1.
Airlift
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An airlift is the organized delivery of military supplies or military personnel primarily via military transport aircraft. Airlifting consists of two types, strategic and tactical airlifting. Typically, strategic airlifting involves moving material long distances, whereas a tactical airlift focuses on deploying resources, depending on the situation, airlifted supplies can be delivered by a variety of means. When the destination and surrounding airspace is considered secure, the aircraft land at an appropriate airport or airbase to have its cargo unloaded on the ground. However, when the area is too small for this method, as with a base, and/or is too dangerous to land in. Serbian Air Force, made first transport of wounded soldiers from Serbia through Albania to Corfu and that was the first Medevac operation in air history. April 1923 aircraft of the RAFs Iraq Command flew 280 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first British air trooping operation, the worlds first long-range combat airlift took place in July 1936. Luftwaffe Ju 52 and Italian Air Force Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 were used by the Spanish Nationalists to transport troops from Spanish Morocco to Spain at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War. Airlifts became practical during World War II as aircraft became large and this joint effort is estimated to have saved more than a million lives in Biafra. Most airplanes departed from the Portuguese colony of Sao Tome and Principe to the landing strip of Uli, the only operational airport in Biafra. Flights were made flying at night all lights off and under near-total radio silence to avoid Nigerian MIG aircraft. All the airplanes, crews and logistics were paid, set up, JCA and their crews and aircraft kept flying into Biafra at the cost of many crews lives. Strategic airlift is the use of transport aircraft to transport materiel, weaponry. Typically, this involves airlifting the required items between two airbases which are not in the same vicinity and this allows commanders to bring items into a combat theater from a point on the other side of the planet, if necessary. Aircraft which perform this role are considered strategic airlifters and this contrasts with tactical airlifters, such as the C-130 Hercules and Transall C-160, which can normally only move supplies within a given theater of operations. This difficulty has prompted investment in lighter armoured fighting vehicles, as well as some research into alternative airlift technologies such as ground effect vehicles. Civilian aircraft are commonly used for transportation. For some civilian airlines, such as Miami Air International and Volga-Dnepr Airlines, tactical airlift is a military term for the airborne transportation of supplies and equipment within a theatre of operations
2.
Ilyushin
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Open Joint Stock Company «Ilyushin Aviation Complex», operating as Ilyushin or Ilyushin Design Bureau, is a Russian aircraft manufacturer and design bureau, founded by Sergey Vladimirovich Ilyushin. Ilyushin was established under the Soviet Union and its operations began on January 13,1933, by order of P. I. Baranov, Peoples Commissar of the Heavy Industry and the Head of the Main Department of Aviation Industry, in Soviet/Russian nomenclature, aircraft from Ilyushin are prefixed Il. The head office of Ilyushin is located in Aeroport District, Northern Administrative Okrug, Aviation Industries Ilyushin is a subsidiary established in 1992 to act as Ilyushins marketing and customer service arm. The Russian government has merged Ilyushin with Mikoyan, Irkut, Sukhoi, Tupolev, in July 2014 it was reported that Ilyushin and Myasishchev would merge to form the United Aircraft Corporation business unit Transport Aircraft. Notable Ilyushin aircraft include, I-21 fighter,1936, il-2 Sturmovik ground-attack aircraft, NATO codename Bark,1939, most-produced military aircraft of all time. Il-10, ground-attack aircraft, NATO codename Beast,1943, il-16 ground attack prototype developed from the Il-10,1945. Il-40 Brawny jet-powered ground-attack prototype,1953, il-102 experimental jet-powered ground-attack aircraft, project cancelled,1982. Il-4 Bob bomber/torpedo bomber developed from the DB-3,1939, il-6 long-range bomber prototype developed from the Il-4,1942. Il-28 Beagle and Mascot medium bomber/trainer,1949, Il-30 tactical swept-wing bomber prototype developed from the Il-28,1951. Il-46 jet-powered bomber prototype developed from the Il-30,1952, il-54 Blowlamp supersonic bomber prototype,1955. Il-12 Coach twin-engined cargo/transport aircraft,1945, il-34 prototype motorized variant of Il-32. Il-78 Midas, an aerial refuelling variant of the Il-76,1982, il-82 airborne command post developed from the Il-76. UAC/HAL Il-214 experimental medium-lift military transport aircraft, il-476 internal designation for the Il-76MD-90A. Il-14 Crate twin-engined airliner developed from the Il-12,1950, Il-18 Clam four-engined airliner prototype,1946. Il-62 Classic long range jet airliner,1963, Il-86 Camber medium-range wide-body jet airliner,1976. Il-80 Maxdome airborne command post developed from the Il-86,1985, il-87 Aimak airborne control variant of the Il-86. Il-96 long-haul widebody airliner developed from the Il-86,1988, il-98 aerial refuelling variant of the Il-96
3.
Tashkent Mechanical Plant
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The company exited Aircraft Production in 2015. The plant was due to be renamed the Tashkent Mechanical Plant on January 1,2014, during the first and the second five-year plans, the Soviet government tried to supply the aviation sector with the national production. In the first place was created the ANT aircraft family, the planes played a great role in the civil aircraft sector but the progress in the following decades has rendered these planes obsolete and they have been modernized or replaced. In the second place, it was founded in 1932 in the city of Khimki, Moscow region as the 84 Repairing Factory of GVF, later - the Aviation Factory named after V. P. Chkalov. This association was responsible for production, for the social development of the city where it is situated. In 1935, the received the order to update a civil plane ANT-9, in a propaganda airplane. In 1936, the preparations was begun for a production of a new plane. In 1939, the airplane was modified for use, its production started. In 1937, there were some prototypes of the V. Levkovs hovercraft. In 1939, V. F. Bolkhovitinov controlled the construction of a new light bomber Su-2, the factory and its entire staff were transported in December of the 1941 by a train convoy. In January 1942, the production was able to be pursued and this period was emphasized by the production of Li-2, a licensed airplane variant of Douglas DC-3. This plane became a symbol of the resistance, for the factory and it was put on a pedestal next to the principal entry. When World War II was nearing the end, but a new conflict and this arms race brought new goals to the factory N°84. In 1954, the first transport aircraft, Il-14s were manufactured at the factory, in 1957, the first An-8 was built. In 1960, the took part in the development of the Ka-22 rotorcraft. In 1962, the first An-12 was built, in 1966, the factory was able to get over technical difficulties and build the first example of the An-22, named “Antaeus”. In 1972, basing on the factory in Tashkent and new firms in Andijan. In 1973, the first Il-76 was manufactured,950 examples of this multipurpose transporter were built in this factory
4.
Aviastar-SP
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CJSC Aviastar-SP is a Russian aircraft factory based in Ulyanovsk and founded in 1976. It is a closed joint stock company. It has replaced the Soviet Ulyanovsk Aviation Industrial Complex and manufactures the cargo aircraft An-124 Ruslan, Il-476, in 2007,1. 25% of Aviastar-SP capital has been injected into United Aircraft Corporation by the Russian Federation. Archived from the original on 28 November 2007
5.
Russian Air Force
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The Russian Air Force is a branch of the Russian Aerospace Forces, the latter being formed on the 1 August 2015 with the merger of the Russian Air Force and the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces. The modern Russian Air Force was originally established on the 7 May 1992 following Boris Yeltsins creation of the Ministry of Defence, however the air force can trace its lineage and traditions back to the Imperial Russian Air Service and the Soviet Air Forces. The Russian Navy has its own air arm, the Russian Naval Aviation, general Pyotr Deynekin, the former deputy commander-in-chief of the Soviet Air Forces, became the first commander of the new organisation on 24 August 1991. Russia received the majority of the most modern fighters and 65% of the manpower, the major commands of the former Soviet VVS – the Long Range Aviation, Military Transport Aviation and Frontal Aviation were renamed, with few changes, Russian VVS commands. However, many regiments, aircraft, and personnel were claimed by the republics they were based in, some aircraft in Belarus and Ukraine were returned to Russia, sometimes in return for debt reductions, as well as a long range aviation division based at Dolon in Kazakhstan. During the 1990s, the financial stringency felt throughout the forces made its mark on the Air Forces as well. As a result of the cutbacks, infrastructure became degraded as well, the VVS participated in the First Chechen War and the Second Chechen War. These campaigns also presented significant difficulties for the VVS including the terrain, lack of significant fixed targets and insurgents armed with Stinger, the former Soviet Air Defence Forces remained independent for several years under Russian control, only merging with the Air Forces in 1998. The decree merging the two forces was issued by President Boris Yeltsin on 16 July 1997, during 1998 altogether 580 units and formations were disbanded,134 reorganized, and over 600 given a new jurisdiction. More than 600,000 tons of material changed location and 3500 aircraft changed airfields, Military Transport Aviation planes took more than 40,000 families to new residence areas. The short-lived operational commands were abolished, two air armies, 37th Air Army and 61st Air Army, were established directly under the Supreme Command. The former frontal aviation and anti-aircraft forces were organized as Air Force Armies, there were initially four such armies with headquarters in St. Petersburg, Rostov-on-Don, Khabarovsk, and Chita. Two military districts had separate Air and Air Defence Corps, when the Transbaikal Military District and Siberian Military District were merged, the 14th Air Army was reactivated to serve as the air force formation in the area. The number of servicemen in the Air Force was reduced to about 185,000 from the combined number of 318,000. 123,500 positions were abolished, including almost 1000 colonel positions, the resignation of 3000 other servicemen included 46 generals of which 15 were colonel generals. The former Army Aviation was subsequently managed by the Chief of the Department of Army Aviation, during the 2000s, the Air Forces continued to suffer from a lack of resources for pilot training. In the 1990s Russian pilots achieved approximately 10% of the hours of the United States Air Force. In 2007, under the leadership of Vladimir Putin, the Russian Air Force resumed the Soviet-era practice of deploying its strategic bomber aircraft on long-range patrols and this ended a 15-year unilateral suspension due to fuel costs and other economic difficulties after the collapse of the Soviet Union
6.
Ukrainian Air Force
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The Ukrainian Air Force is a part of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Ukrainian Air Force headquarters is located in the city of Vinnytsia, when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, a large number of aircraft were left on Ukrainian territory. Ever since, the Ukrainian air force has been downsizing and upgrading its forces, in spite of these efforts, the main inventory of the air force consists of Soviet-made aircraft. Currently 36,300 personnel and 144 aircraft are in service in the Ukrainian air force and air defense forces, all ICBMs and strategic bombers have been taken out of service. Since 1991s Ukrainian independence the air force has suffered from chronic underinvestment, the air force currently takes part in the War in Donbass. Following the 5 September 2014 ceasefire Ukraine Air Force has been forbidden from carrying out missions in the areas of Donbass. The major mission of the Air Force is to protect the air space of Ukraine, in peace-time, this is carried out by flying air-space control missions over the entire territory of Ukraine, and by preventing air space intrusion along the aerial borders. Every single day, more than 2,200 service personnel and civilian employees of the Air Force, employing 400 items of weapons, on average, the Ukrainian radar forces detect and track more than 1,000 targets daily. As a result, in 2006 two illegal crossings of the border were prevented and 28 violations of Ukrainian air space were prevented. Due to such increased strengthening of air control, the number of air space violations decreased by 35% compared to the previous year. Previously during the World War I on the Eastern Front, Pavlenko was in charge of air security of the Russian Stavka. Sometimes in 1918 the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic created its own aviation corps with the Ukrainian Galician Army headed by Petro Franko, in 1918 he organized an aviation school of the Ukrainian Galician Army Command Center which was active until 1920. Among the airplanes used by the Ukrainian aviation were Belgium-built SPAD S. VIIs, the Ukrainian Galician Army used Nieuport 17 biplanes. The Ukrainian Air Force was established on March 17,1992, the headquarters of the 24th Air Army of the Soviet Air Force in Vinnytsia served as the basis to create Air Force headquarters. Also present on Ukrainian soil were units of the former Soviet 5th, 14th, in addition, the 161st Maritime Fighter Aviation Regiment, at Limanskoye in Odessa Oblast, came under Ukrainian control. It had formerly been part of the 119th Maritime Fighter Aviation Division of the Black Sea Fleet, the new Air Force inherited the 184th Guards Heavy Bomber Aviation Regiment of Tupolev Tu-160 Blackjack which were based at Pryluky. Discussions with Russia concerning their return bogged down, the main bone of contention was the price. While Russian experts, who examined the aircraft at Pryluky in 1993 and 1996, assessed their technical condition as good, the negotiations led to nowhere and in April 1998, Ukraine decided to commence scrapping the aircraft under the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Agreement
7.
