1.
Jessie Willcox Smith
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Jessie Willcox Smith was one of the most prominent female illustrators in the United States during the Golden Age of American illustration. She was a contributor to respected books and magazines during the late 19th. She illustrated stories and articles for such as Century, Colliers, Leslies Weekly, Harpers, McClures, Scribners. She had a relationship with Good Housekeeping, including the long-running Mother Goose series of illustrations. Jessie Willcox Smith was born in the Mount Airy neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and she was the youngest girl born to Charles Henry Smith, an investment broker, and Katherine DeWitt Willcox Smith. Jessie attended private schools and at the age of sixteen she was sent to Cincinnati, Ohio to live with her cousins. Persuaded to attend one of her friend or cousins art classes and it was under Eakins that Smith began to use photography as a resource in her illustrations. Although Eakins demeanor could be difficult, particularly female students. In May 1888, while Smith was still at the Pennsylvania Academy, Illustration was a professional avenue that women could employ to make a living as an artist at the time. At this time, creating illustrations for books or of family life was considered an appropriate career for woman artists because it drew upon maternal instincts. Fine art that included life drawing was not considered ladylike, Illustration became a viable career partly due to improved color printing processes and the resurgence in England in book design. She illustrated the book of poetry New and True, rhymes and rhythms and histories droll for boys, during her time at the Ladies Home Journal, Smith enrolled in 1894 in Saturday classes at Drexel University with Howard Pyle. She was in his first class at Drexel, which had almost 50% female students, Pyle pushed many artists of Smiths generation to fight for their right to illustrate for the major publishing houses of the time. He worked especially closely with artists who he saw as gifted. Smith said that working with Pyle swept away all the cobwebs and her speech was later compiled in the 1923 work Report of the Private View of Exhibition of the Works of Howard Pyle at the Art Alliance. She studied with Pyle through 1897, Smith met Elizabeth Shippen Green and Violet Oakley while studying at Drexel with whom she would share talent, mutual interests, and lifelong friendship. The women shared a studio on Philadelphias Chestnut Street, Henry Wadsworth Longfellows Evangeline, illustrated by Oakley and Smith, was published in 1897. At the turn of the century, Smiths career flourished
2.
White Rabbit
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The White Rabbit is a fictional character in Lewis Carrolls book Alices Adventures in Wonderland. He appears at the beginning of the book, in chapter one, wearing a waistcoat. Alice follows him down the hole into Wonderland. Alice encounters him again when he mistakes her for his housemaid Mary Ann, the Rabbit shows up again in the last few chapters, as a herald-like servant of the King and Queen of Hearts. In his article Alice on the Stage, Carroll wrote And the White Rabbit, was he framed on the Alice lines, or meant as a contrast. For her youth, audacity, vigour, and swift directness of purpose, read elderly, timid, feeble, and nervously shilly-shallying, I think the White Rabbit should wear spectacles. Im sure his voice should quaver, and his knees quiver, at the Mad Tea Party, the Mad Hatter and the March Hare try to fix his watch, proclaiming it exactly two days slow. Through various food they put in the watch, the two cause it to go mad, and the Hare smashes it with his mallet, the Rabbit was perhaps most famous for the little ditty he sang at the beginning, Im late. No time to say hello, goodbye, the Rabbit was voiced by Bill Thompson. Some believe the rabbit was late for the announcement of the Queen to the royal garden, the panic the rabbit showed was his fear of losing his head. Upon her arrival the cards finish their song and the rabbit blows his trumpet royally introducing the king, the White Rabbit made a few appearances on the Disney Channel original show, House of Mouse. His most notable appearance was in the episode Clarabelles Big Secret, when he confessed to Clarabelle Cow that Im not really late and he is seen being grabbed by the reservation clerk Daisy Duck in the shows intro. He was voiced by Corey Burton, who has voiced the Rabbit in all English speaking roles for the character since then, in Aladdin and the King of Thieves, the genie was transformed into him. The White Rabbit also appears at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts as a meetable character and his Japanese voice actor was Shigeru Ushiyama. The White Rabbit works for the Red Queen, but is also a member of the Underland Underground Resistance. Actor Michael Sheen stated, The White Rabbit is such a character that I didnt feel like I should break the mould too much. In this film adaption, the White Rabbit is given the name Nivens McTwisp, McTwisp appears in the video game adaptation of Tim Burtons Alice in Wonderland as a playable character. He attacks using his watch, and can manipulate time, the White Rabbit appears in the Once Upon a Time spin-off called Once Upon a Time in Wonderland voiced by John Lithgow
3.
Alice in Wonderland
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Alices Adventures in Wonderland is an 1865 novel written by English mathematician Charles Lutwidge Dodgson under the pseudonym Lewis Carroll. It tells of a girl named Alice falling through a hole into a fantasy world populated by peculiar. The tale plays with logic, giving the story lasting popularity with adults as well as with children and it is considered to be one of the best examples of the literary nonsense genre. Its narrative course and structure, characters and imagery have been influential in both popular culture and literature, especially in the fantasy genre. The journey began at Folly Bridge in Oxford and ended 3 miles north-west in the village of Godstow, during the trip, Dodgson told the girls a story that featured a bored little girl named Alice who goes looking for an adventure. The girls loved it, and Alice Liddell asked Dodgson to write it down for her and he began writing the manuscript of the story the next day, although that earliest version no longer exists. The girls and Dodgson took another boat trip a month later when he elaborated the plot to the story of Alice, and in November he began working on the manuscript in earnest. To add the finishing touches, he researched natural history for the animals presented in the book and he added his own illustrations but approached John Tenniel to illustrate the book for publication, telling him that the story had been well liked by children. Some, including Martin Gardner, speculate that there was a version that was destroyed later by Dodgson when he wrote a more elaborate copy by hand. Chapter One – Down the Rabbit Hole, Alice is feeling bored and drowsy while sitting on the riverbank with her older sister and she then notices a White Rabbit wearing a waistcoat and pocket watch, talking to itself as it runs past. She follows it down a hole, but suddenly falls a long way to a curious hall with many locked doors of all sizes. She finds a key to a door too small for her to fit through. She then discovers a bottle on a table labelled DRINK ME, the contents of which cause her to shrink too small to reach the key and she eats a cake with EAT ME written on it in currants as the chapter closes. Chapter Two – The Pool of Tears, Chapter Two opens with Alice growing to such a size that her head hits the ceiling. Alice is unhappy and, as she cries, her tears flood the hallway, after shrinking down again due to a fan she had picked up, Alice swims through her own tears and meets a Mouse, who is swimming as well. She tries to make small talk with him in elementary French, offends the mouse and he tries to escape her. Chapter Three – The Caucus Race and a Long Tale, The sea of tears becomes crowded with other animals, Alice and the other animals convene on the bank and the question among them is how to get dry again. The Mouse gives them a very dry lecture on William the Conqueror, a Dodo decides that the best thing to dry them off would be a Caucus-Race, which consists of everyone running in a circle with no clear winner
4.
John Tenniel
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Sir John Tenniel was an English illustrator, graphic humourist, and political cartoonist prominent in the second half of the 19th century. He was knighted for his achievements in 1893. Tenniel was born in Bayswater, West London, to John Baptist Tenniel, Tenniel had five siblings, two brothers and three sisters. One sister, Mary, was later to marry Thomas Goodwin Green, Tenniel was a quiet and introverted person, both as a boy and as an adult. He was content to remain out of the limelight and seemed unaffected by competition or change. His biographer Rodney Engen wrote that Tenniels life and career was that of the supreme gentlemanly outside, in 1840 Tenniel, while practising fencing with his father, received a serious eye wound from his fathers foil, which had accidentally lost its protective tip. Over the years Tenniel gradually lost sight in his eye, he never told his father of the severity of the wound. Tenniel became a student of the Royal Academy of Arts in 1842 by probation—he was admitted because he made copies of classical sculptures to provide the necessary admission portfolio. So, it was here that Tenniel returned to his earlier independent education, Tenniel studied classical sculptures through painting, however, Tenniel was frustrated that he was never taught how to draw. It was in these studies that Tenniel learned to love detail, however, Tenniel was blessed with a photographic memory, undermining his early training and seriously restricting his artistic ambitions. Another formal means of training was Tenniels participation in an artists group, in the mid-1840s Tenniel joined the Artists Society or Clipstone Street Life Academy, and it could be said here that Tenniel first emerged as a satirical draftsman. Tenniels first book illustration was for Samuel Carter Halls The Book of British Ballads, Tenniel planned to enter the 1845 House of Lords competition amongst artists to win the opportunity to design the mural decoration of the new Palace of Westminster. Despite missing the deadline, he submitted a 16-foot cartoon, An Allegory of Justice, for this he received a £200 premium and a commission to paint a fresco in the Upper Waiting Hall in the House of Lords. At Christmas 1850 he was invited by Mark Lemon to fill the position of joint cartoonist on Punch and he had been selected on the strength of his recent illustrations to Aesops Fables. He contributed his first drawing in the initial letter appearing on p.224 and his first cartoon was Lord Jack the Giant Killer, which showed Lord John Russell assailing Cardinal Wiseman. Tenniels cartoons published in the 1860s made popular the portrait of the Irishman as a subhuman being, wanton in his appetites and most resembling an orangutan in both facial features and posture. In his career Tenniel contributed around 2,300 cartoons, innumerable minor drawings, many cartoons for Punchs Almanac and other special numbers. By 1866 he was able to command ten to fifteen guineas for the reworking of a single Punch cartoon as a pencil sketch, according to the Bank of England inflation calculator, £800 in 1866 would buy goods and services worth over £85,000 in 2015
5.
Drawing
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Drawing is a form of visual art in which a person uses various drawing instruments to mark paper or another two-dimensional medium. A drawing instrument releases small amount of material onto a surface, the most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, may be used. Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard or indeed almost anything, the medium has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating visual ideas, the wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities. In addition to its artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a work, is sometimes called a sketch. An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, Drawing is one of the major forms of expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour, while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting. In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks, dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings. Drawing may be done with a medium, applied with brushes or pens. Drawing is often exploratory, with emphasis on observation, problem-solving. Drawing is also used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their distinction. Drawings created for these purposes are called studies, there are several categories of drawing, including figure drawing, cartooning, doodling, free hand and shading. There are also many drawing methods, such as drawing, stippling, shading, the surrealist method of entopic graphomania. A quick, unrefined drawing may be called a sketch, in fields outside art, technical drawings or plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other things are often called drawings even when they have been transferred to another medium by printing. Drawing as a Form of Communication Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression and these drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts. The sketches and paintings produced in prehistoric times were eventually stylised and simplified, Drawing in the Arts Drawing is used to express ones creativity, and therefore has been prominent in the world of art. Throughout much of history, drawing was regarded as the foundation for artistic practise, initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their drawings
6.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
7.
Printmaking
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Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper. Printmaking normally covers only the process of creating prints that have an element of originality, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print produced is not considered a copy but rather is considered an original, a print may be known as an impression. Printmaking is not chosen only for its ability to multiple impressions. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or through a screen to a sheet of paper or other material. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screenprinting process, other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below. Multiple impressions printed from the matrix form an edition. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artists books, Printmaking techniques are generally divided into the following basic categories, Relief, where ink is applied to the original surface of the matrix. Relief techniques include woodcut or woodblock as the Asian forms are known, wood engraving. Intaglio, where ink is applied beneath the surface of the matrix. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, planographic, where the matrix retains its original surface, but is specially prepared and/or inked to allow for the transfer of the image. Planographic techniques include lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques, stencil, where ink or paint is pressed through a prepared screen, including screenprinting and pochoir. Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include collagraphy and viscosity printing, collagraphy is a printmaking technique in which textured material is adhered to the printing matrix. This texture is transferred to the paper during the printing process, Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes. Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family, for example, Rembrandts prints are usually referred to as etchings for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all. Woodcut, a type of print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text, the artist draws a design on a plank of wood, or on paper which is transferred to the wood
8.
