1.
Housing in India
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Housing in India varies from palaces of erstwhile maharajas in Rajasthan to modern apartment buildings in big cities to tiny huts in far-flung villages. There has been growth in Indias housing sector as incomes have risen. With modernization there is a number of nuclear families, in which each couple occupies its own house after marriage. It is still rare, albeit not impossible, amongst traditional communities for senior citizens to live alone and it is extremely rare even in urban areas for couples to live together before marriage. Some single young adults live in dormitories or in shared accommodation during college. The life-style in villages takes advantage of the warm weather, many families bathe outdoors in rivers and ponds. Most of the day is spent outdoors around or near the house, cooking is conducted outdoors in earthen stoves powered by organic fuels or in modern kerosene stoves. Water is obtained from hand-drawn wells, consequently, they use their indoor space primarily to sleep, change and, in electrified homes, to watch TV. According to the Times of India, a majority of Indians have per capita space equivalent to or less than a 10 feet x 10 feet room for their living, sleeping, cooking, washing and toilet needs. The average is 103 sq ft per person in areas and 117 sq ft per person in urban areas. 44 percent of households have access to electricity. Although cities have better facilities than villages, except for the major metros, states such as Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and others provides continuous power supply. Some 400 million Indians do not have access to a proper toilet, the national and state governments are running programs, some funded by the World Bank, to improve conditions. Bharat Nirman is targeting clean water, the Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission is building public toilets, the private sector, including companies such as Tata, have started to enter the low-income residential projects. In 2013, the Government of India and National Housing Bank borrowed US $100 million to fund their Low Income Housing Finance project, the money will be loaned to low income residents who wish to purchase or renovate a home. Highly desirable neighborhoods such as Colaba, Malabar Hill, Marine Drive, Bandra and Juhu house professionals, industrialists, Bollywood movie stars, up-scale flats have 3 or more bedrooms, ocean views, tasteful interior decoration, parking for luxury cars and sleeping quarters for maids and cooks. Only a tiny fraction of people in Mumbai live in these luxury high-rises, in 2007, Mumbai condominiums were the priciest in the developing world at around US$9,000 to US$10,200 per square metre. Mumbai has more than 1,500 high rise buildings, many of which are just planned, despite the recent economic growth, there is still vast poverty, unemployment and therefore poor housing conditions for a huge section of the population
2.
Wadala
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Wadala is a locality in Mumbai. Wadala Road is a station on the Harbour Line of Mumbais railway network, SNDT Womens University, Dr. Ambedkar Commerce & Law College also has a campus in Wadala West. The local college of Wadala is SIWS near the Wadala station, the largest bus depot in Mumbai, BESTs Wadala depot, is located here. It also houses one of Indias most renowned eye hospitals, Aditya Jyot Eye Hospital along with the BPT Hospital, the Ackworth Leprosy Hospital was established during British rule, and part of its complex is now given to an AIDS awareness organisation as well. The worlds first methane generation plant was set up in the Ackworth hospital complex, Wadala village lay on one of the Seven Islands of Bombay that were joined together to form the modern day Mumbai. The island was called by different names, Parel, Matunga. The Dadar-Matunga-Wadala-Sion scheme of 1899-1900 was the first planned scheme in Bombay. According to the plan,85,000 people were to be accommodated in the developments in Wadala. The plans regulated constructions with emphasis on proper sanitation, buildings were to be three storeys high, and were to have open spaces between them. The land-use was planned to be a mix of residential, commercial and institutional constructions, parks and gardens were planned, and the streets were well laid out. 440 acres of land was procured and leased to the Government for selling, for the first time housing cooperatives were formed to take advantage of newly developed land. The Parsi and Hindu colonies in Dadar-Wadala were developed in this way, in 1915 the Port Trust Railway opened the Wadala Ballard Pier railway line. Petrol and kerosene installations also came up in Wadala, the Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute moved to its present campus at Wadala in 1923. The Institute of Chemical Technology was established in Wadala in 1934, during the Civil Disobedience Movement, the Wadala Salt Works was raided by around 1,500 volunteers of the Congress party on June 1,1930. The incident occurred after an appeal was made in the Congress Bulletin of May 31, the government reacted quickly and 11 women were detained. Wadala was once considered a suburb of the city of Mumbai. The area is bordered by Dadar on the West, Matunga on the Northwest, the western areas of Wadala are covered by salt pans, which are on the shores of the Thane creek. On the Eastern border of Wadala, MMRDA has planned to construct a truck terminus, Mumbai will have for the first time a centralized facility for the transport of goods by road
3.
Slum
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A slum is a heavily populated urban informal settlement characterized by substandard housing and squalor. While slums differ in size and other characteristics, most lack reliable sanitation services, supply of water, reliable electricity, law enforcement. Slum residences vary from shanty houses to professionally built dwellings that because of poor-quality construction or provision of services have deteriorated into slums, Slums were common in the 18th to early 20th centuries in the United States and Europe. More recently slums have been found in urban regions of developing and undeveloped parts of the world. According to UN-Habitat, around 33% of the population in the developing world in 2012, or about 863 million people. Among individual countries, the proportion of residents living in slum areas in 2009 was highest in the Central African Republic. Between 1990 and 2010 the percentage of people living in slums dropped, the worlds largest slum city is in Mexico City. Slums form and grow in different parts of the world for many different reasons. Some causes include rapid rural-to-urban migration, economic stagnation and depression, high unemployment, poverty, informal economy, poor planning, politics, natural disasters and social conflicts. It is thought that slum is a British slang word from the East End of London meaning room, Slums were common in the United States and Europe before the early 20th century. Slums are now associated with Victorian Britain, particularly in industrial English towns, lowland Scottish towns. Engels described these British neighborhoods as cattle-sheds for human beings and these were generally still inhabited until the 1940s, when the government started slum clearance and built new council houses. There are still many left of former slum housing in the UK. By the 1920s it had become a slang expression in England, meaning either various taverns and eating houses, loose talk or gypsy language. In Life in London Pierce Egan used the word in the context of the slums of Holy Lane or St Giles. A footnote defined slum to mean low, unfrequent parts of the town, charles Dickens used the word slum in a similar way in 1840, writing I mean to take a great, London, back-slum kind walk tonight. Slum began to be used to describe bad housing soon after and was used as alternative expression for rookeries and this passage was widely quoted in the national press, leading to the popularisation of the word slum to describe bad housing. In France as in most industrialised European capitals, slums were widespread in Paris and other areas in the 19th century
4.
Government of Maharashtra
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The Government of Maharashtra is the government for the state of Maharashtra in Western India. It is a government with 288 MLAs elected to the legislative assembly for a five-year term. Maharashtra has a bicameral legislature i. e. it consists of two houses, Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad, as is the case in a parliamentary system, the government is formed by the party, alliance or group of assembly members who command the majority. The leader of the majority in assembly becomes the Chief Minister, from the formation of the state in 1960, the Congress party or Congress-led alliance have ruled the state for the major part. Non-Congress government was first formed in 1978, then in 1995 with Shivsena-BJP alliance, as of 8 July 2016, the government of Maharashtra consists of 23 cabinet ministers and 16 ministers of state
5.
Shanty town
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A shanty town or squatter area is a settlement of improvised housing, called shanties or shacks, made of plywood, corrugated metal, sheets of plastic, and cardboard boxes. Such settlements are found on the periphery of cities, in public parks, or near railroad tracks, rivers. Shanty towns are found in developing nations, but also in some parts of developed nations. Shanty is probably from Canadian French chantier, a station established for the organization of lumberjacks. Another possible derivation is from the Irish language sean tí meaning old house, hutment means an encampment of huts. When the term is used by the military, it means temporary living quarters specially built by the army for soldiers, the term is also a synonym for shanty town, particularly in developing countries. Since construction is informal and unguided by urban planning, there is no formal street grid, house numbers. Even if these resources are present, they are likely to be disorganized, unreliable, shanty towns also tend to lack basic services present in more formally organized settlements, including policing, mail delivery, medical services, and fire fighting. A sweeping fire on the hills of Shek Kip Mei, Hong Kong, in late 1953 left 53,000 dwellers homeless, shanty towns have high rates of crime, suicide, drug use, and disease. Stewart Brand has also written, more recently, that cities are Green. They have maximum density—a million people per mile in Mumbai—and minimum energy. People get around by foot, bicycle, rickshaw, or the shared taxi. Not everything is efficient in the slums, though, in the Brazilian favelas where electricity is stolen and therefore free, Jan Chipchase from Nokia found that people leave their lights on all day. In most slums recycling is literally a way of life, shanty towns are present in a number of countries. The largest shanty town in Asia is Orangi in Karachi, Pakistan, in francophone countries, shanty towns are referred to as bidonvilles, such countries include Tunisia and Haiti. Other countries with shanty towns include South Africa or imijondolo, Kenya, the Philippines, Venezuela, Brazil, Argentina, West Indies such as Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and Peru. In Russia, shanty towns - called truščóba - are present in cities as well in Chelobityevo outside Moscow. There is also a major shanty town population in such as Bangladesh
6.