Indian Air Force
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The Indian Air Force is the air arm of the Indian armed forces. It is the fourth largest air force in terms of both personnel and aircraft. Its primary responsibility is to secure Indian airspace and to conduct aerial warfare during a conflict and it was officially established on 8 October 1932 as an auxiliary air force of the British Empire and the prefix Royal was added in 1945 in recognition of its services during World War II. After India became independent from the United Kingdom in 1947, the Royal Indian Air Force served the Dominion of India, since independence, the IAF has been involved in four wars with neighbouring Pakistan and one with the Peoples Republic of China. Other major operations undertaken by the IAF include Operation Vijay, Operation Meghdoot, Operation Cactus, apart from conflicts, the IAF has been an active participant in United Nations peacekeeping missions. The President of India serves as Supreme Commander of the IAF, the Chief of Air Staff, an air chief marshal, is a four-star officer and commands the Air Force. There is never more than one serving ACM at any time in the IAF. The IAF provides close air support to the Indian Army troops in the battlefield and also provides strategic, IAF also provides infantry and artillery transportations or secondary Airlift for the Indian Army. The IAF provided extensive assistance to relief operations during natural calamities such as the Gujarat cyclone in 1998, the IAF also provides assistance to other countries during relief activities such as Operation Rainbow in Sri Lanka. On 1 April 1933, the IAF commissioned its first squadron, No.1 Squadron, with four Westland Wapiti biplanes, the Indian pilots were led by RAF Commanding officer Flight Lieutenant Cecil Bouchier. During World War II, the IAF played a role in blocking the advance of the Japanese army in Burma. It also carried out missions against the Japanese airbases at Mae Hong Son, Chiang Mai. The IAF was mainly involved in Strike, Close Air Support, Aerial reconnaissance, Bomber Escort, RAF Pilots were embedded in IAF units and vice versa to gain combat experience. IAF pilots participated in air operations in Europe as part of the RAF, during the war, the IAF went through a phase of steady expansion. New aircraft, including the US built Vultee Vengeance, Douglas DC-3, in recognition of the services rendered by the IAF, King George VI conferred the prefix Royal in 1945. Thereafter the IAF was referred to as the Royal Indian Air Force, in 1950, when India became a republic, the prefix was dropped and it reverted to being the Indian Air Force. After it became independent from the British Empire in 1947, British India was partitioned into the new states of the Dominion of India, along the lines of the geographical partition, the assets of the air force were divided between the new countries. The RIAF Roundel was changed to an interim Chakra roundel derived from the Ashoka Chakra, around the same time, conflict broke out between them over the control of the princely state of Jammu & Kashmir
8.
TransAVIAexport Airlines
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TransAVIAexport Airlines is a Belarusian National Airline involved in air transportation of cargo. It is based at the Minsk International Airport in Belarus, with a hub at the Sharjah International Airport, TransAVIAexport Airlines was established in December 1992. TransAVIAexports aircraft may be seen in the airports in Europe, Asia, USA, South America, Australia, Antarctic, by establishing air links with many countries they have promoted contracts and closer ties between nations. TransAVIAexport Airlines operated IL-76 heavy-lifters capable of transporting up to 45 tons of freight with a volume up to 210 cubic meters, IL-76 Candid, a heavy ramp freighter, is one of the most efficient and demanded aircraft. The aircraft landed safely but sustained substantial damage, on March 23,2007, a TransAVIAexport Airlines Ilyushin Il-76TD was shot down by an anti-aircraft missile while taking off from Mogadishu, Somalia. Media related to Transavia Export at Wikimedia Commons Official website
9.
Ilyushin Il-78
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The Ilyushin Il-78 is a Soviet four-engined aerial refuelling tanker based on the Il-76. The Il-76 tanker was conceived as long ago as 1968, but the fuel load for the initial version was only ten tonnes. When the higher performance Il-76 became available the project was restarted in 1982 as the Il-78. In addition to the fuel load of the late model Il-76. In addition, four aircraft can also be refuelled on the ground using conventional refuelling hoses extending from the freight hold, soon after the Il-78 passed acceptance tests in 1984, Ilyushin was instructed to design and produce an upgraded version to be known as Il-78M. The Il-78M is a tanker and cannot be converted back to the transport role easily. Adding a third freight hold tank increased transferable fuel to 105,720 kg and maximum weight to 210,000 kg. UPAZ-1M refuelling pods improved maximum fuel flow to 2,900 l/min, because the Il-78M is not convertible, all cargo handling equipment was removed and cargo doors were deleted, saving approximately 5,000 kg in structural weight. This modification was served to isolate the pod from turbulence generated by the fuselage, some Il-78s were produced with Aeroflot colours and civilian registrations, but production Il-78Ms received military markings, registration and colour scheme. The majority of the twenty Il-78 aircraft of the Ukrainian Air Force have been converted to pure transports, freight hold tanks. All Russian Air Force Il-78s are now part of the special 203rd Orlovski Regiment of aerial tankers, Il-78 The Il-78 was the original production version with two removable fuselage tanks and a maximum transferable load of 85.72 tonnes. Il-78T Alternative designation for Il-78 due to retention of all cargo handling equipment, Il-78M The Il-78M entered service in 1987 as a dedicated tanker equipped with three permanent fuselage tanks, a higher gross weight of 210 tons, and no cargo door or cargo handling equipment. The cargo ramp is retained but non-functional, total fuel capacity is 138 tonnes, of which 105.7 tonnes is transferable. Prototype will be delivered to 2015, Il-78MKI Customized variant of the Il-78ME for the Indian Air Force. These Uzbekistan-built planes are fitted with Israeli fuel transfer systems and can refuel six-eight Sukhoi Su-30MKIs in one mission, Il-78MP Multi-role aerial refuelling tanker/transport aircraft, with removable fuel tanks in cargo hold and UPAZ refuelling pods, for the Pakistan Air Force, and Chinese Air Force. As of March 2009, more than 34 Il-78s were in operation, algeria Algerian Air Force China Chinese Air Force -3 Il-78MP. India Indian Air Force -6 Il-78MKI, the Indian Air Force refers to the aircraft as MARS and has raised a new unit. India is also considering procurement of six more Il-78 after scrapping deal with Airbus, libya Libyan Air Force Pakistan Pakistan Air Force - four Il-78MP aircraft were ordered from Ukrainian surplus aircraft stocks, fitted with removable fuel tanks and UPAZ refuelling pods
10.
Beriev A-50
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The Beriev A-50 is a Soviet airborne early warning and control aircraft based on the Ilyushin Il-76 transport. The existence of the A-50 was revealed in 1980 by Adolf Tolkachev, developed to replace the Tupolev Tu-126 Moss, the A-50 first flew in 1978. It entered service in 1984, with about 40 produced by 1992, the mission personnel of the 15-man crew derive data from the large Liana surveillance radar with its antenna in an over-fuselage rotodome, which has a diameter of 29 ft 9 in. Detection range is 650 km for air targets and 300 km for ground targets, the A-50 can control up to 10 fighter aircraft for either air-to-air intercept or air-to-ground attack missions. The A-50 is capable of flying for 4 hours at 1000 km from its base at a takeoff weight of 190 tons. The aircraft can be refuelled by Il-78 tankers, the radar Vega-M is designed by MNIIP, Moscow, and produced by NPO Vega. The Vega-M is capable of tracking up to 150 targets simultaneously within 230 kilometers, large targets, like surface ships, can be tracked at a distance of 400 km. After completing State Joint Tests, Beriev has delivered the first upgraded Airborne Early Warning, the aircraft,47 Red/RF-92957 was handed over at Berievs facility in Taganrog on October 31,2011. A second aircraft,33 Red is getting upgraded and is due for delivery in 2012 and these are the only two production upgrades ordered to date, but Beriev anticipates further orders. Development work on the A-50U began some years ago and state tests started on September 10,2008, the main element of the modernisation involves replacing the outdated analogue equipment with a new, digital avionics suite supplied by Vega Radio Engineering Corporation JSC. Notable improvements include faster data processing, enhanced signal tracking, crew rest, toilet and galley facilities are also included in the upgrade. These upgrades form the basis of the concept for Beriev A-100 AEW&C, configuration will be similar to the A-50U, but with a new Vega Premier active electronically scanned array radar. In late December 2015, the A-50 started operations over Syria, flying from Russia, a-50M – Modernized Russian Version fitted with mid-air refueling capability. A-50U – updated Russian variant Izdeliye-676 – One-off stop-gap telemetry and tracking aircraft, izdeliye-776 – One-off stop-gap telemetry and tracking aircraft. Izdeliye-976 – – Il-76 based Range Control and Missile tracking platform, initially built to support Raduga Kh-55 cruise missile tests. Has fixed radar cover filled with equipment and glassed navigator cockpit. Izdeliye-1076 – One-off special mission aircraft with unknown duties,50 Squadron IAF, Agra Air Force Station –3 operational, RFP for 2 more sent to IAI for the EL/W-2090 AEW&C radar system to be mounted on the A-50
11.