Collage
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Collage is a technique of an art production, primarily used in the visual arts, where the artwork is made from an assemblage of different forms, thus creating a new whole. The origins of collage can be traced back hundreds of years, the term collage was coined by both Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso in the beginning of the 20th century when collage became a distinctive part of modern art. Techniques of collage were first used at the time of the invention of paper in China, around 200 BC. The use of collage, however, wasnt used by many people until the 10th century in Japan, when began to apply glued paper, using texts on surfaces. The technique of collage appeared in medieval Europe during the 13th century, gold leaf panels started to be applied in Gothic cathedrals around the 15th and 16th centuries. Gemstones and other metals were applied to religious images, icons. An 18th-century example of art can be found in the work of Mary Delany. In the 19th century, collage methods also were used among hobbyists for memorabilia, the exhibition later traveled to The Metropolitan Museum of Art and The Art Gallery of Ontario. For example, the Tate Gallerys online art glossary states that collage was first used as a technique in the twentieth century. The glued-on patches which Braque and Picasso added to their canvases offered a new perspective on painting when the patches collided with the plane of the painting. Collage in the modernist sense began with Cubist painters Georges Braque, according to some sources, Picasso was the first to use the collage technique in oil paintings. According to the Guggenheim Museums online article about collage, Braque took up the concept of collage itself before Picasso, applying it to charcoal drawings. Picasso adopted collage immediately after, It was Braque who purchased a roll of simulated oak-grain wallpaper and began cutting out pieces of the paper, Picasso immediately began to make his own experiments in the new medium. In 1912 for his Still Life with Chair Caning, Picasso pasted a patch of oilcloth with a design onto the canvas of the piece. Surrealist artists have made use of collage. Cubomania is a made by cutting an image into squares which are then reassembled automatically or at random. Collages produced using a similar, or perhaps identical, method are called etrécissements by Marcel Mariën from a method first explored by Mariën, surrealist games such as parallel collage use collective techniques of collage making. Many of these artists used techniques in their work
9.
Multimedia
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Multimedia is content that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations, video and interactive content. Multimedia contrasts with media that use only rudimentary computer displays such as text-only or traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material, Multimedia devices are electronic media devices used to store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is distinguished from mixed media in art, for example. The term rich media is synonymous with interactive multimedia, the term multimedia was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein to promote the July 1966 opening of his LightWorks at LOursin show at Southampton, Long Island. Goldstein was perhaps aware of an American artist named Dick Higgins, two years later, in 1968, the term multimedia was re-appropriated to describe the work of a political consultant, David Sawyer, the husband of Iris Sawyer—one of Goldsteins producers at LOursin. In the intervening forty years, the word has taken on different meanings, in the late 1970s, the term referred to presentations consisting of multi-projector slide shows timed to an audio track. However, by the 1990s multimedia took on its current meaning, in the 1993 first edition of Multimedia, Making It Work, Tay Vaughan declared Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer. When you allow the user – the viewer of the project – to control what, when you provide a structure of linked elements through which the user can navigate, interactive multimedia becomes hypermedia. The German language society Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache recognized the words significance, the institute summed up its rationale by stating has become a central word in the wonderful new media world. In common usage, multimedia refers to an electronically delivered combination of media including video, still images, audio, much of the content on the web today falls within this definition as understood by millions. That era saw also a boost in the production of educational multimedia CD-ROMs, the term video, if not used exclusively to describe motion photography, is ambiguous in multimedia terminology. Video is often used to describe the format, delivery format. Multiple forms of content are often not considered modern forms of presentation such as audio or video. Likewise, single forms of content with single methods of information processing are often called multimedia. Performing arts may also be considered multimedia considering that performers and props are multiple forms of content and media. Multimedia presentations may be viewed by person on stage, projected, transmitted, a broadcast may be a live or recorded multimedia presentation. Broadcasts and recordings can be analog or digital electronic media technology. Digital online multimedia may be downloaded or streamed, streaming multimedia may be live or on-demand
10.
3D modelling
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In 3D computer graphics, 3D modeling is the process of developing a mathematical representation of any three-dimensional surface of an object via specialized software. The product is called a 3D model and it can be displayed as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering or used in a computer simulation of physical phenomena. The model can also be created using 3D printing devices. Models may be created automatically or manually, the manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D modeling software is a class of 3D computer graphics used to produce 3D models. Individual programs of this class are called modeling applications or modelers, three-dimensional models represent a physical body using a collection of points in 3D space, connected by various geometric entities such as triangles, lines, curved surfaces, etc. Being a collection of data, 3D models can be created by hand, algorithmically and their surfaces may be further defined with texture mapping. 3D models are used anywhere in 3D graphics and CAD. Actually, their use predates the use of 3D graphics on personal computers. Many computer games used pre-rendered images of 3D models as sprites before computers could render them in real-time, today, 3D models are used in a wide variety of fields. The medical industry uses detailed models of organs, these may be created with multiple 2-D image slices from an MRI or CT scan, the movie industry uses them as characters and objects for animated and real-life motion pictures. The video game industry uses them as assets for computer and video games, the science sector uses them as highly detailed models of chemical compounds. The architecture industry uses them to demonstrate proposed buildings and landscapes in lieu of traditional, physical architectural models, the engineering community uses them as designs of new devices, vehicles and structures as well as a host of other uses. In recent decades the earth science community has started to construct 3D geological models as a standard practice, 3D models can also be the basis for physical devices that are built with 3D printers or CNC machines. Almost all 3D models can be divided into two categories, solid - These models define the volume of the object they represent. Almost all visual models used in games and film are shell models, solid and shell modeling can create functionally identical objects. Shell models must be manifold to be meaningful as a real object, Polygonal meshes are by far the most common representation. Level sets are a representation for deforming surfaces which undergo many topological changes such as fluids
11.
Archaeological illustration
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Archaeological Illustration is a form of technical illustration that records material derived from an archaeological context graphically. Archaeological Illustration encompasses a number of sub disciplines and these are, Surveying, To produce an accurate record of sites and buildings and to record accurately where the sites and buildings lie within the landscape. Survey data will be gathered on acid free paper, polyvinyl permatrace, photography, To produce a record of archaeological sites, buildings, artifacts and landscapes. Archaeological photographers will uses a range of different formats particularly black-and-white, digital photography is now starting to become more widely used and is especially useful for the recording of historic building. Aerial photography is used as a tool for recording sites and is also used as a prospecting tool to locate new archaeological sites. Artefact illustration, To record objects using agreed conventions to allow study of the objects by specialists on publication. Artefact illustrators will use pen-and-ink as well as graphics and page layout software, interpretation and reconstruction illustration, To visualise the results of archaeological field work in a way that is meaningful and visually appealing to as many as possible. Reconstruction artists work in media from traditional pen-and-ink and painted reconstruction to more modern techniques including 3D, virtual reality. Archaeological field survey Archaeological plan Archaeological record Archaeological section Excavation Post excavation Training excavation Philip Barker, techniques of Archaeological Excavation, Batsford Adkins, L. and Adkins, R. A. Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology, Archaeological Illustration Cambridge University Press John Hodgson, Archaeological reconstruction, illustrating the past, AAI&S & IFA Griffiths, N. Jenner, A. and Wilson, C. Drawing Archaeological Finds, A Handbook Archetype Melanie Steiner, approaches to Archaeological Illustration, A Handbook, Council for British Archaeology The MoLAS archaeological site manual MoLAS, London 1994
12.
Botanical illustration
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Botanical illustration is the art of depicting the form, color, and details of plant species, frequently in watercolor paintings. They must be accurate but often also have an artistic component and may be printed with a botanical description in book, magazines. Often composed in consultation with an author, their creation requires an understanding of plant morphology and access to specimens. Early herbals and pharmacopoeia of many cultures have included the depiction of plants and this was intended to assist identification of a species, usually with some medicinal purpose. The earliest surviving illustrated botanical work is the Codex vindobonensis and it is a copy of Dioscoridess De Materia Medica, and was made in the year 512 for Juliana Anicia, daughter of the former Western Roman Emperor Olybrius. The problem of accurately describing plants between regions and languages, before the introduction of taxonomy, were hazardous to medicinal preparations. The low quality of printing of early works sometimes presents difficulties in identifying the species depicted, when systems of botanical nomenclature began to be published, the need for a drawing or painting became optional. However, it was at time that the profession of botanical illustrator began to emerge. The eighteenth century saw advances in the printing processes. The field guides, Floras, catalogues and magazines produced since this time have continued to include illustrations, the development of photographic plates has not made illustration obsolete, despite the improvements in reproducing photographs in printed materials. A botanical illustrator is able to create a compromise of accuracy, an image from several specimens. Additionally, details of sections can be given at a magnified scale, organizations devoted to furthering the art form are found in the US, UK, Australia, and South Africa, among others. The reasons for this resurgence are many, in addition to the need for clear scientific illustration, botanical depictions continue to be one of the most popular forms of wall art. There is an increasing interest in the changes occurring in the natural world, a sense of urgency has developed in recording todays changing plant life for future generations. Working in media long understood provides confidence in the conservation of the drawings, paintings. Many artists are drawn to traditional figurative work, and find plant depiction a perfect fit. Florilegium List of florilegia and botanical codices List of American botanical illustrators List of Australian botanical illustrators List of Irish botanical illustrators Illustration De Bray, the Art of Botanical Illustration, A history of classic illustrators and their achievements. Blunt, Wilfrid and Stearn, William T, a Passion for Plants, Contemporary Botanical Masterworks
13.
Concept art
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Concept art is a form of illustration used to convey an idea for use in films, video games, animation, comic books, or other media before it is put into the final product. Concept art is referred to as visual development and/or concept design. This term can also be applied to retail, set, fashion, architectural, Concept art is developed in several iterations. Artists try several designs to achieve the result for the work. Designs are filtered and refined in stages to narrow down the options, Concept art is not only used to develop the work, but also to show the projects progress to directors, clients and investors. Once the development of the work is complete, advertising materials often resemble concept art, although these are made specifically for this purpose. It may have come about as part of automotive design for concept cars. A concept artist is an individual who generates a design for an item, character. This includes, but is not limited to, film, animation, a concept artist may be required for nothing more than preliminary artwork, or may be part of a creative team until a project reaches fruition. While it is necessary to have the skills of a fine artist, some concept artists may start as fine artists, industrial designers, animators, or even special effects artists. Interpretation of ideas and how they are realized is where the artists individual creativity is most evident. Many concept artists work in a studio or from home via freelance, a lot more concept artists are switching to freelance because of the job security of having multiple clients. There is a salary to working for a large studio. The average salary for a concept artist is 60-$70,000 a year, Concept art has embraced the use of digital technology. Raster graphics editors for digital painting have become more available, as well as hardware such as graphics tablets. Prior to this any number of mediums such as oil paints, acrylic paints, markers. Popular programs for artists include PhotoShop and Corel Painter. Others include manga studio, Art rage, and other well known programs
14.