Squatting
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Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential—that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. Author Robert Neuwirth suggested in 2004 that there were one billion squatters globally and he forecasts there will be two billion by 2030 and three billion by 2050. Yet, according to Kesia Reeve, squatting is largely absent from policy and academic debate and is rarely conceptualised, as a problem, as a symptom, Squatting can be related to political movements, such as anarchist, autonomist, or socialist. It can be a means to conserve buildings or to provide housing, while these settlements may, in time, grow to become both legalised and indistinguishable from normal residential neighbourhoods, they start off as squats with minimal basic infrastructure. Thus, there is no sewage system, drinking water must be bought from vendors or carried from a nearby tap, besides being residences, some squats are used as social centres or host give-away shops, pirate radio stations or cafés. In Spanish-speaking countries, squatters receive several names, such as okupas in Spain, Chile or Argentina, Squatting by necessity is in itself a political issue, therefore also a statement or rather a response to the political system causing it. During the period of recession and increased housing foreclosures in the 2000s, squatting became far more prevalent in Western. In some cases, need-based and politically motivated squatting go hand in hand, conservational – i. e. preserving monuments because the authorities have let them decay Political – e. g. Property law and the state have traditionally favored the property owner, however, in many cases where squatters had de facto ownership, laws have been changed to legitimize their status. Anarchist Colin Ward comments, Squatting is the oldest mode of tenure in the world and this is as true of the Queen with her 176,000 acres as it is of the 54 percent of householders in Britain who are owner-occupiers. They are all the recipients of stolen land, for to regard our planet as a commodity offends every conceivable principle of natural rights. U. K. police official Sue Williams, for example, has stated that Squatting is linked to Anti-Social Behaviour and can cause a great deal of nuisance, in some cases there may also be criminal activities involved. The public attitude toward squatting varies, depending on legal aspects, socioeconomic conditions, in particular, while squatting of municipal buildings may be treated leniently, squatting of private property often leads to strong negative reaction on the part of the public and authorities. Adverse possession is a method of acquiring title to property through possession for a period under certain conditions. Countries where this principle exists include England and the United States, however, some non-common law jurisdictions have laws similar to adverse possession. For example, Louisiana has a doctrine called acquisitive prescription. There are large communities in Kenya, such as Kibera in Nairobi. An estimated 1,000 people live in the Grande Hotel Beira in Mozambique, the Zabbaleen settlement and the City of the Dead are both well-known squatter communities in Cairo
7.
Electricity
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Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence of electric charge. Although initially considered a separate to magnetism, since the development of Maxwells Equations both are recognized as part of a single phenomenon, electromagnetism. Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges, in addition, electricity is at the heart of many modern technologies. The presence of a charge, which can be either positive or negative. On the other hand, the movement of charges, which is known as electric current. When a charge is placed in a location with non-zero electric field, the magnitude of this force is given by Coulombs Law. Thus, if that charge were to move, the field would be doing work on the electric charge. Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Even then, practical applications for electricity were few, and it would not be until the nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry, electricitys extraordinary versatility means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society, long before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the Thunderer of the Nile, Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians. Patients suffering from such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them. Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity. He coined the New Latin word electricus to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed and this association gave rise to the English words electric and electricity, which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Brownes Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646. Further work was conducted by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray, in the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work. In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a key to the bottom of a dampened kite string. A succession of jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature
8.
2013 Thane building collapse
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On 4 April 2013, a building collapsed on tribal land in Mumbra, a suburb of Thane in Maharashtra, India. It has been called the worst building collapse in the area, seventy-four people died, including 18 children,23 women, and 33 men, while more than 100 people survived. The search for survivors ended on 6 April 2013. The building was construction and did not have an occupancy certificate for its 100 to 150 low- to middle-income residents. Living in the building were the construction workers and families. It was reported that the building was constructed because standard practices were not followed for safe, lawful construction, land acquisition. By 11 April, a total of 15 suspects were arrested including builders, engineers, municipal officials, there were also complaints made to state and municipal officials. On 9 April, a campaign began by the Thane Municipal Corporation to demolish area illegal buildings, the forest department said that it will address encroachment of forest land in the Thane district. A call centre was established by the Thane Municipal Corporation to accept, at 6,30 pm IST on 4 April 2013, a building collapsed in the Shil Phata area of Mumbra, a suburb of Thane in Maharashtra, India. First, a section of the building collapsed, it tilted, a witness described the event, The building collapsed like a pack of cards within three to four seconds. According to Hasina Shaikh, a girl who lived on the fifth floor with her family, I had just returned from school and was changing when the building started shaking. When I regained consciousness later, I was in the hospital and she says she considers herself lucky to be alive. One survivor is a 10-month-old girl whose parents had not been found as of 6 April 2013, reuters reported the last survivor was rescued on 5 April, a woman who was found after workers heard her voice and used camera equipment to pinpoint her location under the rubble. Dubbed the miracle survivor, a girl, Sandhya Thakur, was pulled from the wreckage. She was unable to open her eyes, but awoke on 7 April 2013 to the awareness that she had suffered a disaster and her father and six brothers and sisters are missing, Her mother died when the building collapsed. She is physically unharmed, but having a hard time adjusting psychologically, according to Chief Minister Prithviraj Chavan, payments of ₹50,000 will be made to the injured, and a ₹200,000 payment will be made to the next of kin of the deceased. The building containing offices and apartments was under construction for six weeks prior to the disaster, the Times of India reported that Twenty-five tenements on five storeys were complete and the sixth and seventh floors were under construction. Although there was no occupancy certificate, the first four storeys of the building were illegally inhabited by site construction workers, in addition to families of construction workers, there were also families headed by rickshaw drivers and/or those whose children attended tuition classes in the building
9.
Shil Phata, India
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Shil Phata is an area about 5 kilometres south of Mumbra, in the Thane district of Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. Shil Phata is located east of Parsik Hills on the old Mumbai-Pune Road and it was the site of the 2013 Thane building collapse that occurred on 4 April 2013. 72 people were killed and dozens injured in the collapse of an illegal building, Shil Phata was one of the locales within the Thane District where illegal buildings were demolished in 2010. In total more than 300 buildings were razed, see also, Illegal housing in India and Parsik Hill, Illegal Housing section The Mumbra Railway station is located 10 kilometres from Shil Phata in Mumbra. Bus service was started in 2010 through Mumbra-Shilphata bus service, Shil Phata is a proposed route on the Mumbai Monorail line between Mahape and Kalyan
10.
Mumbra
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Mumbra is a town and suburb of Thane district, in the Western Indian state of Maharashtra. It is situated on the confluence Ulhas river into Thane creek, suburban town of Kalwa and Diva are to West and North-east respectively. Mumbra was a shipbuilding center in 600 CE. At that time many Arabs used to travel on the shores of the Konkan area, during their trading with the local businessmen, they used to procure food grains, spices and fruits. To carry the goods they used to order the ships which were constructed in Mumbra, during this period Mumbra was called as UMRA. Later it was named after Mumbra Devi, the deity of Agri. The Mumba Devi goddess temple is situated at the peak of the hill, during the 17th century Mumbra was small village of Koli and Agri. Much of the land around Mumbra was agricultural land until 1975, between 1968 and 1975, Mumbai experienced significant population growth and greater population density. Then, about 1975, Mumbras agricultural land was urbanised and this signaled an expansion of the greater Mumbai area, which realized significant population growth in the 1980s. Wafa Hills A, B, C was one of the first planned Thane Municipal Corporation approved buildings developed in 1990s, which lead the foundation for urbanization in Mumbra. In 1991 there were about 44,000 people, later, it was found that State waqf board using allotted land for cheap renting or unauthorized use. There was also an influx of people from North India about that time, according to Yasin quraishi, a Corporator, Mumbras population is now more than 9 lakh people. About 80% of Mumbras residents are Muslim, Mumbra is located 28 kilometres north east of Mumbai on the western coast of India. It is near Thane – Navi Mumbai – Airoli node via the Old Mumbai Pune Highway, the population of Mumbra is 9 Lakhs in thane urban agglomeration. Majority of the population in Mumbra are Muslims, bus service is available through the Thane Municipal Transport and Navi Mumbai Municipal Transport. Rail service is available at the Mumbra railway station, Mumbra is 29 kilometres from the Mumbai airport. Mumbra experiences typical coastal sultry and humid weather, the rainfall averages between 150 mm —200 mm from the beginning of June through September. The temperature averages between 24–35 °C and the humidity ranges from 45% to 87%, the highest being in the month of August, see also, Thane district climate Mumbras shipbuilding industry dates back to 600CE, the oldest in town, and improved during the Maratha era
11.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
12.
Black economy
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Parties engaging in the production or distribution of prohibited goods and services are members of the illegal economy. Examples include the trade, prostitution, illegal currency transactions. Violations of the tax code involving income tax evasion constitutes membership in the unreported economy, because tax evasion or participation in a black market activity is illegal, participants will attempt to hide their behavior from the government or regulatory authority. Cash usage is the medium of exchange in illegal transactions since cash usage does not leave a footprint. Common motives for operating in markets are to trade contraband, avoid taxes and regulations. Typically the totality of such activity is referred to with the article as a complement to the official economies, by market for such goods and services. Black money is the proceeds of a transaction, on which income and other taxes have not been paid. Because of the nature of the black economy it is not possible to determine its size. There is no single underground economy, there are many and these underground economies are omnipresent, existing in market oriented as well as in centrally planned nations, be they developed or developing. Different types of activities are distinguished according to the particular institutional rules that they violate. Illegal economy participants engage in the production and distribution of prohibited goods and services, such as trafficking, arms trafficking. The unreported economy consists of economic activities that circumvent or evade the institutionally established fiscal rules as codified in the tax code. A summary measure of the economy is the amount of income that should be reported to the tax authority but is not so reported. A complementary measure of the economy is the tax gap. In the U. S. unreported income is estimated to be $2 trillion resulting in a tax gap of $450–$500 billion, the unrecorded economy consists of those economic activities that circumvent the institutional rules that define the reporting requirements of government statistical agencies. A summary measure of the economy is the amount of unrecorded income. Unrecorded income is a problem in transition countries that switched from a socialist accounting system to UN standard national accounting. New methods have been proposed for estimating the size of the unrecorded economy, but there is still little consensus concerning the size of the unreported economies of transition countries
13.
