and lecturers, lyceum bureaus assisted with bookings. The original site in Chautauqua, New York, near Jamestown, has hosted such diverse speakers and performers as Bill Monroe, independent Chautauquas operated at permanent facilities, usually fashioned after the Chautauqua Institute in New York. Such a Chautauqua was generally built in an attractive semi-rural location a short distance outside a town with good rail service. At the height of the Chautauqua movement in the 1920s, several hundred of these existed, an addition to the list is the Pennsylvania Chautauqua in Mt. Gretna, Pennsylvania, which had operated continuously since 1892. Circuit Chautauquas were an itinerant manifestation of the Chautauqua movement, founded by Keith Vawter, although Vawter and Ellison were unsuccessful in their initial attempts to commercialize Chautauqua, by 1907 they had found a great amount of success in their adaptation of the concept. The program would be presented in tents pitched on a field near town. After several days, the Chautauqua would fold its tents and move on, the method of organizing a series of touring Chautauquas is attributed to Vawter. Among early Redpath comedians was Boob Brasfield, reactions to tent Chautauqua were mixed. That purpose, bluntly, was to make a million, frank Gunsaulus attacked Vawter, Youre ruining a splendid movement, Gunsaulus roared at Keith Vawter, whom he met at a railroad junction. Youre cheapening Chautauqua, breaking it down, replacing it with something what will have neither dignity nor permanence, in Vawters scheme, each performer or group appeared on a particular day of the program. First day talent would move on to other Chautauquas, followed by the second day performers, and so on, throughout the touring season. By the mid-1920s, when circuit Chautauquas were at their peak, they appeared in over 10,000 communities to audiences of more than 45 million, lectures were the mainstay of the Chautauqua
27.
Madame Roland
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She fell out of favour during the Reign of Terror and died on the guillotine. Madame Roland, born Marie-Jeanne Phlippon, the surviving child of eight pregnancies, was born to Gratien Phlippon. From her early years she was a successful, enthusiastic, in her youth she studied literature, music and drawing. From the beginning she was strong willed and frequently challenged her father, enthusiastically supporting her education, Jeannes parents enrolled her in the convent school of the Sisterhood of the Congregation in Paris - for one year only. She was enthusiastically religious, leading John Abbott to state God thus became in Janes mind a vision of poetic beauty, several literary figures influenced Rolands philosophy, including Voltaire, Montesquieu, Plutarch, and others. Manon Phlippon also, as she traveled, developed an awareness of the outside world. Ah but we are going to be happy, in the winter of 1780, Manon Phlippon married the philosopher Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière. She collaborated on a number of M. Rolands works, the Dictionnaire des Manufactures, Arts et Métiers, and her most significant influence flowed through her husbands political writings. Nevertheless, attempting to conform to Rousseaus model of femininity, she also carefully restricted herself well within the limits of a domestic function. Thus, with him and through him, she proved both powerful and influential in the era of the French Revolution, in 1784, she obtained a promotion for her husband which transferred him to Lyon, where she began building her network of friends and associates. In Lyon, the Rolands began to express their support for the revolution through letters to the journal Patriote Français. Their voice was noticed and in November 1790, Jean-Marie was elected to represent Lyon in Paris, when the couple moved from Lyon to Paris in 1791, she began to take an even more active role. Her salon at the Hotel Britannique in Paris became the rendezvous of Brissot, Pétion, Robespierre, an especially esteemed guest was Buzot, whom she loved with platonic enthusiasm. In person, Madame Roland is said to have been attractive but not beautiful, her ideas were clear and far-reaching, her manner calm, and her power of observation extremely acute. Madame Roland’s ability to weave social networks fed the Rolands growing popularity and it was through Manon that one gained access to the inner circle of the growing Gironde. Inevitably, her activity placed her in the centre of political aspirations where she swayed a company of the most talented men of progress, as time went on she realised that she could tweak a number of her husband’s letters and still sign them in his name. M. Roland’s rise in politics and the Girondin faction subsequently improved Madame Roland’s influence, in maintenance of her feminist beliefs she never spoke during formal meetings. Instead she listened intently at her desk, taking notes, thus educating herself on political matters, independently, M. Roland performed sufficiently in his duties as a minister, possessing reasonable knowledge, activity, and integrity
28.