Fashion illustration
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Fashion illustration has been around for nearly 500 years. Ever since clothes have been in existence, and there has been a need to translate an idea or image into a fashion illustration, not only do fashion illustrations show a representation or design of a garment but they also serve as a form of art. Fashion illustration shows the presence of hand and is said to be a visual luxury, more recently, there has been a decline of fashion illustration in the late 1930s when Vogue began to replace its celebrated illustrated covers with photographic images. This was a turning point in the fashion industry. Laird Borrelli, author of Fashion Illustration Now states, Fashion Illustration has gone from being one of the means of fashion communication to having a very minor role. The first photographic cover of Vogue was a watershed in the history of fashion illustration, photographs, no matter how altered or retouched, will always have some association with reality and by association truth. I like to think of them as poems and having more fictional narratives. They are more obviously filtered through a vision than photos. Illustration lives on, but in the position of a relative to the fashion. ISBN 978-2-35278-058-8 An Illustrated History of Fashion,500 Years of Fashion Illustration, published by Costume & Fashion Press,1997. Fashion Illustration Next, by Laird Borrelli, new Fashion Illustration, by Martin Dawber. Published by Laurence King Publishing,2006,100 Years of Fashion Illustration, by Cally Blackman. Published by Laurence King Publishing,2007, Fashion Illustration Now, Thames & Hudson Ltd. Fashion Illustration Today, Thames & Hudson Ltd
15.
Information graphics
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Information graphics or infographics are graphic visual representations of information, data or knowledge intended to present information quickly and clearly. They can improve cognition by utilizing graphics to enhance the human visual system’s ability to see patterns, similar pursuits are information visualization, data visualization, statistical graphics, information design, or information architecture. Infographics have evolved in recent years to be for mass communication, Isotypes are an early example of infographics conveying information quickly and easily to the masses. Infographics have been around for years and recently the increase of a number of easy-to-use. Social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter have also allowed for individual infographics to be spread among people around the world. Infographics are widely used in the age of short attention span, in newspapers, infographics are commonly used to show the weather, as well as maps, site plans, and graphs for summaries of data. Some books are almost entirely made up of information graphics, such as David Macaulays The Way Things Work, the Snapshots in USA Today are also an example of simple infographics used to convey news and current events. Public transportation maps, such as those for the Washington Metro, public places such as transit terminals usually have some sort of integrated signage system with standardized icons and stylized maps. Indeed graphics can be more precise and revealing than conventional statistical computations, in 1626, Christoph Scheiner published the Rosa Ursina sive Sol, a book that revealed his research about the rotation of the sun. Infographics appeared in the form of demonstrating the Sun’s rotation patterns. In 1786, William Playfair, an engineer and political economist, to represent the economy of 18th Century England, Playfair used statistical graphs, bar charts, line graphs, area charts, and histograms. In his work, Statistical Breviary, he is credited with introducing the first pie chart, around 1820, modern geography was established by Carl Ritter. His maps included shared frames, agreed map legends, scales, repeatability, such a map can be considered a supersign which combines sign systems—as defined by Charles Sanders Peirce—consisting of symbols, icons, indexes as representations. Other examples can be seen in the works of geographers Ritter and Alexander von Humboldt, in 1857, English nurse Florence Nightingale used information graphics to persuade Queen Victoria to improve conditions in military hospitals. The principal one she used was the Coxcomb chart, a combination of stacked bar and pie charts, depicting the number,1861 saw the release of an influential information graphic on the subject of Napoleons disastrous march on Moscow. James Joseph Sylvester introduced the term graph in 1878 in the scientific magazine Nature and these were also some of the first mathematical graphs. The Cologne Progressives developed an approach to art which focused on communicating information. Here simple images were used to represent data in a structured way, following the victory of Austrofascism in the Austrian Civil War, the team moved to the Netherlands where they continued their work rebranding it Isotypes
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Technical illustration
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Technical Illustration is the use of illustration to visually communicate information of a technical nature. Technical illustrations can be components of technical drawings or diagrams, Technical illustrations in general aim to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer. Technical illustrations generally have to describe and explain the subjects to a nontechnical audience and this type of technical illustration contains simple terminology and symbols that can be understood by the lay person and is sometimes called creative technical illustration/graphics. Specialized engineering or scientific communication, used by engineers/scientists to communicate with their peers and this use of technical illustration has its own complex terminology and specialized symbols, examples are the fields of atomic energy, aerospace and military/defense. These areas can be broken down into disciplines of mechanical, electrical, architectural engineering. Communication between highly skilled experts, used by engineers to communicate with people who are skilled in a field. Examples of this type of illustration are illustrations found in user/operator documentation. These illustrations can be complex and have jargon and symbols not understood by the general public. These are, Parallel projections, and many types of perspective projections, Technical illustration and computer-aided design can also use 3D and solidbody projections, such as rapid prototyping. In the natural sciences, scientific refers to a style of drawing using stippling. Scientific illustration, a guide to biological, zoological, and medical rendering techniques, design, printing, Technical Illustration – A Historical Perspective by Kevin Hulsey Technical Illustration in the 21st Century, A Primer for Today’s Professionals by Parametric Technology Corporation 2007. Stuttgart Database of Scientific Illustrators 1450–1950
17.
Medical illustration
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A medical illustration is a form of biological illustration that helps to record and disseminate medical, anatomical, and related knowledge. Medical illustrations have been made possibly since the beginning of medicine in any case for hundreds of years, many illuminated manuscripts and Arabic scholarly treatises of the medieval period contained illustrations representing various anatomical systems, pathologies, or treatment methodologies. As a profession, medical illustration has a recent history. In addition to being an extraordinary artist, he created new techniques, such as carbon dust, in 1911 he presided over the creation of the first academic department of medical illustration, which continues to this day. His graduates spread out across the world, and founded a number of the programs listed below under Education. Notable medical illustrators include Max Brödel and Dr. Frank H. Netter, Medical illustrators not only produce such material but can also function as consultants and administrators within the field of biocommunication. A certified medical illustrator continues to obtain training in medicine, science. The Association of Medical Illustrators is an organization founded in 1945. Its members are artists who create material designed to facilitate the recording and dissemination of medical. There is a companion Source Book with searchable illustration, animation, the obvious abilities necessary are to be able to visualize the subject-matter, some degree of originality in style of drawing and the refined skill of colour discrimination. Most medical illustrators in the profession have a degree from an accredited graduate program in medical illustration or another advanced degree in either science or the arts. Endowed in 1911, the program has been in existence for over 90 years, in 1959, the Johns Hopkins University approved a two-year graduate program leading to the University-wide degree of Master of Arts in Medical and Biological Illustration. The academic calendar, faculty and student affairs are administered by The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, the program has been fully accredited since 1970, currently accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs. The current Chair and Director of the program is Gary P. Lees, MS, the UIC program is located in the national healthcare and pharmaceutical hub of Chicago, and offers a market-based curriculum that includes the highest ends of technology. Biomedical Visualization is located on the UIC Medical Center campus, home of the largest medical school in the United States, the UIC program blends the more traditional aspects of medical illustration and the emerging markets of digital, pharmaceutical, and edutainment industries. UIC also offers a study in the field of anaplastology, medical sculpture. A two-year Master of Science in Biomedical Visualization degree is awarded, the Medical Illustration Graduate Program of the Medical College of Georgia, Augusta is fully accredited by. Graduates receive a Master of Science in Medical Illustration, the first Master of Science degree in Medical Illustration at MCG was awarded in 1951
18.
Picture books
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A picture book combines visual and verbal narratives in a book format, most often aimed at young children. The images in picture books use a range of such as oil paints, acrylics, watercolor. Two of the earliest books with something like the picture books still retain now were Heinrich Hoffmanns Struwwelpeter from 1845. Some of the picture books are Robert McCloskeys Make Way for Ducklings, Dr. Seuss The Cat In The Hat. The Caldecott Medal and Kate Greenaway Medal are awarded annually for illustrations in childrens literature, from the mid-1960s several childrens literature awards include a category for picture books. Some picture books are published with content aimed at children or even adults. Tibet, Through the Red Box, by Peter Sis, is one example of a book aimed at an adult audience. There are several subgenres among picture books, including books, concept books, early readers, nursery rhymes. Another category is movable books, such as books, which employ paper engineering to make parts of the page pop up or stand up when pages are opened. The Wheels on the Bus, by Paul O. Zelinsky, is one example of a bestseller pop-up picture book, orbis Pictus from 1658 by John Amos Comenius was the earliest illustrated book specifically for children. It is something of an encyclopedia and is illustrated by woodcuts. A Little Pretty Pocket-Book from 1744 by John Newbery was the earliest illustrated storybook marketed as pleasure reading in English, the German childrens books Struwwelpeter from 1845 by Heinrich Hoffmann, and Max and Moritz from 1865 by Wilhelm Busch, were among the earliest examples of modern picturebook design. Andrew Langs twelve Fairy Books published between 1889 and 1910 were illustrated by among others Henry J. Ford and Lancelot Speed, lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland, illustrated by John Tenniel in 1866 was one of the first highly successful entertainment books for children. Toy books were introduced in the half of the 19th century. These had a proportion of pictures to words than earlier books. Heath Robinson, Howard Pyle, or Charles Robinson, generally, these illustrated books had eight to twelve pages of illustrated pictures or plates accompanying a classic childrens storybook. Beatrix Potters The Tale of Peter Rabbit was published in 1902 to immediate success, Peter Rabbit was Potters first of many The Tale of. Including The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin, The Tale of Benjamin Bunny, The Tale of Tom Kitten, swedish author Elsa Beskow wrote and illustrated some 40 childrens stories and picture books between 1897–1952
19.
Scientific illustration
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The origin of the word “illustration” is late Middle English, via Old French from Latin illustratio, from the verb illustrate. Contemporary illustration uses a range of styles and techniques, including drawing, painting, printmaking, collage, montage, digital design, multimedia. Most illustrators work on a freelance basis, depending on the purpose, illustration may be expressive, stylised, realistic or highly technical. This may include exploded views, cutaways, fly-throughs, reconstructions, instructional images, component designs, in contemporary illustration practice, 2D and 3D software is often used to create accurate representations that can be updated easily, and reused in a variety of contexts. In the art world, illustration has at times been considered of less importance than graphic design, original illustration art has been known to attract high prices at auction. The US artist Norman Rockwells painting Breaking Home Ties sold in a 2006 Sothebys auction for USD15.4 million, many other illustration genres are equally valued, with pinup artists such as Gil Elvgren and Alberto Vargas, for example, also attracting high prices. Historically, the art of illustration is closely linked to the processes of printing and publishing. The illustrations of medieval codices were known as illuminations, and were hand drawn. With the invention of the press during the 15th century, books became more widely distributed. Subjects included traditional folk tales, popular figures and every day life, hokusai’s The Great Wave of Kanazawa is a famous image of the time. During the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, the main reproduction processes for illustration were engraving and etching, in 18th Century England, a notable illustrator was William Blake, who used relief etching. By the early 19th century, the introduction of lithography substantially improved reproduction quality, in Europe, notable figures of the early 19th Century were John Leech, George Cruikshank, Dickens illustrator Hablot Knight Browne, and, in France, Honoré Daumier. All contributed to both satirical and “serious” publications, at this time, there was a great demand for caricature drawings encapsulating social mores, types and classes. Although all fine art trained, their reputations were gained primarily as illustrators, in common with similar magazines such as the Parisian Le Voleur, Punch realised good illustration sold as well as good text. With publication continuing into the 21st Century, Punch chronicles a gradual shift in popular illustration, from the early 1800s newspapers, mass market magazines, and illustrated books had become the dominant consumer media in Europe and the New World. By the 19th Century, improvements in printing technology freed illustrators to experiment with color, in America, this led to a golden age of illustration from before the 1880s until the early 20th Century. A small group of illustrators became highly successful, with the imagery they created considered a portrait of American aspirations of the time
20.