Corruption in India
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Corruption in India is an issue that adversely affects its economy. The country owes its stunted development largely to the rampant corruption, in a study conducted in 2008, Transparency International reported that about 40% of Indians had first hand experience of paying bribes or using contacts to get jobs done in public offices. According to 2016 results of Corruption Perception Index of Transparency International, the largest contributors to the corruption are entitlement programs and social spending schemes enacted by the Indian government. Examples include Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act and National Rural Health Mission, other sources of corruption include Indias trucking industry which is forced to pay billions of rupees in bribes annually to numerous regulatory and police stops on its interstate highway. The media has widely published allegations of corrupt Indian citizens stashing millions of rupees in Swiss banks, Swiss authorities, however, have denied these allegations, which has now been proven in 2015-2016. Besides, the combination of insecurity and stress in day to day living creates greed, there is significant variation in the level of corruption and in the governments efforts to reduce corruption across India. Corruption in India is a problem that has implications for both protecting the rule of law and ensuring access to justice. As of December 2009,120 of Indias 524 parliament members were accused of crimes, taxes and bribes are common between state borders, Transparency International estimates that truckers pay annually ₹222 billion in bribes. Government regulators and police share in bribe money, each to the tune of 43%, the en route stoppages including those at checkpoints and entry-points take up to 11 hours in a day. About 60% of these stoppages on road by concerned authorities such as government regulators, police, forest, sales and excise, octroi, the loss in productivity due to these stoppages is an important national concern. The number of truck trips could increase by 40%, if forced delays are avoided, officials are alleged to steal state property. Corruption caused problems in government funded projects are not limited to the state of Uttar Pradesh, according to The World Bank, aid programmes are beset by corruption, bad administration and under-payments. As an example, the report cites only 40% of grain handed out for the poor reaches its intended target, the World Bank study finds that the public distribution programmes and social spending contracts have proven to be a waste due to corruption. As an example, the government implemented the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act on 25 August 2005, the Central government outlay for this welfare scheme is ₹400 billion in FY 2010–2011. After 5 years of implementation, in 2011, the programme was criticised as no more effective than other poverty reduction programmes in India. In Government Hospitals, corruption is associated with non-availability/duplication of medicines, getting admission, consultations with doctors, National Rural Health Mission is another health care-related government programme that has been subject to large scale corruption allegations. This social spending and entitlement programme hoped to improve care delivery across rural India. The programme has managed since 2005 by the Ministry of Health of the Indian government
14.
Rent control
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Rent regulation is a system of laws, administered by a court or a public authority, which aim to ensure the quality and affordability of housing and tenancies on the rental market for land. Comprehensive rent regulation is common in Commonwealth and European Union countries, including Canada, Germany, Ireland, Cyprus and Sweden, and also some states in the United States. However, many US states maintain rent controls, and a majority of OECD countries maintain rent regulation laws, which enjoy considerable popular support, in Canada there are rent regulation laws in each province. For example, in Ontario the Residential Tenancies Act 2006 requires that prices for rented properties do not rise more than 2.5 percent each year, or a lower figure fixed by a government minister. German rent regulation is found in the Civil Code in §§535 to 580a, rental price increases are required to follow a rental mirror, which is a database of local reference rents. This collects all rents for the past four years, and landlords may only increase prices on their property in line with rents in the same locality, usury rents are prohibited altogether, so that any price rises above 20 per cent over three years are unlawful. Tenants may be evicted against their will through a procedure for a good reason. Tenants receive unlimited duration of their rental agreement unless the duration is explicitly halted, in practice, landlords have little incentive to change tenants as rental price increases beyond inflation are constrained. During the period of the tenancy, a persons tenancy may only be terminated for very good reasons, a system of rights for the rental property to be maintained by the landlord is designed to ensure quality of housing. Many states, such as Berlin, have a right to adequate housing. Rent regulation covered the whole of the UK private sector rental market from 1915 to 1980, however, from the Housing Act 1980, it became the Conservative Partys policy to deregulate and dismantle rent regulation. Regulation for all new tenancies was abolished by the Housing Act 1988, Rent regulations survive among a small number of council houses, and often the rates set by local authorities mirror escalating prices in the non-regulated private market. Rent regulation in the United States is an issue for each state, after the New Deal, the Supreme Court ceased to interfere with social and economic legislation, and a growing number of states adopted rules. For example, in New York City only some properties continue to have the protection of rent regulation, fisher v. City of Berkeley,475 U. S.260 held there was no incompatibility with rent control and the Sherman Act. Price controls remain the most controversial element of a system of rent regulation, historically, economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo viewed landlords as producing very little that was valuable, and so regarded rents as an exploitative concept. Sometimes called rent leveling or rent stabilization, rent regulation is argued to promote social stability by slowing displacement in booming economic cycles and this analysis targeted nominal rent freezes, and the studies conducted were mainly focused on rental prices in Manhattan or elsewhere in the United States. A view at the time was that a well-designed rent control can be beneficial, the Swedish economist Assar Lindbeck, a housing expert, says that rent control appears to be the most efficient technique presently known to destroy a city – except for bombing. English land law R Arnott, ‘Time for Revisionism on Rent Control
15.
Infrastructure
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Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. The word was imported from French, where it means subgrade, the word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra, meaning below, and structure. The military use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s and this crisis discussion contributed to an increase in infrastructure asset management and maintenance planning in the US. Public-policy discussions have been hampered by lack of a definition for infrastructure. A1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the public works infrastructure. The OECD also classifies communications as a part of infrastructure, the American Society of Civil Engineers has not defined the term, though issuing a US Infrastructure Report Card every 2-4 years. Hard infrastructure refers to the physical networks necessary for the functioning of an industrial nation. The term critical infrastructure distinguishes those infrastructure elements that, if damaged or destroyed. Similarly, a booking system might be critical infrastructure for an airline. These elements of infrastructure are the focus of efforts in the aftermath of natural disasters. The term infrastructure may be confused with the following overlapping or related concepts, service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term public works includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as buildings, such as schools. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services, public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by private companies, generally, most roads, major ports and airports, water distribution systems and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for taxes, tolls, or metered user fees. Major investment projects are financed by the issuance of long-term bonds. Government owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the sector or in public-private partnerships. As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2. 3% and 3. 6% of GDP since 1950, many financial institutions invest in infrastructure
16.
Nandan Nilekani
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Nandan Nilekani is an Indian entrepreneur, bureaucrat and politician. He was the Chairman of the Unique Identification Authority of India, after a successful career at Infosys, he headed the Government of Indias technology committee, TAGUP. He is a member of Indian National Congress but not active in politics as of 2015, Nandan Nilekani was born on 2 June 1955 at Bangalore, Karnataka. Nilekanis elder brother, Vijay, works in the Nuclear Energy Institute, Nilekani in 1978 started his career at the Mumbai-based Patni Computer Systems, where he met and was interviewed by N. R. In 1981, Nilekani, Murthy, and five others left Patni to start their own company, before assuming leadership as CEO in 2002, Nilekani held various posts, including managing director, president, and chief operating officer. He served as its CEO from March 2002 to April 2007, during his 5-year tenure as CEO, Infosys topline grew sixfold to $3 billion. As chair of the UIDAI he is responsible for implementing the envisioned Multipurpose National Identity Card and this initiative aims to provide a unique identification number for all residents of India and will be used primarily as the basis for efficient delivery of welfare services. The identification method will be biometric, and the drive to create this government database of the population of India has been called the biggest social project on the planet. He is a member of the board of governors of the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations and he also sits on several advisory boards, including those of the World Economic Forum Foundation and the Bombay Heritage Fund. Nilekani has appeared on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart to promote his book Imagining India, The Idea of a Renewed Nation and spoke at a TED conference in 2009 on his ideas for Indias future. Nilekani joined Indian National Congress in March 2014 and contested from the Bangalore South constituency where he lost by 228,575 votes to BJP candidate Ananth Kumar in the 2014 Lok Sabha election. In December 2016, he joined a committee to investigate how people in India could use digital payments to a greater extent, Nilekani is currently chairman of EkStep, a non-profit literacy and numeracy platform. EkStep intends to do it using gamified apps, hosted in the Google playstore, Nilekani is married to Rohini Nilekani, whom he met at a quizzing event at IIT. They have two children, Nihar and Janhavi, each of whom has received a degree from Yale University. Nandan Nilekani belongs to the Chitrapur Saraswat Brahmin community and his first language is Konkani, in addition to Konkani, he speaks Kannada fluently along with Hindi, Marathi, and English. He was awarded an honorary Doctor of Law degree by the Rotman School of Management at the University of Toronto on 31 May 2011. He received NDTV Indian of the Years Transformational Idea of the Year Award in 2011 He was named Corporate Citizen of the Year at the Asia Business Leaders Award organised by CNBC, joseph Schumpeter Prize for innovative services in economy, economic sciences and politics –2005. In 2009, Time magazine placed Nilekani in the Time 100 list of Worlds Most Influential People Was presented the Legend in Leadership Award by the Yale University in November 2009 and he is the first Indian to receive the top honour
17.