Salon (gathering)
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These gatherings often consciously followed Horaces definition of the aims of poetry, either to please or to educate. Salons, commonly associated with French literary and philosophical movements of the 17th and 18th centuries, were carried on until as recently as the 1940s in urban settings, the salon was an Italian invention of the 16th century which flourished in France throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. The salon continued to flourish in Italy throughout the 19th century, one important place for the exchange of ideas was the salon. The word salon first appeared in France in 1664, Literary gatherings before this were often referred to by using the name of the room in which they occurred, like cabinet, réduit, ruelle and alcôve. Before the end of the 17th century, these gatherings were held in the bedroom. This practice may be contrasted with the formalities of Louis XIVs petit lever. She established the rules of etiquette of the salon which resembled the earlier codes of Italian chivalry, the historiography of the salons is far from straightforward. The salons have been studied in depth by a mixture of feminist, Marxist, each of these methodologies focus on different aspects of the salons, and thus have varying analyses of the salons’ importance in terms of French history and the Enlightenment as a whole. Major historiographical debates focus on the relationship between the salons and the sphere, as well as the role of women within the salons. Breaking down the salons into historical periods is complicated due to the various historiographical debates that surround them, most studies stretch from the early 16th century up until around the end of the 18th century. Goodman is typical in ending her study at the French Revolution where, she writes, Steven Kale is relatively alone in his recent attempts to extend the period of the salon up until Revolution of 1848. This world did not disappear in 1789, as recently as the 1940s, salons hosted by Gertrude Stein gained notoriety for including Pablo Picasso and other twentieth-century luminaries like Alice B. The content and form of the salon to some extent defines the character, contemporary literature about the salons is dominated by idealistic notions of politesse, civilité and honnêteté, but whether the salons lived up to these standards is matter of debate. Older texts on the salons tend to paint a picture of the salons. Today, however, this view is considered an adequate analysis of the salon. Dena Goodman claims that rather than being leisure based or schools of civilité salons were instead at the heart of the philosophic community. In short, Goodman argues, the 17th and 18th century saw the emergence of the academic, Enlightenment salons, politeness, argues Goodman, took second-place to academic discussion. The period in which salons were dominant has been labeled the age of conversation, the topics of conversation within the salons - that is, what was and was not polite to talk about - are thus vital when trying to determine the form of the salons
29.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
30.
S. S. McClure
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Samuel Sidney McClure was an American publisher who became known as a key figure in investigative, or muckraking, journalism. He co-founded and ran McClures Magazine from 1893 to 1911 and he was born to an Ulster Scots family in County Antrim, Northern Ireland, and emigrated with his widowed mother to Indiana when he was nine years old. He grew up in poverty on a farm and graduated from Valparaiso High School in 1875. He worked his way through Knox College, where he co-founded its student newspaper, in 1884, he established the McClure Syndicate, the first U. S. newspaper syndicate, which serialized books. McClure created a new form of writing for his journalists that we still use today. Instead of demanding that his writers give him articles for his paper immediately, kipling was also present when McClure began to contemplate the launch of a new literary magazine. He founded McClures Magazine in 1893 and ran it successfully until 1911 when poor health, through his magazine, he introduced Dr. Maria Montessoris new teaching methods to North America in 1911. McClure was a partner of Frank Nelson Doubleday in Doubleday & McClure. After he was ousted in 1911, McClures Magazine serialized his ghost-written autobiography and he died in 1949 in New York City, U. S. A. The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science Lyon, success Story, The Life and Times of S. S. McClure. New York, Frederick A. Stokes Co, McClure Publishing Company Archives - Special Collections, University of Delaware Library Samuel McClure biography
31.