Exploded-view drawing
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An exploded view drawing is a diagram, picture, schematic or technical drawing of an object, that shows the relationship or order of assembly of various parts. It shows the components of an object slightly separated by distance, the exploded view drawing is used in parts catalogs, assembly and maintenance manuals and other instructional material. Usually, the projection of a view is normally shown from above. It is slightly from above and shown from the side of the drawing in diagonal. An exploded view drawing is a type of drawing, that shows the assembly of mechanical or other parts. It shows all parts of the assembly and how they fit together, in mechanical systems usually the component closest to the center are assembled first, or is the main part in which the other parts get assembled. This drawing can help to represent the disassembly of parts. Exploded diagrams are common in descriptive manuals showing parts placement, or parts contained in an assembly or sub-assembly, usually such diagrams have the part identification number and a label indicating which part fills the particular position in the diagram. Many spreadsheet applications can automatically create exploded diagrams, such as exploded pie charts, in patent drawings in an exploded views the separated parts should be embraced by a bracket, to show the relationship or order of assembly of various parts are permissible, see image. When an exploded view is shown in a figure that is on the sheet as another figure. Exploded views can also be used in drawing, for example in the presentation of landscape design. An exploded view can create an image in which the elements are flying through the air above the architectural plan, the locations can be shadowed or dotted in the siteplan of the elements. Together with the view the exploded view was among the many graphic inventions of the Renaissance. The exploded view can be traced back to the fifteenth century notebooks of Marino Taccola. One of the first clearer examples of a view was created by Leonardo in his design drawing of a reciprocating motion machine. Leonardo applied this method of presentation in several studies, including those on human anatomy. May also show the sequence of assembling or disassembling the detail parts
21.
Gear pump
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A gear pump uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement. They are one of the most common types of pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications, gear pumps are also widely used in chemical installations to pump high viscosity fluids. There are two variations, external gear pumps which use two external spur gears, and internal gear pumps which use an external and an internal spur gears. Gear pumps are positive displacement, meaning they pump a constant amount of fluid for each revolution, some gear pumps are designed to function as either a motor or a pump. As the gears rotate they separate on the side of the pump, creating a void. The fluid is carried by the gears to the side of the pump. The mechanical clearances are small— in the order of 10 μm, the tight clearances, along with the speed of rotation, effectively prevent the fluid from leaking backwards. The rigid design of the gears and houses allow for high pressures. Many variations exist, including, helical and herringbone gear sets, lobe shaped rotors similar to Roots blowers, the most common variations are shown below. An external precision gear pump is usually limited to a working pressure of 210 bars. Some manufacturers produce gear pumps with higher working pressures and speeds but these types of pumps tend to be noisy, suction and pressure ports need to interface where the gears mesh. Some internal gear pumps have an additional, crescent-shaped seal. Pump formulas, Flow rate in US gal/min = Pump Capacity X rpm Power in hp = US gal/min X /1714 Generally used in, Petrochemicals, Pure or filled bitumen, pitch, diesel oil, crude oil, lube oil etc. Chemicals, Sodium silicate, acids, plastics, mixed chemicals, pulp and paper, acid, soap, lye, black liquor, kaolin, lime, latex, sludge etc. Food, Chocolate, cacao butter, fillers, sugar, vegetable fats and oils, molasses, gerotor Hydraulic pump Vane pump External gear pump description Internal gear pump description
22.
Cutaway drawing
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According to Diepstraten et al. the purpose of a cutaway drawing is to allow the viewer to have a look into an otherwise solid opaque object. Instead of letting the inner object shine through the surrounding surface and this produces a visual appearance as if someone had cutout a piece of the object or sliced it into parts. Cutaway illustrations avoid ambiguities with respect to spatial ordering, provide a sharp contrast between foreground and background objects, and facilitate an understanding of spatial ordering. The goal of this drawings in studies can be to identify common patterns for particular vehicle classes. Thus, the accuracy of most of these drawings, while not 100 percent, is high enough for this purpose. The technique is used extensively in computer-aided design, see first image and it has also been incorporated into the user interface of some video games. In The Sims, for instance, users can select through a control panel whether to view the house they are building with no walls, cutaway walls, the cutaway view and the exploded view were minor graphic inventions of the Renaissance that also clarified pictorial representation. This cutaway view originates in the fifteenth century notebooks of Marino Taccola. In the 16th century cutaway views in definite form were used in Georgius Agricolas mining book De Re Metallica to illustrate underground operations. It shows the many used in mining, such as the machine for lifting men and material into and out of a mine shaft. The term Cutaway drawing was already in use in the 19th century but and these factors, according to Diepstraten et al. breakaway, a cutaway realized by a single hole in the outside of the object. Some more examples of cutaway drawings, from products and systems to architectural building, similar types of technical drawings Cross-section Exploded view drawing Perspective
23.
Nash 600
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The Nash 600 is an automobile that was manufactured by the Nash-Kelvinator Corporation of Kenosha, Wisconsin for the 1941 through 1949 model years, after which the car was renamed the Nash Statesman. The Nash 600 was positioned in the market segment. The 600 name comes from the ability to go 600 miles on one tank of gasoline. Introduced for the 1941 model year, the Nash 600 became the first mass-produced unibody constructed car built in the United States, unitized construction allowed Nash to advertise that the car was lighter in weight, quieter, and more rigid than its competitors. Elimination of the frame in favor of a combined body-and-chassis construction reduced the weight by 500 pounds. Nashs innovation also required new techniques for collision repairs and this included the development of a new portable body and frame puller tool that was quickly accepted worldwide. The 600 designation for this Nash reinforces the claim for this models ability to travel over 500 miles on one tank of gasoline. This range is due to the combination of the engines 25 mpg‑US to 30 mpg‑US fuel economy combined with the cars 20-US-gallon, additional efficiency was due to its lower weight than similar cars. The 600 had a 33-foot turning circle and it was powered by a 172.6 cu in 82 hp at 3,800 rpm, L-head straight-six engine that became known for its fuel economy. The 600 featured a manual gearbox with electric overdrive and coil springs on all four wheels. For 1942, the Ambassador 600 was one of series of Nash cars. Styling featured a front with prominent chromed NASH letters incorporated into the front trim, as well as upgraded upholstery. Although the automaker began to gear up for defense orders for the U. S. Government, it expected to produce a number of economical. Nash began post-World War II car production in the fall of 1945, there were few changes from the 1942 models with the exception of revised chrome trim and a projecting center section on the lower grille. In 1946, the 600 featured the seat that could be converted into bed as an option. It was possible to sleep with the legs tucked into the trunk area, the 1948 was the only post-war year that Nash made a 600 in the business coupe body style. This was the model with minimal features, lacking a back seat as well as no chrome trim, ornamentation. The 1948 Nash 600 bore the work of Helene Rother, Nashs new interior stylist and they featured some of the most stylish interiors in the industry
24.
Diagrams
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A diagram is a symbolic representation of information according to some visualization technique. Diagrams have been used since ancient times, but became prevalent during the Enlightenment. Sometimes, the uses a three-dimensional visualization which is then projected onto a two-dimensional surface. The word graph is used as a synonym for diagram. Specific kind of display, This is the genre that shows qualitative data with shapes that are connected by lines, arrows. In science the term is used in both ways, on the other hand, Lowe defined diagrams as specifically abstract graphic portrayals of the subject matter they represent. Or in Halls words diagrams are simplified figures, caricatures in a way and these simplified figures are often based on a set of rules. The basic shape according to White can be characterized in terms of elegance, clarity, ease, pattern, simplicity, elegance is basically determined by whether or not the diagram is the simplest and most fitting solution to a problem. g. Many of these types of diagrams are generated using diagramming software such as Visio. Chart Diagrammatic reasoning Diagrammatology List of graphical methods Mathematical diagram Plot commons, michael Anderson, Peter Cheng, Volker Haarslev. Theory and Application of Diagrams, First International Conference, Diagrams 2000, edinburgh, Scotland, UK, September 1–3,2000. Garcia, M The Diagrams of Architecture
25.
William Blake
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William Blake was an English poet, painter, and printmaker. Largely unrecognised during his lifetime, Blake is now considered a figure in the history of the poetry. His so-called prophetic works were said by 20th century critic Northrop Frye to form what is in proportion to its merits the least read body of poetry in the English language. His visual artistry led 21st-century critic Jonathan Jones to proclaim him far, in 2002, Blake was placed at number 38 in the BBCs poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. Although he lived in London his entire life, he produced a diverse and symbolically rich œuvre and his paintings and poetry have been characterised as part of the Romantic movement and as Pre-Romantic. Reverent of the Bible but hostile to the Church of England, Blake was influenced by the ideals and ambitions of the French, despite these known influences, the singularity of Blakes work makes him difficult to classify. William Blake was born on 28 November 1757 at 28 Broad Street in Soho and he was the third of seven children, two of whom died in infancy. Blakes father, James, was a hosier and he attended school only long enough to learn reading and writing, leaving at the age of ten, and was otherwise educated at home by his mother Catherine Blake. Even though the Blakes were English Dissenters, William was baptised on 11 December at St Jamess Church, Piccadilly, the Bible was an early and profound influence on Blake, and remained a source of inspiration throughout his life. Blake started engraving copies of drawings of Greek antiquities purchased for him by his father, within these drawings Blake found his first exposure to classical forms through the work of Raphael, Michelangelo, Maarten van Heemskerck and Albrecht Dürer. The number of prints and bound books that James and Catherine were able to purchase for young William suggests that the Blakes enjoyed, at least for a time, a comfortable wealth. When William was ten years old, his parents knew enough of his headstrong temperament that he was not sent to school and he read avidly on subjects of his own choosing. During this period, Blake made explorations into poetry, his work displays knowledge of Ben Jonson, Edmund Spenser. On 4 August 1772, Blake was apprenticed to engraver James Basire of Great Queen Street, at the sum of £52.10, at the end of the term, aged 21, he became a professional engraver. This aside, Basires style of line-engraving was of a kind held at the time to be old-fashioned compared to the flashier stipple or mezzotint styles. It has been speculated that Blakes instruction in this form may have been detrimental to his acquiring of work or recognition in later life. After two years, Basire sent his apprentice to copy images from the Gothic churches in London and his experiences in Westminster Abbey helped form his artistic style and ideas. The Abbey of his day was decorated with suits of armour, painted funeral effigies, ackroyd notes that. the most immediate would have been of faded brightness and colour
26.