Monopoly
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A monopoly exists when a specific person or enterprise is the only supplier of a particular commodity. The verb monopolise or monopolize refers to the process by which a company gains the ability to raise prices or exclude competitors, in economics, a monopoly is a single seller. In law, a monopoly is an entity that has significant market power, that is. Although monopolies may be big businesses, size is not a characteristic of a monopoly, a small business may still have the power to raise prices in a small industry. A monopoly is distinguished from a monopsony, in there is only one buyer of a product or service. Likewise, a monopoly should be distinguished from a cartel, in which several providers act together to coordinate services, prices or sale of goods. Monopolies, monopsonies and oligopolies are all situations in one or a few entities have market power and therefore interact with their customers. Monopolies can be established by a government, form naturally, or form by integration, in many jurisdictions, competition laws restrict monopolies. A government-granted monopoly or legal monopoly, by contrast, is sanctioned by the state, patents, copyrights, and trademarks are sometimes used as examples of government-granted monopolies. The government may also reserve the venture for itself, thus forming a government monopoly, There are four basic types of market structures in traditional economic analysis, perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly. A monopoly is a structure in which a single supplier produces, if there is a single seller in a certain market and there are no close substitutes for the product, then the market structure is that of a pure monopoly. Sometimes, there are many sellers in an industry and/or there exist many close substitutes for the goods being produced and this is termed monopolistic competition, whereas in oligopoly the companies interact strategically. Most economic textbooks follow the practice of explaining the perfect competition model. The boundaries of what constitutes a market and what does not are relevant distinctions to make in economic analysis, in a general equilibrium context, a good is a specific concept including geographical and time-related characteristics. Most studies of market structure relax a little their definition of a good, price Maker, Decides the price of the good or product to be sold, but does so by determining the quantity in order to demand the price desired by the firm. High Barriers, Other sellers are unable to enter the market of the monopoly, single seller, In a monopoly, there is one seller of the good, who produces all the output. Therefore, the market is being served by a single company, and for practical purposes. Price Discrimination, A monopolist can change the price or quantity of the product and he or she sells higher quantities at a lower price in a very elastic market, and sells lower quantities at a higher price in a less elastic market
18.
Oligopoly
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An oligopoly is a market form in which a market or industry is dominated by a small number of sellers. Oligopolies can result from forms of collusion which reduce competition. Oligopoly has its own market structure, with few sellers, each oligopolist is likely to be aware of the actions of the others. According to game theory, the decisions of one firm therefore influence and are influenced by decisions of other firms, strategic planning by oligopolists needs to take into account the likely responses of the other market participants. Oligopoly is a market form where a number of firms are in competition. As a quantitative description of oligopoly, the concentration ratio is often utilized. This measure expresses, as a percentage, the share of the four largest firms in any particular industry. Oligopolistic competition can give rise to both wide-ranging and diverse outcomes, in some situations, particular companies may employ restrictive trade practices in order to raise inflate prices and restrict production in much the same way that a monopoly does. Whenever there is an agreement for such collusion, between companies that usually compete with one another, this practice is known as a cartel. A prime example of such a cartel is OPEC, which has an influence on the international price of oil. Firms often collude in an attempt to stabilize unstable markets, so as to reduce the risks inherent in these markets for investment, there are legal restrictions on such collusion in most countries. In other situations, competition between sellers in an oligopoly can be fierce, with low prices and high production. This could lead to an efficient outcome approaching perfect competition, the competition in an oligopoly can be greater when there are more firms in an industry than if, for example, the firms were only regionally based and did not compete directly with each other. Thus the welfare analysis of oligopolies is sensitive to the values used to define the markets structure. In particular, the level of dead weight loss is hard to measure, the study of product differentiation indicates that oligopolies might also create excessive levels of differentiation in order to stifle competition. Oligopoly theory makes use of game theory to model the behavior of oligopolies. In this model, the firms move sequentially, in this model, the firms simultaneously choose quantities. In this model, the firms simultaneously choose prices, profit maximization conditions An oligopoly maximizes profits
19.
Delhi
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Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi or NCT, is a city and a union territory of India. It is bordered by Haryana on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh to the east, the NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres. According to 2011 census, Delhis city population was about 11 million, Delhis urban area is now considered to extend beyond the NCT boundary to include an estimated population of over 26 million people making it the worlds second largest urban area. As of 2016 recent estimates of the economy of its urban area have ranked Delhi either the top or second most productive metro area of India. Delhi is the second wealthiest city after Mumbai in India, with a wealth of $450 billion. Delhi has been inhabited since the 6th century BC. Through most of its history, Delhi has served as a capital of various kingdoms and it has been captured, ransacked and rebuilt several times, particularly during the medieval period, and modern Delhi is a cluster of a number of cities spread across the metropolitan region. New Delhi is jointly administered by the government of India and the local government of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is a unique interstate regional planning area created by the National Capital Region Planning Board Act of 1985, Delhi ranks among the cities with the worst air pollution in the world. There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi, one of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu, a king who built a city at this location in 50 BC and named it after himself. The coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal, according to the Bhavishya Purana, King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern-day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali, another theory suggests that the citys original name was Dhillika. The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas, the city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo-Aryan languages. Dilli dilwalon ka shehr or Dilli Dilwalon ki meaning Delhi belongs to the large-hearted/daring, aas-paas barse, Dilli pani tarse, literally meaning it pours all around, while Delhi lies parched. An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty. The area around Delhi was probably inhabited before the second millennium BC, the city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to Mahabharata, this land was initially a huge mass of forests called Khandavaprastha which was burnt down to build the city of Indraprastha, the earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period, in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Remains of eight cities have been discovered in Delhi
20.
Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
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Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission was a massive city-modernisation scheme launched by the Government of India under Ministry of Urban Development. It envisaged an investment of over $20 billion over seven years. It was launched in 2005 for a period to encourage cities to initiate steps for bringing phased improvements in their civic service levels. The government had extended the tenure of the mission for two years, i. e. from April 2012 to March 31,2014, jnNURM was a huge mission which relates primarily to development in the context of urban conglomerates focusing to the Indian cities. The Sub-Mission for Basic Services to the Urban Poor administered by the Ministry of Housing, the program is mainly implemented in towns with populations less than 20,000 as per the 1991 census. Focused attention relating to services in the context of integrated development is to be covered under the mission. Planned development of identified cities including peri-urban areas, out growths, urban corridors, scale up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities with emphasis on universal access to urban poor. To take up urban renewal programme, i. e. re-development of inner cities area to reduce congestion, the duration of the mission is seven years beginning from December 2005. During this period, the sought to ensure sustainable development of participating cities. An evaluation of the experience of implementation of the mission would be undertaken before the end of the Eleventh Five Year Plan in 2012, the duration of the mission was extended by two more years, until 31 March 2014. The mission emphasises transparency and accountability and it supports public-private partnerships and cost recovery to make service providers financially self-sustaining. The share of grant funding by the government can vary from 35% in the largest cities to up to 90% in cities in the Northeast. Most cities receive grants covering 50% or 80% of costs depending on size, capacity building is also included in the mission to assist urban local bodies to prepare strategies and projects. 13 specific reforms are mandatory f or states and municipalities before funds can be accessed, as of 2012 Gujarat led the tally for the state level reforms, being the only state to have achieved all 10 reforms required by the mission. Five states have achieved 9 out of 10 reforms, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, public disclosure and community participation laws have initially progressed slowly, with only five states managing to enact them as part of the reform agenda as of 2009. However, as of 2012 community participation laws have been enacted by 22 out of 31 states,20 states had decentralised the responsibility for water supply and sanitation from the state level to ULBs, and 19 had done so for city planning functions. As of 2012, Visakhapatnam, Surat and Pune had the distinction of having accomplished all 8 city level reforms, chennai, Greater Mumbai and Hyderabad had achieved 7 out of 8 reforms. As of 2009,415 projects requiring an investment of ₹440 billion, among the states, Maharashtra has been sanctioned the maximum number of projects under the mission
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Karnataka
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Karnataka is a state in south western region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. The capital and largest city is Bangalore, the state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres, or 5.83 percent of the total geographical area of India. It is the seventh largest Indian state by area, with 61,130,704 inhabitants at the 2011 census, Karnataka is the eighth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada, one of the languages of India, is the most widely spoken. Most of these rivers flow out of Karnataka eastward into the Bay of Bengal, though several etymologies have been suggested for the name Karnataka, the generally accepted one is that Karnataka is derived from the Kannada words karu and nādu, meaning elevated land. Karu nadu may also be read as karu, meaning black, the British used the word Carnatic, sometimes Karnatak, to describe both sides of peninsular India, south of the Krishna. With an antiquity that dates to the paleolithic, Karnataka has been home to some of the most powerful empires of ancient, the philosophers and musical bards patronised by these empires launched socio-religious and literary movements which have endured to the present day. Karnataka has contributed significantly to both forms of Indian classical music, the Carnatic and Hindustani traditions, Karnatakas pre-history goes back to a paleolithic hand-axe culture evidenced by discoveries of, among other things, hand axes and cleavers in the region. Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also found in the state. Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka, prior to the third century BCE, most of Karnataka formed part of the Nanda Empire before coming under the Mauryan empire of Emperor Ashoka. Four centuries of Satavahana rule followed, allowing them to large areas of Karnataka. The decline of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native kingdoms, the Kadambas, the Kadamba Dynasty, founded by Mayurasharma, had its capital at Banavasi, the Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad as its capital. These were also the first kingdoms to use Kannada in administration, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription, the Western Chalukyas patronised a unique style of architecture and Kannada literature which became a precursor to the Hoysala art of 12th century. Parts of modern-day Southern Karnataka were occupied by the Chola Empire at the turn of 11th century, the Cholas and the Hoysalas fought over the region in the early 12th century before it eventually came under Hoysala rule. At the turn of the first millennium, the Hoysalas gained power in the region, literature flourished during this time, which led to the emergence of distinctive Kannada literary metres, and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara style of architecture. The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought minor parts of modern Andhra Pradesh, in the early 14th century, Harihara and Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara empire with its capital, Hosapattana, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the modern Bellary district. The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India, in 1565, Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical shift when the Vijayanagara empire fell to a confederation of Islamic sultanates in the Battle of Talikota
22.
