1.
Dmitrov
–
Dmitrov is a town and the administrative center of Dmitrovsky District in Moscow Oblast, Russia, located 65 kilometers to the north of Moscow on the Yakhroma River and the Moscow Canal. It was founded by Yury Dolgoruky in 1154 deep in the woods at the site where his son Vsevolod was born and its name is explained by the fact that Vsevolods patron saint was St. Demetrius. In the 13th century, the settlement marked a point where the borders of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, Tver, the settlement itself belonged to the princes of Galich-Mersky, located much to the north, until 1364, when it was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Both Dmitry Donskoy and his grandson Vasily II granted Dmitrov as an appanage to their younger sons, in 1374, it was given town rights. The reign of Ivan IIIs son Yury Ivanovich inaugurated the golden age of Dmitrov and it is during his reign that the black-domed Assumption Cathedral in the kremlin and a smaller monastery cathedral of Sts. Thereafter, the passed to Yurys brother, Andrey of Staritsa. In 1569, it was seized from Vladimir of Staritsa, added to the Oprichnina, the town suffered further damage during the Time of Troubles, when it was ransacked by the Poles. In 1812, Dmitrov was briefly occupied by the Grande Armée, the Anarchist prince Peter Kropotkin spent his last years there. In the 1930s, the kremlin was excavated by Soviet archaeologists. Within the framework of administrative divisions, Dmitrov serves as the center of Dmitrovsky District. As an administrative division, it is, together with eighty rural localities, as a municipal division, the Town of Dmitrov is incorporated within Dmitrovsky Municipal District as Dmitrov Urban Settlement. Dmitrov is a junction of the Moscow –Savyolovo branch and the Dmitrov–Alexandrov branch. The railway provides an efficient service to Moscow, Dmitrov is also a cargo port on the Moscow Canal. Bus routes connect Dmitrov with Moscow, Sergiyev Posad, Dubna, Taldom, Lobnya, Laryovo, in a national competition in 2005, Dmitrov was recognized as the best-run town in Russia. Shot their video for Nas Ne Dagoniat in Dmitrov Губернатор Московской области, Постановление №123-ПГ от28 сентября2010 г. «Об учётных данных административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», в ред, Постановления №252-ПГ от26 июня2015 г. «О внесении изменения в учётные данные административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», Опубликован, Информационный вестник Правительства МО, №10,30 октября2010 г. Закон №74/2005-ОЗ от28 февраля2005 г, «О статусе и границах Дмитровского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», в ред
2.
Moscow Governorate
–
Moscow Governorate, or the Government of Moscow, was an administrative division of the Tsardom of Russia, the Russian Empire, and the Russian SFSR, which existed in 1708–1929. Moscow Governorate, together with seven other governorates, was established on December 29,1708, the governorate underwent numerous changes in the following years, and was finally abolished on January 14,1929 when modern Moscow Oblast was created. Population by mother tongue according to the Imperial census of 1897, according to the Imperial census of 1897. William Henry Beable, Governments or Provinces of the Former Russian Empire, Moscow, Russian Gazetteer and Guide, London, Russian Outlook – via Open Library Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Moscow
3.
Mississauga
–
Mississauga /ˌmɪsɪˈsɒɡə/ is a city in the Canadian province of Ontario. Situated in Southern Ontario, it lies on the shores of Lake Ontario in the Regional Municipality of Peel and it is part of the Greater Toronto Area, to the west of Toronto. The city has a population of 721,599 as of the Canada 2016 Census, a suburb of Toronto, Mississaugas growth is attributed to its proximity to that city. It is the largest suburb in Anglo-America by population, in recent decades, the city has attracted a multicultural population and has plans for developing its downtown core. Residents of the city are called Mississaugans or Saugans, Toronto Pearson International Airport, Canadas busiest airport, is located in the city, and it is the location of many major corporate headquarters for Canada. At the time of the arrival of the Europeans in the 1600s, One of the First Nations groups the French traders found around the Credit River area were the Algonquian Mississaugas, a tribe originally from the Georgian Bay area. The name Mississauga comes from the Anishinaabe word Misi-zaagiing, meaning Great River-mouth, by 1700 the Mississaugas had driven away the Iroquois, yet during the Beaver Wars they played a neutral or post-emptive role. Toronto Township, consisting of most of present-day Mississauga, was formed on 2 August 1805 when officials from York purchased 84,000 acres of land from the Mississaugas. In January 2010, the Mississaugas and the government settled a land claim, in which the band of aboriginal people received $145,000,000, as just compensation for their land. The original villages settled included, Lakeview, Clarkson, Cooksville, Dixie, Erindale, Lorne Park, Port Credit, Sheridan and this region would become known as Toronto Township. Part of northeast Mississauga, including the Airport lands and Malton were part of Toronto Gore Township, a group of settlers from New York City arrived in the 1830s. The government wanted to compensate the Loyalists for property lost in the colonies, in 1820, the government purchased additional land from the Mississaugas. Additional settlements were established, including, Barbertown, Britannia, Burnhamthorpe, Derry West, Elmbank, Malton, Meadowvale Village, Mount Charles, european-Canadian growth led to the eventual displacement of the Mississaugas. In 1847, the government relocated them to a reserve in the Grand River Valley, in 1873, in light of the continued growth seen in this area much as a result of the many railway lines passing through the township which spurred on industry. The Toronto Township Council was formed to oversee the affairs of the villages that were unincorporated at that time. The Councils responsibilities included road maintenance, and the constitution of a police force, in the 1920s, cottages were constructed along the shores of Lake Ontario as weekend getaway houses for city dwellers. 17 years later in 1937,1,410.8 acres of land was sold to build the Malton Airport and it became Canadas busiest airport which also put the end to the community of Elmbank. The first prototypical suburban developments occurred around the time, in the area south of the Dixie Road/QEW interchange
4.
Russian language
–
Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
5.
Ukrainian language
–
Ukrainian /juːˈkreɪniən/ is an East Slavic language. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script, historical linguists trace the origin of the Ukrainian language to the Old East Slavic of the early medieval state of Kievan Rus. After the fall of the Kievan Rus as well as the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, the Modern Ukrainian language has been in common use since the late 17th century, associated with the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate. From 1804 until the Russian Revolution, the Ukrainian language was banned from schools in the Russian Empire and it has always maintained a sufficient base in Western Ukraine, where the language was never banned, in its folklore songs, itinerant musicians, and prominent authors. The Ukrainian language retains a degree of intelligibility with Belarusian and Russian. The first theory of the origin of Ukrainian language was suggested in Imperial Russia in the middle of the 18th century by Mikhail Lomonosov and this theory posits the existence of a common language spoken by all East Slavic people in the time of the Rus. Another point of view developed during the 19th and 20th centuries by linguists of Imperial Russia, like Lomonosov, they assumed the existence of a common language spoken by East Slavs in the past. This general point of view is the most accepted amongst academics worldwide, the supporters of this theory disagree, however, about the time when the different languages were formed. Soviet scholars set the divergence between Ukrainian and Russian only at time periods. During the time of the incorporation of Ruthenia into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and this point of view is, however, at variance with some historical data. In fact, several East Slavic tribes, such as Polans, Drevlyans, Severians, Dulebes, White Croats, Tiverians, notably, some Ukrainian features were recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic as far back as the language can be documented. In contrast, Ahatanhel Krymsky and Alexei Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century, Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky went even further, denying the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo, Ivan Ohienko, according to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to a migration of the population within the territory of todays Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was supported by George Shevelovs phonological studies. During the 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of Galicia-Vollhynia and their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts, examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh, rura, rynok, kushnir, and majster
6.
Cipher
–
In cryptography, a cipher is an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption—a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative, less common term is encipherment, to encipher or encode is to convert information into cipher or code. In common parlance, cipher is synonymous with code, as they are both a set of steps that encrypt a message, however, the concepts are distinct in cryptography, especially classical cryptography. Codes generally substitute different length strings of characters in the output, there are exceptions and some cipher systems may use slightly more, or fewer, characters when output versus the number that were input. Codes operated by substituting according to a large codebook which linked a random string of characters or numbers to a word or phrase, for example, UQJHSE could be the code for Proceed to the following coordinates. When using a cipher the original information is known as plaintext, the ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but is not in a format readable by a human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it. The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, the encrypting procedure is varied depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. A key must be selected using a cipher to encrypt a message. Without knowledge of the key, it should be difficult, if not impossible. Most modern ciphers can be categorized in several ways By whether they work on blocks of symbols usually of a fixed size, by whether the same key is used for both encryption and decryption, or if a different key is used for each. If the algorithm is symmetric, the key must be known to the recipient and sender, if the algorithm is an asymmetric one, the enciphering key is different from, but closely related to, the deciphering key. If one key cannot be deduced from the other, the asymmetric key algorithm has the key property. The word cipher in former times meant zero and had the same origin, Middle French as cifre and Medieval Latin as cifra, cipher was later used for any decimal digit, even any number. There are many theories about how the word cipher may have come to mean encoding, the Roman number system was very cumbersome because there was no concept of zero. Cipher came to mean concealment of clear messages or encryption, the French formed the word chiffre and adopted the Italian word zero. The English used zero for 0, and cipher from the word ciphering as a means of computing, the Germans used the words Ziffer and Chiffre. The Dutch still use the word cijfer to refer to a numerical digit, the Serbians use the word cifra, which refers to a digit, or in some cases, any number. Besides cifra, they use word broj for a number, the Italians and the Spanish also use the word cifra to refer to a number
7.