KJ-2000
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KJ-2000 is a Chinese Airborne early warning and control system comprising domestically designed electronics and radars installed on a modified Ilyushin Il-76 airframe. The KJ-2000 development program started after the cancellation of the A-50I deal with Israel and Russia in July 2000, China then went on to develop a domestic AWACS and the first aircraft made its maiden flight in 2003. Four KJ-2000 aircraft have been identified so far, but production of new aircraft will likely be delayed, currently, the Russian defense exporter Rosoboronexport has imposed a significant price hike on all future IL-76s delivered to China and India despite previous contracts. Both countries are currently in negotiation with Russia regarding this matter as of early 2008, due to unreliable external supplier sources, China has developed a backup known as the KJ-200 by installing a simplified system on board the Shaanxi Y-8. This aircraft has a configuration to that of the KJ-2000 and is characterized by the triple tail-fin configuration. The current KJ-2000 AWACS in Chinese service is equipped with a domestic AESA, also known as phased array. The same Type H/LJG-346 SAPARS was also the predecessor of the phased array radar system equipping the PLAN Lanzhou class destroyers. The chief and deputy designers of KJ-2000 are Wang Xiaomo and Cao Chen, the chief designer of the radar system of KJ-2000 is Mr. Wu Manqing, who is also the chief designer of the radars of KJ-200. The chief designer of the radar radome of KJ-2000 is Mr. Bai Shucheng, Wang Xiaomo and Wu Manqing are academicians of Chinese Academy of Engineering. The Chinese AWACS has a phased array radar carried in a round radome, unlike the US AWACS aircraft, which rotate their rotodomes to give a 360 degree coverage, the radar antenna of the Chinese AWACS does not rotate. It operates in the range of 1200–1400 MHz. The antenna system consists of three phased arrays, located in disk with a diameter of 14 meter, each phased array has a field of view every 120 °. Maximum range of detection of air targets is 470 km, A-50I of India made by Israel adopted its design and entered service later than KJ-2000 in 2009. A new variant with a next generation radar was spotted. The PLAAFs first AWACS regiment was established at a small and remote airfield in southern China, for security reasons, the commander appointed to the regiment was Zhang Guangjian, a pilot with over 6,000 hours of flight time on various aircraft including the Il-76. The base was re-built and re-equipped for handling the KJ-2000, the first of which reached the base in 2005, a mixed fleet of KJ-2000 and the smaller KJ-200 has been operated at the base. During 2006 a war exercise was held in north west China, finally in 2013 a 24-hour coverage drill was held using three KJ-2000s that covered NW China, the East China Sea, and the South China Sea. Peoples Republic of China Peoples Liberation Army Air Force –5 were estimated in service as of 2008. com article – KJ-2000 AWACS
12.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
13.
Turbofan
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The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft propulsion. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine, a turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted fan, with both of those contributing to the thrust. The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. Most commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, afterburners are not used on high-bypass turbofan engines but may be used on either low-bypass turbofan or turbojet engines. Other noise sources are the fan, compressor and turbine, Jet noise is reduced with chevrons, sawtooth patterns on the exhaust nozzles, on the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx engines used on the Boeing 787. Turbofans are thus the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about 500 to 1,000 km/h, turbofans retain an efficiency edge over pure jets at low supersonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6. Modern turbofans have either a large single-stage fan or a fan with several stages. An early configuration combined a low-pressure turbine and fan in a single rear-mounted unit, early turbojet engines were not very fuel-efficient as their overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature were severely limited by the technology available at the time. In 1939-1941 Soviet designer Arkhip Lyulka elaborated the design for the worlds first turbofan engine, although several prototypes were built and ready for testing, Lyulka was in 1941 forced to abandon his research and evacuate to the Urals following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. So the first turbofan to run was apparently the German Daimler-Benz DB670 with a first run date of 27 May 1943, turbomachinery testing, using an electric motor, had started on 1 April 1943. The engine was abandoned later while the war went on and problems could not be solved, the British wartime Metrovick F.2 axial flow jet was given a fan, as the Metrovick F.3 in 1943, to create the first British turbofan. The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to improve efficiency by reducing the exhaust velocity to a value closer to that of the aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, had a ratio of 0.3. Civilian turbofan engines of the 1960s, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce Spey had bypass ratios closer to 1, the first General Electric turbofan was the aft-fan CJ805-23 based on the CJ805-3 turbojet. It was followed by the aft-fan General Electric CF700 engine with a 2.0 bypass ratio and this was derived from the General Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet to power the larger Rockwell Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Dassault Falcon 20 with about a 50% increase in thrust. The CF700 was the first small turbofan in the world to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration, there were at one time over 400 CF700 aircraft in operation around the world, with an experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700 turbofan engine was used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as the powerplant for the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle. A high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofan normally has a fan, developing a relatively high pressure ratio and, thus
14.
Strategic airlift
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An airlift is the organized delivery of military supplies or military personnel primarily via military transport aircraft. Airlifting consists of two types, strategic and tactical airlifting. Typically, strategic airlifting involves moving material long distances, whereas a tactical airlift focuses on deploying resources, depending on the situation, airlifted supplies can be delivered by a variety of means. When the destination and surrounding airspace is considered secure, the aircraft land at an appropriate airport or airbase to have its cargo unloaded on the ground. However, when the area is too small for this method, as with a base, and/or is too dangerous to land in. Serbian Air Force, made first transport of wounded soldiers from Serbia through Albania to Corfu and that was the first Medevac operation in air history. April 1923 aircraft of the RAFs Iraq Command flew 280 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first British air trooping operation, the worlds first long-range combat airlift took place in July 1936. Luftwaffe Ju 52 and Italian Air Force Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 were used by the Spanish Nationalists to transport troops from Spanish Morocco to Spain at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War. Airlifts became practical during World War II as aircraft became large and this joint effort is estimated to have saved more than a million lives in Biafra. Most airplanes departed from the Portuguese colony of Sao Tome and Principe to the landing strip of Uli, the only operational airport in Biafra. Flights were made flying at night all lights off and under near-total radio silence to avoid Nigerian MIG aircraft. All the airplanes, crews and logistics were paid, set up, JCA and their crews and aircraft kept flying into Biafra at the cost of many crews lives. Strategic airlift is the use of transport aircraft to transport materiel, weaponry. Typically, this involves airlifting the required items between two airbases which are not in the same vicinity and this allows commanders to bring items into a combat theater from a point on the other side of the planet, if necessary. Aircraft which perform this role are considered strategic airlifters and this contrasts with tactical airlifters, such as the C-130 Hercules and Transall C-160, which can normally only move supplies within a given theater of operations. This difficulty has prompted investment in lighter armoured fighting vehicles, as well as some research into alternative airlift technologies such as ground effect vehicles. Civilian aircraft are commonly used for transportation. For some civilian airlines, such as Miami Air International and Volga-Dnepr Airlines, tactical airlift is a military term for the airborne transportation of supplies and equipment within a theatre of operations
15.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
16.
Antonov An-12
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The Antonov An-12 is a four-engined turboprop transport aircraft designed in the Soviet Union. It is the version of the Antonov An-10 and has many variants. The first prototype An-12 flew in December 1957, over 900 had been built when Soviet production finally ended in 1973. The An-12BP entered Soviet military service in 1959, in terms of configuration, size, and capability, the aircraft is similar to the United States-built Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Soviet military and former-Soviet An-12s have a tail gun turret. In the 1960s, China purchased several An-12 aircraft from the Soviet Union, due to the Sino-Soviet split, the Soviet Union withdrew its technical assistance and the first flight of a Chinese-assembled An-12 was delayed until 1974. The Xian Aircraft Company and Xian Aircraft Design Institute worked to reverse-engineer the An-12 for local production, in 1981, the Chinese version of the An-12, designated Y-8, entered production. Since then, the Y-8 has become one of Chinas most popular military and civilian transport/cargo aircraft, a Tu-16/H-6 bomber navigator cockpit design was chosen for the Y-8 instead of the original An-12 shorter navigator cockpit design, as the H-6 bomber had been in serial production for some time. Although An-12 is no longer in production in Russia or in the Ukraine, the latest Y8-F600 is a joint venture between the Shaanxi Aircraft Company, Antonov Aeronautical Scientific Technical Complex, and Pratt & Whitney Canada. The Y8-F600 has a fuselage, western avionics, PW150B turboprop engines with an R-408 propeller system. It is unknown whether the Shaanxi Y-8 remains in production, yet many believe it will remain in production for the foreseeable future, currently the An-12 is very popular with cargo operators, especially those in the CIS, Africa and the Indian subcontinent. The ban was made permanent in Feb 2010, hounslow, UK, Airline Publications and Sales Ltd. List of all An-12 aircraft used by Polish Air Force Pictures of An-12 Hundreds of An-12 photos Y-8 Transporter Intro, AirForceWorld. com Russianplanes. net
17.
Aerial refueling
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The procedure allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer, extending its range or loiter time on station. A series of air refuelings can give range limited only by crew fatigue, alternatively, a shorter take-off roll can be achieved because take-off can be at a lighter weight before refueling once airborne. Aerial refueling has also considered as a means to reduce fuel consumption on long-distance flights greater than 3,000 nautical miles. Potential fuel savings in the range of 35-40% have been estimated for long haul flights, usually, the aircraft providing the fuel is specially designed for the task, although refueling pods can be fitted to existing aircraft designs if the probe-and-drogue system is to be used. There is no known regular civilian in-flight refueling activity, for instance, in the Gulf War and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the Iraq War, all coalition air sorties were air-refueled except for a few short-range ground attack sorties in the Kuwait area. The first mid-air refueling, based on the development of Alexander P. de Seversky, as the 1920s progressed, greater numbers of aviation enthusiasts vied to set new aerial long-distance records, using inflight air refueling. One such enthusiast, who would revolutionize aerial refueling was Sir Alan Cobham, member of the Royal Flying Corps in World War I, and a pioneer of long-distance aviation. During the 1920s, he made long-distance flights to places as far afield as Africa and Australia and this craft was eventually modified by Airspeed to Cobhams specification, for a non-stop flight from London to India, using in-flight refueling to extend the planes flight duration. Meanwhile, in 1929, a group of U. S. Army Air Corps fliers, led by then Major Carl Spaatz, set an endurance record of over 150 hours with the Question Mark over Los Angeles. Aerial refueling remained a dangerous process until 1935 when brothers Fred and Al Key demonstrated a spill-free refueling nozzle. They exceeded the Hunters record by nearly 100 hours in a Curtiss Robin monoplane, the US was mainly concerned about transatlantic flights for faster postal service between Europe and America. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the assistant postmaster, wrote an extensive article for Popular Mechanics concerning the challenges. In his article he even mentioned the use of Aerial refueling after take off as a possible solution, by 1931 they had demonstrated refueling between two Vickers Virginias, with fuel flow controlled by an automatic valve on the hose which would cut off if contact was lost. Royal Air Force officer Richard Atcherley had observed the dangerous aerial-refueling techniques in use at barnstorming events in the US and determined to create a workable system. In 1934, Cobham sold off the airline Cobham Air Routes Ltd to Olley Air Service, atcherlys system was bought up by Cobhams company, and with some refinement and continuous improvement through the late 30s, it became the first practical refueling system. Sir Alan Cobhams Grappled-line looped-hose air-to-air refueling system borrowed from techniques patented by David Nicolson and John Lord, and was publicly demonstrated for the first time in 1935. In the system the aircraft, at one time an Airspeed Courier, trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker. The line was drawn back into the tanker where the receivers cable was connected to the refueling hose
18.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
19.