Napoleon
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Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
32.
Helen Keller
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Helen Adams Keller was an American author, political activist, and lecturer. She was the first deaf-blind person to earn a bachelor of arts degree and her birthplace in West Tuscumbia, Alabama, is now a museum and sponsors an annual Helen Keller Day. A prolific author, Keller was well-traveled and outspoken in her convictions, a member of the Socialist Party of America and the Industrial Workers of the World, she campaigned for womens suffrage, labor rights, socialism, antimilitarism, and other similar causes. She was inducted into the Alabama Womens Hall of Fame in 1971 and was one of twelve inaugural inductees to the Alabama Writers Hall of Fame on June 8,2015. Helen proved to the world that people could all learn to communicate. She also taught that people are capable of doing things that hearing people can do. She is one of the most famous people in history. Helen Adams Keller was born on June 27,1880, in Tuscumbia and her family lived on a homestead, Ivy Green, that Helens grandfather had built decades earlier. She had two siblings, Mildred Campbell and Phillip Brooks Keller, and two older half-brothers from her fathers prior marriage, James and William Simpson Keller. Her father, Arthur H. Keller, spent many years as an editor for the Tuscumbia North Alabamian and her paternal grandmother was the second cousin of Robert E. Lee. Her mother, Kate Adams, was the daughter of Charles W. Adams, though originally from Massachusetts, Charles Adams also fought for the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, earning the rank of colonel. Her paternal lineage was traced to Casper Keller, a native of Switzerland, one of Helens Swiss ancestors was the first teacher for the deaf in Zurich. Keller reflected on this coincidence in her first autobiography, stating there is no king who has not had a slave among his ancestors. Helen Keller was born with the ability to see and hear, at 19 months old, she contracted an illness described by doctors as an acute congestion of the stomach and the brain, which might have been scarlet fever or meningitis. The illness left her deaf and blind. Even though blind and deaf, Helen Keller had passed through many obstacles and she learned how to tell which person was walking by from the vibrations their footsteps would make. The sex and age of the person could be identified by how strong, julian Chisolm, an eye, ear, nose, and throat specialist in Baltimore, for advice. Chisholm referred the Kellers to Alexander Graham Bell, who was working with children at the time
33.
Standard Oil
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Standard Oil Co. Inc. was an American oil producing, transporting, refining, and marketing company. Established in 1870 by John D. Rockefeller as a corporation in Ohio and its controversial history as one of the worlds first and largest multinational corporations ended in 1911, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that Standard Oil was an illegal monopoly. The Standard Oil trust streamlined production and logistics, lowered costs, trust-busting critics accused Standard Oil of using aggressive pricing to destroy competitors and form a monopoly that threatened other businesses. John D. Rockefeller was a founder, chairman and major shareholder and its successors such as ExxonMobil, BP, and Chevron are still counted among the companies with the largest income worldwide. By 1882, his top aide was John Dustin Archbold, after 1896, Rockefeller disengaged from business to concentrate on his philanthropy, leaving Archbold in control. Other notable Standard Oil principals include Henry Flagler, developer of the Florida East Coast Railway and resort cities, and Henry H. Rogers, Standard Oils name came from the companys manufacturing standards, which preceded todays ASTM standards. In 1870 Rockefeller incorporated Standard Oil in Ohio, of the initial 10,000 shares, John D. In the early years, John D. Rockefeller dominated the combine and he quickly distributed power and the tasks of policy formation to a system of committees, but always remained the largest shareholder. Authority was centralized in the main office in Cleveland. In response to state trying to limit the scale of companies, Rockefeller and his associates developed innovative ways of organizing. On January 2,1882, they combined their disparate companies, spread across dozens of states and this organization proved so successful that other giant enterprises adopted this trust form. The company grew by increasing sales and also through acquisitions, after purchasing competing firms, Rockefeller shut down those he believed to be inefficient and kept the others. Smaller companies decried such deals as unfair because they were not producing enough oil to qualify for discounts, in 1872, Rockefeller joined the South Improvement Co. which would have allowed him to receive rebates for shipping and receive drawbacks on oil his competitors shipped. But when this became known, competitors convinced the Pennsylvania Legislature to revoke South Improvements charter. No oil was shipped under this arrangement. Standards actions and secret transport deals helped its kerosene price to drop from 58 to 26 cents from 1865 to 1870, competitors disliked the companys business practices, but consumers liked the lower prices. Standard Oil, being formed well before the discovery of the Spindletop oil field, the company was perceived to own and control all aspects of the trade. In 1885, Standard Oil of Ohio moved its headquarters from Cleveland to its permanent headquarters at 26 Broadway in New York City
34.
