1.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
French language
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The
"arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in
Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.
French language
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Regions where French is the main language
French language
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Town sign in
Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of
Rechmaya in
Lebanon.
French language
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An obsolete 100
Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".
2.
Slovene language
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Slovene or Slovenian belongs to the group of South Slavic languages. It is spoken by approximately 2.5 million speakers worldwide and it is the first language of about 2.1 million Slovenian people and is one of the 24 official and working languages of the European Union. Standard Slovene is the standard language that was formed in the 18th century, mostly based on Upper and Lower Carniolan dialect groups. For example, the Resian and Torre dialects in the Italian Province of Udine differ most from other Slovene dialects, the distinctive characteristics of Slovene are dual grammatical number, two accentual norms, and abundant inflection. Although Slovene is basically an SVO language, word order is very flexible, Slovene has a T-V distinction, second-person plural forms are used for individuals as a sign of respect. Slovene and Slovak are the two modern Slavic languages whose names for themselves literally mean Slavic. Slovene is an Indo-European language belonging to the Western subgroup of the South Slavic branch of the Slavic languages, furthermore, Slovene shares certain linguistic characteristics with all South Slavic languages, including those of the Eastern subgroup, such as Bulgarian. The Slovene language also has commonalities with the West Slavic languages. Like all Slavic languages, Slovene traces its roots to the same group of languages that produced Old Church Slavonic. The earliest known examples of a distinct, written Slovene dialect are from the Freising Manuscripts, the consensus estimate of their date of origin is between 972 and 1093. These religious writings are among the oldest surviving manuscripts in any Slavic language and this linguistic border remained almost unchanged until the late 19th century, when a second process of Germanization took place, mostly in Carinthia. Between the 9th and 12th century, proto-Slovene spread into northern Istria, during most of the Middle Ages, Slovene was a vernacular language of the peasantry, although it was also spoken in most of the towns on Slovene territory, together with German or Italian. Although during this time, German emerged as the language of the nobility, Slovene had some role in the courtly life of the Carinthian, Carniolan and Styrian nobility. This is proved by the survival of certain ritual formulas in Slovene, the words Buge waz primi, gralva Venus. The first printed Slovene words, stara pravda, appeared in 1515 in Vienna in a poem of the German mercenaries who suppressed the Slovene peasant revolt. Standard Slovene emerged in the half of the 16th century, thanks to the works of Slovene Lutheran authors. During this period, German had a influence on Slovene. Many Slovene scientists before the 1920s also wrote in languages, mostly German
Slovene language
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Tombstone of Jožef Nahtigal in
Dobrova with archaic Slovene onikanje in indirect reference. Literal translation "Here lie [počivajo] the honorable Jožef Nahtigal... they were born [rojeni]... they died [umerli]... God grant them [jim] eternal peace and rest."
Slovene language
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Slovene-speaking areas
3.
Croatian language
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It is the official and literary standard of Croatia and one of the official languages of the European Union. Croatian is also one of the languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a recognized minority language in Serbia. Croatian is written in Gajs Latin alphabet, besides the Shtokavian dialect, on which Standard Croatian is based, there are two other main dialects, Chakavian and Kajkavian. It is still used now in parts of Istria, which became a crossroads of various mixtures of Chakavian with Ekavian/Ijekavian/Ikavian dialects, the cultural apex of this 17th century idiom is represented by the editions of Adrianskoga mora sirena by Petar Zrinski and Putni tovaruš by Katarina Zrinska. However, this first linguistic renaissance in Croatia was halted by the execution of Petar Zrinski. Subsequently the Croatian elite in the 18th century gradually abandoned this combined Croatian standard, specifically, three major groups of dialects were spoken on Croatian territory, and there had been several literary languages over four centuries. The leader of the Illyrian movement Ljudevit Gaj standardized the Latin alphabet in 1830–1850, the uniform Neo-Shtokavian then became common in the Croatian elite. In the 1860s, the Zagreb Philological School dominated the Croatian cultural life, drawing upon linguistic, while it was dominant over the rival Rijeka Philological School and Zadar Philological Schools, its influence waned with the rise of the Croatian Vukovians. Croatian is commonly characterized by the Ijekavian pronunciation, the use of the Latin alphabet. Some differences are absolute, while some appear mainly in the frequency of use, Croatian, although technically a form of Serbo-Croatian, is sometimes considered a distinct language by itself. Differences between various forms of Serbo-Croatian are often exaggerated for political reasons. Most Croatian linguists regard Croatian as a language that is considered key to national identity. The issue is sensitive in Croatia as the notion of a language being the most important characteristic of a nation is widely accepted. The terms Serbo-Croatian or Serbo-Croat are still used as a term for all these forms by foreign scholars. Within ex-Yugoslavia, the term has largely replaced by the ethnic terms Serbian, Croatian. In 2013, the EU started publishing a Croatian language version of its official gazette, Standard Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia and, along with Standard Bosnian and Standard Serbian, one of three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is also official in the regions of Burgenland, Molise, additionally, it has co-official status alongside Romanian in the communes of Carașova and Lupac, Romania. Croatian is officially used and taught at all the universities in Croatia, there is no regulatory body that determines the proper usage of Croatian
Croatian language
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Features
Croatian language
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Traditional extent of Serbo-Croatian dialects in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina
4.
Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
Italian language
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Dante Alighieri (above) and
Petrarch (below) were influential in establishing their
Tuscan dialect as the most prominent literary language in all of
Italy in the
Late Middle Ages
Italian language
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The geographic distribution of the Italian language in the world: large Italian-speaking communities are shown in green; light blue indicates areas where the Italian language was used officially during the Italian colonial period.
Italian language
Italian language
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Pietro Bembo was an influential figure in the development of the Italian language from the Tuscan dialect, as a literary medium, codifying the language for standard modern usage
5.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
German language
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Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)
German language
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The widespread popularity of the
Bible translated into German by
Martin Luther helped establish modern German
German language
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Examples of German language in
Namibian everyday life
German language
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German-language newspapers in the U.S. in 1922
6.
First French Empire
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The First French Empire, Note 1 was the empire of Napoleon Bonaparte of France and the dominant power in much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. Its name was a misnomer, as France already had colonies overseas and was short lived compared to the Colonial Empire, a series of wars, known collectively as the Napoleonic Wars, extended French influence over much of Western Europe and into Poland. The plot included Bonapartes brother Lucien, then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred, Roger Ducos, another Director, on 9 November 1799 and the following day, troops led by Bonaparte seized control. They dispersed the legislative councils, leaving a rump legislature to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, although Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, the Consulate, he was outmaneuvered by Bonaparte, who drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul. He thus became the most powerful person in France, a power that was increased by the Constitution of the Year X, the Battle of Marengo inaugurated the political idea that was to continue its development until Napoleons Moscow campaign. Napoleon planned only to keep the Duchy of Milan for France, setting aside Austria, the Peace of Amiens, which cost him control of Egypt, was a temporary truce. He gradually extended his authority in Italy by annexing the Piedmont and by acquiring Genoa, Parma, Tuscany and Naples, then he laid siege to the Roman state and initiated the Concordat of 1801 to control the material claims of the pope. Napoleon would have ruling elites from a fusion of the new bourgeoisie, on 12 May 1802, the French Tribunat voted unanimously, with exception of Carnot, in favour of the Life Consulship for the leader of France. This action was confirmed by the Corps Législatif, a general plebiscite followed thereafter resulting in 3,653,600 votes aye and 8,272 votes nay. On 2 August 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte was proclaimed Consul for life, pro-revolutionary sentiment swept through Germany aided by the Recess of 1803, which brought Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden to Frances side. The memories of imperial Rome were for a time, after Julius Caesar and Charlemagne. The Treaty of Pressburg, signed on 26 December 1805, did little other than create a more unified Germany to threaten France. On the other hand, Napoleons creation of the Kingdom of Italy, the occupation of Ancona, to create satellite states, Napoleon installed his relatives as rulers of many European states. The Bonapartes began to marry into old European monarchies, gaining sovereignty over many nations, in addition to the vassal titles, Napoleons closest relatives were also granted the title of French Prince and formed the Imperial House of France. Met with opposition, Napoleon would not tolerate any neutral power, Prussia had been offered the territory of Hanover to stay out of the Third Coalition. With the diplomatic situation changing, Napoleon offered Great Britain the province as part of a peace proposal and this, combined with growing tensions in Germany over French hegemony, Prussia responded by forming an alliance with Russia and sending troops into Bavaria on 1 October 1806. In this War of the Fourth Coalition, Napoleon destroyed the armies of Frederick William at Jena-Auerstedt, the Eylau and the Friedland against the Russians finally ruined Frederick the Greats formerly mighty kingdom, obliging Russia and Prussia to make peace with France at Tilsit. The Treaties of Tilsit ended the war between Russia and the French Empire and began an alliance between the two empires that held power of much of the rest of Europe, the two empires secretly agreed to aid each other in disputes
First French Empire
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The Battle of Austerlitz
First French Empire
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Flag
First French Empire
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The
Arc de Triomphe, ordered by
Napoleon in honour of his
Grande Armée, is one of the several landmarks whose construction was started in Paris during the First French Empire.
First French Empire
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Napoleon reviews the
Imperial Guard before the
Battle of Jena, 1806
7.
Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)
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The Kingdom of Italy was a French client state founded in Northern Italy by Napoleon I, fully influenced by revolutionary France, that ended with his defeat and fall. Napoleon I was crowned at the Duomo di Milano, Milan on May 26 and his title was Emperor of the French and King of Italy, showing the importance of this Italian Kingdom for him. Even though the republican Constitution was never abolished, a series of Constitutional Statutes completely altered it. The second one, dating from March 29, and regulated the regency, the Great Officials of the kingdom, the Consulta, Legislative Council, and Speakers, were all merged in a Council of State, whose opinions became only optional and not binding for the king. The Legislative Body, the old parliament, remained in theory, but it never summoned after 1805, the fourth Statute, decided on February 16,1806, indicated Beauharnais as the heir to the throne. The seventh Statute, on September 21, created a new nobility of dukes, counts and barons, the eighth, in 1812, a Court of Accounts was added. The Duchy of Guastalla was annexed on May 24, with the Convention of Fontainebleau with Austria of October 10,1807, Italy ceded Monfalcone to Austria and gained Gradisca, putting the new border on the Isonzo River. The conquered Republic of Ragusa was annexed in spring 1808 by general Marmont and that was the only time in modern history that Ragusa was united to Italy. On April 2,1808, following the dissolution of the Papal States, at its maximum extent, the Kingdom had 6,700,000 inhabitants and was composed by 2,155 communes. Small changes to the borders between Italy and France in Garfagnana and Friuli came in act on August 5,1811, in practice, the Kingdom was a dependency of the French Empire. The Kingdom served as a theater in Napoleons operations against Austria during the wars of the various coalitions, trading with the United Kingdom was forbidden. The kingdom was given a new currency, replacing the local coins circulating in the country, the Italian lira, of the same size, weight. Mintage being decided by Napoleon with a decree on March 21,1806. The monetary unit was the silver lira, which was 5 grams heavy, there were multiples of £2 and £5, and precious coins of £20 and £40. The army of the kingdom, inserted into the Grande Armée, in the course of its existence from 1805 to 1814 the Kingdom of Italy provided Napoleon I with roughly around 200,000 soldiers. In 1805 Italian troops served on duty along the English Channel, during 1806-1807 they took part in the sieges of Kolberg and Danzig. From 1808 to 1813 whole Italian divisions served in Spain, especially distinguishing themselves under Suchet at Tarragona and Saguntum. In 1809, Eugènes Army of Italy formed the wing of Napoleon Is invasion of the Austrian Empire, winning a considerable victory at Raab
Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)
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Iron Crown of Lombardy
Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)
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Flag
Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)
–
Napoleon I King of Italy 1805–1814
Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)
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Eugène de Beauharnais Viceroy of Italy 1805–1814
8.
Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)
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The Kingdom of Croatia was an administrative division that existed between 1527 and 1868 within the Habsburg Monarchy. The Kingdom was a part of the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen, between 1744 and 1868 the Kingdom of Croatia included a subordinate autonomous kingdom, the Kingdom of Slavonia. The territory of the Slavonian Kingdom was recovered from the Ottoman Empire, in 1744 these territories were organized as the Kingdom of Slavonia and included within the Kingdom of Croatia as an autonomous part. In 1868 both were merged again into the newly formed Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, following the Battle of Mohács, in 1527 the Croatian and Hungarian nobles needed to decide on a new king. The bulk of the Croatian nobility convened the Croatian Parliament in Cetin, some of the nobles dissented and supported John Zápolya, but the Habsburg option prevailed by 1540, when John Zápolya died. Territory retaken from the Ottoman Empire was formed in 1745 as the Kingdom of Slavonia, in 1804 the Habsburg Monarchy became the Austrian Empire which annexed the Venetian Republic in 1814 and established the Kingdom of Dalmatia. Stephen in the Hungarian part of the Empire, while the Kingdom of Dalmatia became a Kronland in the Austrian part of the Empire. The new Kingdom claimed the Kingdom of Dalmatia, as the remaining Croatian land in the Empire, and often referred to itself as the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. The change of leadership was far from a solution to the war with the Ottomans, in fact, Croatian territory under Habsburg rule was 25 years later reduced to about 20,000 km². In 1558, the parliaments of Croatia and Slavonia were united after many centuries into one, the centre of the Croatian state moved northward from coastal Dalmatia, as these lands were conquered by the Ottomans. The town of Zagreb gained importance, as did nearby Varaždin, taking advantage of the growing conflict between Maximilian and Sigismund, Suleyman started his sixth raid of Hungary in 1565 with 100,000 troops. They successfully progressed northwards until 1566 when they took a detour to capture the outpost of Siget which they failed to capture ten years previously. The small fort was defended by Count Nikola Šubić Zrinski and 2 and they were able to hold their ground for a month, and decimated the Ottoman army before being wiped out themselves. This siege, now known as the Battle of Szigetvár, bought time to allow Austrian troops to regroup before the Ottomans could reach Vienna. Ambroz Matija Gubec and other leaders of the mutiny raised peasants to arms in over sixty fiefs throughout the country in January 1573, Matija Gubec and thousands of others were publicly executed shortly thereafter, in a rather brutal manner in order to set an example for others. After the Bihać fort finally fell to the army of the Bosnian vizier Hasan Pasha Predojević in 1592, the remaining 16,800 km² where around 400,000 inhabitants lived were referred to as the remnants of remnants of the once great and renowned Kingdom of Croatia. By the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was driven out of Ottoman Hungary and Croatia, subsequently, the empress made significant contributions to Croatian matters, by making several changes in the administrative control of the Military Frontier, the feudal and tax system. The empress also gave the independent port of Rijeka to Croatia in 1776, however, she also ignored the Croatian Parliament
Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)
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Map of Croatia, Dalmatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, Serbia, Istria and the Republic of Dubrovnik in the 18th century
Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)
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Flag
Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)
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Nikola Šubić Zrinski by
Oton Iveković. The work depicts Croatian Ban
Nikola Šubić Zrinski defending against the Ottomans at the
Battle of Szigetvár
Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)
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An old map of Croatia from the end of the 16th century (1593)
9.
Austrian Empire
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The Austrian Empire was an empire in Central Europe created out of the realms of the Habsburgs by proclamation in 1804. It was an empire and one of Europes great powers. Geographically it was the second largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire and it was also the third most populous after Russia and France, as well as the largest and strongest country in the German Confederation. Proclaimed in response to the First French Empire, it overlapped with the Holy Roman Empire until the dissolution in 1806. The Ausgleich of 1867 elevated Hungarys status and it became a separate entity from the Empire entirely, joining with it in the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt, on 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, taking this significant change into consideration, the German Emperor Francis II created the title Emperor of Austria, for himself and his successors. In 1804 the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, who was ruler of the lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, founded the Empire of Austria. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, to safeguard his dynastys imperial status he adopted the additional hereditary title of Emperor of Austria. Hungarys affairs remained administered by its own institutions as they had been beforehand, thus under the new arrangements no Imperial institutions were involved in its internal government. The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805, on 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by general Karl Mack von Leiberich was defeated by French armies near the town of Ulm. The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers, Napoleons army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, the French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, the prince-elector Duke of Bavaria proclaimed himself King, finally, on 12 December, the Margrave of Baden was given the title of Grand Duke. In addition, each of these new countries signed a treaty with France, the Treaty of Pressburg between France and Austria, signed in Pressburg on 26 December, enlarged the territory of Napoleons German allies at the expense of defeated Austria. Certain Austrian holdings in Germany were passed to French allies—the King of Bavaria, the King of Württemberg, Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. On 12 July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and this confederation, under French influence, put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, even Francis recognized the new state of things and proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him
Austrian Empire
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Metternich in later years
Austrian Empire
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Flag
Austrian Empire
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Ethnographic composition of the Austrian Empire.
Austrian Empire
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'Hauskrone' of Rudolph II, later Imperial Crown of the Austrian Empire
10.
Republic of Ragusa
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The Republic of Ragusa was a maritime republic centered on the city of Dubrovnik in Dalmatia that existed from 1358 to 1808. It reached its peak in the 15th and the 16th centuries, before being conquered by Napoleons French Empire. It had a population of about 30,000 people, out of whom 5,000 lived within the city walls and its motto was Non bene pro toto libertas venditur auro, which translated from Latin means Liberty is not well sold for all the gold. Originally named Communitas Ragusina, in the 14th century it was renamed Respublica Ragusina, in Italian it is called Repubblica di Ragusa, in Croatian it is called Dubrovačka Republika. The Croatian name Dubrovnik is derived from the word dubrava, an oak grove, by a folk etymology. It came into use alongside Ragusa as early as the 14th century, the Latin, Italian and Dalmatian name Ragusa derives its name from Lausa, it was later altered in Rausium, Rhagusium or Ragusium or Rausia and finally into Ragusa. The official change of name from Ragusa to Dubrovnik came into effect under Austria-Hungary and it is known in historiography as the Republic of Ragusa. In the 15th century the Ragusan republic also acquired the islands of Korčula, Brač, however they had to be given up due to the resistance of local minor aristocrats sympathizing with Venice which was granting them some privileges. In the 16th century administrative units of the Republic were, the City of Ragusa, Lastovo and Mljet were semi-autonomous communities each having its own Statute. Some of the survivors moved 25 kilometres north to an island near the coast where they founded a new settlement. It has been claimed that a raid by the Slavs in 656 resulted in the total destruction of Epidaurum. Slavs, including Croats and Serbs, settled along the coast in the 7th century, the Slavs named their settlement Dubrovnik. The Romance and Slavs held each other antagonistically, though by the 12th century the two settlements had merged, the channel that divided the city was filled creating the present-day main street which became the city centre. Thus, Dubrovnik became the Croatian name for the united town, there are recent theories based on excavations that the city was established much earlier, at least in the 5th and possibly to the Ancient Greek period. An ideal combination would have a water source in the vicinity. Dubrovnik had both, being halfway between the Greek settlements of Budva and Korčula, which are 95 nautical miles apart, during its first centuries the city, known as Ragusium in Latin and Raousion in Greek, was under the rule of the Byzantine Empire. The Saracens laid siege to the city in 866–67, it lasted for fifteen months and was raised due to the intervention of Byzantine Emperor Basil I, who sent a fleet under Niketas Ooryphas in relief. Ooryphas showing of the flag had swift results, as the Slavic tribes sent envoys to the Emperor, once more acknowledging his suzerainty
Republic of Ragusa
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Dubrovnik before the
1667 earthquake, Photogravure Kowalczyk 1909
Republic of Ragusa
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Flag
Republic of Ragusa
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Painting from 1667, kept today in Dubrovnik archives
Republic of Ragusa
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A merchant from the Republic, 1708
11.