Mile
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The mile is an English unit of length of linear measure equal to 5,280 feet, or 1,760 yards, and standardised as exactly 1,609.344 metres by international agreement in 1959. The Romans divided their mile into 5,000 feet but the importance of furlongs in pre-modern England meant that the statute mile was made equivalent to 8 furlongs or 5,280 feet in 1593. This form of the mile then spread to the British-colonized nations who continue to employ the mile, the US Geological Survey now employs the metre for official purposes but legacy data from its 1927 geodetic datum has meant that a separate US survey mile continues to see some use. Derived units such as miles per hour and miles per gallon, however, continue to be abbreviated as mph, mpg. The modern English word mile derives from Middle English myl and Old English mīl, the present international mile is usually what is understood by the unqualified term mile. When this distance needs to be distinguished from the nautical mile, in British English, the statute mile may refer to the present international miles or to any other form of English mile since the 1593 Act of Parliament which set it as a distance of 1,760 yards. Under American law, however, the statute mile refers to the US survey mile, the mile has been variously abbreviated—with and without a trailing period—as m, M, ml, and mi. The American National Institute of Standards and Technology now uses and recommends mi in order to avoid confusion with the SI metre and millilitre. Derived units such as miles per hour and miles per gallon, however, continue to be abbreviated in the United States, United Kingdom, the BBC style holds that There is no acceptable abbreviation for ‘miles’ and so it should be spelt out when used in describing areas. The Roman mile consisted of a thousand paces as measured by every other step—as in the distance of the left foot hitting the ground 1,000 times. The ancient Romans, marching their armies through uncharted territory, would push a carved stick in the ground after each 1000 paces. Well-fed and harshly driven Roman legionaries in good weather thus created longer miles, the distance was indirectly standardised by Agrippas establishment of a standard Roman foot in 29 BC, and the definition of a pace as 5 feet. An Imperial Roman mile thus denoted 5,000 Roman feet, surveyors and specialized equipment such as the decempeda and dioptra then spread its use. In modern times, Agrippas Imperial Roman mile was empirically estimated to have been about 1,481 metres in length, in Hellenic areas of the Empire, the Roman mile was used beside the native Greek units as equivalent to 8 stadia of 600 Greek feet. The mílion continued to be used as a Byzantine unit and was used as the name of the zero mile marker for the Byzantine Empire. The Roman mile also spread throughout Europe, with its local variations giving rise to the different units below, also arising from the Roman mile is the milestone. All roads radiated out from the Roman Forum throughout the Empire –50,000 miles of stone-paved roads, at every mile was placed a shaped stone, on which was carved a Roman numeral, indicating the number of miles from the center of Rome – the Forum. Hence, one knew how far one was from Rome
20.
Tashkent
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Tashkent is the capital and largest city of Uzbekistan. The officially registered population of the city in 2012 was about 2,309,300, due to its position in Central Asia, Tashkent came under Sogdian and Turkic influence early in its history, before Islam in the 8th century AD. After its destruction by Genghis Khan in 1219, the city was rebuilt, in 1865 it was conquered by the Russian Empire, and in Soviet times witnessed major growth and demographic changes due to forced deportations from throughout the Soviet Union. Today, as the capital of an independent Uzbekistan, Tashkent retains a multi-ethnic population with ethnic Uzbeks as the majority, during its long history, Tashkent has had various changes in names and political and religious affiliations. Tashkent was settled by ancient people as an oasis on the Chirchik River, in ancient times, this area contained Beitian, probably the summer capital of the Kangju confederacy. In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, the town and the province were known as Chach, the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi also refers to the city as Chach. Later the town came to be known as Chachkand/Chashkand, meaning Chach City, the principality of Chach had a square citadel built around the 5th to 3rd centuries BC, some 8 kilometres south of the Syr Darya River. By the 7th century AD, Chach had more than 30 towns, the Buddhist monk Xuánzàng 玄奘, who travelled from China to India through Central Asia, mentioned the name of the city as Zhěshí 赭時. The Chinese chronicles Suí shū 隋書, Běi shǐ 北史 and Táng shū 唐書, in the early 8th century, the region was conquered by Muslim Arabs. The modern Turkic name of Tashkent comes from Kara-Khanid rule in the 10th century, after the 16th century, the name evolved from Chachkand/Chashkand to Tashkand. The modern spelling of Tashkent reflects Russian orthography and 20th-century Soviet influence, the city was destroyed by Genghis Khan in 1219 and lost much of its population as a result of the Mongols destruction of the Khwarezmid Empire in 1220. Under the Timurid and subsequent Shaybanid dynasties the citys population and culture gradually revived as a prominent strategic center of scholarship, commerce, in 1809, Tashkent was annexed to the Khanate of Kokand. At the time, Tashkent had a population of around 100,000 and was considered the richest city in Central Asia and it prospered greatly through trade with Russia, but chafed under Kokand’s high taxes. The Tashkent clergy also favored the clergy of Bukhara over that of Kokand, however, before the Emir of Bukhara could capitalize on this discontent, the Russian army arrived. While a small contingent staged an attack, the main force penetrated the walls. Although defense was stiff, the Russians captured the city two days of heavy fighting and the loss of only 25 dead as opposed to several thousand of the defenders. Chernyayev, dubbed the Lion of Tashkent by city elders, staged a campaign to win the population over. The Tsar liberally rewarded Chernyayev and his men with medals and bonuses, but regarded the general as a loose cannon
21.
Uzbekistan
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Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan, is one of only two doubly landlocked countries in the world. Located in Central Asia, it is a unitary, constitutional, presidential republic, comprising twelve provinces, one autonomous republic and a capital city. Uzbekistan is bordered by five landlocked countries, Kazakhstan to the north, Tajikistan to the southeast, Kyrgyzstan to the northeast, Afghanistan to the south, and Turkmenistan to the southwest. Once part of the Turkic Khaganate and later Timurid Empires, the region that includes the Republic of Uzbekistan was conquered in the early 16th century by Eastern Turkic-speaking nomads. Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, it declared independence as the Republic of Uzbekistan on 31 August 1991, Uzbekistan is officially a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutional republic with a diverse cultural heritage. The countrys official language is Uzbek, a Turkic language written in the Latin alphabet and spoken natively by approximately 85% of the population, however, Uzbeks constitute 81% of the population, followed by Russians, Tajiks, Kazakhs, and others. A majority of Uzbeks are non-denominational Muslims, Uzbekistan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, UN, and the SCO. While officially a republic, non-governmental human rights organizations define Uzbekistan as an authoritarian state with limited civil rights. Uzbekistans economy relies mainly on commodity production, including cotton, gold, uranium, despite the declared objective of transition to a market economy, its government continues to maintain economic controls which imports in favour of domestic import substitution. Uzbekistan has an area of 447,400 square kilometres and it is the 56th largest country in the world by area and the 42nd by population. Among the CIS countries, it is the 4th largest by area, Uzbekistan lies between latitudes 37° and 46° N, and longitudes 56° and 74° E. It stretches 1,425 kilometres from west to east and 930 kilometres from north to south, Uzbekistan also shares a short border with Afghanistan to the south. Uzbekistan is a dry, landlocked country and it is one of two doubly landlocked countries in the world, the other being Liechtenstein. In addition, due to its location within a series of endorheic basins, less than 10% of its territory is intensively cultivated irrigated land in river valleys and oases. The rest is vast desert and mountains, the climate in the Republic of Uzbekistan is continental, with little precipitation expected annually. The average summer high temperature tends to be 40 °C, while the winter low temperature is around −23 °C. Uzbekistan has a rich and diverse natural environment, the Aral Sea used to be the fourth-largest inland sea on Earth, acting as an influencing factor in the air moisture and arid land use. Since the 1960s, the decade when the misuse of the Aral Sea water began, it has shrunk to less than 50% of its former area, reliable, or even approximate data, have not been collected, stored or provided by any organization or official agency
22.
Soloviev D-30
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The Soloviev D-30 is a Soviet two-shaft low-bypass turbofan engine, officially referred to as a bypass turbojet. In the mid-1970s, the Soviet Union began the search for an interceptor to supplement. More acute problems stemmed from the tendency of the Foxbats engines to break down at maximum throttle in high-speed situations, a new engine, this time a low-bypass turbofan, was needed to power the new interceptor. The Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau contracted OKB-19 design bureau to build such an engine, aviadvigatel came up with the D30-F6 turbofan. Capable of generating 9,500 kgf dry thrust and 15,500 kgf afterburning thrust, the engine gave MiGs new fighter a top speed exceeding 3,000 km/h, and a maximum takeoff weight of 45,800 kg. These powerful engines allowed the large and complex fighter to attain supersonic speeds at low altitudes under 1,500 m. The D-30 is used on a variety of Russian, Chinese, the massive Aviadvigatels have only been used in two fighter aircraft designs, the MiG-31 Foxhound, and the experimental Sukhoi Su-47 Berkut. Data from Type, Twin-spool non-afterburning turbofan Length,4.836 m Diameter,1.790 kg/kN/h Thrust-to-weight ratio,3
23.
Aviadvigatel PS-90
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The Aviadvigatel PS-90 is a Russian high-bypass commercial turbofan rated at 16000 kgf thrust. It powers Russian airliners such as the Ilyushin Il-96 and the Tupolev Tu-204/Tu-214 series and it is made by the Russian aircraft engine company Aviadvigatel, which is the successor of the Soviet Soloviev Design Bureau. PS are the initials of Pavel Aleksandrovich Soloviev, with the advent of new generation of Russian airliners, Aviadvigatel developed the PS-90 to satisfy the demands of economy, performance and exhaust emissions. It represented an advance over previous generations of 1960s era Soviet engines. The PS-90 is almost double the efficiency of engines and is reasonably competitive to western engines of the 1980s such as the Pratt & Whitney PW2000. There are several variants, the basic PS-90A, the PS-90A-76, the latter include the PS-90A1, PS-90A2, PS-90A-42 and the PS-90A3 engines. The PS-90A engine is the variant and is standard equipment for Ilyushin Il-96-300, Tupolev-204-100. For the first time it allowed Russian airliners to achieve similar performance, PS-90A is rated nominally at 16000 kgf thrust,13. 3% less than the original Rolls-Royce RB211-535E4 engine, and the fuel consumption is 8. 2% less than it. This variant is a modification of the basic PS-90A engine and it is rated nominally up to 16,000 kgf thrust. By replacing the D-30KP on the older Il-76, the life of the aircraft can be extended. Fuel efficiency, and performance will be improved and noise pollution reduced to the comply with the new strict requirements. With the large fleet of civil and military Il-76 aircraft still in operation, a potentially large market exists for engine replacement. An example of such a version is the Il-76MD-90. The PS-90A-76 is the standard on the built, modernized versions of the Il-76, such as the Il-76MD-90A. This variant is also a modification of the basic PS-90A engine and it was certified in 2007 and is offered as an option on the IL-96-400T aircraft. The PS-90A2 is a derivative of the PS-90A, developed in co-operation with Pratt & Whitney. It has a proportion of western components from France, Germany, Sweden. It is also lighter than PS-90A and features improved FADEC and these features improve the performance and reduce maintenance costs by 40%
24.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
25.