Graphic design
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Graphic design is the process of visual communication and problem-solving using one or more of typography, photography and illustration. The field is considered a subset of visual communication and communication design, Graphic designers create and combine symbols, images and text to form visual representations of ideas and messages. They use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to create visual compositions, common uses of graphic design include corporate design, editorial design, wayfinding or environmental design, advertising, web design, communication design, product packaging and signage. The term graphic design was coined by William Addison Dwiggins in 1922, however, graphic design-like activities span human existence, from the caves of Lascaux, to Romes Trajans Column to the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, to the neon lights of Ginza, Tokyo. In Babylon, artisans pressed cuneiform inscriptions into clay bricks or tablets which were used for construction, the bricks gave information such as the name of the reigning monarch, the builder, or some other dignitary. This was the first known road sign announcing the name of the governor of a state or mayor of the city, the Egyptians developed communication by hieroglyphics that used picture symbols dating as far back as 136 B. C. found on the Rosetta Stone. During the Dark Ages, from 500 AD to 1450 AD, monks created elaborate and they share many elements, theories, principles, practices, languages and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In advertising, the objective is the sale of goods. In graphic design, the essence is to order to information, form to ideas, expression. Graphic design in the United States began with Benjamin Franklin who used his newspaper The Pennsylvania Gazette, to master the art of publicity to promote his own books and his invention is still sold today and is known as the Franklin stove. American advertising initially imitated British newspapers and magazines, advertisements were printed in scrambled type and uneven lines that made it difficult to read. Franklin better organized this by adding 14-point type for the first line of the advertisement, although later shortened and centered it, Franklin added illustrations, something that London printers had not attempted. Franklin was the first to utilize logos, which were early symbols that announced such services as opticians by displaying golden spectacles, Franklin taught advertisers that the use of detail was important in marketing their products. Some advertisements ran for 10-20 lines, including color, names, varieties, during the Tang Dynasty wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book, beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing, making books widely available during the Song dynasty. During the 17th-18th century movable type was used for handbills or trade cards which were printed from wood or copper engravings and these documents announced a business and its location. English painter William Hogarth used his skill in engraving was one of the first to design for business trade, in Mainz Germany, in 1448, Johann Gutenberg introduced movable type using a new metal alloy for use in a printing press and opened a new era of commerce. Previously, most advertising was word of mouth, in France and England, for example, criers announced products for sale just as ancient Romans had done
27.
Graphic novel
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A graphic novel is a book made up of comics content. Although the word normally refers to long fictional works, the term graphic novel is applied broadly and includes fiction, non-fiction. It is distinguished from the comic book, which is used for comics periodicals. Fan historian Richard Kyle coined the term graphic novel in an essay in the November 1964 issue of the comics fanzine Capa-Alpha, the Book Industry Study Group began using graphic novel as a category in book stores in 2001. In the publishing trade, the term extends to material that would not be considered a novel if produced in another medium. Collections of comic books that do not form a story, anthologies or collections of loosely related pieces. The term is sometimes used to distinguish between works created as standalone stories, in contrast to collections or compilations of a story arc from a comic book series published in book form. As the exact definition of the novel is debated, the origins of the form are open to interpretation. The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck is the oldest recognized American example of comics used to this end, the first American edition was published in 1842 by Wilson & Company in New York City using the original printing plates from the 1841 edition. Another early predecessor is Journey to the Gold Diggins by Jeremiah Saddlebags by brothers J. A. D. and D. F. Read, inspired by The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck. In 1894 Caran dAche broached the idea of a novel in a letter to the newspaper Le Figaro. In the United States there is a tradition of reissuing previously published comic strips in book form. In 1897 the Hearst Syndicate published such a collection of The Yellow Kid by Richard Outcault, the 1920s saw a revival of the medieval woodcut tradition, with Belgian Frans Masereel cited as the undisputed king of this revival. American Lynd Ward also worked in this tradition, publishing Gods Man, in 1929, the 1940s saw the launching of Classics Illustrated, a comic-book series that primarily adapted notable, public domain novels into standalone comic books for young readers. In 1947 Fawcett Comics published Comics Novel #1, Anarcho, Dictator of Death, by the late 1960s, American comic book creators were becoming more adventurous with the form. Gil Kane and Archie Goodwin self-published a 40-page, magazine-format comics novel, savage in 1968—the same year Marvel Comics published two issues of The Spectacular Spider-Man in a similar format. Meanwhile, in continental Europe, the tradition of collecting serials of popular strips such as The Adventures of Tintin or Asterix led to long-form narratives published initially as serials. By 1969, the author John Updike, who had entertained ideas of becoming a cartoonist in his youth, addressed the Bristol Literary Society, on the death of the novel
28.
Video game
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A video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device such as a TV screen or computer monitor. The word video in video game referred to a raster display device. Some theorists categorize video games as an art form, but this designation is controversial, the electronic systems used to play video games are known as platforms, examples of these are personal computers and video game consoles. These platforms range from large mainframe computers to small handheld computing devices, the input device used for games, the game controller, varies across platforms. Common controllers include gamepads, joysticks, mouse devices, keyboards, the touchscreens of mobile devices, and buttons, or even, with the Kinect sensor, a persons hands and body. Players typically view the game on a screen or television or computer monitor, or sometimes on virtual reality head-mounted display goggles. There are often game sound effects, music and, in the 2010s, some games in the 2000s include haptic, vibration-creating effects, force feedback peripherals and virtual reality headsets. In the 2010s, the game industry is of increasing commercial importance, with growth driven particularly by the emerging Asian markets and mobile games. As of 2015, video games generated sales of USD74 billion annually worldwide, early games used interactive electronic devices with various display formats. The earliest example is from 1947—a Cathode ray tube Amusement Device was filed for a patent on 25 January 1947, by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann, and issued on 14 December 1948, as U. S. Written by MIT students Martin Graetz, Steve Russell, and Wayne Wiitanens on a DEC PDP-1 computer in 1961, and the hit ping pong-style Pong, used the DEC PDP-1s vector display to have two spaceships battle each other. In 1971, Computer Space, created by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, was the first commercially sold and it used a black-and-white television for its display, and the computer system was made of 74 series TTL chips. The game was featured in the 1973 science fiction film Soylent Green, Computer Space was followed in 1972 by the Magnavox Odyssey, the first home console. Modeled after a late 1960s prototype console developed by Ralph H. Baer called the Brown Box and these were followed by two versions of Ataris Pong, an arcade version in 1972 and a home version in 1975 that dramatically increased video game popularity. The commercial success of Pong led numerous other companies to develop Pong clones and their own systems, the game inspired arcade machines to become prevalent in mainstream locations such as shopping malls, traditional storefronts, restaurants, and convenience stores. The game also became the subject of articles and stories on television and in newspapers and magazines. Space Invaders was soon licensed for the Atari VCS, becoming the first killer app, the term platform refers to the specific combination of electronic components or computer hardware which, in conjunction with software, allows a video game to operate. The term system is commonly used
29.
Norman Rockwell
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Norman Perceval Rockwell was a 20th-century American author, painter and illustrator. His works enjoy a broad appeal in the United States for their reflection of American culture. Rockwell is most famous for the illustrations of everyday life he created for The Saturday Evening Post magazine over nearly five decades. Among the best-known of Rockwells works are the Willie Gillis series, Rosie the Riveter, The Problem We All Live With, Saying Grace, and the Four Freedoms series. He also is noted for his 64-year relationship with the Boy Scouts of America, during which he produced covers for their publication Boys Life, calendars, and other illustrations. These works include images that reflect the Scout Oath and Scout Law such as The Scoutmaster, A Scout is Reverent and A Guiding Hand. Norman Rockwell was born on February 3,1894, in New York City, to Jarvis Waring Rockwell and Anne Mary Nancy Rockwell and he had one brother, Jarvis Waring Rockwell, Jr. older by a year and a half. Jarvis Waring, Sr. was the manager of the New York office of a Philadelphia textile firm, George Wood, Sons & Company, Rockwell transferred from high school to the Chase Art School at the age of 14. He then went on to the National Academy of Design and finally to the Art Students League, as a student, Rockwell was given small jobs of minor importance. His first major breakthrough came at age eighteen with his first book illustration for Carl H. Claudys Tell Me Why, after that, Rockwell was hired as a staff artist for Boys Life magazine. In this role, he received 50 dollars compensation each month for one completed cover and it is said to have been his first paying job as an artist. At 19, he became the art editor for Boys Life and he held the job for three years, during which he painted several covers, beginning with his first published magazine cover, Scout at Ships Wheel, which appeared on the Boys Life September edition. Rockwells family moved to New Rochelle, New York, when Norman was 21 years old and they shared a studio with the cartoonist Clyde Forsythe, who worked for The Saturday Evening Post. With Forsythes help, Rockwell submitted his first successful cover painting to the Post in 1916 and he followed that success with Circus Barker and Strongman, Gramps at the Plate, Redhead Loves Hatty Perkins, People in a Theatre Balcony, and Man Playing Santa. Rockwell was published eight times on the Post cover within the first year, ultimately, Rockwell published 323 original covers for The Saturday Evening Post over 47 years. His Sharp Harmony appeared on the cover of the issue dated September 26,1936, it depicts a barber, the image was adopted by SPEBSQSA in its promotion of the art. During World War I, he tried to enlist into the U. S. Navy but was refused entry because, at 140 pounds, to compensate, he spent one night gorging himself on bananas, liquids and doughnuts, and weighed enough to enlist the next day. He was given the role of a military artist, however, in 1943, during World War II, Rockwell painted the Four Freedoms series, which was completed in seven months and resulted in his losing fifteen pounds
30.
Sotheby's
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Sothebys /ˈsʌðəbiz/ is a British multinational corporation headquartered in New York City. One of the worlds largest brokers of fine and decorative art, jewelry, real estate, the company’s services range from corporate art services to private sales. Sothebys is the fourth oldest auction house in continuous operation. As of December 2011, the company had 1,446 employees worldwide and it is the worlds largest art business with global sales in 2011 totalling $5.8 billion. Sothebys was established on 11 March 1744 in London, the American holding company was initially incorporated in August 1983 in Michigan. In June 2006, Sothebys Holdings, Inc. reincorporated in the State of Delaware and was renamed Sothebys, in July 2016, Chinese insurance giant Taikang Life became Sothebys largest shareholder. Three Swedish auction houses are older and Sothebys great rival in London and then New York. The current business dates back to 1804, when two of the partners of the business left to set up their own book dealership. After Baker’s death in 1778, his estate was divided between Leigh and John Sotheby, George Leigh died unmarried in 1816, but not before endeavouring to secure his succession by recruiting Samuel E Leigh into the business. Under the Sotheby family, the house extended its activities to auctioning prints, medals. John Wilkinson, Sothebys Senior Accountant, became the company’s new CEO, the business did not seek to auction fine arts in general until much later, their first major success in this field being the sale of a Frans Hals painting for nine thousand guineas as late as 1913. In 1917, Sothebys relocated from 13 Wellington Street to 34-35 New Bond Street and they soon came to rival Christies as leaders of the London auction market, which had become the most important for art. In 1955, Sothebys opened an office at Bowling Green, New York City, in 1964, Sothebys purchased Parke-Bernet, then the largest auctioneer of fine art in the United States. In the following year, Sothebys moved to 980 Madison Avenue, Sothebys became a U. K. public company in 1977. The auction house closed its Madison Avenue galleries at East 76th Street, the Los Angeles galleries were sold and auctions of West Coast material moved to New York. In the following year, a group of investors purchased and privatized Sothebys, Sothebys was initially incorporated as Sothebys Holdings, Inc. in Michigan in August 1983. Taubman took Sothebys public in 1988, listing the shares on the New York Stock Exchange. In June 2006, Sothebys Holdings, Inc. reincorporated in the State of Delaware and was renamed Sothebys shortly after, with private transactions constituting an essential and increasingly profitable business segment, through the years Sothebys has bought art galleries and helped dealers finance purchases
31.