Henry Huttleston Rogers
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Henry Huttleston Rogers was an American Industrialist and financier, and was a descendant of the original Mayflower pilgrims. He made his fortune in the oil refining business, becoming a leader at Standard Oil and he played a major role in numerous corporations and business enterprises, in the gas industry, copper, and railroads. Rogers success in the oil industry began with Charles Pratt in 1866, John D. Rockefeller bought his and Pratts business in 1874, and Rogers rose rapidly in Standard Oil. He designed the idea of a long pipeline for transporting oil. The 1880s, he broadened his interests beyond oil to include copper, steel, banking, by the 1890s, as Rockefeller was withdrawing from the oil business, Rogers was a dominant figure at Standard Oil. In 1899 Rogers set up the Amalgamated Copper trust, based in Butte, Montana and his last major enterprise was building the Virginian Railroad to service the West Virginia coal fields. After 1890, he became a prominent philanthropist, as well as a friend and supporter of Mark Twain and his biographer states, A strange dualism characterized Rogers. Rogers was born in Fairhaven, Massachusetts, on January 29,1840 and he was the son of Rowland Rogers, a former ship captain, bookkeeper, and grocer, and Mary Eldredge Huttleston Rogers. Both parents were Yankees and were descended from the Pilgrims who arrived in the 17th century aboard the Mayflower and his mothers family had earlier used the spelling Huddleston rather than Huttleston. Except for a move to Mattapoisett, Massachusetts during Rogers early childhood, the family lived in Fairhaven. Fairhaven is a seaside town on the south coast, bordering the Acushnet River to the west. In the mid-1850s, whaling was already an industry in decline in New England, whale oil was soon replaced by kerosene and natural gas. Henry Rogers father was one of the men of New England who changed from a life on the sea to other work to provide for their families. He was a student, and was in the first graduating class of the local high school in 1857. In 1861, 21-year-old Henry pooled his savings of approximately US$600 with a friend and they set out to western Pennsylvania and its newly discovered oil fields. Borrowing another US$600, the partners began a small refinery at McClintocksville near Oil City. They named their new enterprise Wamsutta Oil Refinery, Rogers and Ellis and their refinery made US$30,000 their first year. This amount was more than the earnings of three whaling ship trips during a voyage of more than a years duration
35.