Kingdom of Dalmatia
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The Kingdom of Dalmatia was a crown land of the Austrian Empire and the Cisleithanian half of Austria-Hungary. It encompassed the entirety of the region of Dalmatia with its capital at Zadar, in turn, Napoleon ceded to him the possessions of the Republic of Venice, including the Dalmatian coast and the Bay of Kotor. La Serenissima had sided with Austria in order to defend her Domini di Terraferma and was occupied by French troops on 14 May 1797, the treaty ended the centuries-long history of the Venetian Republic. When in 1804 Francis II created the title of Emperor of Austria for himself, however, the possessions were again lost after the Austrian defeat in the Battle of Austerlitz and the 1805 Peace of Pressburg, when they temporarily formed part of the French Illyrian Provinces. Around 1850, the Austrians had the Prevlaka fortress erected to control the traffic in the Bay of Kotor. Upon the Revolutions of 1848, Dalmatia was temporarily under the control of Ban Josip Jelačić of Croatia, in the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, a unification with the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia was denied. While Croatia-Slavonia was incorporated into the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, Dalmatia remained a crown land of the Cislethanian half of the Dual Monarchy. According to M. Lorković, the population of Dalmatia numbered 297,912 in 1818,326,739 in 1825,338,599 in 1830,390,381 in 1840. Based on the 1857 census, the Kingdom of Dalmatia had 415,628 inhabitants, according to an analysis of the 1857 census,318,500 inhabitants were Croats,77,500 were Serbs, and ca.20,000 were Italian-speakers. The percentage of Dalmatian Serbs had been 19. 9% in the 1830–50 period, in the cities, the inhabitants were 71% Croat, 22% Italian and 7% Serb. There were 745 Serbs in Kotor, in all other cities there were fewer than 400, the number of Serbs in Dalmatia fell, however, in the north it rose. Among the Orthodox, there was one priest for every 400 people, while among the Catholics, the Roman Catholic archbishop had his seat in Zadar, while the diocese of Kotor, diocese of Hvar, diocese of Dubrovnik, diocese of Šibenik and diocese of Split were bishoprics. At the head of the Orthodox community stood the bishop of Zadar, in 1904, the Vatican forbade the use of Glagolitic at the festival of SS. Cyril and Methodius, as likely to impair the unity of Catholicism, heads of the Austrian imperial administration in Dalmatia were Imperial-Royal Provincial Governors appointed by the emperor. From 1852 they were known as Imperial-Royal Lieutenants
Kingdom of Dalmatia
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Zadar's "Kopnena vrata" (Landward Gate) in 1909
Kingdom of Dalmatia
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Flag
Kingdom of Dalmatia
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Map of Kingdom of Dalmatia
12.
Ljubljana
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Ljubljana is the capital and largest city of Slovenia. It has been the cultural, educational, economic, political, during antiquity, a Roman city called Emona stood in the area. Ljubljana itself was first mentioned in the first half of the 12th century and it was under Habsburg rule from the Middle Ages until the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. Situated at the middle of a route between the northern Adriatic Sea and the Danube region, it was the historical capital of Carniola. The origin of the name is unclear. In the Middle Ages, both the river and the town were known by the German name Laibach. This name was in use as an endonym until 1918. The city is called in Italian Lubiana and in Latin, Labacum or Aemona For most scholars, the problem has been in how to connect the Slovene and he supported the thesis that the name of the river derived from the name of the settlement. The name Laibach, he claimed, was actually a hybrid of German and Slovene, the symbol of the city is the Ljubljana Dragon. It is depicted on the top of the tower of Ljubljana Castle in the Ljubljana coat of arms and it symbolizes power, courage, and greatness. There are several explanations on the origin of the Ljubljana Dragon and it was there that Jason struck down a monster. This monster has evolved into the dragon that today is present in the city coat of arms and it is historically more believable that the dragon was adopted from Saint George, the patron of the Ljubljana Castle chapel built in the 15th century. In the legend of Saint George, the dragon represents the old ancestral paganism overcome by Christianity, according to another explanation, related to the second, the dragon was at first only a decoration above the city coat of arms. In the Baroque, it part of the coat of arms. Around 2000 BC, the Ljubljana Marshes in the vicinity of Ljubljana were settled by people living in pile dwellings. Prehistoric pile dwellings and the oldest wooden wheel in the world are among the most notable archeological findings from the marshland and these lake-dwelling people lived through hunting, fishing and primitive agriculture. To get around the marshes, they used dugout canoes made by cutting out the inside of tree trunks and their archeological remains, nowadays in the Municipality of Ig, have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site since June 2011, in the common nomination of six Alpine states. Around 50 BC, the Romans built a military encampment that later became a permanent settlement called Iulia Aemona and this entrenched fort was occupied by the Legio XV Apollinaris
Ljubljana
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Clockwise from top:
Ljubljana Castle in the background and
Franciscan Church of the Annunciation in the foreground;
Visitation of Mary Church on
Rožnik Hill;
Kazina Palace at
Congress Square; view from Ljubljana Castle towards the north;
Ljubljana City Hall;
Ljubljanica with the
Triple Bridge in distance.
Ljubljana
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Excavations at the building site of the planned new
National and University Library of Slovenia. One of the discoveries was an ancient Roman public bath house.
Ljubljana
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Ljubljana in
Johann Weikhard von Valvasor's work
The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola from 1689
Ljubljana
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Ljubljana in the 18th century
13.
History of Dalmatia
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The History of Dalmatia concerns the history of the area that covers eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea and its inland regions, from the 2nd century BC up to the present day. The earliest mention of Dalmatia as a province came after its establishment as part of the Roman Empire. Dalmatia was ravaged by barbaric tribes in the beginning of the 4th century. In 1527 the Kingdom of Croatia became a Habsburg crown land, in 1918, Dalmatia was a part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, then the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After World War II, Dalmatia became part of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in SR Croatia, the history of Dalmatia began in 180 BC when the tribe from which the country derives its name declared itself independent of Gentius, the Illyrian king, and established a republic. Its capital was Delminium, its territory stretched northwards from the river Neretva to the river Cetina, and later to the Krka, the Roman Empire began its occupation of Illyria in the year 168 BC, forming the Roman province of Illyricum. In 156 BC the Dalmatians were for the first time attacked by a Roman army, following the end of the revolt, there was general acceptance of the Latin civilisation throughout Illyria and submission to the Roman Empire. The province of Dalmatia spread inland to cover all of the Dinaric Alps and its capital was the city of Salona. Emperor Diocletian made Dalmatia famous by building a palace for himself a few south of Salona. The Roman Emperor Diocletian reformed the government in the late Roman Empire and this new system for the first time divided rule of the empire into the Western and Eastern courts, each headed by a person with the title of Augustus. Each of the two Augusti also had a successor, a Caesar, who administered about half the district belonging to his own Augustus. In AD395, the Emperor Theodosius I permanently divided Imperial rule by granting his two sons the position of Augusti separately in the West and the East and this time, however, Spalatum and Dalmatia fell under the Western Court of Honorius, not the Eastern Court. In 468 Flavius Julius Nepos became the ruler of the Province of Dalmatia, Leo however tarried in his appointment. Ricimer, along with his nephew Gundobad, appointed Olybrius and then Glycerius as their puppet emperors in the West and this was not recognized by Leo I and the Eastern Court, who considered them usurpers. In 473 Leo appointed Flavius Julius Nepos, the ruler of Dalmatia, in June 474, Nepos sailed across the Adriatic, entered Ravenna, forced Glycerius to abdicate, and secured the throne. However, next year his Magister militum Orestes forced Nepos to flee back to Salona, Romulus Augustulus, the son of Orestes, was proclaimed Emperor within a few months, but was deposed the following year after the execution of his father. Odoacer, the general who deposed Romulus Augustulus, did not appoint a puppet emperor, Julius Nepos, however, continued to rule in Dalmatia until 480 as the sole legal Emperor of the West. After the death of Julius Nepos in AD480, the Empire was formally reunited under the rule of a single throne, Dalmatia continued as a Roman possession, ruled from Constantinople, and was thus part of the state referred to in historiography as the Byzantine Empire. The collapse of the Western Empire left this region subject to Gothic rulers, Odoacer and Theodoric the Great, from 476 to 535, around AD639 the hinterland of Dalmatia fell after the invasion of Avars and Slavs, and the city of Salona was sacked
History of Dalmatia
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The Roman province of Dalmatia (pink color) in the Western Roman Empire
History of Dalmatia
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Independent Dalmatia - Extent of Marcellinus' Control (454-468) and Julius Nepos' Control (468-480).