Embassy of Russia in Ottawa
–
The Embassy of Russia in Canada is the Russian embassy in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, It is located at 285 Charlotte Street, at the eastern terminus of Laurier Avenue. To the south it looks out on Strathcona Park while to the east it looks out on the Rideau River, Russia also maintains consulates in Toronto and Montreal. The site was given to the Soviet Union in 1942 and was contained in a large manor that had formerly belonged to J. Fred Booth. This manor had been the site of the marriage of Fred Booths daughter Lois to Prince Erik of Denmark, son of Prince Valdemar of Denmark. The building was expropriated by the government during the Second World War for use by the Royal Canadian Navy and it was in this building that Igor Gouzenko worked and from where he removed documents before defecting in 1945. On January 1,1956 a fire out on the third floor of the embassy. Embassy employees tried to put it out themselves and did not call the fire department and they were unsuccessful and neighbours soon noticed smoke billowing from the building. When the fire department arrived the Soviets would not let them in, Ottawa Mayor Charlotte Whitton arrived at the blaze and demanded the fire department be let in, and threatened to have the embassy staff arrested. The dispute between the mayor and the ambassador was mediated by cabinet minister Paul Martin, who had come to the scene. Eventually, the fighters were allowed in, but only after the Soviets had removed large numbers of sensitive documents. It was too late, however, and the building was gutted, the remains of the manor were demolished and the current stark Classic Soviet style building was erected in its place. After the fire the embassy was relocated to 24 Blackburn Avenue and they concentrated on the northwest corner of the building, the logical site for a communications centre. The Soviets, however, built their communications centre in a sealed chamber elsewhere in the building, with the fall of the Soviet Union the building became the Russian embassy. The massive bust of Lenin was removed from the lobby and soon after the exterior was modified to make it less imposing. Georgy Zarubin 1941-1942 Fedor Tarasovich Gusev 1942-1943 Dimitri S. Chuvahin 1950s Boris Miroshnichenko. -1973 Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev 1973-1983 Alexey Rodionov 1983-, vitaly Churkin 1998-2003 Georgiy Mamedov 2003-2014 Since 2014, the Russian ambassador to Canada is Alexander Darchiev
8.
Ottawa
–
Ottawa is the capital city of Canada. It stands on the bank of the Ottawa River in the eastern portion of southern Ontario. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Quebec, the two form the core of the Ottawa–Gatineau census metropolitan area and the National Capital Region. The 2016 census reported a population of 934,243, making it the fourth-largest city in Canada, the City of Ottawa reported that the city had an estimated population of 960,754 as of December 2015. Founded in 1826 as Bytown, and incorporated as Ottawa in 1855, the city name Ottawa was chosen in reference to the Ottawa River nearby, the name of which is derived from the Algonquin Odawa, meaning to trade. The city is the most educated in Canada, and is home to a number of post-secondary, research, and cultural institutions, including the National Arts Centre, Ottawa also has the highest standard of living in the nation and low unemployment. It ranked second out of 150 worldwide in the Numbeo quality of life index 2014–2015, with the draining of the Champlain Sea around ten thousand years ago the Ottawa Valley became habitable. The area was used for wild harvesting, hunting, fishing, trade, travel. The Ottawa river valley has archaeological sites with arrow heads, pottery, the area has three major rivers that meet, making it an important trade and travel area for thousands of years. The Algonquins called the Ottawa River Kichi Sibi or Kichissippi meaning Great River or Grand River, Étienne Brûlé, the first European to travel up the Ottawa River, passed by Ottawa in 1610 on his way to the Great Lakes. Three years later, Samuel de Champlain wrote about the waterfalls of the area and about his encounters with the Algonquins, the early explorers and traders were later followed by many missionaries. The first maps of the area used the word Ottawa to name the river, philemon Wright, a New Englander, created the first settlement in the area on 7 March 1800 on the north side of the river, across from Ottawa in Hull. He, with five other families and twenty-five labourers, set about to create a community called Wrightsville. Wright pioneered the Ottawa Valley timber trade by transporting timber by river from the Ottawa Valley to Quebec City, the following year, the town would soon be named after British military engineer Colonel John By who was responsible for the entire Rideau Waterway construction project. Colonel By set up military barracks on the site of todays Parliament Hill and he also laid out the streets of the town and created two distinct neighbourhoods named Upper Town west of the canal and Lower Town east of the canal. Similar to its Upper Canada and Lower Canada namesakes, historically Upper Town was predominantly English speaking and Protestant whereas Lower Town was predominantly French, Irish, bytowns population grew to 1,000 as the Rideau Canal was being completed in 1832. In 1855 Bytown was renamed Ottawa and incorporated as a city, William Pittman Lett was installed as the first city clerk guiding it through 36 years of development. On New Years Eve 1857, Queen Victoria, as a symbolic, in reality, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald had assigned this selection process to the Executive Branch of the Government, as previous attempts to arrive at a consensus had ended in deadlock
9.
Defection
–
In politics, a defector is a person who gives up allegiance to one state in exchange for allegiance to another, in a way which is considered illegitimate by the first state. More broadly, it involves abandoning a person, cause or doctrine to one is bound by some tie. This term is applied, often pejoratively, to anyone who switches loyalty to another religion, sports team, political party. In that sense, the defector is often considered a traitor by their original side, the physical act of defection is usually in a manner which violates the laws of the nation or political entity from which the person is seeking to depart. By contrast, mere changes in citizenship, or working with allied militia, the Berlin Wall and fortifications along the Inner German border were erected by the Communist East German Democratic Republic in 1961 to enforce the policy. When people tried to defect from the GDR they were to be shot on sight, several hundred people were killed along the border in their Republikflucht attempt. Official crossings did exist, but permissions to leave temporarily or permanently were seldom granted, on the other hand, the GDR citizenship of some inconvenient East Germans was revoked, and they had to leave their home on short notice against their will. Others, like singer Wolf Biermann, were prohibited from returning to the GDR, during the Cold War, the many people illegally emigrating from the Soviet Union or Eastern Bloc to the West were called defectors. Westerners defected to the Eastern Bloc as well, often to avoid prosecution as spies, when the individual leaves his country and provides information to a foreign intelligence service, they are a HUMINT source defector. In some cases, defectors remain in the country or with the entity they were against. Intelligence services are concerned when debriefing defectors with the possibility of a fake defection. Alexander Mogilny, Soviet Hockey Player, who defected to the United States in 1988 and he was the first Soviet player to defect to play in the NHL. Aroldis Chapman, Cuban baseball pitcher, who defected to Andorra in 2009 before signing a Major League Baseball contract in 2010, josé Fernández, Cuban baseball player, who defected to the United States in 2008. Orlando Hernandez, Cuban baseball pitcher, who defected to the United States in 1997, arturo Sandoval, Cuban trumpeter, pianist, and composer, who defected to the United States in 1990. Nadia Comăneci, Romanian Olympic Gymnast, who defected to the United States in 1989, béla Károlyi and his wife Márta Károlyi, Romanian gymnastics coaches, who defected to the United States in 1981. Paquito DRivera, Cuban saxophonist and clarinetist, who defected to the United States in 1980, mikhail Baryshnikov, Soviet dancer, who defected to Canada in 1974, while in Toronto, touring with the Kirov Ballet. He later moved to the United States, natalia Makarova, Soviet dancer, who defected while in London in 1970. Rudolf Nureyev, Soviet dancer, who defected while in Paris touring with the Kirov Ballet in 1961, george Balanchine, Russian choreographer, who defected to the Weimar Republic in 1924
10.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
11.