Cardboard (paper product)
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Despite widespread use in general English and French, the term is deprecated in business and industry. Material producers, container manufacturers, packaging engineers, and standards organizations, there is still no complete and uniform usage. Often the term cardboard is avoided because it does not define any particular material, the term has been used since at least as early as 1848, when Anne Brontë mentioned it in her novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. This marked the origin of the box, though in modern times the sealed bag is plastic and is kept inside the box rather than outside. Various types of cards are available, which may be called cardboard, paperboard is a paper-based material, usually more than about ten mils in thickness. It is often used for folding cartons, set-up boxes, carded packaging, configurations of paperboard include, Containerboard, used in the production of corrugated fiberboard. Folding boxboard, made up of layers of chemical and mechanical pulp. Solid bleached board is made purely from bleached chemical pulp and usually has a mineral or synthetic pigment, solid unbleached board is typically made of unbleached chemical pulp. White lined chipboard is typically made from layers of paper or recycled fibers. Because of its content it will be grey from the inside. Binders board, a used in bookbinding for making hardcovers. Modernly, materials falling under these names may be made using any actual paper. Corrugated fiberboard is a combination of paperboards, usually two flat liners and one inner fluted corrugated medium and it is often used for making corrugated boxes for shipping or storing products. This type of cardboard is also used by artists as original material for sculpting, most types of cardboard are recyclable. Boards that are laminates, wax coated, or treated for wet-strength are often difficult to recycle. Clean cardboard is usually worth recovering, although often the difference between the value it realizes and the cost of recovery is marginal, cardboard can be recycled industrially, or for home uses. For example, cardboard may be composted or shredded for animal bedding, cardboard box Carton Corrugated box design Folding carton Juicebox cardboard furniture
23.
Tin
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Tin is a chemical element with symbol Sn and atomic number 50. It is a metal in group 14 of the periodic table. It is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite, which contains tin dioxide, Tin shows a chemical similarity to both of its neighbors in group 14, germanium and lead, and has two main oxidation states, +2 and the slightly more stable +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 stable isotopes, metallic tin is not easily oxidized in air. The first alloy used on a scale was bronze, made of tin and copper. After 600 BC, pure metallic tin was produced, pewter, which is an alloy of 85–90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony, and lead, was used for flatware from the Bronze Age until the 20th century. In modern times, tin is used in alloys, most notably tin/lead soft solders. Another large application for tin is corrosion-resistant tin plating of steel, inorganic tin compounds are rather non-toxic. Because of its low toxicity, tin-plated metal was used for packaging as tin cans. However, overexposure to tin may cause problems with metabolizing essential trace elements such as copper and zinc, Tin is a soft, malleable, ductile and highly crystalline silvery-white metal. When a bar of tin is bent, a sound known as the tin cry can be heard from the twinning of the crystals. Tin melts at the low temperature of about 232 °C, the lowest in group 14, the melting point is further lowered to 177.3 °C for 11 nm particles. β-tin, which is stable at and above room temperature, is malleable, in contrast, α-tin, which is stable below 13.2 °C, is brittle. α-tin has a cubic crystal structure, similar to diamond. α-tin has no properties at all because its atoms form a covalent structure in which electrons cannot move freely. It is a dull-gray powdery material with no common uses other than a few specialized semiconductor applications and these two allotropes, α-tin and β-tin, are more commonly known as gray tin and white tin, respectively. Two more allotropes, γ and σ, exist at temperatures above 161 °C, in cold conditions, β-tin tends to transform spontaneously into α-tin, a phenomenon known as tin pest. Commercial grades of tin resist transformation because of the effect of the small amounts of bismuth, antimony, lead
24.
Plastic
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Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging, other uses include automobiles, furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for example, the worlds first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term plastics. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling, the word plastic is derived from the Greek πλαστικός meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from πλαστός meaning molded. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products, thermally insulation foams. Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors, One of the most expensive commercial polymers. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents, polytetrafluoroethylene – Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumbers tape and water slides. It is more known as Teflon. Urea-formaldehyde – One of the aminoplasts and used as an alternative to phenolics. Used as an adhesive and electrical switch housings. Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, in 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages, materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins with lye. In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, the development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyears discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Parkesine is considered the first man-made plastic, the plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London, parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 Worlds fair in London
25.
D-Company
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Dawood Company is a term coined by the media for the organized criminal group controlled by wanted terrorist and crime boss Dawood Ibrahim Dawood Ibrahim established a criminal syndicate in the 1980s. Other prominent members of the gang include Chhota Shakeel, Tiger Memon, Yakub Memon, the organization has a history of rivalry with the Mumbai police and other underworld dons such as Chhota Rajan, Ejaz Lakdawala, who was arrested in Canada in 2004, and Arun Gawli. As Dawood rose to be the most powerful don of Mumbais underworld, in 1993, D-Company associates undertook the 1993 Bombay bombings. In 2011, Indian intelligence agencies managed to link Dawood Company with the 2G spectrum scam, through DB Realty and DB Etisalat promoted by Shahid Balwa. At times, Dawood Company has been linked to the Bollywood film industry, as well as real estate and betting businesses, from which it is said to derive considerable revenue. The 2002 film Company is based loosely on its activities, as well as its sequel the 2005 film D, Shootout at Lokhandwala, the 2013 movie Shootout at Wadala is based on the rise of the D-Company. FrontLine magazine report, volume 20, issue 04, 15–28 February 2003 HindustanTimes. com, Godfather III, The Terrorist OutlookIndia. com, Indian Mafia, their Ties, Updates and Experts Opinions
26.
Maharashtra
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Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India and is Indias second-most populous state and third-largest state by area. It is the wealthiest Indian state and it is also the worlds second-most populous sub-national entity. It has over 112 million inhabitants and its capital, Mumbai, has a population of approximately 18 million, Nagpur is Maharashtras second capital as well as its winter capital. Maharashtras business opportunities along with its potential to offer a standard of living attract migrants from all over India. Ancient and medieval Maharashtra included the empires of the Satavahana dynasty, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Western Chalukyas, Mughals, the major rivers of the state are Godavari, and Krishna. The Narmada and Tapti Rivers flow near the border between Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, Maharashtra is the second most urbanised state in India. The state has several popular Hindu places of pilgrimage including Pandharpur, Dehu and Alandi, other places that attract pilgrims from other parts of India and beyond include Hazur Sahib Gurudwara at Nanded, Sai Baba shrine at Shirdi and Dikshabhumi at Nagpur. Maharashtra is the wealthiest and one of the most developed states in India, as of 2011, the state had a per capita income of ₹1.0035 lakh, more than the national average of ₹0.73 lakh. Its GDP per capita crossed the ₹1.20 lakh threshold for the first time in 2013, however, as of 2014, the GDP per capita reduced to ₹1.03 lakh Agriculture and industries are the largest parts of the states economy. Major industries include chemical products, electrical and non-electrical machinery, textiles, petroleum, Jai Maharashtra The modern Marathi language developed from the Maharashtri Prakrit, and the word Mahratta is found in the Jain Maharashtri literature. The terms Maharashtra, Maharashtri, Marathi and Maratha may have derived from the same root, however, their exact etymology is uncertain. But the Marathas as a people do not seem to be mentioned before the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the most widely accepted theory among the linguistic scholars is that the words Maratha and Maharashtra ultimately derived from a combination of Maha and rashtrika. The word rashtrika is a Sanskritized form of Ratta, the name of a tribe or dynasty of petty chiefs ruling in the Deccan region. Another theory is that the term is derived from Maha and ratha / rathi, an alternative theory states that the term derives from the word Maha and Rashtra. However, this theory has not found acceptance among scholars who believe it to be the Sanskritised interpretation of later writers. Maharashtra was ruled by the Maurya Empire in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, around 230 BCE Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahana dynasty for 400 years. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni, in 90 CE Vedishri, son of the Satavahana king Satakarni, the Lord of Dakshinapatha, wielder of the unchecked wheel of Sovereignty, made Junnar, thirty miles north of Pune, the capital of his kingdom. The state was ruled by Western Satraps, Gupta Empire, Gurjara-Pratihara, Vakataka, Kadambas, Chalukya Empire, Rashtrakuta Dynasty, and Western Chalukya before finally
27.