Gil Elvgren
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Gil Elvgren was an American painter of pin-up girls, advertising and illustration. Best known for his paintings for Brown & Bigelow, Elvgren studied at the American Academy of Art. He was strongly influenced by the pretty girl illustrators, such as Charles Dana Gibson, Andrew Loomis. Other influences included the Brandywine School founded by Howard Pyle, gillette A. Elvgren was born in St. Paul, Minnesota, and attended University High School. After graduation, he began studying art at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts and he subsequently moved to Chicago to study at the American Academy of Art. He graduated from the Academy during the depression at the age of twenty-two, Elvgren joined the stable of artists at Stevens and Gross, Chicagos most prestigious advertising agency. He became a protégé of the artist Haddon Sundblom, many of his pin-ups were reproduced as nose art on military aircraft during World War II. Around 1944, Gil was approached by Brown and Bigelow, a firm that still dominates the field in producing calendars and he was associated with Brown & Bigelow from 1945 to 1972. At Brown & Bigelow Elvgren began working with 30 x 24 canvases, a format that he would use for the next 30 years and he lived in various locations, and was active from the 1930s to 1970s. In 1951 he began painting in a studio in his home, then in Winnetka, Illinois, using an assistant to set up lighting, build props and scenes, photograph sets and his clients ranged from Brown and Bigelow and Coca-Cola to General Electric and Sealy Mattress Company. In addition, during the 1940s and 1950s he illustrated stories for a host of magazines, such as The Saturday Evening Post, among the models Elvgren painted were Myrna Hansen, Donna Reed, Barbara Hale, Arlene Dahl, and Kim Novak. Pin-up girl List of pin-up artists Martignette, Charles G. and Louis K. Meisel, ISBN 3-8228-1701-5 Martignette, Charles G. and Louis K. Meisel, Gil Elvgren, All His Glamorous American Pin-Ups. ISBN 978-3-8228-2930-1 Recent auction results of Gil Elvgren pinups Grapefruit Moon Gallery Happy Jolly Elvgren Concordance Elvgren pinups Gil Elvgren
32.
Alberto Vargas
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Joaquin Alberto Vargas y Chávez was a noted Peruvian painter of pin-up girls. He is often considered one of the most famous of the pin-up artists, numerous Vargas paintings have sold and continue to sell for hundreds of thousands of dollars. Born in Arequipa, Peru, he was the son of noted Peruvian photographer Max T. Vargas, Alberto Vargas moved to the United States in 1916 after studying art in Europe, Zurich, and Geneva prior to World War I. While he was in Europe he came upon the French magazine La Vie Parisienne, with a cover by Raphael Kirchner and his early career in New York included work as an artist for the Ziegfeld Follies and for many Hollywood studios. Ziegfeld hung his painting of Olive Thomas at the theater, Vargas most famous piece of film work was for the poster of the 1933 film The Sin of Nora Moran, which shows a near-naked Zita Johann in a pose of desperation. The poster is frequently named one of the greatest movie ever made. He became widely noted in the 1940s as the creator of iconic World War-II era pin-ups for Esquire magazine known as Varga Girls, between 1940 and 1946 Vargas produced 180 paintings for the magazine. The nose art of many American and Allied World War II aircraft was inspired and adapted from these Esquire pin-ups, as well as those of George Petty, the Feds objected, most especially, to the cartoons and the pin-up art of Alberto Vargas. Esquire prevailed in the case went to the Supreme Court. A legal dispute with Esquire over the use of the name Varga resulted in a judgement against Vargas and he struggled financially until 1959 when Playboy magazine began to use his work. Over the next 16 years he produced 152 paintings for the magazine and his career flourished and he had major exhibitions of his work all over the world. Vargas artistic work, paintings and color drawings, were featured in some issues of Playboy magazine in the 1960s and 1970s. The death of his wife Anna Mae in 1974 left him devastated, Anna Mae had been his model and business manager, his muse in every way. He died of a stroke on 30 December 1982, at the age of 86, many of Vargas works from his period with Esquire are now held by the Spencer Museum of Art at the University of Kansas. It was given those works in 1980 along with a body of other art from the magazine. At the December 2003 Christies auction of Playboy archives, the 1967 Vargas painting Trick or Treat sold for $71,600 and his work was typically a combination of watercolor and airbrush. His mastery of the airbrush is acknowledged by the founding of the Vargas Award, awarded annually by Airbrush Action Magazine, despite always using figure models, he often portrayed elegantly dressed, semi-nude to nude women of idealized proportions. Vargas artistic trait would be slender fingers and toes, with nails often painted red, Vargas is widely regarded as one of the finest artists in his genre
33.
Lilium superbum
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Lilium superbum is a species of true lily native to the eastern and central regions of North America. Common names include Turks cap lily, turban lily, swamp lily, lily royal, the native range of the species extends from New Hampshire south to the Florida Panhandle, west to Missouri and Arkansas, and all the way north to Alberta. Lilium superbum grows from 3–7 feet high with three to seven blooms, but exceptional specimens have been observed with up to 40 flowers on each stem. It is capable of growing in wet conditions and it is fairly variable in size, form, and color. The color is known to range from a yellow to orange to a reddish-orange flame coloring with reddish petal tips. The flowers have a star at their center that can be used to distinguish L. superbum from the Asiatic tigerlilies that frequently escape from cultivation. The roots were a source for Native Americans, and the flowers provide nectar for hummingbirds. It is listed as endangered in Florida, New Hampshire, Alberta and Saskatchewan and threatened in Kentucky, the common name is derived from the reflexed shape of the flower petals, which presumably resemble a type of hat worn by early Turkish people. Suspected cases require urgent veterinary attention
34.
Georg Dionysius Ehret
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Georg Dionysius Ehret was a botanist and entomologist, and is best known for his botanical illustrations. Ehret was born in Germany to Ferdinand Christian Ehret, a gardener and competent draughtsman, beginning his working life as a gardeners apprentice near Heidelberg, he became one of the most influential European botanical artists of all time. His first illustrations were in collaboration with Carl Linnaeus and George Clifford in 1735-1736, Clifford, a wealthy Dutch banker and governor of the Dutch East India Company was a keen botanist with a large herbarium. He had the income to attract the talents of such as Linnaeus. Together at the Clifford estate, Hartecamp, which is located south of Haarlem in Heemstede near Bennebroek, they produced Hortus Cliffortianus in 1738, the genus Ehretia was named in his honour. Methodus plantarum sexualis Hortus nitidissimis The Natural History of Barbados, Griffith Hughes,1750 and this was published in parts from 1748 until 1759 in folio. The eighteen plates were engraved and hand-colored by Ehret himself, most display a combination of one or more species of plants and of butterflies. Illustrations for Plantae selectae by Christoph Jakob Trew, another copy of Plantae selectae at Missouri Botanical Gardens. A memoir of Georg Dionysius Ehret, written by himself Proceedings of the Linnean Society, London, Ehret Illustrations and portrait The Art of Georg Dionysius Ehret de Bray, Lys. In, The Art of Botanical Illustration, A history of classic illustrators and their achievements, pp. 107–119
35.
Georgius Agricola
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Georgius Agricola was a German Catholic, scholar and scientist. Known as the father of mineralogy, he was born at Glauchau in Saxony and his birth name was Georg Pawer, Agricola is the Latinized version of his name, by which he was known his entire adult life, Agricola and Bauer mean farmer in their respective languages. He is best known for his book De Re Metallica, here, he also devoted himself to the study of medicine, physics, and chemistry. After the death of Mosellanus, he went to Italy from 1524 to 1526, in 1530, Prince Maurice of Saxony appointed him historiographer with an annual allowance, and he migrated to Chemnitz, the centre of the mining industry, to widen the range of his observations. The citizens showed their appreciation of his learning by appointing him town physician in 1533, in that year, he published a book about Greek and Roman weights and measures, De Mensuis et Ponderibus. He was also elected burgomaster of Chemnitz, Chemnitz was a violent centre of the Protestant movement, while Agricola never wavered in his allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church, he was forced to resign his office. He now lived apart from the movements of the time. In 1544, he published the De ortu et causis subterraneorum, in which he laid the first foundations of a physical geology, the delay is thought to be due to the books many woodcuts. The work is a systematic, illustrated treatise on mining and extractive metallurgy and it shows processes to extract ores from the ground, and metals from ore. Until that time, Pliny the Elders work Historia Naturalis was the source of information on metals. Agricola acknowledged his debt to ancient authors, such as Pliny and Theophrastus, in geology, Agricola described and illustrated how ore veins occur in and on the ground. He described prospecting for ore veins and surveying in detail, as well as washing the ores to collect the valuable minerals, such as gold. The work shows water mills used in mining, such as the machine for lifting men and material into, Agricola described mining methods which are now obsolete, such as fire-setting, which involved building fires against hard rock faces. The hot rock was quenched with water, and the thermal shock weakened it enough for easy removal and it was a dangerous method when used in underground, made redundant by explosives. The work contains, in an appendix, the German equivalents for the terms used in the Latin text. Modern words that derive from the work include fluorspar and bismuth, in another example, believing the black rock of the Schloßberg at Stolpen to be the same as Pliny the Elders basalt, Agricola applied this name to it, and thus originated a petrological term. In 1912, the Mining Magazine published an English translation of De re metallica, the translation was made by Herbert Hoover, the American mining engineer and his wife Lou Henry Hoover. Hoover was later President of the United States, in spite of the early proof that Agricola had given of the tolerance of his own religious attitude, he was not suffered to end his days in peace
36.
Fire-setting
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Fire-setting is a method of traditional mining used most commonly from prehistoric times up to the Middle Ages. Fires were set against a face to heat the stone. Some experiments have suggested that the water did not have an effect on the rock. This technique was best performed in opencast mines where the smoke, the technique was very dangerous in underground workings without adequate ventilation. The method became largely redundant with the growth in use of explosives, although fire-setting was frequently used before modern times, it has been used sporadically since then. In some regions of the world, notably Africa and Eurasia and it was used where rock was too hard to drill holes with steel borers for blasting or whenever it was economic because of cheapness of wood. The oldest traces of this method in Europe were found in southern France, numerous finds exist from Bronze Age, such as in the Alps, in the former mining district of Schwaz-Brixlegg in Tyrol, or in the Goleen area in Cork, to name a few. As for antique written sources, fire-setting is first described by Diodorus Siculus in his Bibliotheca historica written about 60 BC and it is also mentioned in greater detail by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia, published in the first century AD. In Book XXXIII, he describes mining methods for gold, and he mentions the use of vinegar to quench the hot rock, but water would have been just as effective, as vinegar was expensive at the time for regular use in a mine. The effectiveness of strong acid solutions on heated limestone has been demonstrated in laboratory experiments. Pliny also says that the method was used both in opencast and deep mining and they were certainly much larger in section than was normal for access galleries, and the draught of air through them would have been considerable. Fire-setting was used extensively during opencast mining, and is described by Pliny in connection with the use of another mining technique known as hushing. Aqueducts were built to supply copious amounts of water to the minehead, the water was unleashed to scour the hillside below, both soil in the case of prospecting for metal veins, and then rock debris after a vein had been found. Pliny also describes undermining methods that were used to facilitate the removal of hard rocks, the method continued in use in the medieval period, and is described by Georg Agricola in his treatise on mining and mineral extraction, De Re Metallica. He warns about the problem of the foetid vapours and the need to evacuate the workings while the fires are lit, and presumably for some time afterwards until the gases and smoke had cleared. Agricola mentions the use of large water-powered bellows to create a draught, in later times, a fire at the base of a shaft was used to create an updraught, but just like fire-setting, it was a hazardous and dangerous procedure, especially in collieries. As the number and complexity of the workings increased, care was needed to channel the air draught to all parts of the tunnels. It was usually achieved by installing doors at key points, most of the deaths in coal mine disasters were caused by inhalation of the toxic gases produced by firedamp explosions
37.