William Lyon Mackenzie King
–
William Lyon Mackenzie King OM, CMG, PC, also commonly known as Mackenzie King, was the dominant Canadian political leader from the 1920s through the 1940s. He served as the tenth Prime Minister of Canada in 1921–1926, 1926–1930, a Liberal with 21 years and 154 days in office, he was the longest-serving prime minister in Canadian history. Trained in law and social work, he was interested in the human condition. King acceded to the leadership of the Liberal Party in 1919, taking the helm of a party bitterly torn apart during the First World War, he reconciled factions, unifying the Liberal Party and leading it to victory in the 1921 election. His party was out of office during the harshest days of the Great Depression in Canada, 1930–35 and he personally handled complex relations with the Prairie Provinces, while his top aides Ernest Lapointe and Louis St. Laurent skillfully met the demands of French Canadians. During the Second World War, he avoided the battles over conscription, patriotism. Though few major policy innovations took place during his premiership, he was able to synthesize, scholars attribute Kings long tenure as party leader to his wide range of skills that were appropriate to Canadas needs. He understood the workings of capital and labour, keenly sensitive to the nuances of public policy, he was a workaholic with a shrewd and penetrating intelligence and a profound understanding of the complexities of Canadian society. A modernizing technocrat who regarded managerial mediation as essential to an industrial society, King worked to bring compromise and harmony to many competing and feuding elements, using politics and government action as his instrument. He led his party for 29 years, and established Canadas international reputation as a middle power fully committed to world order, Kings biographers agree on the personal characteristics that made him distinctive. He lacked the charisma of such contemporaries as Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and he lacked a commanding presence or oratorical skill, his best writing was academic, and did not resonate with the electorate. Cold and tactless in human relations, he had allies but very few personal friends. He never married and lacked a hostess whose charm could substitute for his chill, a survey of scholars in 1997 by Macleans magazine ranked King first among all Canadas prime ministers, ahead of Sir John A. Macdonald and Sir Wilfrid Laurier. As historian Jack Granatstein notes, the scholars expressed little admiration for King the man but offered unbounded admiration for his political skills, on the other hand, political scientist Ian Stewart in 2007 found that even Liberal activists have but a dim memory of him. King was born in Berlin, Ontario, to John King and his maternal grandfather was William Lyon Mackenzie, first mayor of Toronto and leader of the Upper Canada Rebellion in 1837. His father was a lawyer, and later a professor at Osgoode Hall Law School and he attended Berlin Central School and Berlin High School. Tutors were hired to teach him more politics, science, math, English and his father was a lawyer with a struggling practice in a small city, and never enjoyed financial security. King became a lifelong practising Presbyterian with a dedication to applying Christian virtues to social issues in the style of the Social Gospel and he obtained three degrees from the University of Toronto, B. A.1895, LL. B
12.
Joseph Stalin
–
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Holding the post of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he was effectively the dictator of the state. Stalin was one of the seven members of the first Politburo, founded in 1917 in order to manage the Bolshevik Revolution, alongside Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky, Sokolnikov, and Bubnov. Among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who took part in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and he managed to consolidate power following the 1924 death of Vladimir Lenin by suppressing Lenins criticisms and expanding the functions of his role, all the while eliminating any opposition. He remained General Secretary until the post was abolished in 1952, the economic changes coincided with the imprisonment of millions of people in Gulag labour camps. The initial upheaval in agriculture disrupted food production and contributed to the catastrophic Soviet famine of 1932–33, major figures in the Communist Party and government, and many Red Army high commanders, were arrested and shot after being convicted of treason in show trials. Stalins invasion of Bukovina in 1940 violated the pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere of influence agreed with the Axis, Germany ended the pact when Hitler launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. Despite heavy human and territorial losses, Soviet forces managed to halt the Nazi incursion after the decisive Battles of Moscow, after defeating the Axis powers on the Eastern Front, the Red Army captured Berlin in May 1945, effectively ending the war in Europe for the Allies. The Soviet Union subsequently emerged as one of two recognized world superpowers, the other being the United States, Communist governments loyal to the Soviet Union were established in most countries freed from German occupation by the Red Army, which later constituted the Eastern Bloc. Stalin also had relations with Mao Zedong in China and Kim Il-sung in North Korea. On February 9,1946, Stalin delivered a public speech in which he explained the fundamental incompatibility of communism and capitalism. He stressed that the system needed war for raw materials. The Second World War was but the latest in a chain of conflicts which could be broken only when the economy made the transformation into communism. Stalin led the Soviet Union through its post-war reconstruction phase, which saw a significant rise in tension with the Western world that would later be known as the Cold War, Stalin remains a controversial figure today, with many regarding him as a tyrant. However, popular opinion within the Russian Federation is mixed, the exact number of deaths caused by Stalins regime is still a subject of debate, but it is widely agreed to be in the order of millions. Joseph Stalin was born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili, the Russian-language version of his birth name is Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili. Ioseb was born on 18 December 1878 in the town of Gori, Georgia and his father was Besarion Jughashvili, a cobbler, while his mother was Ekaterine Keke Geladze, a housemaid. As a child, Ioseb was plagued with health issues
13.
Cold War
–
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
14.
The New York Times
–
The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
15.
History of Ottawa
–
By 1914, Ottawas population had surpassed 100,000 and today it is the capital of a G7 country whose metropolitan population exceeds one million. The origin of the name Ottawa is derived from the Algonquin word adawe, the word refers to the Indigenous Peoples who used the river to trade, hunt, fish, camp, harvest plants, ceremonies, and for other traditional uses. The first maps made of the area started to name the river after these peoples. For centuries, Algonquin people have portaged through the waterways of both the Ottawa River and the Rideau River while passing through the area. French explorer Étienne Brûlé was credited as the first European to see the Chaudière Falls in 1610, no permanent settlement occurred in the area until 1800 when Philemon Wright founded his village near the falls, on the north shore of the Ottawa River. Lt. Colonel John By was an officer of the Royal Engineers commissioned by the British Government in 1826 to superintend the construction of the Rideau Canal. The founding was marked by a sod turning, and a letter from Dalhousie which authorized Colonel By to divide up the town into lots. The town developed into a site for the timber, and later sawed lumber trade, causing growth so that in 1854, Bytown was created a city and its present more appropriate name, Ottawa was conferred. Shortly afterward, Queen Victoria chose Ottawa as the capital of Canada, also at this time, increased export sales led it to connect by rail to facilitate shipment to markets especially in the United States. In the early 1900s the lumber industry waned as both supply and demand lessened, growth continued in the 20th century, and by the 1960s, the Greber Plan transformed the capitals appearance and removed much of the old industrial infrastructure. In 2001, the city amalgamated all areas in the former region, with the draining of the Champlain Sea around 10,000 years ago the Ottawa Valley became habitable. The Algonquin people who called the Ottawa River the Kichi Sibi or Kichissippi meaning Great River or Grand River maintained a route along the Ottawa River for a relatively short time. The word Ottawa is in relation to the Ottawa people, the First Nation who hunted, camped, traded, and traveled in the area, and also lived far to the west along Georgian Bay and Lake Huron. When Étienne Brûlé in 1610 became the first European to travel up the Ottawa River, followed by Samuel de Champlain in 1613, written records show that by 1613 the Algonquins were in control of the Ottawa Valley and the surrounding areas to the west and north. At left is an extract from a map created in 1632 by Samuel de Champlain of the reaches of New France. It shows a portion of the Ottawa River route he took in 1616, with numbers used to indicate sites he visited, significant rapids and aboriginal encampments. Champlain wrote about both the Rideau Falls on the part of the early future town, and the Chaudière Falls in the west. Chaudière was, and still is impassable by any water traffic, so there were portage paths around it on trips from the mouth of the Ottawa River to the lands of the interior, Nicholas Gatineau also traded using the nearby Gatineau River
16.
Bytown
–
Bytown is the former name of Ottawa, Ontario, Canadas capital city. It was founded on September 26,1826, incorporated as a town on January 1,1850, the founding was marked by a sod turning, and a letter from Governor General Dalhousie which authorized Lieutenant Colonel John By to divide up the town into lots. Bytown came about as a result of the construction of the Rideau Canal, Bytowns first mayor was John Scott, elected in 1847. Bytown was located where the Rideau Canal meets the Ottawa River, Upper Town, situated to the west of the canal, was situated in the area of the current downtown and Parliament Hill. Lower Town was on the east side of the canal where todays Byward Market, the two areas of town were connected over the Rideau Canal by the Sappers Bridge, constructed in 1827. The town took its name from John By who, as a Colonel in the British Royal Engineers, was instrumental in the construction of the canal. The name Bytown came about, somewhat as a reference during a small dinner party of some officers. The number of houses now built is about 150, most of which are constructed of wood, frequently in a style of neatness, Colonel By laid out the streets of Bytown, a pattern that mostly exists today. Wellington Street, Rideau Street, Sussex and Sparks Street were some of the earliest streets in use, Sappers Bridge actually connected Sparks Street to Rideau Street at that time. Nicholas Sparks owned Bytowns land west of the canal, except for the north of Wellington. The area east of Bank Street to the canal was acquired by the military, Bytown had seen some trouble in the early days, first with the Shiners War in 1835 to 1845, and the Stony Monday Riot in 1849. Some early buildings still stand had been erected in Bytown. In 1826, Thomas McKay was contracted to build the commesariat building, McKay also built Rideau Hall, and parts of the Union Bridge connecting LeBreton Flats to Hull. Notre-Dame Cathedral Basilica was also early on in the developing town. The University of Ottawa had its 1846 origins as a college, though administration of Bytown had been conducted by civil authorities since 1828, the town did not become incorporated until much later. Various attempts at incorporation had been initiated since 1845, the Ordnance Department had held lands in the towns core, lands which had been the property of Nicholas Sparks. These lands were considered by many to be blocking economic progress as well as being held for speculative reasons only, when Ordnance eventually returned the lands to Sparks through the Vesting Act, the major obstacle to incorporation was removed. An act of the Legislative Assembly further facilitated the incorporation of municipalities, Richmond Landing was a small settlement started in 1809 with Jehiel Collins store, which preceded Bytown in present day Ottawa
17.