Arjun Singh
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Arjun Singh was an Indian politician from the Indian National Congress party. He was the Union Minister of Human Resource Development in the Manmohan Singh cabinet from 2004 to 2009 and he died on 4 March 2011 due to a heart attack. Arjun Singh was born in a Rajput family, Singh died on 4 March 2011, at the age of 80. He had been admitted in Delhis All India Institute of Medical Sciences a few days previously with chest neurological problems and he was cremated at his home town of Churhat, Madhya Pradesh. Narasimha Rao cabinet but he resigned after the Babri Masjid demolition, later he returned to Congress and lost again from Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh. He served as Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh three times, Union minister and Governor of Punjab once for a short period, as Governor of Punjab, he worked for the Rajiv-Longowal Accord for peace in Punjab. He was awarded the Outstanding Parliamentarian Award in 2000, Arjun Singh was the Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh when the deadly gas leak from the Union Carbide factory occurred. Subsequently, the Arjun Singh governments mishandling was criticized by the court in the verdict on Bhopal incident pronounced by the Chief Judicial Magistrate, the media raised serious questions about his role in the release of Warren Anderson. In particular, the pilot of the aircraft in which Warren Anderson flew out of India after the gas leak, has recorded that the sanction to permit the flight came from Arjun Singhs office. While Arjun Singh was the Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh, he was involved in the scandal which was called by some the Churhat Lottery case. The Churhat Children Welfare Society was floated in 1982 by relatives of Singh, and permitted to raise funds via lottery, however, there were widespread allegations that a substantial sums were siphoned off and used to construct the lavish Kerwa Dam palace near Bhopal. The donations to the society included a Rs 150,000 donation from Union Carbide, whose chief Warren Anderson was permitted to leave the country after the gas leak, allegedly by Arjun Singhs office. At a public litigation hearing the court observed that Arjun Singh owed an explanation to the nation about the costs. While Singh had claimed the value of the palace was Rs 1.8 million, however, a one-judge commission investigating the scandal gave a clean chit to Arjun Singh. The case was re-opened however, after the Jain Hawala case, in court, the case was argued by Kapil Sibal and the order for re-examination was squashed on the grounds that it had been issued in a haste and had not applied his mind. This followed his denouncement of the Ekal Vidyalayas, one-teacher schools run for the benefit of the tribals of India by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad. as communal, a case under the Anti-Dowry Act has been registered against Arjun Singh. Mayawati government has decided to seek CBI inquiry into dowry harassment case, the Government of India initiated proceedings to repeal the Deemed University status of 44 such institutions in Jan 2010
28.
Madhya Pradesh
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Madhya Pradesh is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal and the largest city is Indore, nicknamed the heart of India due to its geographical location in India, Madhya Pradesh is the second-largest state in the country by area. With over 75 million inhabitants, it is the fifth-largest state in India by population and it borders the states of Uttar Pradesh to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the southeast, Maharashtra to the south, Gujarat to the west, and Rajasthan to the northwest. Its total area is 308,252 km², subsequently, the region was ruled by the major dynasties of India. By the early 18th century, the region was divided into small kingdoms which were captured by the British and incorporated into Central Provinces and Berar. This state was the largest in India by area until 2000, in recent years, the states GDP growth has been above the national average. Rich in mineral resources, MP has the largest reserves of diamond, more than 30% of its area is under forest cover. Its tourism industry has seen growth, with the state topping the National Tourism Awards in 2010–11. Isolated remains of Homo erectus found in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley indicate that Madhya Pradesh might have been inhabited in the Middle Pleistocene era, painted pottery dated to the later mesolithic period has been found in the Bhimbetka rock shelters. Chalcolithic sites belonging to Kayatha culture and Malwa culture have been discovered in the part of the state. The city of Ujjain arose as a centre in the region. It served as the capital of the Avanti kingdom, other kingdoms mentioned in ancient epics — Malava, Karusha, Dasarna and Nishada — have also been identified with parts of Madhya Pradesh. Chandragupta Maurya united northern India around 320 BCE, establishing the Mauryan Empire, ashoka the greatest of Mauryan rulers brought the region under firmer control. After the decline of the Maurya empire, the region was contested among the Sakas, the Kushanas, the Satavahanas, Heliodorus, the Greek Ambassador to the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra erected the Heliodorus pillar near Vidisha. Ujjain emerged as the predominant commercial centre of western India from the first century BCE, the Satavahana dynasty of the northern Deccan and the Saka dynasty of the Western Satraps fought for the control of Madhya Pradesh during the 1st to 3rd centuries CE. The Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni inflicted a defeat upon the Saka rulers and conquered parts of Malwa. Subsequently, the region came under the control of the Gupta empire in the 4th and 5th centuries, and their southern neighbours, the attacks of the Hephthalites or White Huns brought about the collapse of the Gupta empire, which broke up into smaller states. The king Yasodharman of Malwa defeated the Huns in 528, ending their expansion, later, Harsha ruled the northern parts of the state
29.
Remote sensing
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Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to on-site observation. It may be split into active remote sensing and passive remote sensing, passive sensors gather radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding areas. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors, examples of passive remote sensors include film photography, infrared, charge-coupled devices, and radiometers. Active collection, on the hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects. RADAR and LiDAR are examples of remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, speed and direction of an object. Remote sensing makes it possible to data of dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such as the Amazon Basin, glacial features in Arctic and Antarctic regions, military collection during the Cold War made use of stand-off collection of data about dangerous border areas. Remote sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection on the ground, the basis for multispectral collection and analysis is that of examined areas or objects that reflect or emit radiation that stand out from surrounding areas. For a summary of major remote sensing satellite systems see the overview table, conventional radar is mostly associated with aerial traffic control, early warning, and certain large scale meteorological data. Other types of active collection includes plasmas in the ionosphere, interferometric synthetic aperture radar is used to produce precise digital elevation models of large scale terrain. Laser and radar altimeters on satellites have provided a range of data. By measuring the bulges of water caused by gravity, they map features on the seafloor to a resolution of a mile or so, by measuring the height and wavelength of ocean waves, the altimeters measure wind speeds and direction, and surface ocean currents and directions. Ultrasound and radar tide gauges measure sea level, tides and wave direction in coastal, light detection and ranging is well known in examples of weapon ranging, laser illuminated homing of projectiles. Vegetation remote sensing is an application of LIDAR. Radiometers and photometers are the most common instrument in use, collecting reflected and emitted radiation in a range of frequencies. The most common are visible and infrared sensors, followed by microwave, gamma ray and rarely and they may also be used to detect the emission spectra of various chemicals, providing data on chemical concentrations in the atmosphere. Simultaneous multi-spectral platforms such as Landsat have been in use since the 1970s and these thematic mappers take images in multiple wavelengths of electro-magnetic radiation and are usually found on Earth observation satellites, including the Landsat program or the IKONOS satellite. Landsat images are used by agencies such as KYDOW to indicate water quality parameters including Secchi depth, chlorophyll a density
30.
Brownfield land
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Land that is more severely contaminated and has high concentrations of hazardous waste or pollution, such as a Superfund site, does not fall under the brownfield classification. After clean up, such an area can become a community park or business development, the term brownfields first came into use on June 28,1992, at a U. S. congressional field hearing hosted by the Northeast Midwest Congressional Coalition. Also in 1992, the first detailed analysis of the issue was convened by the Cuyahoga County Planning Commission. The United States Environmental Protection Agency selected Cuyahoga County as its first brownfield pilot project in September 1993, the term applies more generally to previously used land or to sections of industrial or commercial facilities that are to be upgraded. Brownfield land is an area of previously used or built upon, as opposed to greenfield land. Land that is severely contaminated and has high concentrations of hazardous waste or pollution, such as a Superfund site. Mothballed brownfields are properties that the owners are not willing to transfer or put to productive reuse, Brownfield status is a legal designation which places restrictions, conditions or incentives on redevelopment and use on the site. In the United Kingdom, the term brownfield has a meaning roughly equivalent to the American usage described above, i. e. vacant or derelict land or property. In terms of British Town and Country Planning, however, the meaning of brownfield is more complex, small brownfields also may be found in older residential neighborhoods, as for example dry cleaning establishments or gas stations produced high levels of subsurface contaminants. Typical contaminants found on contaminated brownfield land include hydrocarbon spillages, solvents, pesticides, heavy metals such as lead, tributyl tins, old maps may assist in identifying areas to be tested. The primary issue facing all nations involved in attracting and sustaining new uses to brownfield sites is that industries are globally oriented and this directly affects brownfield reuse, such as limiting the effective economic life of the use on the revitalized sites. United States estimates suggest there are over 500,000 brownfield sites contaminated at levels below the Superfund caliber in the country, the Clinton-Gore administration and US EPA launched a series of brownfield policies and programs in 1993 to tackle this problem. Canada has an estimated 200,000 contaminated sites across the nation, the provincial governments have primary responsibility for brownfields. The provinces´ legal mechanisms for managing risk are limited, as there are no tools such as No Further Action letters to property owners finality and certainty in the cleanup. Yet, Canada has cleaned up sites and attracted investment to contaminated lands such as the Moncton rail yards, a strip of the Texaco lands in Mississauga is slated to be part of the Waterfront Trail. However, Imperial Oil has no plans to sell the 75-acre property which has been vacant since the 1980s.9 billion. The report listed significant sites called the Big Five with a liability of $1.8 billion, Faro mine, Colomac Mine, Giant Mine, Cape Dyer-DEW line, the Port Hope, Ontario site has a liability of $1 billion. By 2010 it was projected that it would cost well over a billion dollars for the remediation project
31.