History of Dalmatia
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The
Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy from 1806 to 1810 included the Dalmatia that had belonged to Venice until 1797
History of Dalmatia
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Dalmatia as a part of the
Illyrian Provinces in 1811
14.
Illyria
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In classical antiquity, Illyria was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by the Illyrians. The prehistory of Illyria and the Illyrians is known from archaeological evidence, the Romans conquered the region in 168 BC in the aftermath of the Illyrian Wars. The Roman term Illyris was sometimes used to define an area north of the Aous valley, in Greek mythology, the name of Illyria is aetiologically traced to Illyrius, the son of Cadmus and Harmonia, who eventually ruled Illyria and became the eponymous ancestor of the Illyrians. A later version of the myth identifies Polyphemus and Galatea as parents of Celtus, Galas, ancient Greek writers used the name Illyrian to describe peoples between the Liburnians and Epirus. In the Roman period, Illyricum was used for the area between the Adriatic and Danube, the term was in a way of pars pro toto. The earliest recorded Illyrian kingdom was that of the Enchele in the 8th century BC, the era in which we observe other Illyrian kingdoms begins approximately at 400 BC and ends at 167 BC. The Autariatae under Pleurias were considered to have been a kingdom, the Kingdom of the Ardiaei began at 230 BC and ended at 167 BC. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of Bardyllis of the Dardani and of Agron of the Ardiaei who created the last, Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well. As for the Dardanians, they always had separate domains from the rest of the Illyrians, the Illyrian kingdoms were composed of small areas within the region of Illyria. Only the Romans ruled the entire region, polybius gives as an image of society within an Illyrian kingdom as peasant infantry fought under aristocrats which he calls in Greek Polydynastae where each one controlled a town within the kingdom. The monarchy was established on hereditary lines and Illyrian rulers used marriages as a means of alliance with other powers, pliny writes that the people that formed the nucleus of the Illyrian kingdom were Illyrians proper or Illyrii Proprie Dicti. They were the Taulantii, the Pleraei, the Endirudini, Sasaei, Grabaei and these later joined to form the Docleatae. The Romans defeated Gentius, the last king of Illyria, at Scodra in 168 BC and captured him, four client-republics were set up, which were in fact ruled by Rome. Later, the region was governed by Rome and organized as a province. The Roman province of Illyricum replaced the independent kingdom of Illyria. It stretched from the Drilon river in modern Albania to Istria in the west, although this division occurred in 10 AD, the term Illyria remained in use in Late Latin and throughout the medieval period. After the division of the Roman Empire, the bishops of Thessalonica appointed papal vicars for Illyricum, the first of these vicars is said to have been Bishop Acholius or Ascholius, the friend of St. Basil. The patriarchs of Constantinople succeeded in bringing Illyria under their jurisdiction in the 8th century, several armorials of the Early modern period, popularly called the Illyrian Armorials, depicted fictional coats of arms of Illyria
Illyria
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Approximate area settled by Illyrians in antiquity.
15.
Dalmatae
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The Delmatae are mostly classed as an Illyrian tribe, although for most of their history they were independent of the Illyrian kingdom which bordered to the southeast of them. The name Dalmatae appears to be connected with the albanian word delmë, the Illyrian town of Delminium has the same etymology. Archaeology and onomastic shows that the Delmatae were akin to eastern Illyrians, the tribe was subject to Celtic influences. One of the Dalmatian tribes was called Baridustae that later was settled in Roman Dacia, the archeological remnants suggest their material culture was more primitive than this one of the surrounding ancient tribes, especially in comparison with the oldest Liburnians. Only their production of weapons was rather advanced and their elite had the build stone houses only, but numerous Delmatic herdmen yet settled in natural caves, and a characteristic detail in their usual clothing was the fur cap. Their nomadic society had a patriarchal structure, consisting chiefly of shepherds, warriors. Their main jobs had been the extensive cattle breeding, and the plundering of other surrounding tribes. There were some iterative Roman conflicts with the Delmatae lasting for 160 years, the first Dalmatian war in 156 BC –155 BC finished with the destruction of capital Delminium by consul Scipio Nasica. The second Dalmatian war was fought in 119–118 BC, apparently ending in Roman victory as consul L. Caecilius Metellus celebrated triumph in 117 BC, the third Dalmatian war 78–76 BC finished with the capture of Salona by the proconsul C. During the Roman Civil war of 49–44 BC, the Delmatae sided with Pompey, the fourth and final conflict occurred 34–33 BC during Octavians expedition to Illyricum because of their iterative revolts, and finished with the capture of the new Delmatian capital- Soetovio. Cohors VI Delmatarum equitata Cohors VII Delmatarum equitata And later the Equites Dalmatae The major collective deity of Delmatic federation was their pastoral god Sylvanus they called Vidasus and his divine wife was Thana, a Delmatic goddess mostly comparable with Roman Diana and Greek Artemis. Their frequent reliefs often accompanied by nymphs, are partly conserved up today in some cliffs of Dalmatia, the third important one of Delmatae was a wargod Armatus comparable with Roman Mars and Greek Ares. Their bad deity was the celestial Dragon devouring the sun or moon in the eclipses, a strong weapons cult was very specific for the patriarchal Delmatae, and in their masculine tombs different weapons are widely present. Their usual tombs were under the stone tumuli of kurgan type, the ancient Dalmatian language was part of the Illyrian languages, which were spoken in the western part of the Balkans. The name Dalmatae is connected with the Albanian word delmë, which means sheep in English, during the Celtic settlements in the Balkans the Dalmatian language was partly influenced by the Celtic language regarding personal names and toponyms. The original language of the early Delmatae is scarcely known save a few toponyms noted by the Romans, since the Roman conquest, town-dwelling Dalmatae were gradually Romanized, but shepherds in the countryside were assimilated more slowly and only partially. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Dalmatian citizens continued to speak the Old Dalmatic Romance language. Then in Yugoslavia during 20th century these non-Slavic pastorals under oppression were quickly slavicized, the Dalmatian National Party is a minor political group which claims today inhabitants of Dalmatia to be descedants of Dalmatae
Dalmatae
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Map depicting the Adriatic Searegion in PreRoman time, showing several Illyrian tribes and the extent of the territory of some tribes.
16.
Dalmatia (Roman province)
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Its name is probably derived from the name of an Illyrian tribe called the Dalmatae which lived in the central area of the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. Originally this region was called Illyria or Illyricum, when it became one of the two parts of the Roman province of Illyricum it was renamed Dalmatia, its counterpart province being Pannonia. Later the province of Illyricum was dissolved and replaced by two provinces, Dalmatia and Pannonia. It is not clear when this happened, but plausibly it occurred during the reign of the emperor Vespasian, the region which run along the coast of the Adriatic Sea and extended inland on the Dinaric Alps was called Illyria by the Greeks. Originally the Romans also called it Illyria, the Romans fought three Illyrian Wars mainly against the kingdom of the Ardiaei in the south of the region. In 168 BC they abolished this kingdom, divided it into three republics, the area became a Roman protectorate. The central and northern area of the region engaged in piracy, in response to this, Octavian conducted a series of campaigns in Illyricum. The area became the Roman province of Illyricum probably in 27 BC, due to troubles in the northern part of the region in 16-10 BC, it became an imperial province. The administrative organisation of Illyricum was carried out late in the reign of Augustus, due to Octavian having subdued the more inland region of Pannonia, the Romans changed the name of the coastal area to Dalmatia. Illyricum was composed of Dalmatia and Pannonia, in 6-9 AD there was a large scale rebellion in the province of Illyricum, the Bellum Batonianum. The province of Illyricum was eventually dissolved and replaced by two provinces, Dalmatia and Pannonia. It is unclear when this happened, some other diplomas attest the same. This was during the reign of Nero, therefore, Šašel-Kos supports the notion that the province was dissolved during the reign of Vespasian. In 337, when Constantine the Great died, the Roman Empire was partitioned among his sons, the empire was divided into three praetorian prefectures, the Galliae, Italia, Africa et Illyricum and Oriens. The size of the provinces had been decreased and their number doubled by Diocletian, the provinces were also grouped in dioceses. Dalmatia became one of the seven provinces of the diocese of Pannonia, initially, it was under the praetorian preacture of Italy, Africa and Illyricum. Sirmium, the capital of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum, was the birthplace of the Roman Emperor Diocletian. After he abdicated, he built Diocletians Palace in Salona, german historian Theodore Mommsen wrote that coastal Dalmatia and its islands were fully romanized and Latin-speaking by the 4th century
Dalmatia (Roman province)
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Independent Dalmatia - Extent of Marcellinus' Control (454-468) and Julius Nepos' Control (468-480).