Mark Twain
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Samuel Langhorne Clemens, better known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American writer, humorist, entrepreneur, publisher, and lecturer. Among his novels are The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and its sequel, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Twain was raised in Hannibal, Missouri, which later provided the setting for Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. He served an apprenticeship with a printer and then worked as a typesetter and he later became a riverboat pilot on the Mississippi River before heading west to join Orion in Nevada. He referred humorously to his lack of success at mining, turning to journalism for the Virginia City Territorial Enterprise, the short story brought international attention and was even translated into classic Greek. His wit and satire, in prose and in speech, earned praise from critics and peers, and he was a friend to presidents, artists, industrialists, and European royalty. He filed for bankruptcy in the wake of financial setbacks. He chose to pay all his creditors in full, even though he had no legal responsibility to do so. Twain was born shortly after an appearance of Halleys Comet, and he predicted that he would go out with it as well and he was lauded as the greatest American humorist of his age, and William Faulkner called him the father of American literature. His parents met when his father moved to Missouri, and they were married in 1823, Twain was of Cornish, English, and Scots-Irish descent. Only three of his siblings survived childhood, Orion, Henry, and Pamela and his sister Margaret died when Twain was three, and his brother Benjamin died three years later. His brother Pleasant died at six months of age, slavery was legal in Missouri at the time, and it became a theme in these writings. His father was an attorney and judge, but he died of pneumonia in 1847, the next year, Twain left school after the fifth grade to become a printers apprentice. In 1851, he working as a typesetter, contributing articles and humorous sketches to the Hannibal Journal. He educated himself in libraries in the evenings, finding wider information than at a conventional school. Twain describes his boyhood in Life on the Mississippi, stating there was but one permanent ambition among his comrades. Pilot was the grandest position of all, the pilot, even in those days of trivial wages, had a princely salary – from a hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty dollars a month, and no board to pay. As Twain describes it, the pilots prestige exceeded that of the captain, bixby took Twain on as a cub pilot to teach him the river between New Orleans and St. Louis for $500, payable out of Twains first wages after graduating. It was more than two years before he received his pilots license, piloting gave also him his pen name from mark twain, the leadsmans cry for a measured river depth of two fathoms, which was safe water for a steamboat
36.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
37.
Lincoln Steffens
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He is remembered for investigating corruption in municipal government in American cities and for his early support for the Soviet Union. Steffens was born on April 6,1866, in San Francisco to Elizabeth Louisa Steffens and Joseph Steffens and raised in Sacramento and he was the first-born, and only son with three sisters coming later. His familys opulent home in the capital later became the governors mansion. Steffens began his career as a journalist at the New York Evening Post and he later became an editor of McClures magazine, where he became part of a celebrated muckraking trio with Ida Tarbell and Ray Stannard Baker. He specialized in investigating government and political corruption, and two collections of his articles were published as The Shame of the Cities and The Struggle for Self-Government and he also wrote The Traitor State, which criticized New Jersey for patronizing incorporation. In 1906, he left McClures, along with Tarbell and Baker, in The Shame of the Cities, Steffens sought to bring about political reform in urban America by appealing to the emotions of Americans. He tried to provoke outrage with examples of governments throughout urban America. From 1914–1915 he covered the Mexican Revolution and began to see revolution as preferable to reform, in March 1919, he accompanied William C. Bullitt, a low level State Department official, on a visit to the Soviet Union and witnessed the confusing. He wrote that Soviet Russia was a government with an evolutionary plan, enduring a temporary condition of evil, which is made tolerable by hope. The title page of his wife Ella Winters Red Virtue, Human Relationships in the New Russia carries this quote and his enthusiasm for communism soured by the time his memoirs appeared in 1931. He was a member of the California Writers Project, a New Deal program and he married the twenty-six-year-old socialist writer Leonore Sophie Winter in 1924 and moved to Italy, where their son Peter was born in San Remo. Two years later relocated to the largest art colony on the Pacific Coast, Carmel-by-the-Sea. Ella and Lincoln soon became controversial figures in the leftist politics of the region, in 1934, Steffens and Winters help found the San Francisco Workers School, Steffens also served there as an advisor. Steffens died of heart failure on August 9,1936, in Carmel-by-the-Sea, in a country where business is dominant, business men must and will corrupt a government. One business man’s bribery was nothing but a crime, but a succession of business briberies over the years was a corruption of government to make it represent business, I have never heard Christianity, as Jesus taught it in the New Testament, preached to the Christians. Online at the Internet Archive Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens The Letters of Lincoln Steffens, edited by Ella Winter, 527–547, in JSTOR Peter Hartshorn, I Have Seen the Future, A Life of Lincoln Steffens Joseph Lincoln Steffens. Lincoln Steffens collected journalism at The Archive of American Journalism
38.
