1.
99th United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from January 3,1985 to January 3,1987, during the fifth and sixth years of Ronald Reagans presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twentieth Census of the United States in 1980, the Republicans maintained control of the Senate, while the Democrats maintained control of the House of Representatives. January 20,1985, Ronald Reagan was privately sworn in for a term as U. S. President. January 28,1986, Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, Destruction of the shuttle, April 15,1986, Operation El Dorado Canyon, At least 15 people die after United States planes bomb targets in the Libyan capital, Tripoli, and the Benghazi region. October 21,1986, The Marshall Islands achieved independence from U. S. -administered UN Trusteeship, November 3,1986, The Federated States of Micronesia achieved independence from U. S. -administered UN Trusteeship and became an associated state under the Compact of Free Association. November 4,1986, United States general elections,1986, Congressional Democrats regained their Senate majority, December 12,1985, Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985 Pub. L. 99–177 December 17,1985, Gold Bullion Coin Act of 1985, 99–185 April 7,1986, Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985 Pub. L. 99–272 May 19,1986, Firearm Owners Protection Act, Pub. L, 99–308 October 1,1986, Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986, Pub. L. 99–433 October 2,1986, Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act, Pub. L, 99–440 October 17,1986, Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, Pub. L. 99–499 October 21,1986, Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986, 99–508 October 22,1986, Tax Reform Act of 1986, Pub. L. 99–514 October 27,1986, Anti-Drug Abuse Act, Pub. L, 99–570 October 31,1986, Age Discrimination in Employment Act, Pub. L. 99–592 November 6,1986, Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, 99–603, S.1200 November 17,1986, Water Resources Development Act of 1986, Pub. L. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. Biographical Directory of the U. S. Congress U. S. House of Representatives, Congressional History U. S. Senate, Statistics, Congressional Pictorial Directory for the 99th Congress. Congressional Pictorial Directory for the 99th Congress, official Congressional Directory for the 99th Congress
2.
United States Statutes at Large
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Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law or private law, and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws are compiled into Statutes at Large and they are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws, and codification. Today, large portions of slip laws denominated as public laws are now drafted as amendments to the United States Code. Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, provisions of a public law that contains only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified. Private laws also are not generally codified, some portions of the United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the firm of Little, Brown. During Little, Brown and Companys time as publisher, Richard Peters, George Minot, in 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. 633, was enacted July 30,1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index,980, was enacted September 23,1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large. Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register of the National Archives, sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own volume of the Statutes at Large. For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 to 18 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Library of Congress Volumes 1 to 64 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS
3.
Alan Simpson (American politician)
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Alan Kooi Simpson is an American politician and member of the Republican Party, who served from 1979 to 1997 as a United States Senator from Wyoming. His father, Milward L. Simpson, was also a member of the U. S. Senate from Wyoming, in 2010, Simpson was appointed by President Obama to co-chair the National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform with Democrat co-chair Erskine Bowles of North Carolina. Simpson was born in Denver, Colorado, the son of the former Lorna Kooi and his middle name, Kooi, comes from his mother and maternal grandfather, whose parents were Dutch immigrants. In his youth, Simpson was a Boy Scout, and once visited Japanese American Boy Scouts who, along with their families, had been interned near Ralston, Wyoming, during World War II. Mineta and Simpson served together in Congress, and on the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and remain close friends. Simpson has a brother, Peter K. Pete Simpson was the 1986 Republican gubernatorial nominee. Alan Simpson graduated from Cody High School in Cody, Wyoming, in 1949 and he graduated in 1954 from the University of Wyoming with a Bachelor of Science degree, and in 1958 with a Juris Doctor. Like his brother, he was a member of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity at the University of Wyoming, in 1954 he married the former Susan Ann Schroll, who was a fellow UW student from Greybull, Wyoming. He served in the United States Army in Germany from 1955 to 1956, with the 10th Infantry Regiment, Fifth Infantry Division, Simpson had several run-ins with the law during his youth. And then added, Youre not who are when youre 16 or 18, Youre dumb, and you dont care and you think you are eternal. Simpson served from 1965 to 1977 in the Wyoming House of Representatives from Park County, but he had already left the chamber four years before his brother entered it for a four-year stint. Simpson was elected to the U. S. Senate on November 7,1978, from 1985 to 1995, Simpson was the Republican whip, Assistant Republican Leader in the Senate, having served with then Republican Leader Bob Dole of Kansas. He was chairman of the Veterans Affairs Committee from 1981 to 1985 and he also chaired the Immigration and Refugee Subcommittee of Judiciary, the Nuclear Regulation Subcommittee, the Social Security Subcommittee and the Committee on Aging. In 1995, he lost the job to Trent Lott of Mississippi. Simpson then returned to his home of Cody and practices law there with his two sons in the firm of Simpson, Kepler and Edwards. The three are partners in the firm of Burg Simpson Eldredge Hersh and Jardine of Englewood. He was a candidate for governor, having finished fourth in the primary in 2010, Simpson teaches periodically at his alma mater, the University of Wyoming at Laramie, with his brother Pete. He has completed serving as chairman of the UW capital Campaign for Distinction, which raised $204 million