Printing
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Printing is a process for reproducing text and images using a master form or template. The earliest examples include Cylinder seals and other such as the Cyrus Cylinder. The earliest known form of printing came from China dating to before 220 A. D. Later developments in printing include the type, first developed by Bi Sheng in China around 1040 AD. Johannes Gutenberg introduced mechanical movable type printing to Europe in the 15th century, modern large-scale printing is typically done using a printing press, while small-scale printing is done free-form with a digital printer. Though paper is the most common material, it is frequently done on metals, plastics, cloth. On paper it is carried out as a large-scale industrial process and is an essential part of publishing. Woodblock printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns that was used widely throughout East Asia and it originated in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later on paper. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from China date to before 220 A. D, the earliest surviving woodblock printed fragments are from China. They are of silk printed with flowers in three colours from the Han Dynasty and they are the earliest example of woodblock printing on paper appeared in the mid-seventh century in China. By the ninth century, printing on paper had taken off, by the tenth century,400,000 copies of some sutras and pictures were printed, and the Confucian classics were in print. A skilled printer could print up to 2,000 double-page sheets per day, Printing spread early to Korea and Japan, which also used Chinese logograms, but the technique was also used in Turpan and Vietnam using a number of other scripts. This technique then spread to Persia and Russia and this technique was transmitted to Europe via the Islamic world, and by around 1400 was being used on paper for old master prints and playing cards. However, Arabs never used this to print the Quran because of the limits imposed by Islamic doctrine, block printing, called tarsh in Arabic developed in Arabic Egypt during the ninth-tenth centuries, mostly for prayers and amulets. There is some evidence to suggest that these print blocks made from non-wood materials, possibly tin, lead, the techniques employed are uncertain, however, and they appear to have had very little influence outside of the Muslim world. Though Europe adopted woodblock printing from the Muslim world, initially for fabric, block printing later went out of use in Islamic Central Asia after movable type printing was introduced from China. Block printing first came to Europe as a method for printing on cloth, images printed on cloth for religious purposes could be quite large and elaborate. When paper became relatively easily available, around 1400, the medium transferred very quickly to small religious images
38.
Publishing
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Publishing is the dissemination of literature, music, or information—the activity of making information available to the general public. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers, meaning originators and developers of content also provide media to deliver, also, the word publisher can refer to the individual who leads a publishing company or an imprint or to a person who owns/heads a magazine. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books, Publishing includes the following stages of development, acquisition, copy editing, production, printing, and marketing and distribution. There are two categories of book publisher, Non-paid publishers, A non-paid publisher is a house that does not charge authors at all to publish their books. Paid publishers, The author has to meet with the expense to get the book published. This is also known as vanity publishing, at a small press, it is possible to survive by relying entirely on commissioned material. But as activity increases, the need for works may outstrip the publishers established circle of writers, for works written independently of the publisher, writers often first submit a query letter or proposal directly to a literary agent or to a publisher. Submissions sent directly to a publisher are referred to as unsolicited submissions, the acquisitions editors send their choices to the editorial staff. Unsolicited submissions have a low rate of acceptance, with some sources estimating that publishers ultimately choose about three out of every ten thousand unsolicited manuscripts they receive. Many book publishers around the world maintain a strict no unsolicited submissions policy and this policy shifts the burden of assessing and developing writers out of the publisher and onto the literary agents. At these publishers, unsolicited manuscripts are thrown out, or sometimes returned, established authors may be represented by a literary agent to market their work to publishers and negotiate contracts. Literary agents take a percentage of earnings to pay for their services. Some writers follow a route to publication. Such books often employ the services of a ghostwriter, for a submission to reach publication, it must be championed by an editor or publisher who must work to convince other staff of the need to publish a particular title. An editor who discovers or champions a book that becomes a best-seller may find their reputation enhanced as a result of their success. Once a work is accepted, commissioning editors negotiate the purchase of property rights. The authors of traditional printed materials typically sell exclusive territorial intellectual property rights that match the list of countries in which distribution is proposed. In the case of books, the publisher and writer must also agree on the formats of publication —mass-market paperback
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Codices
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A codex is a book constructed of a number of sheets of paper, vellum, papyrus, or similar materials, with hand-written contents. The book is bound by stacking the pages and fixing one edge. Some codices are continuously folded like a concertina, the alternative to paged codex format for a long document is the continuous scroll. Examples of folded codices include the Maya codices, sometimes people use the term for a book-style format, including modern printed books but excluding folded books. The Romans developed the form from wooden writing tablets, the codexs gradual replacement of the scroll—the dominant book form in the ancient world—has been called the most important advance in book making before the invention of printing. The codex transformed the shape of the book itself, and offered a form that lasted for centuries, the spread of the codex is often associated with the rise of Christianity, which adopted the format for use with the Bible early on. In fact, any combination of codices and scrolls with papyrus and parchment is technically feasible, the codex began to replace the scroll almost as soon as it was invented. In Egypt, by the century, the codex outnumbered the scroll by ten to one based on surviving examples. By the sixth century, the scroll had almost vanished as a medium for literature, technically, even modern paperbacks are codices, but publishers and scholars reserve the term for manuscript books produced from Late antiquity until the Middle Ages. The scholarly study of manuscripts from the point of view of the bookbinding craft is called codicology. The study of ancient documents in general is called paleography, the Romans used precursors made of reusable wax-covered tablets of wood for taking notes and other informal writings. Two ancient polyptychs, a pentatych and octotych, excavated at Herculaneum used a connecting system that presages later sewing on of thongs or cords. Julius Caesar may have been the first Roman to reduce scrolls to pages in the form of a note-book. At the turn of the 1st century AD, a kind of folded parchment notebook called pugillares membranei in Latin became commonly used for writing in the Roman Empire, theodore Cressy Skeat theorized that this form of notebook was invented in Rome and then spread rapidly to the Near East. Codices are described in works by the Classical Latin poet. He wrote a series of five couplets meant to accompany gifts of literature that Romans exchanged during the festival of Saturnalia. ”Early codices of parchment or papyrus appear to have widely used as personal notebooks. The parchment notebook pages were commonly washed or scraped for re-use and consequently, writings in a codex were often considered informal, as early as the early 2nd century, there is evidence that a codex—usually of papyrus—was the preferred format among Christians. In the library of the Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum, however, in the Nag Hammadi library, hidden about AD390, all texts are codices
40.
Illuminated manuscript
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An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented with such decoration as initials, borders and miniature illustrations. Comparable Far Eastern and Mesoamerican works are described as painted, islamic manuscripts may be referred to as illuminated, illustrated or painted, though using essentially the same techniques as Western works. This article covers the technical, social and economic history of the subject, for an art-historical account, the earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period 400 to 600, produced in the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire. The significance of these works lies not only in their inherent artistic and historical value, had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiquity, most literature of Greece and Rome would have perished in Europe. As it was, the patterns of textual survivals were shaped by their usefulness to the severely constricted literate group of Christians, the majority of surviving manuscripts are from the Middle Ages, although many survive from the Renaissance, along with a very limited number from Late Antiquity. The majority of manuscripts are of a religious nature. However, especially from the 13th century onward, a number of secular texts were illuminated. Most illuminated manuscripts were created as codices, which had superseded scrolls, a very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on papyrus, which does not last nearly as long as vellum or parchment. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment, beginning in the late Middle Ages manuscripts began to be produced on paper. Illuminated manuscripts continued to be produced in the early 16th century, Manuscripts are among the most common items to survive from the Middle Ages, many thousands survive. They are also the best surviving specimens of medieval painting, indeed, for many areas and time periods, they are the only surviving examples of painting. There are a few examples from later periods, the type of book that was most often heavily and richly illuminated, sometimes known as a display book, varied between periods. In the first millennium, these were most likely to be Gospel Books, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Romanesque period saw the creation of many huge illuminated complete Bibles – one in Sweden requires three librarians to lift it. Many Psalters were also illuminated in both this and the Gothic period. Finally, the Book of Hours, very commonly the personal book of a wealthy layperson, was often richly illuminated in the Gothic period. Other books, both liturgical and not, continued to be illuminated at all periods, the Byzantine world also continued to produce manuscripts in its own style, versions of which spread to other Orthodox and Eastern Christian areas. See Medieval art for other regions, periods and types, reusing parchments by scraping the surface and reusing them was a common practice, the traces often left behind of the original text are known as palimpsests. The Gothic period, which saw an increase in the production of these beautiful artifacts, also saw more secular works such as chronicles
41.
Printing press
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
42.
Books
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A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side, with text and/or images printed in ink. A single sheet within a book is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page, a set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format for reading on a computer screen, smartphone or e-reader device is known as an electronic book, or e-book. The term books may refer the body of works of literature. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals, in novels and sometimes other types of books, a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books. An avid reader or collector of books or a lover is a bibliophile or colloquially. A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore, Books are also sold in some department stores, drugstores and newspaper vendors. Books can also be borrowed from libraries, google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been published. In some wealthier nations, printed books are giving way to the usage of electronic or e-books, the word book comes from Old English bōc, which in turn comes from the Germanic root *bōk-, cognate to beech. Similarly, in Slavic languages буква is cognate with beech, in Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, the word букварь or буквар refers specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood, similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense, originally meant block of wood. When writing systems were created in ancient civilizations, a variety of objects, such as stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets, the study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy, the Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from other and there was no punctuation. Texts were written right to left, left to right. The technical term for that last type of writing is boustrophedon, a tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus, the instrument used to write on a tablet, clay tablets were flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a stylus. They were used as a medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age. Tablets were used by traders to record sales of such as bushels of grain
43.