Ray Stannard Baker
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Ray Stannard Baker was an American journalist, historian, biographer, and author. In 1898 Baker joined the staff of McClures, a pioneer muckraking magazine, in 1907 dissatisfied with the muckraker label, Baker, Steffens, and Tarbell left McClures and founded The American Magazine. Sociologist Rupert Vance says it is, the best account of race relations in the South during the period – one that reads like field notes for the future historian. This account was written during the zenith of Washingtonian movement and shows the optimism that it inspired among both liberals and moderates, the book is also notable for its realistic accounts of Negro town life. He followed up that work with numerous articles in the following decade, in 1912 Baker supported the presidential candidacy of Woodrow Wilson, which led to a close relationship between the two men, and in 1918 Wilson sent Baker to Europe to study the war situation. During peace negotiations, Baker served as Wilsons press secretary at Versailles and he served as an adviser on Darryl F. Zanucks 1944 film Wilson. Baker wrote three autobiographies, Native American, American Chronicle and Turtles Baker died of an attack in Amherst, Massachusetts. Buildings have been named in honor of both Ray Stannard Baker and David Grayson, a dormitory, Grayson Hall, is at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. The David Grayson Elementary School is in Waterford, Michigan, an academic building, Baker Hall, is at Michigan State University. Bakers brother Hugh Potter Baker was the president of Massachusetts State College that later became the University of Massachusetts. Shop Talks on the Wonders of Crafts Our New Prosperity Seen in Germany Boys Second Book of Inventions The Reign of Lawlessness, Anarchy and Despotism in Colorado, McClures Magazine, vol. 3 online An American Pioneer in Science, The Life and Service of William James Beal, Baker The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson. Woodrow Wilson, Neutrality, 1914-1915 read online The Capture, Death and Burial of J. John Maxwell Hamilton, baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University Press,2012. Ray Stannard Baker, The Mind and Thought of a Progressive, Ray Stannard Baker Papers at the Seeley G. Ray Stannard Baker, A Guide to Resources. Papers, Special Collections, Jones Library, Amherst, MA, Ray Stannard Baker at Find a Grave Ray Stannard Bakers collected journalism at The Archive of American Journalism
39.
The Lion and the Mouse
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The Lion and the Mouse is one of Aesops Fables, numbered 150 in the Perry Index. There are also Eastern variants of the story, all of which demonstrate mutual dependence regardless of size or status, in the Renaissance the fable was provided with a sequel condemning social ambition. In the oldest versions, a lion threatens a mouse that wakes him from sleep, the mouse begs forgiveness and makes the point that such unworthy prey would bring the lion no honour. The lion then agrees and sets the mouse free, later, the lion is netted by hunters. Hearing it roaring, the mouse remembers its clemency and frees it by gnawing through the ropes, the moral of the story is that mercy brings its reward and that there is no being so small that it cannot help a greater. Later English versions reinforce this by having the mouse promise to return the lions favor, to its sceptical amusement. The Scottish poet Robert Henryson, in a version he included in his Morall Fabillis in the 1480s, expands the plea that the mouse makes and introduces serious themes of law, justice, a political lesson of a different kind occurs in Francis Barlows 1687 edition of the fables. The 16th century French poet Clément Marot also recounts a version of the fable in the course of his Épitre à son ami Lyon Jamet. This is an imitation of the Latin poet Horaces Epistles, addressed to friends, in this case, Marot has been imprisoned and begs Jamet to help him get released, playing on his friends forename and styling himself the lowly rat. La Fontaines Fables included a more succinct version of the story in the following century, the fable has been a favourite with artists and sculptors. The Flemish painter Frans Snyders was responsible for at least two versions, one of these used to hang in the Great Hall at Chequers, the country house of the Prime Minister, and was retouched by Winston Churchill so as to highlight the barely visible mouse. In 1973 the painting was restored and the overpainting removed, it now hangs in a room to the Great Parlour there. The fable was also the subject of a painting by the French artist Vincent Chevilliard, the Austrian artist Gustav Klimt incorporated a reference to the beginning of the story on the left hand side of his painting The Fable in 1883. There a lion sleeps beneath a shrub, on the twigs of which mice are at play. Sculptors turned to the fable in the 20th century, one of them was the maker of church furniture, Robert Thompson, who came by his name for incorporating a mouse into most of his carvings. A Marshall Fredericks statue of 1957 seeks to make the lion less threatening to children, the sculpture was commissioned for the Eastland Center in Harper Woods, Michigan. The lion is carved from limestone and has a round head with stylized. Reclining on its back, it grins at the little mouse perched on its paw and this was cast from gilt bronze and gold plated, which led to its being stolen numerous times
40.