Street children in India
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It is estimated that more than 400,000 street children in India exist. Mainly because of conflict, they come to live on the streets and take on the full responsibilities of caring for themselves, including working to provide for. Though street children do sometimes band together for security, they are often exploited by employers. Their many vulnerabilities require specific legislation and attention from the government, in the early years of research on street children, the term “street child” included any child that worked on the street. From research, however, different categories of children on the streets have been distinguished, the term “street child” has come to refer only to the last group. UNICEF defines a child as, “. any girl or boy. For whom the street has become his or her habitual abode and/or source of livelihood, while 18 million children work on the streets of India, it is estimated that only 5-20 percent of them are truly homeless and disconnected from their families. As the most vulnerable group of children in India according to UNICEF and its difficult to obtain accurate data about them because of their floating character. Street children usually have no proof of identification and move often, of the 50,000 people in India that are officially reported as leaving home annually,45 percent are under 16, this number, though, is likely very low. Various studies have formulated estimates of certain cities, in the late 1980s, for instance, it was estimated that there were at least 100,000 street children in both Kolkata and Bombay. Overall, estimates for the number of street children in India range from 400, 000-800,000. There are some estimates of one stream which adds to the number of the street children. There are cases of children running away from home, majority of them use the trains to move. The number of children who run away from home and land on railway platforms is about 80,000 a year. If these children are rescued from platforms very soon they land up, almost all of them can be reunited with families, as the experience goes. Presently he NGOs and Govt child lines, together are helping 10,000 children only of the 80,000 who arrive on platforms every year. Rest of the 70,000 keep moving on platforms or to the street and that is the addition every year. Reference is available from book railway Children sage publication, by Lalitha iyer and it is also available from web sites/reports of the NGOs Railway Children, Sathi, Paul Hamlin Foundation etc
32.
Urbanisation in India
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Urbanization in India began to accelerate after independence, due to the countrys adoption of a mixed economy, which gave rise to the development of the private sector. Urbanisation is taking place at a rate in India. Population residing in areas in India, according to 1901 census, was 11. 4%. This count increased to 28. 53% according to 2001 census, according to a survey by UN State of the World Population report in 2007, by 2030,40. 76% of countrys population is expected to reside in urban areas. As per World Bank, India, along with China, Indonesia, Nigeria, Mumbai saw large scale rural-urban migration in the 20th century. Mumbai accommodates 12.5 million people, and is the largest metropolis by population in India, followed by Delhi with 11 million inhabitants. Witnessing the fastest rate of and urbanisation in the world, as per 2011 census, Delhis population rose by 4. 1%, Mumbais by 3. 1%, after independence, India faced poverty, unemployment, and economic backwardness. The first Prime Minister of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, failed to focus on the domain of science, the contribution of the agricultural sector to the GDP of India started to decline and the percentage contribution from secondary sector increased. The period after 1941, witnessed rapid growth of four cities in India, which were Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai. The nations economy saw a rise due to revolution and the invention of new technologies increased the standard of living of people living in urban areas. The growth of public sector resulted in development of transport, roads, water supply, electricity. Maharashtra was the most urbanized state in India till 1991, stood behind Tamil Nadu in 2001 and third after it in 2011, with Kerala being second, with the urban-total state population ratio. However, Maharashtras urban population of 41 million, far exceeds that of Tamil Nadu which is at 27 million, growth of employment in cities is attracting people from rural areas as well as smaller cities to large towns. According to Mckinsey Indias urban population will grow from 340 million in 2008 to 590 million in 2030, therefore, it is being driven by economic compulsions where people move out for economic advancements to areas offering better job opportunities. It is also driven by land fragmentations, villages being erased due to roads and highway constructions, dam constructions and other activities. Rapid rise in population, in India, is leading to many problems like increasing slums, decrease in standard of living in urban areas. The Industrial Revolution in the 18th century caused countries like United States and England to become superpower nations, Indias urban growth rate is 2. 07% which seems to be significant compared to Rwanda with 7. 6%. India has around 300 million people living in metropolitan areas and this has greatly caused slum problems, with so many people over crowding cities and forcing people to live in unsafe conditions which also includes illegal buildings
33.
Manual scavenging
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Manual scavenging is a term used in Indian English for the removal of untreated human excreta from bucket toilets or pit latrines. It involves moving the excreta, using brooms and tin plates, into baskets, the workers, called scavengers, rarely have any personal protective equipment. The employment of manual scavengers to empty dry toilets was prohibited in India in 1993, according to Socio Economic Caste Census 2011,180,657 households are engaged in manual scavenging for a livelihood. The 2011 Census of India found 794,000 cases of manual scavenging across India, Manual scavenging refers to the unsafe and manual removal of raw human excreta from buckets or other containers that are used as toilets or from the pits of simple pit latrines. The safe and controlled emptying of pit latrines, on the hand, is one component of fecal sludge management. Not all forms of dry toilets involve manual scavenging to empty them, also, emptying the pits of twin-pit pour-flush toilets is not classified as manual scavenging in India, as the excreta is already partly treated and degraded in those pits. Manual scavenging still survives in parts of India without proper sewage systems or safe fecal sludge management practices and it is thought to be most prevalent in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan. Some municipalities in India still run public toilets using simple pit latrines, Manual scavenging is traditionally a role determined by the outlawed caste system for members of the Dalit caste, usually from the Balmiki or Hela subcaste. Manual scavenging is done with tools like thin boards and either buckets or baskets lined with sacking. Due to the nature of the job, many of the workers have related health problems. In the late 1950s, freedom fighter G. S. Lakshman Iyer banned manual scavenging when he was the chairman of Gobichettipalayam Municipality, Sanitation is a State subject as per entry 6 of the Constitution. Under this, in February 2013 Delhi announced that they are banning manual scavenging, making them the first state in India to do so, district magistrates are responsible for ensuring that there are no manual scavengers working in their district. Within 3 years time municipalities, railways and cantonments must make sufficient sanitary latrines available, the government of the state of Maharashtra has planned to abolish the menace of manual scavenging completely from the state soon. No convictions were obtained under the law during the 20 years it was in force, Government has passed the new legislation in September 2013 and issued Government notification for the same. In December,2013 Government has also formulated Rules-2013 called as The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers, the details about Act and Rules are available on the website of Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, GOI. In India in 1970s, Dr. Bindeshwar Pathak introduced his Sulabh concept for building and managing public toilets in India, which has introduced hygienic and well-managed public toilet system. Activist Bezwada Wilson founded a group in 1994, Safai Karmachari Andolan, to campaign for the demolition of then newly illegal dry latrines, despite the efforts of Wilson and other activists, the practice persists two decades later. In July 2008 MissionSanitation was a show held by the United Nations as part of its International Year of Sanitation
34.
Water supply and sanitation in India
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Drinking water supply and sanitation in India continue to be inadequate, despite longstanding efforts by the various levels of government and communities at improving coverage. The level of investment in water and sanitation, albeit low by standards, has increased in size during the 2000s. For example, in 1980 rural sanitation coverage was estimated at 1%, also, the share of Indians with access to improved sources of water has increased significantly from 72% in 1990 to 88% in 2008. At the same time, local government institutions in charge of operating and maintaining the infrastructure are seen as weak, in addition, only two Indian cities have continuous water supply and according to an estimate from 2008 about 69% of Indians still lack access to improved sanitation facilities. A study by WaterAid estimated as many as 157 million Indian or 41 percent of Indians living in urban areas, India comes top for having the greatest number of urbanites living without sanitation. India tops urban sanitation crisis, has the largest amount of urban dwellers without sanitation, a number of innovative approaches to improve water supply and sanitation have been tested in India, in particular in the early 2000s. In 2008, 88% of the population in India had access to a water source. In rural areas, where 72% of India’s population lives, the shares are 84% for water. In urban areas, 96% had access to a water source. Access has improved substantially since 1990 when it was estimated to stand at 72% for water, in 2010, the UN estimated based on Indian statistics that 626 million people practice open defecation. In June 2012 Minister of Rural Development Jairam Ramesh stated India is the worlds largest open air toilet and he also remarked that Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan have better sanitation records. There should be at least one pump per 250 persons, in urban areas, those that do not receive water from the piped network often have to purhchase expensive water of dubious quality from private water vendors. For example, in Delhi water trucks get water from illegal wells on the banks of the Yamuna River for 0.75 rupees per gallon, as of 2010, only two cities in India — Trivandrum and Kota — get continuous water supply. In 2005 none of the 35 Indian cities with a population of more than one million distributed water for more than a few hours per day, owing to inadequate pressure people struggle to collect water even when it is available. According to the World Bank, none have performance indicators that compare with average international standards, a 2007 study by the Asian Development Bank showed that in 20 cities the average duration of supply was only 4.3 hours per day. None of the 20 cities had continuous supply, the longest duration of supply was 12 hours per day in Chandigarh, and the lowest was 0.3 hours per day in Rajkot. In Delhi residents receive water only a few hours per day because of management of the distribution system. This results in contaminated water and forces households to complement a deficient public water service at prohibitive coping costs, for example, according to a 1996 survey households in Delhi spent an average of ₹2,182 per year in time and money to cope with poor service levels
35.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
36.