Woodcuts
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Woodcut is a relief printing technique in printmaking. An artist carves an image into the surface of a block of wood—typically with gouges—leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts. Areas that the artist cuts away carry no ink, while characters or images at surface level carry the ink to produce the print, the block is cut along the wood grain. The surface is covered with ink by rolling over the surface with a roller, leaving ink upon the flat surface. Multiple colors can be printed by keying the paper to a frame around the woodblocks, single-leaf woodcut is a term for a woodcut presented as a single image or print, as opposed to a book illustration. Among these the best known are the 16th century Hieronymus Andreae, Hans Lützelburger and Jost de Negker, all of whom ran workshops, the formschneider in turn handed the block on to specialist printers. There were further specialists who made the blank blocks and this is why woodcuts are sometimes described by museums or books as designed by rather than by an artist, but most authorities do not use this distinction. The division of labour had the advantage that a trained artist could adapt to the medium relatively easily, there were various methods of transferring the artists drawn design onto the block for the cutter to follow. Either the drawing would be made directly onto the block, or a drawing on paper was glued to the block, either way, the artists drawing was destroyed during the cutting process. Other methods were used, including tracing, in both Europe and the Far East in the early 20th century, some artists began to do the whole process themselves. In Japan, this movement was called sōsaku-hanga, as opposed to shin-hanga, in the West, many artists used the easier technique of linocut instead. Compared to intaglio techniques like etching and engraving, only low pressure is required to print, as a relief method, it is only necessary to ink the block and bring it into firm and even contact with the paper or cloth to achieve an acceptable print. In Europe a variety of woods including boxwood and several nut and fruit woods like pear or cherry were commonly used, in Japan, there are three methods of printing to consider, Stamping, Used for many fabrics and most early European woodcuts. Used for European woodcuts and block-books later in the fifteenth century, also used for many Western woodcuts from about 1910 to the present. The block goes face up on a table, with the paper or fabric on top, the back is rubbed with a hard pad, a flat piece of wood, a burnisher, or a leather frotton. A traditional Japanese tool used for this is called a baren, later in Japan, complex wooden mechanisms were used to help hold the woodblock perfectly still and to apply proper pressure in the printing process. This was especially helpful once multiple colors were introduced and had to be applied with precision atop previous ink layers, printing in a press, presses only seem to have been used in Asia in relatively recent times. Printing-presses were used from about 1480 for European prints and block-books, simple weighted presses may have been used in Europe before the print-press, but firm evidence is lacking
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Ukiyo-e
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The ukiyo-e genre of art flourished in Japan from the 17th through 19th centuries. The term ukiyo-e translates as picture of the floating world, Edo became the seat of government for the military dictatorship in the early 17th century. The merchant class at the bottom of the social order benefitted most from the rapid economic growth. Many indulged in the entertainments of kabuki theatre, courtesans, the term ukiyo came to describe this hedonistic lifestyle. The earliest success was in the 1670s with Moronobus paintings and monochromatic prints of beautiful women, colour in prints came gradually—at first added by hand for special commissions. By the 1740s, artists such as Masanobu used multiple woodblocks to print areas of colour, from the 1760s the success of Harunobus brocade prints led to full-colour production becoming standard, each print made with numerous blocks. Specialists have prized the portraits of beauties and actors by masters such as Kiyonaga, Utamaro, Following the deaths of these two masters, and against the technological and social modernization that followed the Meiji Restoration of 1868, ukiyo-e production went into steep decline. Some ukiyo-e artists specialized in making paintings, but most works were prints, as printing was done by hand, printers were able to achieve effects impractical with machines, such as the blending or gradation of colours on the printing block. Ukiyo-e was central to forming the Wests perception of Japanese art in the late 19th century–especially the landscapes of Hokusai, Prints since the late 20th century have continued in an individualist vein, often made with techniques imported from the West. The Kanō school of painting incorporated features of both, since antiquity, Japanese art had found patrons in the aristocracy, military governments, and religious authorities. Later works appeared by and for townspeople, including inexpensive monochromatic paintings of female beauties and scenes of the theatre and pleasure districts, the hand-produced nature of these shikomi-e limited the scale of their production, a limit that was soon overcome by genres that turned to mass-produced woodblock printing. During a prolonged period of war in the 16th century. In the early 17th century Tokugawa Ieyasu unified the country and was appointed Shogun with supreme power over Japan and he consolidated his government in the village of Edo, and required the territorial lords to assemble there in alternate years with their entourages. The demands of the growing capital drew many male labourers from the country, the village grew during the Edo period from a population of 1800 to over a million in the 19th century. The centralized shogunate put an end to the power of the machishū and divided the population into four classes, with the ruling samurai class at the top. The experience of the quarters was open to those of sufficient wealth, manners. Woodblock printing in Japan traces back to the Hyakumantō Darani in 770 CE, until the 17th century such printing was reserved for Buddhist seals and images. Movable type appeared around 1600, but as the Japanese writing system required about 100,000 type pieces, in Saga Domain, calligrapher Honami Kōetsu and publisher Suminokura Soan combined printed text and images in an adaptation of The Tales of Ise and other works of literature
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Woodblock printing in Japan
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Woodblock printing in Japan is a technique best known for its use in the ukiyo-e artistic genre of single sheets, but it was also used for printing books in the same period. Woodblock printing had been used in China for centuries to print books, long before the advent of movable type, but was widely adopted in Japan during the Edo period. Although similar to woodcut in Western printmaking in some regards, the technique differs in that it uses water-based inks—as opposed to western woodcut. The Japanese water-based inks provide a range of vivid colors, glazes. Woodblock-printed books from Chinese Buddhist temples were seen in Japan as early as the eighth century, in 764 the Empress Kōken commissioned one million small wooden pagodas, each containing a small woodblock scroll printed with a Buddhist text. These were distributed to temples around the country as thanksgiving for the suppression of the Emi Rebellion of 764 and these are the earliest examples of woodblock printing known, or documented, from Japan. By the eleventh century, Buddhist temples in Japan produced printed books of sutras, mandalas, for centuries, printing was mainly restricted to the Buddhist sphere, as it was too expensive for mass production, and did not have a receptive, literate public as a market. However, an important set of fans of the late Heian period, containing painted images and Buddhist sutras, the first secular book was printed in Japan in 1591. This was the Setsuyō-shū, a two-volume Chinese-Japanese dictionary, four years later, Tokugawa Ieyasu, even before becoming shogun, effected the creation of the first native moveable type, using wooden type-pieces rather than metal. He oversaw the creation of 100,000 type-pieces, which were used to print a number of political and historical texts, as shogun, Ieyasu promoted literacy and learning, contributing to the emergence of an educated urban public. Printing was not dominated by the shogunate at this point, however, private printers appeared in Kyoto at the beginning of the 17th century, and Toyotomi Hideyori, Ieyasus primary political opponent, aided in the development and spread of the medium as well. An edition of the Confucian Analects was printed in 1598, using a Korean moveable type printing press and this document is the oldest work of Japanese moveable type printing extant today. Despite the appeal of moveable type, however, craftsmen soon decided that the script style of Japanese writings was better reproduced using woodblocks. By 1640 woodblocks were once used for nearly all purposes. The medium quickly gained popularity, and was used to produce affordable prints as well as books, the great pioneers in applying this method to the creation of artistic books, and in preceding mass production for general consumption, were Honami Kōetsu and Suminokura Soan. The content of these varied widely, including travel guides, advice manuals, kibyōshi, sharebon, art books. Often, within a genre, such as the jōruri theatre scripts. For example, one persons personal calligraphic style was adopted as the style for printing plays
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Hokusai
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Katsushika Hokusai was a Japanese artist, ukiyo-e painter and printmaker of the Edo period. He was influenced by Sesshū Tōyō and other styles of Chinese painting, born in Edo, Hokusai is best known as author of the woodblock print series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji which includes the internationally iconic print, The Great Wave off Kanagawa. Hokusai created the Thirty-Six Views both as a response to a travel boom and as part of a personal obsession with Mount Fuji. It was this series, specifically The Great Wave print and Fine Wind, Clear Morning, as historian Richard Lane concludes, Indeed, if there is one work that made Hokusais name, both in Japan and abroad, it must be this monumental print-series. While Hokusais work prior to this series is important, it was not until this series that he gained broad recognition. Hokusais date of birth is unclear, but is stated as the 23rd day of the 9th month of the 10th year of the Hōreki era to an artisan family, in the Katsushika district of Edo. It is believed his father was the mirror-maker Nakajima Ise, who produced mirrors for the shogun and his father never made Hokusai an heir, so it is possible that his mother was a concubine. Hokusai began painting around the age of six, perhaps learning from his father, Hokusai was known by at least thirty names during his lifetime. While the use of names was a common practice of Japanese artists of the time. Hokusais name changes are so frequent, and so related to changes in his artistic production and style. At 14, he worked as an apprentice to a wood-carver, until the age of 18, Shunshō was an artist of ukiyo-e, a style of wood block prints and paintings that Hokusai would master, and head of the so-called Katsukawa school. Ukiyo-e, as practiced by artists like Shunshō, focused on images of the courtesans, after a year, Hokusais name changed for the first time, when he was dubbed Shunrō by his master. It was under this name that he published his first prints, during the decade he worked in Shunshōs studio, Hokusai was married to his first wife, about whom very little is known except that she died in the early 1790s. He married again in 1797, although this second wife died after a short time. He fathered two sons and three daughters with two wives, and his youngest daughter Sakae, also known as Ōi, eventually became an artist. Upon the death of Shunshō in 1793, Hokusai began exploring other styles of art and he was soon expelled from the Katsukawa school by Shunkō, the chief disciple of Shunshō, possibly due to studies at the rival Kanō school. This event was, in his own words, inspirational, What really motivated the development of my style was the embarrassment I suffered at Shunkōs hands. Hokusai also changed the subjects of his works, moving away from the images of courtesans, instead, his work became focused on landscapes and images of the daily life of Japanese people from a variety of social levels
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Engraving
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Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it. Wood engraving is a form of printing and is not covered in this article. Engraving was an important method of producing images on paper in artistic printmaking, in mapmaking. Other terms often used for printed engravings are copper engraving, copper-plate engraving or line engraving, hand engraving is a term sometimes used for engraving objects other than printing plates, to inscribe or decorate jewellery, firearms, trophies, knives and other fine metal goods. Traditional engravings in printmaking are also engraved, using just the same techniques to make the lines in the plate. Each graver is different and has its own use, engravers use a hardened steel tool called a burin, or graver, to cut the design into the surface, most traditionally a copper plate. Modern professional engravers can engrave with a resolution of up to 40 lines per mm in high grade work creating game scenes, dies used in mass production of molded parts are sometimes hand engraved to add special touches or certain information such as part numbers. In addition to engraving, there are engraving machines that require less human finesse and are not directly controlled by hand. They are usually used for lettering, using a pantographic system, there are versions for the insides of rings and also the outsides of larger pieces. Such machines are used for inscriptions on rings, lockets. Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that yield different line types, the burin produces a unique and recognizable quality of line that is characterized by its steady, deliberate appearance and clean edges. The angle tint tool has a curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines incised into them, ring gravers are made with particular shapes that are used by jewelry engravers in order to cut inscriptions inside rings. Flat gravers are used for work on letters, as well as wriggle cuts on most musical instrument engraving work, remove background. Knife gravers are for line engraving and very deep cuts, round gravers, and flat gravers with a radius, are commonly used on silver to create bright cuts, as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel. Square or V-point gravers are typically square or elongated diamond-shaped and used for cutting straight lines, V-point can be anywhere from 60 to 130 degrees, depending on purpose and effect. These gravers have very small cutting points, other tools such as mezzotint rockers, roulets and burnishers are used for texturing effects. Burnishing tools can also be used for stone setting techniques
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Etching
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Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other types of material, as a method of printmaking, it is, along with engraving, the most important technique for old master prints, and remains in wide use today. In a number of variants such as microfabrication etching and photochemical milling it is a crucial technique in much modern technology. In traditional pure etching, a plate is covered with a waxy ground which is resistant to acid. The artist then scratches off the ground with an etching needle where he or she wants a line to appear in the finished piece. The échoppe, a tool with an oval section, is also used for swelling lines. The plate is dipped in a bath of acid, technically called the mordant or etchant. The acid bites into the metal where it is exposed, leaving behind lines sunk into the plate, the remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate. The plate is inked all over, and then the ink wiped off the surface, the plate is then put through a high-pressure printing press together with a sheet of paper. The paper picks up the ink from the lines, making a print. The process can be repeated many times, typically several hundred impressions could be printed before the shows much sign of wear. The work on the plate can also be added to by repeating the whole process, Etching has often been combined with other intaglio techniques such as engraving or aquatint. The process as applied to printmaking is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer of Augsburg, Hopfer was a craftsman who decorated armour in this way, and applied the method to printmaking, using iron plates. Apart from his prints, there are two examples of his work on armour, a shield from 1536 now in the Real Armeria of Madrid. The switch to copper plates was made in Italy. On the other hand, the handling of the ground and acid need skill and experience, prior to 1100 AD, the New World Hohokam independently utilized the technique of acid etching in marine shell designs. Jacques Callot from Nancy in Lorraine made important technical advances in etching technique and he developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchers to create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do. Callot also appears to have responsible for an improved, harder, recipe for the etching ground
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