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United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary
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The United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary, informally the Senate Judiciary Committee, is a standing committee of the United States Senate, of the United States Congress. The Judiciary Committee, with 20 members, is in charge of conducting hearings prior to the Senate votes on confirmation of judges nominated by the president. In recent years, this role has made the committee increasingly a point of contention, with numerous party-line votes and standoffs over which judges should be approved. The committee also has a jurisdiction over matters relating to federal criminal law, as well as human rights, immigration law, intellectual property rights, antitrust law. It is also Senate procedure that all proposed Constitutional Amendments pass through the Judiciary Committee, the committee is one of the oldest in the Senate. It was initially created in 1816, source,2013 Congressional Record, Vol.159, Page S296 to 297 United States House Committee on the Judiciary United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary Official Website
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United States Senate Committee on the Budget
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The United States Senate Committee on the Budget was established by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. It is responsible for drafting Congresss annual budget plan and monitoring action on the budget for the Federal Government, the committee has jurisdiction over the Congressional Budget Office. The committee briefly operated as a committee from 1919 to 1920 during the 66th Congress. The Appropriations Committee has legislative jurisdiction over appropriations bills, which provide funding for government programs, official website Committee on the Budget, United States Senate, 1974-2006
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Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
7.
Law of the United States
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The United States Code is the official compilation and codification of general and permanent federal statutory law. Federal law and treaties, so long as they are in accordance with the Constitution, preempt conflicting state and territorial laws in the 50 U. S. states, however, the scope of federal preemption is limited because the scope of federal power is not universal. Indeed, states may grant their citizens broader rights than the federal Constitution as long as they do not infringe on any federal constitutional rights. Thus, most U. S. law consists primarily of state law, which can and does vary greatly from one state to the next. At both the federal and state levels, the law of the United States is largely derived from the law system of English law. However, American law has diverged greatly from its English ancestor both in terms of substance and procedure, and has incorporated a number of civil law innovations. In the United States, the law is derived from five sources, constitutional law, statutory law, treaties, administrative regulations, where Congress enacts a statute that conflicts with the Constitution, the Supreme Court may find that law unconstitutional and declare it invalid. Notably, a statute does not disappear automatically merely because it has been found unconstitutional, many federal and state statutes have remained on the books for decades after they were ruled to be unconstitutional. However, under the principle of stare decisis, no sensible lower court will enforce an unconstitutional statute, conversely, any court that refuses to enforce a constitutional statute will risk reversal by the Supreme Court. The United States and most Commonwealth countries are heirs to the common law tradition of English law. Certain practices traditionally allowed under English common law were expressly outlawed by the Constitution, such as bills of attainder, as common law courts, U. S. courts have inherited the principle of stare decisis. The actual substance of English law was received into the United States in several ways. Some reception statutes impose a specific date for reception, such as the date of a colonys founding. Thus, contemporary U. S. Second, a number of important British statutes in effect at the time of the Revolution have been independently reenacted by U. S. states. Two examples that many lawyers will recognize are the Statute of Frauds, such English statutes are still regularly cited in contemporary American cases interpreting their modern American descendants. However, it is important to understand that despite the presence of reception statutes, early on, American courts, even after the Revolution, often did cite contemporary English cases. But citations to English decisions gradually disappeared during the 19th century as American courts developed their own principles to resolve the problems of the American people. The number of published volumes of American reports soared from eighteen in 1810 to over 8,000 by 1910
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Immigration law
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Immigration law refers to national government policies controlling the immigration and deportation of people, and other matters such as citizenship. Immigration laws vary from country to country, as well as according to the climate of the times. Immigration law regarding the citizens of a country is regulated by international law, the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights mandates that all countries allow entry to its own citizens. Certain countries may maintain rather strict laws which regulate both the right of entry and internal rights, such as the duration of stay and the right to participate in government, most countries have laws which designate a process for naturalization, by which foreigners may become citizens. During the colonial period, independent colonies created their own immigration laws, the first law governing the naturalization of foreigners was the Naturalization Act of 1790. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act was passed to stop the immigration of Chinese people, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 led to the creation of the Immigration and Naturalization Service. The Department of Homeland Security, which replaced the Immigration and Naturalization Service, the United States allows more than 1 million undocumented immigrants to become Legal Permanent Residents every year. The United States also issues more Visas than any country in the world. Visas in the United States can be separated into two categories, immigrant visas, and non-immigrant visas. The former are subject to per country-caps, whereas the latter is not, most non-immigrant visas are for work purposes, and usually require an offer of employment from a US employer. Such immigration may involve restrictions such as a certification to ensure that no American workers are able to fill the role of the job. Other categories include student, family and tourist visas, each visa category is further divided into numerous subcategories, the large number of specific categories has been recommended as a main area for comprehensive immigration reform. To control immigration, many set up customs at entry points. Some common location for entry points are airports and roads near the border, at the customs department, travel documents are inspected. Some required documents are a passport, a certificate of vaccination. Sometimes travelers are required to declare or register the amount of money they are carrying. This section is an attempt to classify and bring information about immigration legislation on a number of countries with high immigration