Dalmatia (Roman province)
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Province of Dalmatia highlighted
17.
Dalmatian city-states
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Dalmatian City-States were the Dalmatian localities where the local romance population survived the barbarian invasions. Eight little cities were created by those inhabitants that maintained political links with the Byzantine Empire. The original name of the cities was Jadera, Spalatum, Crespa, Arba, Tragurium, Vecla, the language and the laws where initially Latin, but after a few centuries they developed their own neolatin language, that lasted until the 19th century. The cities were maritime centers with a huge commerce mainly with the Italian peninsula, ethnically, Dalmatia started out as a Roman region, with a romance culture that began to develop independently, forming the now-extinct Dalmatian language called Dalmatico. So, these cities were characterized by common Latin laws, catholic religion, since the seventh century there were eight areas of Byzantine Dalmatia that developed into eight neo-latin City-states, maintaining their Roman roots despite the destructive barbarian invasions. The eight City-states were, Jadera, later called Zara in Italian, originally a small island in the central Dalmatia coast Spalatum, it, Spalato and cr, Split. Initially created inside the Diocletian Palace Crespa, it, Cherso and cr, in an island in northern Dalmatia Arba, it, Arbe and cr, Rab. In a small island in front of the northern Velebit mountains Tragurium, it, Trau and cr, in a small island not far away from Roman Salona Vecla, it, Veglia and cr, Krk. In an island near the northern Dalmatia coast Ragusium, it, Ragusa and cr, originally a small island in southern Dalmatia Cattarum, it, Cattaro and cr, Kotor. Later were added other cities in north-central Dalmatia, like Sebenicum, Flumen, the great Slavonic migration into Illyria, which wrought a complete change in the fortunes of Dalmatia, took place in the first half of the 7th century. In other parts of the Balkan Peninsula these invaders Serbs, Croats or Bulgars found little difficulty in expelling or absorbing the native population. But here they were baffled when confronted by the powerful maritime city-states, highly civilized, not until the isth century did the rival races contribute to a common civilization in the literature of Ragusa. Their geographical position suffices to explain the small influence exercised by Byzantine culture throughout the six centuries during which Dalmatia was part of the Eastern empire. Towards the close of this period Byzantine rule tended more and more to become merely nominal, the Avars were followed by the great South Slavic migrations. The Slavs, loosely allied with the Avars, permanently settled the region in the first half of the 7th century AD, the Croats soon formed their own realm, the Principality of Dalmatian Croatia ruled by native Princes of Guduscan origin. The meaning of the geographical term Dalmatia, now shrunk to the cities and these cities and towns remained influential as they were well fortified and maintained their connection with the Byzantine Empire. The two communities were somewhat hostile at first, but as the Croats became Christianized this tension increasingly subsided, each of the Dalmatian city states needed protection, based mostly on economic reasons. In the year 1000 AD an expedition of Venetian ships in coastal Istria and Dalmatia secured the Venetian suzerainty in the area, in the occasion Doge Orseolo named himself Duke of Dalmatia, starting the colonial Empire of Venice
Dalmatian city-states
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Areas of the Dalmatian dialects, showing Veglia for the "Vegliot" and Ragusa for the "Ragusan"
Dalmatian city-states
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16th-century map of Sebenicum
18.
Duchy of Croatia
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Duchy of Croatia, was a medieval Croatian duchy that was established in the former Roman province of Dalmatia. Throughout its time it had several seats, namely Klis, Solin, Knin, Biaći and Nin, comprised the littoral, or coastal part of todays Croatia, the Duchy was in the center of competition between the Carolingian Empire and the Byzantine Empire for rule over the area. Rivalry with Venice emerged in the first decades of the 9th century and was to continue for the following centuries, Croatia saw periods of vassalage of the Franks or Byzantines and de facto independence until 879 when Croatian Duke Branimir received recognition from Pope John VIII as an independent realm. The ruling dynasty of Croatia was the House of Trpimirović, with interruptions by the House of Domagojević, the Duchy existed until around 925 when, during the rule of Duke Tomislav, Croatia became a kingdom. Dalmatian Croatia and Littoral Croatia are modern appellations amongst historians for the territory of the Duchy, the state is sometimes called a principality, i. e. the Principality of Croatia. The first recorded name for the Duchy was Land of the Croats, Croatia was not yet a kingdom at the time and the term regnum is used in terms of a country in general. In Byzantine sources the entity was called just Croatia. The first known duke, Borna, was named Duke of Dalmatia, the Croatian name is recorded in contemporary charters of Croatian dukes from the second half of the 9th century. Trpimir I was named Duke of the Croats in a Latin charter issued in 852, within the area of the Roman province of Dalmatia, various tribal groupings, which were called sclaviniae by the Byzantines, were settled along the Adriatic coast. Several coastal Dalmatian cities were under the rule of the Byzantines, including Split, Zadar, Kotor and Dubrovnik, as well as islands of Hvar and Krk. To the south Croatia bordered with the land of the Narentines, which stretched from the rivers Cetina to Neretva, in the southern part of Dalmatia, there was Zahumlje, Travunia and Dioclea. North of Croatia there was the Duchy of Pannonia, Croatia, as well as other early medieval states, didnt have a permanent capital and Croatian dukes resided in various places on their courts. The first important center of Croatia was Klis near Split, where Duke Trpimir I resided, other dukes ruled from the towns of Solin, Knin, Biaći and Nin. Most of Dalmatia was in the 7th century under the Avar Khaganate, in 614 the Avars and Slavs sacked and destroyed the capital of the province of Dalmatia, Salona, and retained direct control of the region for a few decades until they were driven out by the Croats. The earliest recorded Croatian leader, referred to by the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, was Porga, by the early 9th century, Croatia emerged as a political entity with a duke as head of the state, territorially in the basins of the rivers Cetina, Krka and Zrmanja. It was administered in 11 counties, from that point on, they were independent, and demanded to be baptised from the bishop of Rome, and was sent to them to be baptised in the time of Porinos their prince. Their land was divided in eleven zupanias, which are, Hlebiana, Tzenzena, Emota, Pleba, Pesenta, Parathalassia, Brebere, Nona, Tnena, Sidraga, Nina, and their ban has Kribasan, Litzan, Goutzeska. Although the Christianization of Croats began right after their arrival to Dalmatia, the Franks gained control of Pannonia and Dalmatia in the 790s and the first decade of the ninth century
Duchy of Croatia
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Today's
Fortress of Klis
Duchy of Croatia
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Balkan region c. 850. Duchy of the Croats shaded fuchsia.
Duchy of Croatia
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Delegation of
Croats and
Serbs to
Basil I, in the
Madrid Skylitzes.
Duchy of Croatia
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Central Europe in
Carolingian times
19.
Zahumlje
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Zahumlje, also Hum, was a medieval principality located in the modern-day regions of Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia. Zachlumia is a derivative of Hum, from Proto-Slavic *xŭlmŭ, borrowed from a Germanic language, South Slavic Zahumlje is named after the mountain of Hum, above Bona, at the mouth of the Buna. The principality is named Zahumlje or Hum in Serbo-Croatian and it is Zachlumia in Latin, Хлъмъ in Old Church Slavonic, and Ζαχλούμων χώρα in Greek. The names Chelmania, Chulmia and terra de Chelmo appear in later Latin, the Zachloumoi that now live there are Serbs, originating from the time of the prince who fled to emperor Heraclius. The main settlements in Zachlumia were Ston, Ošlje, Dobar, the Principality sprang from Dalmatia to the northwest and Pagania to the west, to the mountain of Kalinovik and the Field of Gatak, where it bordered Travunia. Zachlumia was split on 9 zhupanates, Ston, Popovo, Dubrava, Luka, Dabar, Žapska, Gorička, Zahumlje had access to the Adriatic Sea with the Pelješac peninsula and faced Serbia northwards. In its later periods, Zahumlje was split into two Duchies, Upper Zahumlje in the west and Lower Zahumlje in the east. As the toponym Pagania disappeared by the turn of the 11th century and this territory was at the time controlled by local magnates called Radivojevići, Jurjevići or Vlatkovići. Slavs invaded Balkans during Justinian I, when eventually up to 100,000 Slavs raided Thessalonica, the Western Balkans was settled with Sclaveni, the east with Antes. The Sklavenoi plunder Thrace in 545, and again the next year, in 551, the Slavs crossed Niš initially headed for Thessalonica, but ended up in Dalmatia. In 577 some 100,000 Slavs poured into Thrace and Illyricum, pillaging cities, some of the Slavs and Avars might have permanently settled in the occupied areas. They attacked Constantinople in 626 but were defeated by the Byzantines, around 630, during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, Serbs and Croats led by their respective aristocracies entered the western Balkans from the north, which was approved by the emperor. They inhabited areas that had been devastated by the Avars, where Byzantium had generally been reduced to only nominal rule, Zahumlje was one of the regions settled by the Serbs. Much of Dalmatia was some time earlier settled by the Croats, Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 until his death in 814, expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of western and central Europe. He brought the Frankish state face to face with the Slavs to the northeast, Dalmatia which was southeast of the Frankish empire, was chiefly in the hands of Slavic tribes. North of Dubrovnik these came to be under Croatian Župans and eventually came to consider themselves Croatians, despite Frankish overlordship, the Franks had almost no role in Dalmatia in the period from the 820s through 840s. In 866, a major Arab raid along Dalmatia struck Budva and Kotor, the city of Dubrovnik appealed to Byzantine Emperor Basil the Macedonian, who responded by sending over one hundred ships. After this successful intervention, the Byzantine navy sailed along the coast collecting promises of loyalty to the empire from the Dalmatian cities, at this moment the local Slavic tribes, who had aided the intervention, also accepted Byzantine suzerainty
Zahumlje
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Zahumlje in 1190 as a lower part of Kingdom of Hungary
Zahumlje
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Adriatic Sklavinia c. 800 AD according to
Nada Klaić – the nucleus of the Zahumlje principality
Zahumlje
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Part of Zahumlje under
Serbian Kingdom in 1265
20.