Ottawa River timber trade
–
It was the major industry of the historical colonies of Upper Canada and Lower Canada and it created an entrepreneur known as a lumber baron. The trade in squared timber and later sawed lumber led to growth and prosperity to communities in the Ottawa Valley. The product was chiefly red and white pine, the industry lasted until around 1900 as both markets and supplies decreased. The industry came about following Napoleons 1806 Continental Blockade in Europe causing the United Kingdom to require a new source for timber especially for its navy, later the U. K. s application of gradually increasing preferential tariffs increased Canadian imports. The first part of the industry, the trade in squared timber lasted until about the 1850s, the transportation for the raw timber was first by means of floating down the Ottawa River, proved possible in 1806 by Philemon Wright. The second part of the industry involved the trade of sawed lumber, the Reciprocity Treaty caused a shift to American markets. The source of timber in Britain changed, where its access to timber in the Baltic region was restored, entrepreneurs in the United States at that time then began to build their operations near the Ottawa River, creating some of the worlds largest sawmills at the time. These men, known as lumber barons, with such as John Rudolphus Booth and Henry Franklin Bronson created mills which contributed to the prosperity. Shortly after 1900, the last raft went down the Ottawa River, supplies of pine were dwindling and there was also a decreased demand. K. Before 1950 many operations began to discontinue, and later mills were completely removed. The industry had contributed greatly to population increases and economic growth of Ontario, Upper and Lower Canadas major industry in terms of employment and value of the product was the timber trade. In 1806, Napoleon ordered a blockade to European ports, blocking Britains access to timber required for the navy from the Baltic Sea, the British naval shipyards were desperately in need of lumber. British tariff concessions fostered the growth of the Canadian timber trade, the British government instituted the tariff on the importation of foreign timber in 1795 in need of alternate sources for its navy and to promote the industry in its North American colonies. The Colonial Preference was first 10 shillings per load, increasing to 25 in 1805 and after Napoleons blockade ended, in 1821 the tariff was reduced to 55 shillings and was abolished in 1842. The United Kingdom resumed its trade in Baltic timber, the change in Britains tariff preferences was a result of Britain moving to Free Trade in 1840. Britain imported 15,000 loads of timber from Canada in 1805, and from the colonies,30,000 in 1807, the reciprocity treaty of 1854 allowed for duty-free export of Ottawa Valleys lumber into the United States. Both the market was changing, as well as the running the businesses. An American September 30,1869 statement showed that lumber was, here are the top 3, lumber,424,232,087 feet, $4,761,357
18.
Rideau Canal
–
The Rideau Canal, also known unofficially as the Rideau Waterway, connects the city of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, on the Ottawa River to the city of Kingston, Ontario, on Lake Ontario. It is 202 kilometres in length, the name Rideau, French for curtain, is derived from the curtain-like appearance of the Rideau Rivers twin waterfalls where they join the Ottawa River. The canal system uses sections of two rivers, the Rideau and the Cataraqui, as well as several lakes, the Rideau Canal is operated by Parks Canada. The canal was opened in 1832 as a precaution in case of war with the United States and it remains in use today primarily for pleasure boating, with most of its original structures intact, operated by Parks Canada. The locks on the open for navigation in mid-May and close in mid-October. It is the oldest continuously operated system in North America. Lawrence River, which would have severed the lifeline between Montreal and Kingston, the British built a number of other canals as well as a number of forts to impede and deter any future American invasions of Canadian territory. The initial purpose of the Rideau Canal was military, as it was intended to provide a secure supply, westward from Montreal, travel would proceed along the Ottawa River to Bytown, then southwest via the canal to Kingston and out into Lake Ontario. The objective was to bypass the stretch of the St. Lawrence bordering New York, the canal also served a commercial purpose. The Rideau Canal was easier to navigate than the St. Lawrence River because of the series of rapids between Montreal and Kingston, as a result, the Rideau Canal became a busy commercial artery from Montreal to the Great Lakes. However, by 1849, the rapids of the St. Lawrence had been tamed by a series of locks, the construction of the canal was supervised by Lieutenant-Colonel John By of the Royal Engineers. Colonel John By decided to create a canal system instead of constructing new channels. This was an approach as it required fewer workers, was more cost effective. The canal work started in the fall of 1826, and it was completed by the spring of 1832, the final cost of the canals construction was £822,804 by the time all the costs, including land acquisitions costs, were accounted for. Given the unexpected cost overruns, John By was recalled to London and was retired with no accolades or recognition for the tremendous accomplishment hed achieved, once the canal was constructed, no further military engagements took place between Canada and the United States. Although the Rideau Canal never had to be used as a supply route. Tens of thousands of immigrants from the British Isles travelled the Rideau in this period, hundreds of barge loads of goods were shipped each year along the Rideau, allowing Montreal to compete commercially in the 1830s and 40s with New York as a major North American port. In 1841, for instance, there were 19 steamboats,3 self-propelled barges and 157 unpowered or tow barges using the Rideau Canal, as many as one thousand of the workers died from malaria, other diseases and accidents
19.
ByWard Market
–
ByWard Market is a district in Lower Town located east of the government and business district, surrounding the market buildings and open-air market on George, York, ByWard and William Streets. The district is bordered on the west by Sussex Drive and Mackenzie Avenue and it stretches northwards to Cathcart Street, while to the south it is bordered by Rideau Street. The name refers to the old By Ward of the City of Ottawa, the district comprises the main commercial part of the historic Lower Town area of Ottawa. According to the Canada 2011 Census, the population of the area was 3,063, the market itself is regulated by the City of Ottawas Markets Management group, which also operates the smaller west-end Parkdale Market. The market building is open year-round, and open-air stalls are operated in the warmer months offering fresh produce, traditionally, the ByWard Market area has been a focal point for Ottawas French and Irish communities. The large Catholic community supported Notre Dame Cathedral, one of the largest and oldest Roman Catholic churches in Ottawa, the shape of the cathedral was taken into account in the design of the National Gallery of Canada, which was built across Sussex Drive. The ByWard Market has constantly been an area of change, adapting to the increasingly cosmopolitan nature of downtown Ottawa. Recently, a multitude of restaurants and specialty food stores have sprouted around the market area, a four-block area around the market provides the most dense concentration of eating places, bars and nightclubs in the National Capital Region. The areas beyond this zone also offer boutiques and restaurants in abundance, having acquired a reputation as the citys premier bar district, Byward Market is thronged at night with university students and other young adults. Over the years the city has developed a series of five small, human-scale, open air courtyards, immediately east of Sussex Drive and these cobblestone courtyards are filled with flowers, park benches, fountains and sculptures. Several of the houses surrounding them are historic buildings, at the other extreme on the west side of Sussex Drive is the United States Embassy. The buildings design, by noted architect David Childs, was controversial in Ottawa. Others complained that the structure overshadowed the historic market, the neighbourhood is today markedly heterogeneous, being visited by a mix of young professionals, many families and some homeless people. At one time, the area had a serious prostitution problem, the area is mainly English-speaking but there exists a significant francophone population as well. The Market is located in proximity to the downtown, to the Rideau Centre shopping mall, to Parliament Hill. It was out of this project that the small community of Bytown grew into a flourishing commercial. Colonel By prepared plans for two sites, one on the west side of the Rideau canal, which was known as Upper Town. The land was cleared and surveyed, both villages were laid out in a grid system and divided into building lots
20.