BBC News
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BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the worlds largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, the service maintains 50 foreign news bureaux with more than 250 correspondents around the world. James Harding has been Director of News and Current Affairs since April 2013, the departments annual budget is in excess of £350 million, it has 3,500 staff,2,000 of whom are journalists. BBC News domestic, global and online news divisions are housed within the largest live newsroom in Europe, parliamentary coverage is produced and broadcast from studios in Millbank in London. Through the BBC English Regions, the BBC also has regional centres across England, as well as national news centres in Northern Ireland, Scotland, all nations and English regions produce their own local news programmes and other current affairs and sport programmes. As with all media outlets, though, it has been accused of political bias from across the political spectrum. The British Broadcasting Company broadcast its first radio bulletin from radio station 2LO on 14 November 1922, on Easter weekend in 1930, this reliance on newspaper wire services left the radio news service with no information to report. The BBC gradually gained the right to edit the copy and, in 1934, however, it could not broadcast news before 6 PM until World War II. Gaumont British and Movietone cinema newsreels had been broadcast on the TV service since 1936, a weekly Childrens Newsreel was inaugurated on 23 April 1950, to around 350,000 receivers. The network began simulcasting its radio news on television in 1946, televised bulletins began on 5 July 1954, broadcast from leased studios within Alexandra Palace in London. The publics interest in television and live events was stimulated by Elizabeth IIs coronation in 1953 and it is estimated that up to 27 million people viewed the programme in the UK, overtaking radios audience of 12 million for the first time. Those live pictures were fed from 21 cameras in central London to Alexandra Palace for transmission and that year, there were around two million TV Licences held in the UK, rising to over three million the following year, and four and a half million by 1955. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a commentary by John Snagge. It was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story. On-screen newsreaders were finally introduced a year later in 1955 – Kenneth Kendall, Robert Dougall, mainstream television production had started to move out of Alexandra Palace in 1950 to larger premises – mainly at Lime Grove Studios in Shepherds Bush, west London – taking Current Affairs with it. It was from here that the first Panorama, a new programme, was transmitted on 11 November 1953. On 28 October 1957, the Today programme, a radio programme, was launched in central London on the Home Service. In 1958, Hugh Carleton Greene became head of News and Current Affairs and he set up a BBC study group whose findings, published in 1959, were critical of what the television news operation had become under his predecessor, Tahu Hole
37.
Wall Street Journal
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The Wall Street Journal is an American business-focused, English-language international daily newspaper based in New York City. The Journal, along with its Asian and European editions, is published six days a week by Dow Jones & Company, the newspaper is published in the broadsheet format and online. The Wall Street Journal is the largest newspaper in the United States by circulation, according to the Alliance for Audited Media, the Journal had a circulation of about 2.4 million copies as of March 2013, compared with USA Todays 1.7 million. The newspaper has won 39 Pulitzer Prizes through 2015 and derives its name from Wall Street in the heart of the Financial District of Lower Manhattan. The Journal has been printed continuously since its inception on July 8,1889, by Charles Dow, Edward Jones, the Journal also publishes the luxury news and lifestyle magazine WSJ. They were later aggregated in a daily summary called the Customers Afternoon Letter. In 1896, The Dow Jones Industrial Average was officially launched and it was the first of several indices of stock and bond prices on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1899, the Journals Review & Outlook column, which still today, appeared for the first time. Journalist Clarence Barron purchased control of the company for US$130,000 in 1902, circulation was then around 7,000, Barron and his predecessors were credited with creating an atmosphere of fearless, independent financial reporting—a novelty in the early days of business journalism. In 1921, Barrons, Americas premier financial weekly, was founded, Barron died in 1928, a year before Black Tuesday, the stock market crash that greatly affected the Great Depression in the United States. Barrons descendants, the Bancroft family, would continue to control the company until 2007, the Journal took its modern shape and prominence in the 1940s, a time of industrial expansion for the United States and its financial institutions in New York. Bernard Kilgore was named managing editor of the paper in 1941, under Kilgore, in 1947, that the paper won its first Pulitzer Prize, for William Henry Grimess editorials. In 1970, Dow Jones bought the Ottaway newspaper chain, which at the time comprised nine dailies, later, the name was changed to Dow Jones Local Media Group. In 2007 News Corp. acquired Dow Jones, a luxury lifestyle magazine, was launched in 2008. A complement to the print newspaper, The Wall Street Journal Online, was launched in 1996, in 2003, Dow Jones began to integrate reporting of the Journals print and online subscribers together in Audit Bureau of Circulations statements. In 2007, it was believed to be the largest paid-subscription news site on the Web. Since then, online subscribership has fallen, due in part to rising subscription costs, in May 2008, an annual subscription to the online edition of The Wall Street Journal cost $119 for those who do not have subscriptions to the print edition. By June 2013, the monthly cost for a subscription to the edition was $22.99, or $275.88 annually
38.
RT News
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RT is a Russian international television network funded by the Russian government. It operates cable and satellite television channels directed to audiences outside of Russia, as well as providing Internet content in languages, including English, Spanish. RT America, and RT UK offer some locally based content for those countries, RT is a brand of TV-Novosti, an autonomous non-profit organization, founded by the Russian news agency, RIA Novosti, on 6 April 2005. RT has been described as a propaganda outlet for the Russian government. RT has also accused of spreading disinformation by news reporters. The United Kingdom media regulator, Ofcom, has repeatedly found RT to have breached rules on impartiality, the creation of RT was a part of a larger public relations effort by the Russian Government in 2005 that was intended to improve the image of Russia abroad. RT was conceived by former media minister Mikhail Lesin, and Russian president Vladimir Putins press spokesperson Aleksei Gromov and it is registered as an autonomous nonprofit organization funded by the federal budget of Russia through the Federal Agency on Press and Mass Communications of the Russian Federation. In 2005, RIA Novosti helped establish ANO TV-Novosti to serve as the parent organization for the planned channel, ANO TV-Novosti was registered on 6 April 2005. ANO TV-Novosti appointed Sergey Frolov as its CEO position, The channel was launched as Russia Today on 10 December 2005, at its launch, the channel employed 300 journalists, including approximately 70 from outside Russia. Russia Today appointed Margarita Simonyan as its editor-in-chief, who recruited foreign journalists as presenters, Simonyan stated that the channels intent was to have a professional format akin to the BBC and Euronews that would reflect Russias opinion of the world and present a more balanced picture of Russia. Simonyan, who was only 25 years old at the time of her hiring by the channel, was a former Kremlin pool reporter and had worked in journalism since she was 18. She told The New York Times that after the fall of the Soviet Union, many new young journalists were hired, in August 2007, Russia Today became the first television channel to report live from the North Pole. An RT crew participated in the Arktika 2007 Russian polar expedition, on 31 December 2007, RTs broadcasts of New Years Eve celebrations in Moscow and Saint Petersburg were broadcast in the hours prior to the New Years Eve event at New York Citys Times Square. RT drew particular attention worldwide for its coverage of the 2008 South Ossetia war, RT named Georgia as the aggressor against the separatist governments of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, which were protected by Russian troops. RT saw this as the incident that showcased its newsgathering abilities to the world, Margarita Simonyan stated, we were the only ones among the English-language media who were giving the other side of the story – the South Ossetian side of the story. In 2009, Russia Today rebranded itself to simply the RT initials, in early 2010, RT unveiled a highly controversial advertising campaign called Question More, which was created for the channel by Britain-based McCann Erickson. The ad was banned in American airports, another showed a Western soldier merging into a Taliban fighter and asks, Is terror only inflicted by terrorists. One of RTs 2010 billboard advertisements won the British Awards for National Newspaper Advertising Ad of the Month, RT is one of several international channels that have challenged the United States media, which previously dominated global news coverage
39.
Times of India
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The Times of India is an Indian English-language daily newspaper. It is the fourth-largest newspaper in India by circulation and largest selling English-language daily in the according to Audit Bureau of Circulations. It is the oldest English-language newspaper in India still in circulation, in 1991, the BBC ranked The Times of India among the worlds six best newspapers. It is owned and published by Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. which is owned by the Sahu Jain family. In 2014 however, The Times of India was ranked 174th among Indias most trusted brands according to the Brand Trust Report 2014, the Times of India issued its first edition 3 November 1838 as The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce. In 1850, it began to publish daily editions, in 1860, editor Robert Knight bought the Indian shareholders interests, merged with rival Bombay Standard, and started Indias first news agency. It wired Times dispatches to papers across the country and became the Indian agent for Reuters news service, in 1861, he changed the name from the Bombay Times and Standard to The Times of India. In the 19th century, this company employed more than 800 people and had a sizeable circulation in India. In 1946, Bennett Coleman & Co, Ltd was sold to sugar magnate Ramkrishna Dalmia of the then-famous industrial family, the Dalmiyas, for Rs 20 million, as India was becoming independent and the British owners were leaving. In the court case followed, Ramkrishna Dalmia was sentenced to two years in Tihar Jail after having been convicted of embezzlement and fraud. But for most of the term he managed to spend in hospital. Upon his release, his son-in-law, Sahu Shanti Prasad Jain, to whom he had entrusted the running of Bennett, in the early 1960s, Shanti Prasad Jain was imprisoned on charges of selling newsprint on the black market. Based on the pleading, Justice directed the Government to assume control of the newspaper which resulted in replacing half of the directors, curiously, the court appointed D K Kunte as Chairman of the Board. Kunte had no business experience and was also an Opposition member of the Lok Sabha. In 1976, during the Emergency in India, the Government transferred ownership of the back to Ashok Kumar Jain. The move was a critique of Prime Minister Indira Gandhis 21-month state of emergency, in late 2006, Times Group acquired Vijayanand Printers Limited. VPL previously published two Kannada newspapers, Vijay Karnataka and Usha Kiran, and an English daily, Vijay Times, Vijay Karnataka was the leader in the Kannada newspaper segment then. The paper launched a Chennai edition,12 April 2008 and it launched a Kolhapur edition, February 2013