Travunija
–
Travunija or Travunia was a medieval principality that was part of Medieval Serbia, and later the Bosnian Kingdom. The principality became hereditary in a number of houses, often kin to the ruling dynasty. The region came under Ottoman rule in 1482 and its seat was in the city of Trebinje. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Župa of Travunia was held by the Belojević noble family, after the death of Časlav, the last dynastic member, the principality disintegrated, and the provinces were annexed by the Bulgars and Byzantines. In 1034, Stefan Vojislav incited a rebellion and renounced Byzantine rule, becoming the Prince of Serbs, ruling from the seat at Duklja. Trebinje continued under the Bosnian crown in the hands of the Pavlović family, then in 1435, it part of the Duchy of Saint Sava of the Kosača family. Vladislav Hercegović was the last office holder of the region, before it was annexed in 1482 by the Ottomans, the Slavs invaded the Balkans during the reign of Justinian I, when eventually up to 100,000 Slavs raided Thessalonica. The Western Balkans was settled with Sclaveni, the east with Antes, the Sklavenoi plunder Thrace in 545, and again the next year. In 551, the Slavs crossed Niš initially headed for Thessalonica, in 577 some 100,000 Slavs poured into Thrace and Illyricum, pillaging cities and then settling down. Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 until his death in 814, expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of western, Dalmatia which was southeast of the Frankish empire, was in the hands of the Croats and Serbs. Radoslav of Serbia or his son was the ruler of Serbia during the uprisings of Ljudevit Posavski against the Franks, according to the Royal Frankish Annals, in 822, Ljudevit went from his seat in Sisak to the Serbs who controlled a great part of Dalmatia. In late 870s, the Theme of Dalmatia was established, with the strategos seated at Dubrovnik. These small cities in the region did not stretch into the hinterlands, Trebinje is first attested in De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII, when describing the geography of the Serbs. Travunia was a province of the Serbian Principality under the Vlastimirović Dynasty, the first known office holder was Beloje, a count, who ruled under Prince Vlastimir. In the mid 9th century, Vlastimir marries his daughter to Krajina, the son of Beloje, the Belojević noble family is entitled the rule of Travunia, Hvalimir, and his son Čučimir continue the office under the Serbian crown. Its coastline spanned from Dubrovnik to Boka Kotorska, with the death of Časlav, Serbia disintegrated and Duklja absorbed most of Rascia along with Zahumlje and Trebinje. The Catepanate of Ras was established during the rule of John Tzimiskes, a seal of a strategos of Ras has been dated to Tzimiskes reign, making it possible for Tzimiskes predecessor Nikephoros II Phokas to have enjoyed recognition in Rascia. In the 990s, Bulgarian Tsar Samuel made client states out of most of the Balkans, including Duklja, in 998, Samuel launched a major campaign against Jovan Vladimir to prevent a Byzantine-Serbian alliance
Travunija
–
Border area Duklja and Travunija in the Bay of Kotor and churches from the 9th (red) and 10th–11th centuries (white)
Travunija
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Map of the Western Balkans around 814 AD.
21.
Hvar Rebellion
–
The Hvar rebellion was a popular uprising of the people and citizens of the Dalmatian island of Hvar on the Adriatic Sea against the islands nobility and their Venetian masters. It began on the islands largest city, also called Hvar, the local noble councils of the cities, however, still held authority in governing most local matters. As early as the 15th century, the citizens of the city of Hvar formed the so-called citizens councils, the blunt refusal of these repeated demands was the first cause that sparked the rebellion. The second was the behavior of noblemen towards the citizens women. Their husbands and fathers were unable to prevent or punish the offenders, another cause was the rise of wealthy citizens families that desired greater influence. In order to secure their power, local nobles instituted a law prohibited the election into the ruling council of anyone whose father or grandfather was not its member. This legalized oligarchy proclaimed itself an institution, and passed criminal laws that greatly discriminated the ordinary citizens. This made it seem as all ordinary citizens were potentially evil. The legal discrimination was another deciding factor in the Rebellion, the immediate cause for the uprising was the inhumane behavior of several of the nobles, which included rape of the citizens women. An all-out revolt quickly gripped the island, led by Matija Ivanić, with a contingent of armed citizens, Ivanić broke into the city and attacked the nobles. He executed some and burnt their houses, while incarcerating others and he demanded of the Hvar Prince equality in taxation and criminal law. Having gathered 2,000 armed men and 30 galleys for patrolling the coast and preventing the escape of the nobles to Venice, he took control of the island. In the second year he issued a demand to the Venetian Republic, he asked for the permission to hold a council of all classes in Hvar, the letter held 20 seals and signatures with 60 more prominent citizens voicing their support. At the same time, the accused the nobles of the injustices and inhumanities. At the beginning of the conflict, the Venetians kept an appearance of neutrality and they invited both sides to Venice, failing that, and due to the Rebellions significant impact on the whole of Dalmatia, the Venetians decided to energetically pursue its conclusion. However, by the end of the year, there was unrest again against the Venetians in the whole of Dalmatia. Therefore, Venice sent Sebastiano Giustiniani, from Giustiniani family, to Hvar in 1512 and he terrorized the citizens under his control, sentenced 69 to exile, and offered a bounty of 400 ducats on Matija Ivanićs head. He was thwarted, though, by a defeat of his troops at the hands of Ivanićs forces near Jelsa
Hvar Rebellion
–
The city of
Hvar, on the island bearing the same name.
22.
Republic of Venice
–
It was based in the lagoon communities of the historically prosperous city of Venice. It was a leading European economic and trading power during the Middle Ages, the Venetian city state was founded as a safe haven for people escaping persecution in mainland Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. In its early years, it prospered on the salt trade, in subsequent centuries, the city state established a thalassocracy. It dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea, including commerce between Asia, Europe and North Africa, the Venetian navy was used in the Crusades. Venice achieved territorial conquests along the Adriatic Sea, the city became home to an extremely wealthy merchant class, who patronized renowned art and architecture along the citys lagoons. Venetian merchants were influential financiers in Europe, the city was also the birthplace of great European explorers, including Marco Polo, as well as the classical music composer Vivaldi. The republic was ruled by the Doge, who was elected by members of the Great Council of Venice, the ruling class was an oligarchy of merchants and aristocrats. Venice and other Italian maritime republics played a key role in fostering capitalism, Venetian citizens generally supported the system of governance. The city-state enforced strict laws and employed ruthless tactics in its prisons, the opening of new trade routes to the Americas and the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean marked the beginning of Venices decline as a maritime republic. The city state suffered defeats from the navy of the Ottoman Empire, in 1797, the country was colonized by Austria and France, following an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. Venice became a part of a unified Italy in the 19th century and it was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the Most Serene Republics. He was the first historical Doge of Venice, whichever the case, the first doges had their power base in Heraclea. Ursuss successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to Malamocco in the 740s and he was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history. They desired to remain well-connected to the Empire, another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish, supported mostly by clergy, they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers, the successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the Pax Nicephori, the two emperors had recognised that Venice belonged to the Byzantine sphere of influence, many centuries later, the Venetians claimed that the treaty had recognised Venetian de facto independence, but the truth of this claim is doubted by modern scholars
Republic of Venice
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Sack of Constantinople
Republic of Venice
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Flag
Republic of Venice
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Voyage of
Marco Polo into the Far East during the
Pax Mongolica
Republic of Venice
–
The
Piraeus Lion in
Venice - a spoil from Constantinople
23.
Littoral Banovina
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The Littoral Banovina or Littoral Banate was a province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1939. This province consisted of much of the Croatian region of Dalmatia and parts of present-day Bosnia, the capital city of the Littoral Banovina was Split. It then continues along the boundary of the district of Stolac. On the Adriatic, the boundary of the Banovina passes through the Neretva, in 1939, the Littoral Banovina was merged with the Sava Banovina and parts of neighboring provinces to create the Banovina of Croatia. In 1941, the World War II Axis Powers occupied the area of the Littoral Banovina. Coastal areas from Split to Zadar were annexed by Fascist Italy with the remainder becoming a part of the Independent State of Croatia, following World War II, the region was divided between Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina within a federal Communist Yugoslavia. Ivo Tartaglia Josip Jablanović Mirko Buić Kingdom of Yugoslavia The Constitution of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
Littoral Banovina
–
Littoral Banovina (red) within Kingdom of Yugoslavia (light yellow)
24.