Rosoboronexport
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JSC Rosoboronexport is the sole state intermediary agency for Russias exports/imports of defense-related and dual use products, technologies and services. In 2007, the enterprise was re-registered as Rosoboronexport Open joint-stock company, in 2011, Rostekhnologii non-profit state corporation acquired 100% of Rosoboronexport OJSC. The official status of Rosoboronexport guarantees the support of the Russian Government in all export operations, the Rosoboronexport State Corporation is exclusively entitled to supply the international market the whole range of Russian armaments officially allowed for export. Rosoboronexport is ranked among the operators in the international arms market. The status of an intermediary agency provides the corporation with unique opportunities in expanding and strengthening long-term mutually beneficial cooperation with foreign partners. Rosoboronexport presently cooperates with Selex ES of Italy, Navantia of Spain, Thales Optronics of France, with the scope of military industrial complex expanding, a number of new specialized export agencies were set up. By the late 1990s, there were two state intermediary companies in the country, the Rosvooruzhenie and Promexport, on August 4,2006, the Bush administration imposed sanctions on Rosoboronexport accusing it of supplying Iran in violation of the United States Iran Nonproliferation Act of 2000. The Russian defense ministry said the move reflected U. S. annoyance at arms sales to Venezuela, on January 19,2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a decree making Rosoboronexport responsible for all arms exports. It was reported that Rosoboronexport was to be folded into a holding company called Rostec by the end of the year 2007. Russia holds that the sold to Syria are purely defensive in nature, cannot be used against civilians. The refurbishment of Russian-made helicopters, and the delivery of S-300 anti-aircraft missiles caused great international attention, the US, Germany and Israel were all opposed to weapons transfers to Syria. In July 2013, Rosoboronexport recorded $34 billion in orders for 66 countries, in 2017, Angolas first satellite Angosat 1 will be launched. Rosoboronexport served as the leader of the project team, the contract which began in 2009 was worth an estimated US$328 million. The founding director of Rosvooruzhenie, appointed in 1993, was Viktor I and he was followed by Aleksandr Kotelkin. Sergey Chemezov was the Director General of Rosoboronexport during 2004–2007, Anatoly Isaikin came after, stone, Rosvooruzhenie and Russias Return to the Global Arms Market, in Perspectives on Political and Economic Transformations after Communism, pp. 77–90
26.
Waterbomber
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Aerial firefighting is the use of aircraft and other aerial resources to combat wildfires. The types of aircraft used include fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, smokejumpers and rappellers are also classified as aerial firefighters, delivered to the fire by parachute from a variety of fixed-wing aircraft, or rappelling from helicopters. Chemicals used to fight fires may include water, water enhancers such as foams and gels, a wide variety of terminology has been used in the popular media for the aircraft used in aerial firefighting. The terms airtanker or air tanker generally refer to fixed-wing aircraft based in the United States, the term waterbomber is used in some Canadian government documents for the same class of vehicles, though it sometimes has a connotation of amphibians. Air attack is a term used for the actual application of aerial resources. The Air Tactical Group Supervisor, often called air attack, is flying at an altitude above other resources assigned to the fire, often in a fixed-wing plane. A wide variety of helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft are used for aerial firefighting, helicopters may be fitted with tanks or they may carry buckets. Some helitankers, such as the Erickson AirCrane, are outfitted with a front-mounted foam cannon. Buckets are usually filled by submerging or dipping them in lakes, rivers, reservoirs, the most popular of the buckets is the flexible Bambi Bucket. Tanks can be filled on the ground or water can be siphoned from lakes, rivers, reservoirs, currently the worlds largest helicopter, the Mil Mi-26, uses a Bambi bucket. Various aircraft have used over the years for firefighting. In 1947, the United States Air Force and United States Forest Service experimented with World War II aircraft dropping water-filled bombs, the bombs were unsuccessful, and internal water tanks were used instead. Though World War II and Korean War-era bombers were for a time the mainstay of the aerial firefighting fleet. The smallest are the Single Engine Air Tankers and these are agricultural sprayers that generally drop about 800 US gallons of water or retardant. Both SEATs types are operated by Air Spray USA Ltd, another is the Soviet Antonov An-2 biplane which can be fitted with floats that can scoop water from the surface of a body of water. An advantage of the biplane is that it has a stall speed than a monoplane meaning it a can fly more slowly over a fire which enhances the accuracy of water or retardant drops. Conair also converted a number of Convair 580 and Fokker F27 Friendship turboprops to air tankers, the largest aerial firefighter ever used is a Boeing 747 aerial firefighter, known as the Global Supertanker that can carry 19,600 US gallons fed by a pressurized drop system. The Supertanker entered service for the first time in 2009, fighting a fire in Cuenca, the tanker made its first American operation on August 31,2009 at the Oak Glen Fire
27.
Beriev
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The Beriev Aircraft Company, formerly Beriev Design Bureau, is a Russian aircraft manufacturer, specializing in amphibious aircraft. Today the company employs some 3000 specialists and is developing and manufacturing amphibious aircraft, pilots flying Beriev seaplanes have broken 228 world aviation records. The records are registered and acknowledged by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, in November 1989 Beriev became the only defense industry enterprise to win the Prize for Quality awarded by the Government of Russia. Beriev A-42 Albatros, a version of A-40, recently adopted into service in a SAR and antisubmarine roles. Beriev A-42PE Albatros, a unique Search and Rescue SAR airplane, powered by propfan engines
28.
Airborne early warning and control
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AEW&C units are also used to carry out surveillance, including over ground targets and frequently perform C2BM functions similar to an Air Traffic Controller given military command over other forces. Like a ground based radar, it can be detected by opposing forces, the system is used offensively to direct fighters to their target locations, and defensively, directing counterattacks on enemy forces, both air and ground. The designation airborne early warning was used for earlier similar aircraft, AWACS is the name of the specific system installed in the E-3 and Japanese Boeing E-767 AEW&C airframes, but is often used as a general synonym for AEW&C. Modern AEW&C systems can detect aircraft from up to 400 km away, one AEW&C aircraft flying at 9,000 m can cover an area of 312,000 km2. Three such aircraft in overlapping orbits can cover the whole of Central Europe, the intention was to cover the North West approaches where German long range Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor aircraft were threatening shipping. A Vickers Wellington bomber was fitted with an antenna array. It was tested for use against aerial targets and then for possible use against German E boats, another radar equipped Wellington with a different installation was used to direct Bristol Beaufighters toward Heinkel He 111s, which were air-launching V-1 flying bombs. In February 1944 the U. S. Navy ordered the development of a system that could be carried aloft in an aircraft under Project Cadillac. A prototype system was built and flown in August on a modified TBM Avenger torpedo bomber, tests proved successful, with the system being able to detect low flying formations at a range in excess of 100 miles. The U. S. Navy then ordered production of the TBM-3W, tBM-3Ws fitted with the AN/APS-20 radar entered service in March 1945, with some 36–40 eventually being constructed. The Lockheed WV and EC-121 Warning Star, which first flew in 1949 served widely with both the US Air Force and US Navy and provided the main AEW coverage for US forces during the Vietnam war. It was to remain operational until replaced with the E-3 AWACS, in 1958, the Soviet Tupolev Design Bureau was also ordered to design an AEW aircraft. After determining that the projected radar instrumentation wouldnt fit in a Tupolev Tu-95 or a Tupolev Tu-116 and this solved the problems with cooling and operator space that existed with the narrower Tu-95 and Tu-116 fuselage. To meet the range requirements, production examples were fitted with an air-to-air refueling probe. The resulting system, the Tupolev Tu-126, entered service in 1965 with the Soviet Air Forces, many countries have developed their own AEW&C systems, although the Boeing E-3 Sentry and Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye are the most common systems worldwide. The E-3 Sentry was built by the Boeing Defense and Space Group and was based on the Boeing 707-320 aircraft,65 E-3 were built and it is operated by the United States Air Force, NATO, the British Royal Air Force, France and controversially, Saudi Arabia. The specially designed Grumman E-2 Hawkeye entered service in 1965 and has operated by eight different nations. Over 168 have been produced so far and new versions continue to be developed making it the most widely used AEW system, for the Japan Air Self-Defense Force, the E-3 technology has been fitted into the Boeing E-767
29.
Antarctic
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The Antarctic is a polar region, specifically the region around the Earths South Pole, opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises in the sense the continent of Antarctica. The region covers some 20% of the Southern Hemisphere, of which 5. 5% is the area of the Antarctic continent itself. All of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude are administrated under the Antarctic Treaty System, in a biogeographic sense, the Antarctic ecozone is one of eight ecozones of the Earths land surface. Most of the Antarctic region is situated south of 60°S latitude parallel, there are only two species of flowering plant, Antarctic hair grass and Antarctic pearlwort, but a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and macrofungi. The first Antarctic land discovered was the island of South Georgia, the first human born in the Antarctic was Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen born on 8 October 1913 in Grytviken, South Georgia. However, the region is visited by more than 40,000 tourists annually, the definitive results of the conference was presented at the Antarctic Treaty states meeting in Uruguay in May 2010. The Antarctic hosts the worlds largest protected area comprising 1.07 million km2, the South Georgia, because Antarctica surrounds the South Pole, it is theoretically located in all time zones. For practical purposes, time zones are based on territorial claims or the time zone of a stations owner country or supply base. Antarctic Circle History of Antarctica Krupnik, Igor, Michael A. Lang, smithsonian at the Poles, Contributions to International Polar Year Science
30.
Reduced-gravity aircraft
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A reduced-gravity aircraft is a type of fixed-wing aircraft that provides brief near-weightless environments for training astronauts, conducting research and making gravity-free movie shots. Versions of such airplanes, officially nicknamed Weightless Wonders, were operated by the NASA Reduced Gravity Research Program, the unofficial nickname vomit comet became popular among those who experienced their operation. Parabolic flights as a way of simulating weightlessness was first proposed by the German aerospace engineer Fritz Haber, both had been brought to the US after World War II as part of Operation Paperclip. Parabolic flights are used to examine the effects of weightlessness on a living organism. The aircraft gives its occupants the sensation of weightlessness by following a flight path relative to the center of the Earth. While following this path, the aircraft and its payload are in free fall at certain points of its flight path, the aircraft is used in this way to demonstrate to astronauts what it is like to orbit the Earth. During this time the aircraft does not exert any ground reaction force on its contents, initially, the aircraft climbs with a pitch angle of 45 degrees using engine thrust and elevator controls. Weightlessness begins while ascending and lasts all the way up-and-over the hump, at this point, the craft is pointing downward at high speed and must begin to pull back into the nose-up attitude to repeat the maneuver. The forces are roughly twice that of gravity on the way down, at the bottom. This lasts all the way until the aircraft is again halfway up its upward trajectory, and this aircraft is used to train astronauts in zero-g maneuvers, giving them about 25 seconds of weightlessness out of 65 seconds of flight in each parabola. During such training, the airplane typically flies about 40–60 parabolic maneuvers, in about two thirds of the passengers, these flights produce nausea due to airsickness, giving the plane its nickname vomit comet. The Canadian Space Agency and the National Research Council have a Falcon 20 used for microgravity research, the small plane is normally not used for people to float freely and experience weightlessness, however comedian Rick Mercer did so for a segment on his show. The first zero G plane to enter service in Latin America is a T-39 Sabreliner nicknamed CONDOR, operated for the Ecuadorian Civilian Space Agency and the Ecuadorian Air Force since May,2008. On June 19,2008, this carried a 7-year-old boy as he set the Guinness world record for the youngest human being to fly in microgravity. Since 1984 the ESA and the CNES have flown reduced-gravity missions in a variety of aircraft, including NASAs KC-135, a Caravelle, an Ilyushin IL-76 MDK, in 2014 the A300 was phased out in favor of a more modern Airbus A310, also named Zero-G. It is based at Bordeaux-Mérignac airport in France and has also flown from Dübendorf Air Base in Switzerland. Since 1997 CNES subsidiary Novespace has handled the management of these flights, in Russia, commercial flights are offered on the Ilyushin Il-76 jet, several U. S. companies book flights on these jets. OK Go, an American alternative rock band, made a video for their song Upside Down & Inside Out while moving about in microgravity
31.