Parliament Hill
–
Parliament Hill, colloquially known as The Hill, is an area of Crown land on the southern banks of the Ottawa River in downtown Ottawa, Ontario. Its Gothic revival suite of buildings is the home of the Parliament of Canada and has elements of national symbolic importance. Parliament Hill attracts approximately 3 million visitors each year, law enforcement on parliament hill and in the parliamentary precinct is the responsibility of the Parliamentary Protective Service. Since 2002, an extensive $1 billion renovation and rehabilitation project has been underway throughout all of the precincts buildings, Parliament Hill is a limestone outcrop with a gently sloping top that was originally covered in primeval forest of beech and hemlock. After Ottawa—then called Bytown—was founded, the builders of the Rideau Canal used the hill as a location for a military base, a large fortress was planned for the site, but was never built, and by the mid 19th century the hill had lost its strategic importance. On 7 May, the Department of Public Works issued a call for proposals for the new parliament buildings to be erected on Barrack Hill. After the entries were narrowed down to three, Governor General Sir Edmund Walker Head was approached to break the stalemate, and the winners were announced on 29 August 1859. The team of Thomas Stent and Augustus Laver, under the pseudonym of Stat nomen in umbra, won the prize for the second category, $300,000 was allocated for the main building, and $120,000 for each of the departmental buildings. Ground was broken on 20 December 1859, and the first stones laid on 16 April of the following year, the construction of Parliament Hill became the largest project undertaken in North America to that date. By early 1861, Public Works reported that $1,424,882, two years later, the unfinished site hosted a celebration of Queen Victorias birthday, further cementing the areas position as the central place for national outpouring. The site was still incomplete when three of the British North American colonies entered Confederation in 1867, with Ottawa remaining the capital of the new country, thus, the offices of parliament spread to buildings beyond Parliament Hill even at that early date. The British military gave a nine-pound naval cannon to the British army garrison stationed in Ottawa in 1854 and it was purchased by the Canadian government in 1869 and fired on Parliament Hill for many years as the Noonday Gun. By 1876, the structures of Parliament Hill were finished, along with the surrounding fence, fire destroyed the Centre Block on 3 February 1916. Eleven years later, the new tower was completed and dedicated as the Peace Tower, the Queen was back on Parliament Hill on 17 April 1982, to issue a royal proclamation of the enactment of the Constitution Act that year. In April 1989, a Greyhound Lines bus with 11 passengers on board travelling to New York City from Montreal was hijacked by an armed man, a standoff with police ensued and lasted eight hours, though three shots were fired, there were no injuries. The following year, Queen Elizabeth IIs Golden Jubilee was marked on 13 October, on 22 October 2014, several shooting incidents occurred around Parliament Hill. A gunman, after shooting a Canadian Army soldier mounting the ceremonial guard at the National War Memorial. There, he was killed in a shootout with RCMP officers, the gunman also injured one House of Commons constable, who was shot in the foot
21.
Ottawa Electric Railway
–
Ottawa Electric Railway Company was a streetcar public transit system in the city of Ottawa, Canada, part of the electric railway streetcars that operated between 1891 and 1959. Prior to this, starting in 1866, public transportation was provided by Ottawa City Passenger Railway Company, the O. E. R. was taken over by the Ottawa Transportation Commission in 1948, which was itself succeeded by OC Transpo in 1973. Preceding the use of streetcars, Ottawas first public transportation system was the operation of a horsecar system. Tramway service began in July 1870, under the Ottawa City Passenger Railway Company, which was incorporated on August 15,1866. The O. C. P. R. was financed largely by the estate of Thomas McKay, in 1871, Reynolds sold his streetcar company interest to Thomas Keifer. The horse-drawn streetcars travelled back and forth from New Edinburgh to the Chaudière Bridge, the trams for passengers and freight had a line extending from Rideau Falls in New Edinburgh, to Sussex, Sparks, Wellington, Duke and the Suspension Bridge. The service provided sleighs in the winter and had 273,000 passengers in its first year of operation, in 1891, it had four miles of track,25 horses and 15 employees. The Ottawa City Passenger Railway Company had tram cars holding 20 passengers which were made of wood with bench seats, the company applied to the city to convert to electricity but was refused, and later it proposed a merger of two companies. A new company, Ottawa Electric Railway Company, would appear on the scene in the early 1890s, Ottawas first electric lights operated near the Chaudière Falls in 1882, and in 1885, electric lighting came to the city streets under Ottawa Electric Light Company. Thomas Ahearn, born in LeBreton Flats, also became an important figure in the years of electricity in Ottawa. Ahearn had been an operator, and in 1892 filed patents for both an electric oven and a system of warming cars by means of electrically heated water. Ahearn formed a partnership with Warren Y, Soper, and for years the office of Ahearn and Soper was on Sparks Street. Ahearn merged existing companies Ottawa Electric Light Company, and Ahearns company, Chaudière Electric Light and Power Company, with a third company and it became part of Ahearns Ottawa Light, Heat and Power Company, which eventually was taken over by Ottawa Hydro. In 1901, Ottawa Electric Railway Company built a 2, 000-foot canal just north of the Britannia Boathouse Club to generate Hydroelectric power on the Deschênes Rapids. Today, the main and inner harbour provide 250 wet moorings, fuel and pumpout facilities, the horsecar was providing public transportation for Ottawa into the 1890s when, for a short time, electric streetcars were also employed. Initially Thomas Ahearns new company started streetcar operations until it was merged with the existing horsecar company, in 1890 Mayor Howland of Toronto offered to provide Ottawa with an electric streetcar service. He backed out and Ahearn stepped in, and he along with Soper petitioned the city in order to obtain the franchise and they succeeded, and got granted a 20-year charter for on November 5,1890, city council gave them permission to operate an electric railway. They formed a company on February 13,1891 called the Ottawa Electric Street Railway Company, on June 25,1891 the first electric street cars began operation in a display of five streetcars with Ahearn and Soper as drivers
22.
1985 Turkish embassy attack in Ottawa
–
On 12 March 1985, agents of the Armenian Revolutionary Army attacked the Turkish embassy in Ottawa, Canada. The storming of the embassy began shortly before 7 a. m. when three militants in a moving truck arrived at the embassy gate. They scaled the security gate and began shooting at the bulletproof security hut, security officer Claude Brunelle, a 31-year-old student from the University of Ottawa, was on duty. As soon as the attack began, Brunelle called in the emergency code and he fired four shots at the gunmen and took two shots in the chest, which killed him instantly. Once inside, they began rounding up hostages, including the wife of the Turkish ambassador, his teen-age daughter, the police response was almost immediate. Within three minutes, officers were on the scene, four hours later, the gunmen released all hostages and surrendered – they tossed out their weapons and came out of the building with their hands up, asking only that they not be shot by police. The gunmen, who said they were members of the Armenian Revolutionary Army told Ottawa police they blasted their way into the Turkish embassy “to make Turkey pay for the Armenian genocide of 1915. The Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia quickly took credit for the attack, four months later, in August 1982, the embassys military attaché – Col. Atilla Altıkat – was shot to death as he drove to work. The Justice Commandos Against Armenian Genocide claimed responsibility, in addition, other attacks by Armenians on Turkish targets, particularly diplomats, occurred in other countries during 1973-1994. Chahe Philippe Arslanian, a lawyer for two of the accused, said that his clients were “not guilty, “Its evident that surely it was not a criminal act, but a political act, Mr. Arslanian told reporters. A year later, on October 14,1986, the three men went on trial, an Ontario Supreme Court jury deliberated for 8½ hours before finding Mr. Noubarian, Mr. Marachelian, and Mr. Titizian guilty of first-degree murder. Mr. Justice David Watt imposed the sentence of life imprisonment with no possibility of parole for 25 years. After the jury gave its verdict and was dismissed, Mr. Noubarian told the court that what the three did sprang from the ideals we shared. ”“However, something undesirable and regrettable happened and Mr. Brunelle died, resulting in the clouding of our aims and our goals and also resulting in our persecution. But imprisoning individuals would not harm the Armenian cause, individuals are mortal, but the Armenian nation lives and as long as it lives it will always demand its rights. In February 2005 the National Parole Board of Canada decided to allow one of the men, Mr. Marachelian, the board granted him two visits over the following six months, during which he had to be accompanied by a corrections officer. Marachelian and Noubarian were released from prison on February 19,2010, rafi Titizian was also released during April 2010 and sent to Armenia on the day of his release to join his family living in Armenia. The attack on the Turkish Embassy was an international embarrassment for Canada. For years, foreign diplomats in Ottawa had asked the Canadian government for better security, Turkey declared Ottawa to be one of the most dangerous places in the world for Turkish diplomats
23.
O-Train
–
The O-Train is a light rail transit system in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The systems name was proposed by Acart Communications, an Ottawa advertising agency working for OC Transpo, the name O-Train was based on the classic Duke Ellington signature tune Take the A Train, which refers to a New York City Subway service. Because Ottawa is effectively a bilingual city, the name had to work in both English and French, in French, it is pronounced similarly to au train. It survived an internal OC Transpo naming competition and was adopted soon after, due to the construction of a second light rail line, the Confederation Line, the O-Train name was extended to both rail transit services and the original service was renamed as the Trillium Line. Trains pass each other on the track via three passing zones, two of which are between stations and the third of which is located at Carleton Station. The Confederation Line, a rail line under construction running east-west from Blair to Tunneys Pasture connecting to a transitway at each terminus. With the exception of three downtown stations, the line will run on the surface. The system uses low-floor diesel multiple unit trains and it is legally considered a mainline railway despite its use for local public transport purposes, and is more like an urban railway rather than a metro or tramway. On July 12,2006, Ottawa City Council voted in favour of awarding the North-South expansion to the Siemens/PCL/Dufferin design team, the proposed extension, which was not undertaken, would have replaced the Trillium Line with an electric tram system running on double track. Much of the route would have run through the undeveloped Riverside South area to allow a new suburb to be constructed in the area south of the airport. The line would not have connected to the airport, the diesel-powered Talents would have been replaced with electric trams more suitable for on-street operation in the downtown area, by the Siemens S70 Avanto. Other bids had proposed the Bombardier Flexity Swift and a Kinki Sharyo tram, the estimated cost of the North-South expansion would have been just under $780 million, making the project the largest in the Citys history since the Rideau Canal project. 4. 5% of the project cost was expected to come from the property tax base. The City also requested studies on an extension of the railway from the proposed University of Ottawa terminus through to Hurdman Station, the north-south expansion planning process became a source of great controversy. It was an issue in the 2006 municipal election. The incumbent mayor Bob Chiarelli had long been the main advocate for rail in Ottawa. He called for the light rail project to be scrapped. Mayoral candidate Alex Munter supported light rail, but argued that the plan would do little to meet Ottawas transit needs and he wanted to cut the Barrhaven leg, and start work on an East-West line
24.