Banovina of Croatia
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The Banovina of Croatia or Banate of Croatia was an autonomous province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1939 and 1943. It was formed by combining the Sava Banovina and Littoral Banovina, but also small parts of the Drina, Zeta. Its capital was Zagreb and it included most of present-day Croatia along with portions of Bosnia and Herzegovina and it included area of 65,456 km2 and had population of 4,024,601. The Ban of the Banovina of Croatia during this period was Ivan Šubašić, following a struggle within the unitary Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Croat leaders won autonomy for a new ethnic-based banovina with the Cvetković-Maček Agreement. On the basis of the agreement between Dragiša Cvetković and Vlatko Maček, and the Decree on the Banate of Croatia dated 24 August 1939. The entire area of the Sava and Littoral Banovinas was combined and parts of the Vrbas, Zeta, Drina, prince Regent Paul appointed a new government with Cvetković as prime minister and Maček as vice prime minister, but it gained little support. In 1941, the World War II Axis Powers occupied Yugoslavia, legally, the Banovina of Croatia remained a part of the occupied Kingdom of Yugoslavia, while the Axis proceeded to dismember Yugoslav territory and the Banovina along with it. Some of the areas from Split to Zadar and near the Gulf of Kotor were annexed by Fascist Italy. As the Kingdom of Yugoslavia became the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia with the success of the Yugoslav Partisans, in 1939, the banovina of Croatia had a population of 4,299,430 of which three quarters was Roman Catholic, one-fifth was Orthodox, and 4 percent was Muslim. The banovina was divided into 116 districts of which 95 had an absolute and 5 had a relative Catholic majority, the Croatian Football Federation was the governing body of football within the Banovina. It organized a league and a national team. The Banovina of Croatia had four matches, two pairs of home-and-away matches against Switzerland and Hungary. The Croatian Rowing Championships were held on 29 June 1940, Croatia mens national ice hockey team played its first friendly game against Slovakia on February 9,1941 in Bratislava and lost 6-1. The Croatian Boxing Federation was reconstituted on 5 October 1939 as the body of boxing within the entire Banovina of Croatia. Kingdom of Yugoslavia Socialist Republic of Croatia Timeline of Croatian history Velikonja, Mitja, religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia-Herzegovina. College Station, Texas A&M University Press, map of Yugoslav banovinas with the Banovina of Croatia
Banovina of Croatia
–
Police ensign with motto "u službi" in
Croatian meaning in service in
English.
Banovina of Croatia
–
Civil flag
25.
Governorate of Dalmatia
–
Dalmatia was a strategic region during World War I that both Italy and Serbia intended to seize from Austria-Hungary. From 5–6 November 1918, Italian forces were reported to have reached Lissa, Lagosta, Sebenico, in 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italys Governor of Dalmatia. Famous Italian nationalist Gabriele dAnnunzio supported the seizure of Dalmatia, and this enraged Italian nationalists who considered this as a betrayal of the promises of the London Pact. The town of Zara, which had included most of the Italian population of Dalmatia since the beginning of the 20th century and was largely Italian-speaking, was designated as its capital, nevertheless, the Italian army maintained de facto control over the whole of Dalmatia. The Kingdom of Italy divided the Governorate in three Italian provinces, Zara, Spalato and Cattaro, but never created officially an Italian region with the name Dalmatia. While the Governorate was not called a region of Italy, the northern Dalmatian islands of Veglia, fascist Italy even occupied Marindol and other villages that had previously belonged to the Banovina of Croatia, Milić-Selo, Paunović-Selo, Žunić-Selo, Vukobrati, Vidnjevići and Vrhovci. In 1942 these villages were annexed to Cernomegli, which was part of the Italian Province of Lubiana, even though their population was not Slovene. The governorship was held until January 1943 by Giuseppe Bastianini, when he was recalled to Italy to join the cabinet, his place as governor being taken by Francesco Giunta. The Governorate of Dalmatia was cancelled administratively by Badoglio on August 19,1943, it was substituted by direct rule of the 3 Prefetti governing the provinces of Zara, Spalato, the Governorate of Dalmatia consisted of three provinces, Zara, Spalato and Cattaro. However these were not formally annexed to the Governorate, after the Kingdom of Italy changed sides to the Allies in 1943, German forces took over the area. This territory was not given to the fascist Italian Social Republic, but Zara remained Italian until 1945. On October 30,1944 the last Italian authority in Dalmatia – the Zara prefect Vincenzo Serrentino – left the city with the remaining Dalmatian Italians. Giuseppe Bastianini Francesco Giunta Bombing of Zadar Dalmatian Italians Italian occupation of France
Governorate of Dalmatia
–
Flag
26.
Croatian War of Independence
–
In Croatia, the war is primarily referred to as the Homeland War and also as the Greater-Serbian Aggression. In Serbian sources, War in Croatia and War in Krajina are used, Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991, but agreed to postpone it with the Brioni Agreement and cut all remaining ties with Yugoslavia on 8 October 1991. The JNA initially tried to keep Croatia within Yugoslavia by occupying all of Croatia, after this failed, Serb forces established the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina within Croatia. During that time, the RSK encompassed 13,913 square kilometers, in 1995, Croatia launched two major offensives known as Operation Flash and Operation Storm, which would effectively end the war in its favor. The remaining United Nations Transitional Authority for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja, the war ended with Croatian victory, as it achieved the goals it had declared at the beginning of the war, independence and preservation of its borders. 21–25% of Croatias economy was ruined, with an estimated US$37 billion in damaged infrastructure, lost output, a total of 20,000 people were killed in the war, and refugees were displaced on both sides. The Serb and Croatian governments began to cooperate with each other but tension remains, in part due to verdicts by the ICTY. Between 2008 and 2012, the ICTY had prosecuted Croatian generals Ante Gotovina, Mladen Markač, Čermak was acquitted outright, and the convictions of Gotovina and Markač were later overturned by an ICTY Appeals Panel. The International Court of Justice dismissed Croatia and Serbia genocide claims in 2015, the Court reaffirmed that serious crimes against civilians had taken place, but ruled that specific genocidal intent was not present. From 1967 to 1972 in Croatia and 1968 and 1981 protests in Kosovo, nationalist doctrines, the suppression by the state of nationalists is believed to have had the effect of identifying nationalism as the primary alternative to communism itself and made it a strong underground movement. A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia with the weakening of the Communist states in Eastern Europe towards the end of the Cold War, in Yugoslavia, the national communist party, officially called the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, had lost its ideological potency. SR Slovenia and SR Croatia wanted to move towards decentralization, the rhetoric was approved by the Serbian political leadership, and accused the Croatian leadership of being blindly nationalistic when it objected. In 1989, political parties were allowed and a number of them had been founded, including the Croatian Democratic Union, led by Franjo Tuđman, who later became the first president of Croatia. In January 1990, the League of Communists broke up on ethnic lines, with the Croatian, at the congress, Serbian delegates accused the Croatian and Slovene delegates of supporting separatism, terrorism and genocide in Kosovo. The Croatian and Slovene delegations, including most of their ethnic Serb members, eventually left in protest, January 1990 also marked the beginning of court cases being brought to Yugoslavias Constitutional Court on the matter of secession. The first was the Slovenian Constitutional Amendments case after Slovenia claimed the right to unilateral secession pursuant to the right of self-determination, the Constitutional Court ruled that secession from the federation was only permitted if there was the unanimous agreement of Yugoslavias republics and autonomous provinces. On 4 March 1990,50,000 Serbs rallied at Petrova Gora, and shouted negative remarks aimed at Tuđman, chanted This is Serbia, the first free elections in Croatia and Slovenia were scheduled for a few months later. The first round of elections in Croatia were held on 22 April, the HDZ based its campaign on greater sovereignty for Croatia, fueling a sentiment among Croats that only the HDZ could protect Croatia from the aspirations of Milošević towards a Greater Serbia
Croatian War of Independence
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Clockwise from top left: the central street of
Dubrovnik, the
Stradun, in ruins during the
Siege of Dubrovnik; the damaged
Vukovar water tower, a symbol of the early conflict, flying the
Croatian tricolour; soldiers of the
Croatian Army preparing to destroy a
Serbian tank; the
Vukovar Memorial Cemetery; a Serbian
T-55 tank destroyed on the road to
Drniš
Croatian War of Independence
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President
Franjo Tuđman wanted Croatia to disengage from Yugoslavia.
Croatian War of Independence
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Map of the strategic offensive plan of the
Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) in 1991 as interpreted by the US
Central Intelligence Agency
Croatian War of Independence
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The Croatian military eased their equipment shortage by seizing the JNA barracks in the
Battle of the Barracks.
27.