Cosmonauts
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This is a list of cosmonauts who have taken part in the missions of the Soviet space program and the Russian Federal Space Agency, including ethnic Russians and people of other ethnicities. Soviet and Russian cosmonauts born outside Russia are marked with an asterisk, — Soyuz 11 Lev Dyomin — Soyuz 15 Vladimir Dzhanibekov* — Soyuz 27/26, Soyuz 39, Soyuz T-12, Soyuz T-13 Konstantin Feoktistov — Voskhod 1 Valentin Filatyev — Expelled from Vostok program, no flights. Anatoly Filipchenko — Soyuz 7, Soyuz 16 Yuri Gagarin, First person in space, — Voskhod 1, Soyuz 1 Yelena V. — Soyuz 7, Soyuz 11 Boris Volynov — Soyuz 5, Soyuz 21 Sergei Vozovikov — No flights. Boris Yegorov — Voskhod 1 Aleksei Yeliseyev — Soyuz 5/4, Soyuz 8, Soyuz 10 Fyodor Yurchikhin* — STS-112, Soyuz TMA-10, Soyuz TMA-19, all of them flew as a result of the Intercosmos program. These space travelers have usually been referred to as cosmonauts, since 2001, the Soyuz has been used to transport ESA, JAXA, and NASA astronauts to the International Space Station. Acaba — Soyuz TMA-04M Anousheh Ansari* — Soyuz TMA-9/8 Michael R. Barratt — Soyuz TMA-14 Ken Bowersox — Soyuz TMA-1 Daniel C, No cosmonaut who was born in independent Russia has yet flown. Many cosmonauts, however, were born in Soviet territories outside the boundaries of Russia, all claimed Soviet or Russian citizenship at the time of their space flights. Musa Manarov, born in Baku, Azerbaijan Pyotr Klimuk, born in Komarovka, Vladimir Kovalyonok, born in Beloye, Belarus Oleg Novitski, born in Chervyen, Belarus Fyodor Yurchikhin, born in Batumi, Georgia Toktar Aubakirov, born in Karaganda, Kazakhstan. Yuri Lonchakov, born in Balkhash, Kazakhstan Talgat Musabayev, born in Kargaly, viktor Patsayev, born in Aktyubinsk, Kazakhstan Vladimir Shatalov, born in Petropavlovsk, Kazakhstan
32.
NPO Almaz
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JSC GSKB Almaz-Antey named after A. A. Raspletin is a Soviet/Russian military R&D enterprise founded in 1947 and it is the core of the Almaz-Antey holding. Headquarters – Moscow, Leningradsky av.80, since 1955 KB-1 developed such air defence missile systems S-25, S-75, S-125, S-200, S-300, S-400 Triumf, S-300PMU and S-300PMU2, and recently S-350E Vityaz missile system. GSKB strengthen its position as the developer of Almaz-Antey holdings. NIIRP scientific & research center is developing the Joint system of air, earlier, NIIRP successfully developed the A-135 BMD system together with Amur-P multi-channel firing system which were put into operation to protect Moscow on 17 February 1995. Its predecessor also designed by NIIRP, the A-35 and A-35M BMD systems, in February 2011, it was announced that the first S-500 missile systems should be in serial production by 2014. There will be also a version of the system called S-1000. org
33.
Boeing YAL-1
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The Boeing YAL-1 Airborne Laser Testbed weapons system was a megawatt-class chemical oxygen iodine laser mounted inside a modified Boeing 747-400F. It is primarily designed as a defense system to destroy tactical ballistic missiles while in boost phase. The aircraft was designated YAL-1A in 2004 by the U. S. Department of Defense, the YAL-1 with a low-power laser was test-fired in flight at an airborne target in 2007. A high-energy laser was used to intercept a test target in January 2010, funding for the program was cut in 2010 and the program was canceled in December 2011. It made its flight on February 14,2012 to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona to be kept in storage at the Boneyard by the 309th Aerospace Maintenance. It was ultimately scrapped in September 2014 after all parts were removed. The Airborne Laser Laboratory was a prototype installed in a Boeing NKC-135A. It shot down missiles in tests conducted in the 1980s. The Airborne Laser program was initiated by the US Air Force in 1996 with the awarding of a product definition risk reduction contract to Boeings ABL team, in 2001, the program was transferred to the MDA and converted to an acquisition program. The development of the system was being accomplished by a team of contractors, Boeing Defense, Space & Security provides the aircraft, the management team and the systems integration processes. Northrop Grumman was supplying the COIL, and Lockheed Martin was supplying the nose turret and these tests fully qualified the system so that it could be integrated into the actual aircraft. Following the completion of the tests, the laboratory was dismantled, Boeing completed initial modifications to a new 747-400F off the production line in 2002, culminating in its first flight on July 18,2002 from Boeings Wichita, Kansas facility. Ground testing of the COIL resulted in its firing in 2004. The YAL-1 was assigned to the 417th Flight Test Squadron Airborne Laser Combined Test Force at Edwards AFB, besides the COIL, the system also includes two kilowatt-class Target Illuminator Lasers for target tracking. On March 15,2007, the YAL-1 successfully fired this laser in flight, the target was an NC-135E Big Crow test aircraft that has been specially modified with a signboard target on its fuselage. The test validated the ability to track an airborne target and measure. The next phase in the test program involved the surrogate high-energy laser, a stand-in for the COIL, the COIL system was installed in the aircraft and undergoing ground testing by July 2008. The ABL program has significant affordability and technology problems and the proposed operational role is highly questionable
34.
Beriev A-60
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The Beriev A-60 is a Soviet/Russian airborne laser laboratory aircraft based on the Ilyushin Il-76MD transport. In the 1970s a special aviation complex was established by the Soviets at Taganrog machine-building factory to develop laser technology for the Soviet military. In 1977 Beriev OKB started the design of a flying laboratory designated 1А, work on this topic occurred with wide cooperation between the enterprises and the scientific organizations of the USSR, but the basic partner OKB was TSKB Almaz headed by B. V. Bunkin. The Il-76MD was selected as the aircraft for the flying laboratory. To accommodate the many changes were made to the basic IL-76 design. In front, instead of the nosecone, it was fitted with a steerable beam director turret for targeting lidar. A large retractable dorsal turret was installed for main laser firing, two large nacelles were installed along the lower edge of the fuselage. One housed the turbo generators used to power the laser, and another replaced the chin cabin, the rear cargo doors were removed, although the ramp was retained, as it was a structural element. The tail gunner position was removed, the problem of accommodating the laser gun was therefore solved and it did not spoil the aerodynamics of the base aircraft. The laser system was 1 MW, created by one of the branches of the Institute of Atomic Energy and this carbon dioxide laser was developed for installation on the IL-76. The 1A flying laboratory first flew on 19 August 1981 under E. A, on 29 August 1991, the crew led by test pilot V. P. Demyanovski flew the second flying laboratory which received the name 1А2 СССР-86879, a new variant of a laser system was installed as a result of tests on 1А. It is now parked at Taganrog airport, 47°1153. 92N 38°5146. 05E Russia is developing a military airborne laser mounted in a A-60, designated 1LK222 Sokol Eshelon. The second A-60 laboratory can be seen at this reference, Soviet Union Soviet Air Force Russia Russian Air Force Related development, Ilyushin Il-76 Sokol Eshelon Comparable aircraft, Boeing NC-135 Boeing YAL-1 A-60 description in Russian. A-60 - laser sword of USSR, or 30 years before laser Boeing in Russian A-60 in Russian http, //russianplanes. net/EN/ID43995 Beriev A-60
35.
Ulyanovsk
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Ulyanovsk is a city and the administrative center of Ulyanovsk Oblast, Russia, located on the Volga River 893 kilometers east of Moscow. The city, founded as Simbirsk, is the birthplace of Alexander Kerensky and Vladimir Lenin and it is also famous for its writers such as Ivan Goncharov, Nikolay Yazykov and Nikolay Karamzin and painters. Simbirsk was founded in 1648 by the boyar Bogdan Khitrovo, the fort of Simbirsk was strategically placed on a hill on the Western bank of the Volga River. The fort was meant to protect the frontier of the Russian Empire from the nomadic tribes. In 1668, Simbirsk withstood a siege by a 20. Also in Simbirsk another country rebel, Yemelyan Pugachev, was imprisoned before execution, at the time Simbirsk possessed a wooden kremlin, which was destroyed by a fire during the 18th century. As the eastern border of the Russian Empire was rapidly pushed into Siberia, Simbirsk rapidly lost its strategic importance, Simbirsk was granted city status in 1796. In the summer of 1864, Simbirsk was severely damaged by fire, however, it was quickly rebuilt, the Holy Trinity Cathedral was constructed in a restrained Neoclassical style between 1827–1841. The population of Simbirsk reached 26,000 by 1856 and 43,000 by 1897, in 1924, the city was renamed Ulyanovsk in honor of Vladimir Ulyanov, better known as Lenin, who was born in Simbirsk in 1870. Two other Russian political leaders, Alexander Kerensky and Alexander Protopopov, were born in Simbirsk. During the Soviet period, Ulyanovsk was an important tourist center, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the tourist importance of Ulyanovsk sharply decreased. In the 1990s, the city went through the hardest times—a slump in production in all branches, mass unemployment, and a population impoverishment. Besides the policy of the authorities of that time leaning against the grants. In the first decade of the 2000s the economy started to grow, Ulyanovsk slowly recovered from these downturns into regional manufacturing, educational and transportation clusters. The city is headed by a mayor who is the executive branch, the term of the mayor is five years. In 2010 the city abolished the direct elections to the mayor, replacing it with city manager. Then again, in April 2013 the city charter was amended to re-introduce the direct mayoral election, Ulyanovsk serves as the administrative center of the oblast. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Ulyanovsk is incorporated as Ulyanovsk Urban Okrug, in 2008, there were registered 6,774 births and 8,054 deaths in Ulyanovsk
36.
Aeroflot
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OJSC Aeroflot – Russian Airlines, commonly known as Aeroflot, is the flag carrier and largest airline of the Russian Federation. The carrier operates domestic and international passenger and services, mainly from its hub at Sheremetyevo International Airport, Aeroflot is one of the oldest airlines in the world, tracing its history back to 1923. During the Soviet era, Aeroflot was the Soviet national airline, following the dissolution of the USSR, the carrier has been transformed from a state-run enterprise into a semi-privatised company which ranked 19th most profitable airline in the world in 2007. Aeroflot is still considered the de facto national airline of Russia and it is 51%-owned by the Russian Government. As of September 2013, the Aeroflot Group had 30,328 employees, the company has embarked on a fleet modernisation programme, extensive route restructuring, and an image overhaul. The airline joined SkyTeam in April 2006, becoming the 10th member of the alliance, on 17 January 1921, the Sovnarkom of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic published About Air Transportation. The document signed by Lenin set out the regulations on air transport over the territory of the RSFSR. The document was significant as it was the first time that a Russian state had declared sovereignty over its airspace, in addition, the document defined rules for the operation of foreign aircraft over the Soviet Unions airspace and territory. After Lenin issued an order, a State Commission was formed on 31 January 1921 for the purpose of civil aviation planning in the Soviet Union. This was followed by the formation of Deruluft-Deutsch Russische Luftverkehrs A. G. in Berlin on 11 November 1921, as a joint venture between the Soviet Union and Germany. The company, whose aircraft were registered in both Germany and the Soviet Union, began operations on 1 May 1922 with a Fokker F. III flying between Königsberg and Moscow, the service was initially operated twice a week and restricted to the carriage of mail. On 3 February 1923 Sovnarkom approved plans for the expansion of the Red Air Fleet, the artist Alexander Rodchenko became involved in the ODVF at this time. He designed posters encouraging citizens to buy stock in Dobrolet and the famous Winged Hammer, regular flights by Dobrolet from Moscow to Nizhniy Novgorod commenced on 15 July 1923. During the same period, an additional two airlines were established, Zakavia being based in Tiflis, and Ukrvozdukhput based in Kharkov, during 1923 an agreement was signed establishing a subdivision of Dobrolet to be based in Tashkent, which would operate to points in Soviet Central Asia. Services between Tashkent and Alma Ata began on 27 April 1924, and by the end of 1924 the subdivision had carried 480 passengers and 500 kilograms of mail and freight, in March 1924, Dobrolet began operating flights from Sevastopol to Yalta and Yevpatoriya in the Crimea. Dobrolets route network was extended during the 1925–1927 period to include Kazan, plans were made for Dobrolet flights to Kharkov to connect with Ukrvozdukhput services to Kiev, Odessa and Rostov-on-Don. Expansion of air routes which had taken shape in the late 1920s, the agreement between the Soviet Union and Germany relating to Deruluft expired on 1 January 1937 and wasnt renewed, which saw the joint venture carrier ceasing operations on 1 April 1937. On that date Aeroflot began operations on the Moscow to Stockholm route, under the third Five-Year Plan, which began in 1938, civil aviation development continued, with improvements to airport installations being made and construction of airports being commenced
37.