Ukrainian people
–
Ukrainians are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine, which is by total population the sixth-largest nation in Europe. The Constitution of Ukraine applies the term Ukrainians to all its citizens, also among historical names of the people of Ukraine Rusyns, Cossacks, etc. can be found. According to some definitions, a descriptive name for the inhabitants of Ukraine is Ukrainian or Ukrainian people. Belarusians and Russians are considered among the bloodline of Ukrainians, while Rusyns are another closely related group, the ethnonym Ukrainians became widely accepted only in the 20th century after their territory obtained distinctive statehood in 1917. People of these territories were usually called Rus or Rusyns, the Ukrainian language appeared in the 14th – 16th centuries, but at that time, it was mostly known as Ruthenian, like its brothers. In the 16th – 17th centuries, with the establishment of the Zaporizhian Sich, however, the ethnonym Ukrainians and the linguonym Ukrainian were used only occasionally, and the people of Ukraine usually continued to call themselves and their language Ruthenian. This official name did not spread widely among the peasantry constituted the majority of the population. Ukrainian peasants still referred to their country as Ukraine and to themselves, in areas outside the control of the Russian/Soviet state until the mid-20th century, Ukrainians were known by their pre-existing names for much longer. The modern name derives from Ukrayina, a name first documented in 1187. Several scientific theories attempt to explain the etymology of the term, according to some new alternative Ukrainian historians such as Hryhoriy Pivtorak, Vitaly Sklyarenko and other scholars, translate the term u-kraine as in-land, home-land or our-country. The name in this context derives from the word u-kraina in the sense of domestic region, in the last few centuries the population of Ukraine experienced periods of Polonization and Russification, but preserved a common culture and a sense of common identity. Most ethnic Ukrainians live in Ukraine, where make up over three-quarters of the population. The inhabitants of the Kuban, for example, have vacillated among three identities, Ukrainian, Russian, and Cossack, approximately 800,000 people of Ukrainian ancestry live in the Russian Far East in an area known historically as Green Ukraine. According to some assumptions, an estimated number of almost 2.1 million people of Ukrainian origin live in North America. Large numbers of Ukrainians live in Brazil, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Poland, Argentina, Belarus, Portugal, there are also Ukrainian diasporas in the UK, Australia, Germany, Latvia, Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Ireland, Sweden and the former Yugoslavia. Today, large ethnic Ukrainian minorities reside in Russia, Canada, Ukrainians have one of the largest diasporas in the world. The East Slavs emerged from the undifferentiated early Slavs with the Slavic migrations in the 6th and 7th centuries CE, the East Slavs were united in the Kievan Rus during the 9th to 13th centuries. East Slavic tribes cited as proto-Ukrainian include the Volhynians, Derevlianians, Polianians, and Siverianians and the less significant Ulychians, Tivertsians, the Gothic historian Jordanes and 6th-century Byzantine authors named two groups that lived in the south-east of Europe, Sclavins and Antes
25.
Rahachow
–
Rahachow is a town in the Gomel Region of Belarus. It is center of Rahachow District, Rahachow is located at 53°6′N 30°3′E, between the Drut and Dnieper rivers. The town is first mentioned in 1142 in Russian chronicles, from the late thirteenth century it was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1772 the Rahachow district was annexed by the Russian Empire, on 16 July 1863 the local landowner Tomasz Hryniewicz was executed here by a Russian firing squad for leading the Rahachow detachment of Polish insurgents. During World War II, Rahachow was occupied by the German Army from July 2,1941 to July 13,1941, the notable Rabbi, Yosef Rosen, known as the Rogatchover Gaon, was born and raised here. The artist Anatoli Lvovich Kaplan was born and brought up here, Rahachow also has a popular dairy product factory in it, whose products are supplied across Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus
26.
Moscow Oblast
–
Moscow Oblast, or Podmoskovye, is a federal subject of Russia. With a population of 7,095,120 living in an area of 44,300 square kilometers, the oblast has no official administrative center, its public authorities are located in Moscow and across other locations in the oblast. In the center stands the city of Moscow, which is a separate federal subject in its own right. The oblast is highly industrialized, with its main branches being metallurgy, oil refining, and mechanical engineering, food, energy. The oblast is flat, with some hills with the height of about 160 meters in the western. The western and northern parts of the oblast contain the Moscow Uplands and their average height peaks at about 300 meters near Dmitrov and the upper point of 310 meters lies near the village of Shapkino in Mozhaysky District. The northern part of the Moscow Uplands is steeper than the southern part, the uplands contain lakes of glacial origin, such as Lakes Nerskoye and Krugloye. To the north of the Moscow Uplands lies the alluvial Verhnevolzhsk Depression, It is marshy, to the south stretches a hilly area of the Moskvoretsko-Oksk plain. Its greatest height of 254 meters lies in the area of Tyoply Stan, the plain has clearly defined river valleys, especially in the south parts, and occasional karst relief, mostly in Serpukhovsky District. In the extreme south, after the Oka River, lies the Central Russian Upland and it contains numerous gullies and ravines and has average height above 200 m with the maximum of 236 m near Pushchino. Most of the part of Moscow Oblast is taken by the vast Meshchera Lowlands with much wetland in their eastern part. Their highest hill peaks at 214 meters but the heights are 120–150 meters. Most lakes of the lowlands, such as Lakes Chyornoye and Svyatoye, are of glacial origin, here lies the lowest natural elevation of the region, the water level of Oka River at 97 meters. Moscow Oblast is located in the part of the East European craton. Like all cratons, the latter is composed of the crystalline basement, the basement consists of Archaean and Proterozoic rocks and the cover is deposited in the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. The lowest depth of the basement is to the south of Serebryanye Prudy, in the south area of the oblast. Tertiary deposits are almost absent within the oblast, significantly more abundant are deposits of the Carboniferous and Jurassic periods. In the Cretaceous period, a sea was covering Moscow Oblast, as evidenced by phosphate deposits, Cretaceous sediments are most common in the north of the oblast
27.
Main Intelligence Directorate
–
Main Intelligence Agency, abbreviated GRU, is the foreign military intelligence agency of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. The official full name is Main Intelligence Agency of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation and it is also known as GRU GSh. The GRU is Russias largest foreign intelligence agency, in 1997 it deployed six times as many agents in foreign countries as the SVR, the successor of the KGBs foreign operations directorate. It also commanded 25,000 Spetsnaz troops in 1997, in January 1810 The Expedition for Secret Affairs under the War Ministry was formed. Two years later it was renamed the Special Bureau, in 1815 the bureau became the First Department under the General Chief of Staff. In 1836 the intelligence functions were transferred to the Second Department under the General Chief of Staff, after many name changes through the years, in April 1906 the Military intelligence was carried out by the Fifth Department under the General Chief of Staff of the War Ministry. In November 5,1918 the Imperial Military intelligence was replaced by the Main Intelligence Directorate of the Soviet Union, in May 1992 the GRU was dissolved and became part of the new Russian Ministry of Defense. In 2006 the GRU moved to a new Headquarters complex at Khoroshovskoye Shosse, in April 2009, President Dmitry Medvedev fired then-GRU head Valentin Korabelnikov, who had helmed the GRU since 1997, reportedly over Korabelnikovs objections to proposed reforms. In 2010 GRU changed its name to Main Directorate of the Russian General Chief of Staff, the GRU gathers human intelligence through military attaches and foreign agents. It also maintains significant signals intelligence and imagery reconnaissance and satellite imagery capabilities, GRU Space Intelligence Directorate has put more than 130 SIGINT satellites into orbit. GRU and KGB SIGINT network employed about 350,000 specialists, the American leaders will be easily assassinated using the suitcase bombs, according to Lunev. GRU is one of the instructors of terrorists worldwide according to Lunev. Terrorist Shamil Basayev reportedly worked for this organization, US Congressman Curt Weldon supported claims by Lunev but noted that Lunev had exaggerated things according to the FBI. This spy network was managed from Armenia by GRU Colonel Anatoly Sinitsin, a few days later the arrested officers were handed over to Russia through the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. GRU special forces soldiers have appeared in Aleppo and Homs. GRU officials have also visited Qamishli, near the border with Turkey, since the mid-1970s the GRU has maintained a satellite communications interception post near Andreyevka, located approximately fifty miles from Spassk-Dalny, Primorsky Krai. Dmitry Kozak and Vladislav Surkov, members of the Vladimir Putin administration, two Chechen former warlords Said-Magomed Kakiev and Sulim Yamadayev are commanders of Special Battalions Vostok and Zapad that are controlled by the GRU. The battalions each included close to a thousand fighters until their disbandment in 2008, approximately 300 commandos, intelligence officers and other GRU personnel died during the fighting in Chechnya
28.