Battle of the Dalmatian Channels
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The drifting Mukos was salvaged by Croatian civilian boats and was beached at Nečujam bay. The next day, a group of Yugoslav Navy vessels deployed to the Split Channel, organised into the Kaštela tactical group, in return, Croatian coastal artillery engaged the Kaštela TG. The Kaštela TG retreated east and joined with the Ploče TG consisting of three minesweepers, on 16 November, the combined Yugoslav force sailed through the Korčula Channel—a strait separating the islands of Hvar and Korčula—to reach safety at the Yugoslav Navy base at Vis. The warships were then engaged by Croatian coastal artillery deployed on Korčula, the Croatian Navy later towed the grounded Mukos to Šibenik, repaired the vessel and put her into service as OB-62 Šolta. During the battle,22 Yugoslav Navy crewmen, two Croatian gunners and two sailors in Split were killed. Thirty-three Yugoslav officers were charged in relation to the bombardment by Croatian authorities. In 1990, following the defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia. The Yugoslav Peoples Army confiscated Croatias Territorial Defence Forces weapons to minimize resistance, the request was denied on 15 March and the JNA came under the control of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević. By the end of March, the conflict had escalated into the Croatian War of Independence, the JNA intervened, they increasingly supported the Croatian Serb insurgents and prevented Croatian police from intervening. In early April, the leaders of the Croatian Serb revolt declared their intention to integrate the area under their control, known as SAO Krajina, the Government of Croatia viewed this declaration as an attempt to secede. Following the Battle of the Barracks, the ZNG acquired a significant stock of weapons and ammunition, Croatian forces using naval mines deployed in Kaštela Bay rendered the Yugoslav Navy base at Lora in Split inaccessible. On 8 October, Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia, and a month later the Croatian National Guard was renamed the Croatian Army, late 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war, the 1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia culminated in the Siege of Dubrovnik and the Battle of Vukovar. During the first days of November, the Yugoslav Navy stopped the Libertas convoy twice for inspection between the islands of Brač and Korčula as it enforced the blockade. The convoy of 40 small boats led by the ferry Slavija was on its way to resupply Dubrovnik, on 11 November, the Maltese-flagged coaster Euroriver, manned by a Croatian crew, was sunk by gunfire off Šolta Island. Despite the capture of the Yugoslav Navy vessels in September, Croatias coastal defences relied on captured coastal artillery on the mainland, some the guns captured on Žirje and Šolta were removed and used to set up additional coastal artillery batteries at Kašjuni and Duilovo in Split. Additional batteries were set up in Lovište at the tip of the Pelješac Peninsula, the battery deployed to Črna Luka contained 76-millimetre M1942 guns. A naval commando detachment from the Croatian Navy was deployed to the western Brač, the coastal artillery was subordinated to the Croatian Navy and commanded by Admiral Sveto Letica. The Yugoslav Navy deployed three tactical groups named Kaštela, Vis and Ploče off the coast of central Dalmatia from its bases on the islands of Vis, the Kaštela TG was deployed to the sea off Split and north of the islands of Šolta and Brač
Battle of the Dalmatian Channels
–
VPBR-31 Split
Battle of the Dalmatian Channels
–
Split
Battle of the Dalmatian Channels
–
A map of the battle on 15 November (approximate positions)
Battle of the Dalmatian Channels
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A map of the battle on 16 November (approximate positions)
28.
Siege of Dubrovnik
–
The JNA attacks and bombardment of Dubrovnik, including the Old Town—a UNESCO World Heritage Site—culminated on 6 December 1991. Fighting between the HV and the Yugoslav troops east of Dubrovnik gradually died down, the siege and a naval blockade by the Yugoslav Navy caused the deaths of between 82 and 88 Croatian civilians and 194 Croatian military personnel. By the end of 1992, when the region was recaptured by the HV in Operation Tiger. The offensive displaced 15,000 refugees—mainly from Konavle—who fled to Dubrovnik, approximately 16,000 refugees were evacuated from Dubrovnik by sea and the city was resupplied by blockade-evading runabouts and a convoy of civilian vessels. 11,425 buildings suffered a degree of damage and numerous homes, businesses, Montenegrin President Milo Đukanović apologized for the attack in 2000, eliciting an angry response from his political opponents and from Serbia. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia convicted two Yugoslav officers for their involvement in the siege and handed a third over to Serbia for prosecution, in addition, Montenegro convicted four former JNA soldiers with prisoner abuse at the Morinj camp. Croatia also charged several former JNA or Yugoslav Navy officers and a former Bosnian Serb leader with war crimes and these areas were subsequently named the Republic of Serbian Krajina and after declaring its intention to integrate with Serbia, the Government of Croatia declared the RSK a rebellion. By March 1991, the conflict had escalated and the Croatian War of Independence erupted, in June 1991, Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated. A three-month moratorium followed, after which the decision came into effect on 8 October, the RSK then initiated a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Croat civilians, expelling most non-Serbs by early 1993. By November 1993, less than 400 ethnic Croats remained in the United Nations protected area known as Sector South, and a further 1,500 –2,000 remained in Sector North. As the Yugoslav Peoples Army increasingly supported the RSK and the Croatian Police was unable to cope with the situation, in November, the ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army. Dubrovnik is the southernmost major Croatian city and it is located on the Adriatic Sea coast. In 1991, the city had a population of approximately 50,000, Croatian territory surrounding the city stretches from the Pelješac peninsula to the west and the Prevlaka peninsula in the east at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor on the border with Montenegro. This territory is very narrow, especially near Dubrovnik itself, General Jevrem Cokić submitted the plan of the Dubrovnik offensive to Adžić for his approval. Montenegrin Prime Minister Milo Đukanović stated that Croatian borders needed be revised, the newspaper Pobjeda was the most significant media source that contributed to the spread of the propaganda. On 16 September 1991, the JNA mobilized in Montenegro citing the deteriorating situation in Croatia, despite a radio broadcast appeal by the JNA 2nd Titograd Corps on 17 September, considerable numbers of reservists refused to respond to the call-up. On 18 September, Đukanović threatened harsh punishment of deserters and those refusing to respond to the mobilization, the mobilization and the propaganda were in contrast with assurances from Yugoslav federal authorities in Belgrade that there would be no attack against Dubrovnik. The JNAs strategic plan to defeat Croatia included an offensive to cut off the southernmost parts of Croatia, including Dubrovnik, on 23 September, JNA artillery attacked the village of Vitaljina in the eastern part of Konavle and Brgat to the east of Dubrovnik
Siege of Dubrovnik
–
Bombardment of the Old Town of Dubrovnik
Siege of Dubrovnik
–
JNA positions overlooking Dubrovnik, 9 December 1991. Three
9K11 Malyutka anti-tank guided missiles in a firing position are visible.
Siege of Dubrovnik
–
Map of the JNA advance to Dubrovnik in 1991
Siege of Dubrovnik
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Daily routine at
Stradun during the war
29.
Operation Storm
–
Operation Storm was the last major battle of the Croatian War of Independence and a major factor in the outcome of the Bosnian War. The HV was supported by the Croatian special police advancing from the Velebit Mountain, the operation itself followed an unsuccessful United Nations peacekeeping mission and diplomatic efforts to settle the conflict. The HVs success was a result of a series of improvements to the armies themselves, and crucial breakthroughs made in the ARSK positions that were exploited by the HV. The attack was not immediately successful at all points, but seizing key positions led to the collapse of the ARSK command structure, the HV capture of Bosansko Grahovo just before Operation Storm, and the special polices advance to Gračac, made it nearly impossible to defend Knin. The defeat of the ARSK at Glina and Petrinja, after a defence, defeated the ARSK Banija Corps as well. The RSK relied on the Republika Srpska and the Yugoslav militaries as its strategic reserve, the HV and the special police suffered 174–211 killed or missing, while the ARSK had 560 soldiers killed. Four UN peacekeepers were also killed, the HV captured 4,000 prisoners of war. The number of Serb civilian deaths is disputed—Croatia claims that 214 were killed, in 2010, Serbia sued Croatia before the International Court of Justice, claiming that the offensive was an example of genocide. As of November 2012, the Croatian judiciary has convicted 2,380 persons for various crimes committed during Operation Storm, in 1990, following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia, ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs worsened. The areas were named the Republic of Serbian Krajina and, after declaring its intention to integrate with Serbia. The conflict escalated by March 1991, resulting in the Croatian War of Independence, in June 1991, Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated. A three-month moratorium on Croatias and the RSKs declarations followed, after which the decision came into effect on 8 October, the RSK then initiated a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Croat civilians and most non-Serbs were expelled by early 1993. By November 1993, less than 400 ethnic Croats remained in the United Nations-protected area known as Sector South, as the Yugoslav Peoples Army increasingly supported the RSK and the Croatian Police was unable to cope with the situation, the Croatian National Guard was formed in May 1991. The ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army in November, the establishment of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September. The final months of 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war, culminating in the Battle of the Barracks, the Siege of Dubrovnik, and the Battle of Vukovar. In January 1992, an agreement to implement the Vance plan designed to stop the fighting was made by representatives of Croatia, the JNA, ending the series of unsuccessful ceasefires, the United Nations Protection Force was deployed to Croatia to supervise and maintain the agreement. A stalemate developed as the conflict evolved into trench warfare, and the JNA soon retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbia continued to support the RSK, but a series of HV advances restored small areas to Croatian control as the siege of Dubrovnik ended, and Operation Maslenica resulted in minor tactical gains
Operation Storm
–
Map of Operation Storm Forces: Croatia RSK Bosnia and Herzegovina
Operation Storm
–
Croatian Brigadier General
Krešimir Ćosić and US Army Lieutenant General
Wesley Clark discussing the
Siege of Bihać on 29 November 1994
Operation Storm
–
Order of the
RSK Supreme Defence Council to evacuate civilians from the
Knin area
Operation Storm
–
Tuđman and
Šušak visiting
Knin Fortress on 6 August. Officers in the photo include Lieutenant General
Gotovina and
Brigadiers Ivan Korade and Damir Krstičević (commanders of the 7th and 4th Guards Brigades) on Tuđman's right, and Brigadiers
Rahim Ademi and
Ante Kotromanović on Šušak's left.
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