Drunk History
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Drunk History is an American television comedy series produced by Comedy Central, based on the Funny or Die web series created by Derek Waters and Jeremy Konner in 2007. The series premiered on Comedy Central on July 9,2013, will Ferrell and Adam McKay are among the shows executive producers. On January 13,2017 Comedy Central renewed the show for a fifth season, since January 12,2015, a British version of Drunk History has been broadcast on the UK channel Comedy Central. A Latin American version called Drunk History, El lado borroso de la historia is presented by Eugenio Derbez, the Hungarian version titled Tömény történelem started airing on October 24,2016 on Comedy Central Hungary. A Brazilian version hosted by Danilo Gentili, called Drunk History Brasil, o Lado Embriagado da História, Comedy Central Brasil will broadcast the show separated from The Noite. Official website Drunk History at the Internet Movie Database
41.
Ida Tarbell House
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The Ida Tarbell House is a historic house at 320 Valley Road in Easton, Connecticut. A simple farmhouse dubbed Twin Oaks, it was the home of muckraking journalist Ida Tarbell from 1906 until her death and she purchased the property with proceeds from her two-volume book on the Standard Oil Company. Most of her writing after 1906 was done in the study on the first floor, the house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1993 for its association with Tarbells professional life. The Tarbell House is a vernacular two-story, wood-frame structure, with a gable roof, clapboard siding. It is three bays wide, with a central brick chimney. The entrance is in the rightmost bay, with sidelight and transom windows, the main block has been extended by a number of additions, most of which predate Ida Tarbells ownership of the property. Only one addition, a sunroom, was made after her death, the property includes several outbuildings, including two barns and a caretakers cottage, which were already extant during Tarbells ownership. Ida Tarbell was born in Erie County, Pennsylvania, to middle-class parents and their involvement in the womens rights movement convinced Tarbell to gain an education, and to avoid marriage. She rose to prominence as a writer for McClures magazine, producing thoroughly researched articles on a variety of topics and her major success was a multi-part series on Standard Oil, which was later published in book form as The History of the Standard Oil Company in 1904. Her techniques, which involved poring over large numbers of documents and her exposés, and those of other socially motivated journalists such as Upton Sinclair, led to them being called muckrakers by President Theodore Roosevelt. Tarbell purchased the property she called Twin Oaks in 1906, paying for it from the royalty income of the Standard Oil book and she used it as a retreat from the city, and did much writing there, producing a number of significant works. She made it her retirement home in 1924, and died in nearby Bridgeport in 1944, list of National Historic Landmarks in Connecticut National Register of Historic Places listings in Fairfield County, Connecticut Media related to Ida Tarbell House at Wikimedia Commons
42.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
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Seneca Falls (CDP), New York
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Seneca Falls is a hamlet in Seneca County, New York, in the United States. The population was 6,681 at the 2010 census, the hamlet is in the Town of Seneca Falls, east of Geneva. It was a village from 1831 to 2011. Seneca Falls became the largest New York village ever to approve dissolution after village residents voted to dissolve it in 2010, Finger Lakes Regional Airport is south of the hamlet. Seneca Falls was the site of the Seneca Falls Convention, an event in the Womens Rights Movement. The town is believed by some to have been the inspiration for the town of Bedford Falls. The region was in the domain of the Cayuga tribe and visited by Jesuit missionaries in the 17th Century, the Cayuga were allies of the British and attacked American settlements from the outset of the revolution. The Sullivan Expedition of 