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
–
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police is both a federal and a national police force of Canada. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police was formed in 1920 by the merger of the Royal Northwest Mounted Police with the Dominion Police, the former was originally named the North-West Mounted Police, and was given the Royal prefix by King Edward VII in 1904. The RCMP-GRC wording is protected under the Trade-marks Act, larger cities may form their own municipal police departments. The two most populous provinces, Ontario and Quebec, maintain provincial forces, the Ontario Provincial Police, the other eight provinces contract policing responsibilities to the RCMP. The RCMP provides front-line policing in those provinces under the direction of the provincial governments, when Newfoundland joined the confederation in 1949, the RCMP entered the province and absorbed the then Newfoundland Ranger Force, which patrolled most of Newfoundlands rural areas. The Royal Newfoundland Constabulary patrols urban areas of the province, in the territories, the RCMP is the sole territorial police force. Many municipalities throughout Canada contract to the RCMP, thus, the RCMP polices at the federal, provincial, and municipal level. It is the police force of any sort in several areas of Canada. The RCMP is responsible for an unusually large breadth of duties, under their federal mandate, the RCMP police throughout Canada, including Ontario and Quebec. Under provincial and municipal contracts the RCMP provides front-line policing in all areas outside of Ontario, there are detachments located in small villages in the far north, remote First Nations reserves, and rural towns, but also larger cities such as Surrey, British Columbia. There, support units investigate for their own detachments, and smaller municipal police forces, investigations include major crimes, homicides, forensic identification, collision forensics, police dogs, emergency response teams, explosives disposal, and undercover operations. CSIS is not part of the RCMP, but is its own entity, Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald first began planning a permanent force to patrol the North-West Territories after the Dominion of Canada purchased the territory from the Hudsons Bay Company. Reports from Army officers surveying the territory led to the recommendation that a force of between 100 to 150 mounted riflemen could maintain law and order. The Prime Minister first announced the force as the North West Mounted Rifles, however, officials in the United States raised concerns that an armed force along the border was a prelude to a military buildup. Macdonald then renamed the force the North-West Mounted Police when formed in 1873, the force added Royal to its name in 1904. It merged with the Dominion Police, the police force for all points east of Manitoba. As part of its security and intelligence functions, the RCMP infiltrated ethnic or political groups considered to be dangerous to Canada. This included the Communist Party of Canada, but also a variety of minority cultural, the force was also deeply involved in immigration matters, and especially deportations of suspected radicals
29.
Department of Justice (Canada)
–
The purpose of the Department of Justice is to ensure that the Canadian justice system is fair, accessible and efficient. The department represents the Canadian government in legal matters, almost all lawyers in the federal government are employed by Justice and are dispatched to manage the legal affairs of the other departments and agencies. While the role of the Minister existed since 1867, the department was not created until 1868, the headquarters of the Department of Justice is located at St. Andrews Tower, a modern low rise office tower built in 1987. The current Minister of Justice is Jody Wilson-Raybould. C, the Crown Law Department, Canada East became the new Department of the Militia, following its former Attorney General, George-Étienne Cartier. The Department of Justice came into being in May 1868, when the Department of Justice Act was passed by Parliament, the Act formally recognized the informal structure that was already in place. The new Department of Justice had only seven staff, two barristers-at-law, a clerk and shorthand writer, a clerk, a clerk articling under Macdonald. The legal branch of the department remained relatively small for many years, as late as 1939, the Department employed only seven lawyers. The departments first woman lawyer, Henrietta Bourque, was hired in 1939, in the 25 years between 1939 and 1964, only five female lawyers were hired by the department. In 1962, however, these departmental lawyers were brought together in a legal service. Although many lawyers still work closely with government departments in department legal services units. Regional offices were opened in Montreal, Toronto, Vancouver, Winnipeg, Halifax, Edmonton, Saskatoon, the Northwest Territories, the Department of Justice co-chaired the Interdepartmental Working Group on Trafficking in Persons with the Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development from 1999 until 2012. The department employs 5,000 people, nearly half of whom are lawyers, former Prime Minister Stephen Harper called for plans to create a Director of Public Prosecution as an independent role to deal with criminal cases involving government and public officials. Supreme Court of Canada Criminal Code Young Offenders Act Department of Justice Canada Department of Justice Canada
30.
Camp X
–
Camp X was the unofficial name of the secret Special Training School No. 103, a Second World War paramilitary installation for training agents in the methods required for success in clandestine operations. It was located on the shore of Lake Ontario between Whitby and Oshawa in Ontario, Canada. The area is today as Intrepid Park, after the code name for Sir William Stephenson Director of British Security Coordination who established the program to create the training facility. The facility was operated by the Canadian military, with help from Foreign Affairs. In addition to the program, the Camp had a communications tower that could send and transmit radio and telegraph communications. Established December 6,1941, the facility closed before the end of 1944, the buildings were removed in 1969. Communication training, including Morse code, was also provided, the camp was so secret that even Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie-King was unaware of its full purpose. The camp was designed to link Britain and the US at a time when the US was forbidden by the Neutrality Act to be directly involved in World War II. Agents from the FBI and the Office of Strategic Services secretly attended Camp X in early 1942, after William Stephenson established the facility and acted as the Camps first head, the first commandant was Lt. Col. Arthur Terence Roper-Caldbeck. The CIA even named their training facility The Farm, a nod to the original farm that existed at the Camp X site. Camp X was jointly operated by the BSC and the Government of Canada, there were several names for the school, S 25-1-1 by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Project-J by the Canadian military, and Special Training School No.103. The latter was set by the Special Operations Executive, administered under the cover of the Ministry of Economic Warfare which operated the facility, in 1942 the Commandant of the camp was Lieutenant R. M. Brooker of the British Army. In addition to operating an excellent document forging facility, Camp X trained numerous Allied covert operatives, an estimate published by the CBC states that By war’s end, between 500 and 2,000 Allied agents had been trained and sent abroad. Reports indicate that graduates worked as agents, security personnel, intelligence officers, or psychological warfare experts. Many were captured, tortured, and executed, survivors received no recognition for their efforts. The predominant close-combat trainer for the British Special Operations Executive was William E. Fairbairn, with instructor Eric A. Sykes, they trained numerous agents for the SOE and OSS. Fairbairns technique was Get down in the gutter, and win at all costs … no more playing fair … to kill or be killed, another group operated Station M for developing and making covert devices for the British Security Coordination
31.
MI5
–
MI5 is directed by the Joint Intelligence Committee, and the service is bound by the Security Service Act 1989. The service is directed to protect British parliamentary democracy and economic interests, within the civil service community the service is colloquially known as Box 500. The service has had a headquarters at Thames House on Millbank in London since 1995. Thames House was, until March 2013, shared with the Northern Ireland Office and is home to the Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre. The service has offices across the United Kingdom including an HQ in Northern Ireland, details of the northern operations centre in Greater Manchester were revealed by the firm who built it. The Security Service comes under the authority of the Home Secretary within the Cabinet, the service is directed by the Joint Intelligence Committee for intelligence operational priorities. It liaises with SIS, GCHQ, DIS, and a number of bodies within the British government. Judicial oversight of the conduct is exercised by the Investigatory Powers Tribunal. Information held by the service is exempt from disclosure under section 23 of the Freedom of Information Act 2000, all employees of the service are bound by the Official Secrets Act. The current Director General is Andrew Parker, who succeeded Jonathan Evans on 22 April 2013, the service marked its centenary in 2009 by publishing an official history, written by Christopher Andrew, Professor of Modern and Contemporary History at Cambridge University. The Bureau was split into naval and army sections which, over time, specialised in foreign target espionage and this specialisation was a result of the Admiralty intelligence requirements related to the maritime strength of the Imperial German Navy. The founding head of the Army section was Vernon Kell of the South Staffordshire Regiment and its role was originally quite restricted, existing purely to ensure national security through counter-espionage. These arrests have provoked recent historical controversy and this view has been challenged by Nicholas Hiley who has asserted that it is a complete fabrication. In 2006 his article Entering the Lists was published in the journal Intelligence, Hiley was sent an advance copy of the official history and objected to the retelling of the story. He later wrote another article, Re-entering the Lists, which asserted that the list of those published in the official history was concocted from later case histories. After this auspicious start, the history of MI5 becomes darker and it was consistently successful throughout the rest of the 1910s and 1920s in its core counter-espionage role. Throughout World War 1, Germany continued trying to infiltrate Britain but MI5 was able to identify most, if not all, MI5 used a method that depended on strict control of entry and exit to the country and, crucially, large-scale inspection of mail. In post-war years, attention turned to attempts by the Soviet Union, MI5s expertise, combined with the early incompetence of the Soviets, meant the bureau was successful once more in correctly identifying and closely monitoring these activities
32.