FIM-92 Stinger
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The FIM-92 Stinger is a Man-Portable Air-Defense System that operates as an infrared homing surface-to-air missile. It can be adapted to fire from a variety of ground vehicles. Developed in the United States this weapon entered service in 1981 and is used by the militaries of the United States. It is principally manufactured by Raytheon Missile Systems and is produced under license by EADS in Germany, light to carry and easy to operate, the FIM-92 Stinger is a passive surface-to-air missile, that can be shoulder-fired by a single operator. The FIM-92B missile can also be fired from the M-1097 Avenger, the missile is also capable of being deployed from a Humvee Stinger rack, and can be used by airborne troops. A helicopter launched version exists called Air-to-Air Stinger, the missile is 5.0 ft long and 2.8 in in diameter with 10 cm fins. The missile itself weighs 22 lb, while the missile with launcher weighs approximately 34 lb.54, the warhead is a 3 kg penetrating hit-to-kill warhead type with an impact fuze and a self-destruct timer. To fire the missile, a BCU is inserted into the handguard and this shoots a stream of argon gas into the system, as well as a chemical energy charge that enables the acquisition indicators and missile to get power. The batteries are sensitive to abuse, with a limited amount of gas. Over time, and without maintenance, they can become unserviceable. The IFF system receives power from a rechargeable battery, guidance to the target is initially through proportional navigation, then switches to another mode that directs the missile towards the target airframe instead of its exhaust plume. There are three variants in use, the Stinger basic, STINGER-Passive Optical Seeker Technique, and STINGER-Reprogrammable Microprocessor. These correspond to the FIM-92A, FIM-92B, and FIM-92C and later variants respectively, the POST has a dual-detector seeker, IR and UV. This allows it to distinguish targets from countermeasures much better than the Redeye and FIM-92A, the Stinger-RMP is so-called because of its ability to load a new set of software via ROM chip inserted in the grip at the depot. If this download to the missile fails during power-up, basic functionality runs off the on-board ROM, the four-processor RMP has 4 KB of RAM for each processor. Since the downloaded code runs from RAM, there is space to spare, particularly for processors dedicated to seeker input processing. Initial work on the missile was begun by General Dynamics in 1967 as the FM-43 Redeye II, production of the Redeye II ran from 1969 to 1982 where some 85,000 were in circulation. It was accepted for development by the U. S. Army in 1971 and designated FIM-92
38.
9K34 Strela-3
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The 9K34 Strela-3 is a man-portable air defence missile system developed in the Soviet Union as a response to the poor performance of the earlier 9K32 Strela 2 system. 9K34 is its GRAU designation, while its NATO reporting name is SA-14 Gremlin, the missile was largely based on the earlier Strela 2, and thus development proceeded rapidly. The new weapon was accepted to service in the Soviet Army in January 1974, the most significant change over the Strela 2 was the introduction of an all-new infra-red homing seeker head. The new seeker also introduced detector element cooling in the form of a pressurized nitrogen bottle attached to the launcher, the effect of cooling was to expand the seekers lead sulphide detector elements sensitivity range to longer wavelengths. A negative side effect from the improvements was increased missile weight. Against relatively slow, low-altitude battlefield air threats the overall effectiveness was much improved, Strela-3 missiles have been exported to over 30 countries. The original Strela-3 missile was the 9M36, the follow-on to the Strela-3 was Igla. The naval version of missile has the NATO reporting name of SA-N-8. An Airbus A300 cargo plane was hit by a Strela-3 missile after takeoff from Baghdad International Airport, but managed to land safely despite losing hydraulic power. On 6 May 2006, a British Westland Lynx AH.7 of the Royal Navy from 847 Squadron was shot down with a Strela-3 over Basra, killing five crewmen and crashing into a house. During the War in Abkhazia, a Russian Mi-8 helicopter was shot down by a Georgian Army SA-14 on December 14,1992, resulting in the death of 3 crew and 58 passengers, most of them Russian refugees. A Georgian Air Force Su-25 was shot down over Nizhnaya Eshera on July 4,1993 by SA-14, a British BAE Sea Harrier of 801 Naval Air Squadron, operating from aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal, was shot down during its attack on two Serbian T-55 tanks in Bosnia. The pilot, Lieutenant Nick Richardson, ejected and landed in territory controlled by friendly Bosniaks, a Zimbabwe Air Force Il-76 was shot down by Congolese rebels using an SA-14 on October 11,1998 during the Second Congo War, resulting in the death of 40 troops and crew. SA-14s used by the Northern Alliance are credited with having shot down 8 Taliban MiG-21 and Su-22 fighters during the Talibans 2000 offensive against Taloqan. Soviet Union Yugoslavia Iraq - some of them were looted after the Iraq War in 2003, being used in the post war insurgency and subsequent regional wars, list of Russian weaponry Petukhov, Sergei I. Archived from the original on 17 April 2008
39.
Taliban
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Until his death in 2013, Mullah Mohammed Omar was the supreme commander and spiritual leader of the Taliban. Mullah Akhtar Mansour was elected as his replacement in 2015, and following Mansours killing in a May 2016 U. S. drone strike, Mawlawi Hibatullah Akhundzada became the groups leader. The Taliban emerged in 1994 as one of the prominent factions in the Afghan Civil War, under the leadership of Mohammed Omar, the movement spread throughout most of Afghanistan, sequestering power from the Mujahideen warlords, whose corruption and despotism Afghans had tired of. The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was established in 1996 and the Afghan capital transferred to Kandahar and it held control of most of the country until being overthrown by the American-led invasion of Afghanistan in December 2001 following the September 11 attacks. At its peak, formal recognition of the Talibans government was acknowledged by only three nations, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. The group later regrouped as a movement to fight the American-backed Karzai administration. The Taliban have been condemned internationally for the enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic Sharia law. In its post-9/11 insurgency, the group has accused of using terrorism as a specific tactic to further their ideological and political goals. According to the United Nations, the Taliban and their allies were responsible for 76% of Afghan civilian casualties in 2010, 80% in 2011, Pakistan states that it dropped all support for the group after the September 11 attacks. Al-Qaeda also supported the Taliban with fighters from Arab countries and Central Asia, hundreds of thousands of people were forced to flee to United Front-controlled territory, Pakistan, and Iran. The word Taliban is Pashto, طالبان ṭālibān, meaning students and this is a loanword from Arabic طالب ṭālib, using the Persian plural ending -ān ان. In Arabic طالبان ṭālibān means not students but two students, as it is a form, the Arabic plural being طلاب ṭullāb—occasionally causing some confusion to Arabic speakers. Since becoming a loanword in English, Taliban, besides a plural noun referring to the group, has also used as a singular noun referring to an individual. For example, John Walker Lindh has been referred to as an American Taliban, in the English language newspapers of Pakistan, the word Talibans is often used when referring to more than one Taliban. The spelling Taliban has come to be predominant over Taleban in English, in the meantime, the United States and Saudi Arabia joined the struggle against the Soviet Union by providing all the funds. Zia-ul-Haq aligned himself with Pakistans Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam and later picked General Akhtar Abdur Rahman to lead the insurgency against the Soviet Union inside Afghanistan, about 90,000 Afghans, including Mohammed Omar, were trained by Pakistans ISI during the 1980s. After the fall of the Soviet-backed regime of Mohammad Najibullah in 1992, several Afghan political parties agreed on a peace and power-sharing agreement, the accord created the Islamic State of Afghanistan and appointed an interim government for a transitional period. With the exception of Gulbuddin Hekmatyars Hezb-e Islami, all of the parties, were ostensibly unified under this government in April 1992
40.