1779 was sent to destroy native villages, after the war, the village and surrounding land became part of the Central New York Military Tract, land reserved for veterans of the war. The north end of Cayuga Lake was set aside as a reservation for returning Cayuga tribal members, the first pioneers arrived around 1790. The first settlers chose the area for its access to water. When the village was first incorporated in 1831, it was named after the series of falls and rapids on the Seneca River which drains Cayuga. The river was partially canalized for navigation in 1818, and connected the lakes with the Erie Canal in 1828, the village was re-incorporated in 1837,1860, and 1896 with new charters. The falls were also the cause of the existence, providing water power for mills, distilleries, tanneries. By the mid 19th Century, Seneca Falls was the third largest flour milling center in the world, after Rochester, there is still a small hydroelectric power generating station in the village. A young man, Birdsall Holly, moved to Seneca Falls from Auburn to work as a mechanic in one of these mills and his son, Birdsall Holly Jr. was entranced by the water power, studying hydraulics and mechanics until he became one of the foremost American inventors. Holly became a partner in the Silsby Company, also called The Island Works, while working for this company, he obtained his first patent, which was for a rotary water pump. He later moved to Lockport, New York, where he continued inventing, while working for the Silsby Company, Holly also developed the rotary steam engine. This technology was married to the technology and was utilized in making the first successful steam fire engine
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Owen D. Young
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Young was an American industrialist, businessman, lawyer and diplomat at the Second Reparations Conference in 1929, as a member of the German Reparations International Commission. He is best known for his SRC diplomacy and for founding the Radio Corporation of America, Young founded RCA as a subsidiary of General Electric in 1919, he became its first chairman and continued in that position until 1929. Young was born on October 27,1874 on a farmhouse in Stark. His parents’ names were Jacob Smith Young and Ida Brandow and they worked the farm that his grandfather owned, Owen was an only child, his parents lost their first born son before he was born, and his birth was something rejoiced. The ‘D’ in his name was more for adornment than anything else, Owen went to school for the first time in the spring of 1881. He was six years old, and had always been inclined to books and he had a teacher, Menzo McEwan, who taught him for years, and would eventually be responsible for Owen going to East Springfield, one of the few secondary schools that he could afford. Of course, it was not too close to Van Hornesville, following the death of his first wife in February 1937, he married Louise Powis Clark, a widow with three children. St. Lawrence was a small institute struggling to survive and in serious need of money and students and Owen Young was a good candidate. It was still enough to cause some hesitance, however. With his father getting on in years, Owen was needed on the more than ever. His parents were convinced by the president of the college. It was there that Young was able to grow as a person in both his education and his faith and he discovered Universalism, which allowed for more intellectual freedom, separate from the gloom and hellfire permeating other Christian sects. Young remained a student from September,1890 before becoming an 1894 graduate of St. Lawrence University and he completed the three-year law course at Boston University in two years, graduating cum laude in 1896. After graduation he joined lawyer Charles H. Tyler and ten years became a partner in that Boston law firm. They were involved in cases between major companies. During college, he not only became a brother of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity, but he met his future wife Josephine Sheldon Edmonds. He married her in 1898, and she bore him five children. Young represented Stone and Webster in a case against GE around 1911 and through that case came to the attention of Charles A. Coffin