Secret Intelligence Service
–
The Secret Intelligence Service, commonly known as MI6, is the foreign intelligence agency of the British government. The SIS Chief is held accountable to the Foreign Secretary, SIS is bound by the Intelligence Services Act 1994. The name MI6 was used as a flag of convenience during the First World War when it was known by many names, the existence of the SIS was not officially acknowledged until 1994. It forms a part of the UKs intelligence machinery alongside GCHQ, MI5, in late 2010, the head of SIS delivered what he said was the first public address by a serving chief of the agency in its then 101-year history. The remarks of Sir John Sawers primarily focused on the relationship between the need for secrecy and the goal of maintaining security within the UK and his remarks acknowledged the tensions caused by secrecy in an era of leaks and pressure for ever-greater disclosure. Since 1995, the SIS headquarters have been at Vauxhall Cross on the South Bank of the River Thames, the service derived from the Secret Service Bureau, which was founded in 1909. The bureau was split into naval and army sections which, over time, specialised in foreign espionage and internal counter-espionage activities and this specialisation was because the Admiralty wanted to know the maritime strength of the Imperial German Navy. This specialisation was formalised before 1914 and its first director was Captain Sir George Mansfield Smith-Cumming, who often dropped the Smith in routine communication. He typically signed correspondence with his initial C in green ink and this usage evolved as a code name, and has been adhered to by all subsequent directors of SIS when signing documents to retain anonymity. The services performance during the First World War was mixed, because it was unable to establish a network in Germany itself, most of its results came from military and commercial intelligence collected through networks in neutral countries, occupied territories, and Russia. After the war, resources were reduced but during the 1920s. In August 1919, Cumming created the new passport control department, the post of Passport Control Officer provided operatives with diplomatic immunity. Circulating Sections established intelligence requirements and passed the intelligence back to its consumer departments, mainly the War Office, the debate over the future structure of British Intelligence continued at length after the end of hostilities but Cumming managed to engineer the return of the Service to Foreign Office control. In the immediate post-war years under Sir George Mansfield Smith-Cumming and throughout most of the 1920s, SIS was focused on Communism, in particular, Russian Bolshevism. Smith-Cumming died suddenly at his home on 14 June 1923, shortly before he was due to retire, an economic intelligence section, Section VII, to deal with trade, industrial and contraband. A clandestine radio communications organisation, Section VIII, to communicate with operatives, Section N to exploit the contents of foreign diplomatic bags Section D to conduct political covert actions and paramilitary operations in time of war. Section D would organise the Home Defence Scheme resistance organisation in the UK, with the emergence of Germany as a threat following the ascendence of the Nazis, in the early 1930s attention was shifted in that direction. Sinclair died in 1939, after an illness, and was replaced as C by Lt Col. Stewart Menzies, the extensive double-cross system run by MI5 to feed misleading intelligence to the Germans Imagery intelligence activities conducted by the RAF Photographic Reconnaissance Unit
33.
Commonwealth of Nations
–
The Commonwealth of Nations, also known as simply the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of 52 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire. The Commonwealth dates back to the century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which established the states as free. The symbol of free association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen is also the monarch of 16 members of the Commonwealth, the other Commonwealth members have different heads of state,31 members are republics and five are monarchies with a different monarch. Member states have no obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their values of democracy, free speech, human rights. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games, the Commonwealth covers more than 29,958,050 km2, 20% of the worlds land area, and spans all six inhabited continents. She declared, So, it marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations. As long ago as 1884, however, Lord Rosebery, while visiting Australia, had described the changing British Empire—as some of its colonies became more independent—as a Commonwealth of Nations. Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887, the Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. Newfoundland never did, as on 16 February 1934, with the consent of its parliament, Newfoundland later joined Canada as its 10th province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified the Statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively, after World War II ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, there remain the 14 British overseas territories still held by the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following the London Declaration, the word British was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature, burma and Aden are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Hoped for success was reinforced by such achievements as climbing Mount Everest in 1953, breaking the four minute mile in 1954, however, the humiliation of the Suez Crisis of 1956 badly hurt morale of Britain and the Commonwealth as a whole. More broadly, there was the loss of a role of the British Empire. That role was no longer militarily or financially feasible, as Britains withdrawal from Greece in 1947 painfully demonstrated, Britain itself was now just one part of the NATO military alliance in which the Commonwealth had no role apart from Canada
34.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
–
The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U. S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, although many of the FBIs functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence. Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint and these overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a domestic function. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation and its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, in the fiscal year 2012, the Bureaus total budget was approximately $8.12 billion. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created an urgent perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, the Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the breakage of the Oregon land fraud scandal at approximately the turn of the 20th Century, President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for personnel, on May 27,1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelts urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Investigation was created on July 26,1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including veterans of the Secret Service. Its first Chief was Stanley Finch, Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureaus first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the White Slave Traffic Act, or Mann Act, in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition, in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI. J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure
35.
Central Intelligence Agency
–
As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
36.
Prime Minister of Canada
–
Canadian prime ministers are styled as The Right Honourable, a privilege maintained for life. The office and its functions are instead governed by constitutional conventions, the prime minister, along with the other ministers in cabinet, is appointed by the governor general on behalf of the monarch. There are no age or citizenship restrictions on the position of prime minister itself, while there is no legal requirement for the prime minister to be a member of parliament, for practical and political reasons the prime minister is expected to win a seat very promptly. However, in rare circumstances individuals who are not sitting members of the House of Commons have been appointed to the position of prime minister, two former prime ministers—Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott and Sir Mackenzie Bowell—served in the 1890s while members of the Senate. Both, in their roles as Government Leader in the Senate, succeeded prime ministers who had died in office—John A. Macdonald in 1891 and that convention has since evolved toward the appointment of an interim leader from the commons in such a scenario. Prime ministers who are not Members of Parliament upon their appointment have since been expected to seek election to the commons as soon as possible. For example, William Lyon Mackenzie King, after losing his seat in the 1925 federal election, Turner was the last serving prime minister to not hold a commons seat. The Canadian prime minister serves at Her Majestys pleasure, meaning the post does not have a fixed term, once appointed and sworn in by the governor general, the prime minister remains in office until he or she resigns, is dismissed, or dies. Following parliamentary dissolution, the prime minister must run in the general election if he or she wishes to maintain a seat in the House of Commons. Should the prime ministers party subsequently win a majority of seats in the House of Commons, if, however, an opposition party wins a majority of seats, the prime minister may resign or be dismissed by the governor general. This option was last entertained in 1925, however, the function of the prime minister has evolved with increasing power. Caucuses may choose to follow rules, though the decision would be made by recorded vote. Either the sovereign or his or her viceroy may therefore oppose the prime ministers will in extreme, for transportation, the prime minister is granted an armoured car and shared use of two official aircraft—a CC-150 Polaris for international flights and a Challenger 601 for domestic trips. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police also furnish constant personal security for the prime minister, all of the aforementioned is supplied by the Queen-in-Council through budgets approved by parliament, as is the prime ministers annual salary of CAD$170,400. Should a serving or former prime minister die, he or she is accorded a state funeral, John Thompson also died outside Canada, at Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria permitted his lying-in-state before his body was returned to Canada for a state funeral in Halifax. In earlier years, it was traditional for the monarch to bestow a knighthood on newly appointed Canadian prime ministers. Accordingly, several carried the prefix Sir before their name, of the first eight premiers of Canada, the Canadian Heraldic Authority has granted former prime ministers an augmentation of honour on the personal coat of arms of those who pursued them. To date, former prime ministers Joe Clark, Pierre Trudeau, John Turner, Brian Mulroney, the written form of address for the prime minister should use his or her full parliamentary title, The Right Honourable, Prime Minister of Canada
37.
Norman Robertson
–
Norman Alexander Robertson, CC was a Canadian diplomat and was one of Prime Minister Mackenzie Kings advisers. Born in Vancouver, British Columbia, he was educated at the University of British Columbia and was a Rhodes Scholar attending Balliol College, in 1929 he started with the Department of External Affairs. In 1941, he became Under Secretary of State for External Affairs. C, in 1967, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. Robertson is buried at Maclaren Cemetery in Wakefield, Quebec, Robertson is buried at the same cemetery as fellow diplomats and friends Hume Wrong and Lester B. Norman Alexander Robertson at The Canadian Encyclopedia
.svg)
Ottawa portal