Airstan incident
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The Airstan incident was an international incident involving Russia and the Taliban of Afghanistan in 1995 and 1996. The men were held prisoner for over a year making their escape, after overpowering their captors they re-possessed their aircraft. In 1995, Afghanistan was in a state of civil war, in late 1994 the Taliban movement sprang out of Kandahar and by early 1995 had taken control of most of the country south of Kabul, forcing other Afghan groups to abandon territory. On board the plane were Russian nationals, Vladimir Sharpatov, Gazinur Khairullin, Alexander Zdor, Askhad Abbyazov, Yuri Vshivtsev, Sergei Butuzov and they were transporting 30 tons of weapons from Albania to the besieged Afghan President Burhanuddin Rabbani. On 3 August 1995 a Taliban Air Force MiG-21 aircraft forced the Russian aircraft to land at Kandahar, the Taliban stated that they would free the airmen if the Russians released Afghans held by the Russian government. However the Russians denied holding any Afghan citizens, Brown was able to get the Taliban to agree that the Russian crew should be allowed to maintain their aircraft. This request paved the way for their escape, the Russians had been planning their escape for over a year. After Hank Brown secured visits to their aircraft for the crew they secretly not only did routine maintenance. On each trip the crew would be guarded by six Taliban guards but on 16 August 1996, seizing the opportunity, the Russians overpowered the remaining guards and the pilot was able to start one engine from the APU. With one engine running, the three could easily be started. The aircraft, with all seven of the crew aboard, quickly taxied down the runway, the Taliban tried to block the runway with a fire truck but the aircraft was able to take to the air thus avoiding the obstacle. The escapees were able to quickly exit Taliban controlled airspace and charted a course to the United Arab Emirates, in 2001 the men released a book about their ordeal called, Escape from Kandahar. Kandahar – A Russian movie, by director Andrei Kavun, about the Russians, as of 2012, the Ilyushin Il-76TD involved in the escape, RA-76842, is still in service, but is now operated by the United Nations Humanitarian Air Service. Archived from the original on 19 August 2010, Afghan Escape Film Kandahar Pulls in Crowds. Merchant of death, money, guns, planes, and the man who makes war possible, - Total pages,308 Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. 7 Russians escape after year as hostages, archived from the original on 19 August 2010. Pictures of the crews captivity www. airliners. net – pictures of RA-76842 Kandahar at the Internet Movie Database
41.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
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People's Liberation Army Air Force
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The Peoples Liberation Army Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the Peoples Liberation Army, the armed forces of the Peoples Republic of China. The PLAAF was officially established on 11 November 1949, as of 2014, the PLAAF has a strength of around 398,000 personnel and is the largest air force in Asia. The PLAAF was founded with Soviet assistance on November 11,1949, the PLA had operated few aircraft before that. The PLAs first organized air unit, the Nanyuan Flying Group, was formed only in the summer of 1949 from about 40 ex-Nationalist aircraft, its task was to defend Beijing, the nations new capital. The PLAAF fought the Korean War in Soviet-built MiG-15, known as the J-2 in Chinese service, the war also brought Soviet assistance for the indigenous aircraft industry. The Shenyang Aircraft Factory built the two-seat MiG-15UTI trainer as the JJ-2 and this prepared them to mass-produce derivatives of Soviet aircraft under license, starting with the J-5 in 1956, then the J-6 in 1959, and then the J-7 in 1967. The 1960s were a time for the PLAAF. The withdrawal of Soviet aid due to the Sino-Soviet split, a recovery began around 1965 as J-2s, J-5s, and some J-6s were provided to North Vietnam during the Vietnam War. Development of the J-8, Chinas first indigenous fighter, was initiated during the 1960s. The PLA Air Force underwent reorganization and streamlining as part of the reduction in force begun in 1985, before the 1985 reorganization, the Air Force reportedly had four branches, air defense, ground attack, bombing, and independent air regiments. In war, control of the Air Force probably reverted to the regional commanders, in 1987 it was not clear how the reorganization and the incorporation of air support elements into the group armies affected air force organization. The largest Air Force organizational unit was the division, which consisted of 17,000 personnel in three regiments, a typical air defense regiment had three squadrons of three flights, each flight had three or four aircraft. The Air Force also had 220,000 air defense personnel who controlled about 100 surface-to-air missile sites, in addition, it had a large number of early-warning, ground-control-intercept, and air-base radars manned by specialized troops organized into at least twenty-two independent regiments. In the 1980s the Air Force made serious efforts to raise the educational level, superannuated pilots were retired or assigned to other duties. All new pilots were at least middle-school graduates, the time it took to train a qualified pilot capable of performing combat missions reportedly was reduced from four or five years to two years. Training emphasized raising technical and tactical skills in individual pilots and participation in combined-arms operations, in 1987 the Air Force had serious technological deficiencies — especially when compared with its principal threat, the Soviet Union — and had many needs that it could not satisfy. After the fall of the USSR, Russia became Chinas principal arms supplier to the effect that Chinese economic growth allowed Russia to sustain its aerospace industry. In the late 1980s, the mission of the PLAAF was the defense of the mainland
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Syrian Air Force
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The Syrian Arab Air Force, literally Syrian Arab Air Forces, also often referred to as the Syrian Air Force, is the air force branch of the Syrian Armed Forces. It is variously abbreviated in English to SAF, SAAF, or SyAAF, land-based air defense systems are grouped under the Syrian Air Defense Force, which split from both the Air Force and the Army. The Syrian Arab Airforce does not have the ability to carry out operations at night, the end of World War II led to a withdrawal of the United Kingdom and France from the Middle East, and this included a withdrawal from Syria. In 1948, the Syrian Air Force was officially established after the first class of pilots graduated from schools in the United Kingdom. The embryonic force saw limited participation in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, conducting bombing raids against Israeli forces, one North American Harvard was lost to ground fire while attacking Ayelet Hashahar on 16 July, and another possibly shot down by Morris Mann on 10 June. The Syrian Air Force claimed its sole kill of the war on 10 July when a Harvard supposedly shot down an Avia S-199 flown by Lionel Bloch. Military governments formed after the war sought to bolster the air force, in September 1952 the SAF received its first jet aircraft, the Gloster Meteor F.8. Additional Meteors, including the NF.13 night fighting variant, were delivered by the mid-1950s, the 1950s also saw Syria and Egypt attempt to unify as the United Arab Republic, and this was reflected in the Syrian Air Force with growth in personnel and aircraft. This in turn led to an influx of Eastern-made equipment to the Syrian Armed Forces. In 1955 Syria placed an order for 25 MiG-15s, including several MiG-UTI conversion trainers and these were shipped to Alexandria and assembled at the Egyptian Almaza Air Base, where Syrian pilots and technicians were trained to operate the aircraft. The fighters were at Almaza when the Suez Crisis broke out and several were destroyed on the ground by British, on 6 November 1956, a Syrian Meteor shot down a Royal Air Force Canberra PR.7 monitoring activity at SAF bases. One Meteor was lost after another attempted intercept, the pilot and future president of Syria, Hafez al-Assad, sixty MiG-17s were ordered at the end of 1956 and Syrian pilots were dispatched to the USSR and Poland for training. The first aircraft arrived in January 1957 and by the end of the year two MiG-17 squadrons were defending the capital from their base at Damasucus Mezzeh Military Airport. In the Six-Day War, the Syrian Air Force lost two-thirds of its forces with the rest retreating to bases in parts of Syria. This in turn helped the IDF in defeating the Syrian Army on the ground, the Yom Kippur War provided initial success for both Syria and Egypt, though again Israel inflicted more casualties in the air than it endured. During the 1982 Lebanon War, the Syrian Air Force fought the Israeli Air Force in one of the largest air-to-air combats of the jet age, involving approximately 150 aircraft from both sides. In six days of aerial combat, Syrian and Russian sources admit the loss of 24 MiG-23s. Russian and Syrian sources continue to claim a modicum of success against Israeli aircraft in this conflict, Israel claims the destruction of 85 Syrian MiGs
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Syrian Air
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Syrian Arab Airlines, operating as SyrianAir, is the flag carrier airline of Syria. SyrianAir previously served over 50 destinations worldwide and its main bases are Damascus International Airport and previously Aleppo International Airport. SyrianAir is a member of the Arab Air Carriers Organization and Arabesk Airline Alliance, the company has its head office on the fifth floor of the Social Insurance Building in Damascus. Syrian Airlines was established in autumn 1946, with two aircraft and started to fly between Damascus, Aleppo and Deir ez-Zour and Qamishli. Financial difficulties caused the suspension of services in 1948, but after receiving government support operations were resumed in 1951, the airline expanded during the next years to include Beirut, Baghdad, and Jerusalem, then Cairo and Kuwait then Doha, in addition to flights during the hajj. The airline started its operations in June 1947 using two Beech D-18s and three Douglas DC-3, the Dakotas had been acquired from Pan American World Airways, which provided technical assistance to Syrian Airways during the very first years of operation. The airlines domestic network linked Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia, Kamishly, Syrian Airways also operated a regional network, with flights to Beirut, Baghdad, Jerusalem, Amman, followed by Cairo, Kuwait, Doha and Jeddah. In May 1948, the war in Palestine and financial difficulties led to the withdrawal of PAA, on December 21,1953, one of the airlines Douglas planes crashed near Damascus killing all nine aboard. The airlines operating permit was cancelled following the crash, the airline was allowed to fly again in 1954. The D-18s had been returned to the Syrian Air Force in 1949, in 1952, the airline was provided with three Douglas DC-3s and with four DC-4 in 1954, while in 1957 it received four Douglas DC-6s in the name of United Arab Airline. One of the older Dakotas crashed during its out of Aleppos Nejrab Airport on February 24,1956. The 19 people on board died in the airlines worst accident to date, the network was expanded to Dhahran in the Persian Gulf while frequencies were reinforced elsewhere. In February 1958, Syria and Egypt decided to unite under the leadership of president Gamal Abdel Nasser, the merger between Syrian Airways and Misrair, the state-owned airlines of Syria and Egypt came as a consequence of this political union. The airlines merged on December 25,1958, to form United Arab Airlines, during the UAA interlude, only regional and domestic routes were operated in Syria, flights further afield connected at the Cairo hub. Fortunately, there were no fatalities in either accident, the union between Egypt and Syria ended on September 26,1961, amidst tensions between the leaderships of the two provinces of the UAR. The Syrian Arab Republic was declared in Syria, while Egypt chose to continue to carry the title of UAR for a few more years, in parallel to that divorce, Syria withdrew from UAA. All the airliners previously owned by Syrian Airways, two Douglas DC-6Bs and one Douglas DC6B freighter were given up by UAA to the Syrian authorities, Syrian Arab Airlines were founded in October 1961 in order to take over UAAs operations in Syria and to become the new national airline. The fleet initially consisted of three Douglas C47 Dakotas, two Douglas C54 Sky masters, two Douglas DC-6Bs and one Douglas DC-6B freighter, domestic and regional flights were promptly resumed and the fleet originally was painted in a green livery reminiscent of that of the Syrian Airways colors
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Tehran
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Tehran is the capital of Iran and Tehran Province. It is ranked 29th in the world by the population of its metropolitan area, in the Classical era, part of the present-day city of Tehran was occupied by a Median city that in the Avesta occurs as Rhaga. It was destroyed by the Mongols in the early 13th century, the capital has been moved several times throughout the history, and Tehran is the 32nd national capital of Iran. The city was the seat of the Qajars and Pahlavis, the two last imperial dynasties of Iran. It is home to historical collections, such as the royal complexes of Golestan, Sadabad. Large scale demolition and rebuilding began in the 1920s, and Tehran has been a destination for the migrations from all over Iran since the 20th century. Tabiat Bridge, which was completed in 2014, is considered the third symbol of the city. There have been plans to relocate Irans capital from Tehran to another area, due mainly to air pollution, to date, no definitive plans have been approved. A2016 survey of 230 cities by consultant Mercer ranked Tehran 203rd for quality of living, according to the Global Destinations Cities Index in 2016, Tehran is among the top ten fastest growing destinations. The origin of the name Tehran is uncertain, the settlement of Tehran dates back over 7,000 years. The present-day city of Tehran was a suburb of an important Median city that was known as Rhaga in Old Persian, in the Avestas Videvdat, Rhaga is mentioned as the twelfth sacred place created by the Ohrmazd. In Old Persian inscriptions, Rhaga appears as a province and it was a major area for the Iranian tribes of Medes and Achaemenids. From Rhaga, Darius the Great sent reinforcements to his father Hystaspes, in some Middle Persian texts, Rhaga is given as the birthplace of Zoroaster, although modern historians generally place the birth of Zoroaster in Khorasan. Derived into Modern Persian as Rey, it now as a city located towards the southern end of the modern-day city of Tehran. Mount Damavand, the highest peak of Iran, which is located near Tehran, is an important location in Ferdowsis Shahname, the long Iranian epic poem that is based on the ancient epics of Iran. It appears in the epics as the birthplace of Manuchehr, the residence of Keyumars, the place where Freydun binds the dragon fiend Aži Dahāka, during the Sassanid era, in 641, Yazdgerd III issued his last appeal to the nation from Rey, before fleeing to Khorasan. Rey was dominated by the Parthian Mihran family, and Siyavakhsh—the son of Mihran the son of Bahram Chobin—who resisted the Muslim Invasion, because of this resistance, when the Arabs captured Rey, they ordered the town to be destroyed and ordered Farrukhzad to rebuild the town anew. In the 9th century, Tehran was a well known village, but less known than the city of Rey, the medieval writer Najm od Din Razi declared the population of Rey about 500,000 before the Mongol Invasion
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Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
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