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Illegal immigration to the United States
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The United States Department of Homeland Security has estimated that 11.4 million illegal immigrants lived in the United States in January 2012. According to DHS estimates, the number of illegal immigrants peaked around 12 million in 2007 and has declined to closer to 11 million. For the fiscal year 2015, DHS reported that the number of new visa overstays was 527,127, for that period, DHS conducted a total of 462,463 removals and returns. For the same period, ICE removed or returned 235,413 individuals. According to ICE,166 people died while detained between 2003 and 2016, as of 2015, illegal immigration to the United States continued to decline in comparison to its peak in the year 2000. In 2012, 52% were from Mexico, 15% from Central America, 12% from Asia, 6% from South America, 5% from the Caribbean, economic reasons are the most popular motivation for people to illegally immigrate to the United States. In 2012, an estimated 14 million people live in families in which the head of household or the spouse is in the United States without authorization, Illegal immigrants arriving recently before 2012 tend to be better educated than those who have been in the country a decade or more. A quarter of all immigrants who have arrived in recently before 2012 have at least some college education, Illegal immigrants work in many sectors of the U. S. economy. Illegal immigrants have lower incomes than both legal immigrants and native-born Americans, but earnings do increase somewhat the longer an individual is in the country, as of 2006, the following data table shows a spread of distribution of locations where illegal immigrants reside by state. Separate from the number of illegal immigrants is the pace of growth or shrinkage of this total. The DHS releases yearly reports from which the rate of new illegal immigration can be estimated, the most recent data is from FY2015. One has to combine visa overstays and cross-border illegal entries from separate reports, for FY2015, DHS reported 337,117 apprehensions. Using an estimated rate of 33%, the number crossing without detection would be 674,000 per year. The rate of new immigrants, combining both sources is 1,201,000 in FY2015. From 2005 to 2009, the number of entering the U. S. illegally declined by nearly 67%, according to the Pew Hispanic Center. These results suggest little to no change in the immigrant population from 2011 to 2012. Additionally,11.3 million unauthorized immigrants were estimated to be living in the U. S. in 2014, in total,4 million U. S. -born children of illegal immigrant parents resided in this country in 2009. These infants are, according to the longstanding Administrative interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, Congress has never legislated, nor the Supreme Court specifically ruled on whether babies born to visiting foreign nationals are eligible for automatic US Citizenship
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Immigration and Naturalization Service
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The United States Immigration and Naturalization Service was an agency of the U. S. Department of Justice from 1933 to 2003. Referred to by some as former INS and by others as legacy INS, the agency ceased to exist under that name on March 1,2003, prior to 1933, there were separate offices administering immigration and naturalization matters. The INS was established on June 10,1933, merging these previously separate areas of administration, reflecting changing governmental concerns, immigration was transferred to the purview of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor after 1903 and the Department of Labor after 1913. In 1940, with increasing concern about security, immigration and naturalization was organized under the authority of the Department of Justice. S. The investigative and enforcement functions of the INS were combined with the U. S. Customs investigators to create U. S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. The border functions of the INS, which included the Border Patrol and INS Inspectors, were combined with U. S. Customs Inspectors to create U. S. Customs, the INS also adjudicated applications for permanent residency, change of status, naturalization, and similar matters. At the head of the INS was an appointed by the President who reported to the Attorney General in the Department of Justice. The INS worked closely with the United Nations, the Department of State, the INS was a very large and complex organization that had four main divisions—Programs, Field Operations, Policy and Planning, and Management—that were responsible for operations and management. The operational functions of the INS included the Programs and Field Operations divisions, the Field Operations division was responsible for overseeing INS many offices operating throughout the country and the world. The Field Operations division implemented policies and handled tasks for its three offices, which in turn oversaw 33 districts and 21 border areas throughout the country. Internationally, the Field Operations division oversaw the Headquarters Office of International Affairs which in turn oversaw 16 offices outside the country, managerial functions of the INS included the Policy and Planning and Management divisions. The Office of Policy and Planning coordinated all information for the INS and communicated with other cooperating government agencies, the office was divided into three areas, the Policy Division, the Planning Division, and the Evaluation and Research Center. These duties were handled by the offices of Information Resources Management, Finance, Human Resources and Administration, and Equal Employment Opportunity. Shortly after the U. S. Civil War, some started to pass their own immigration laws. The Immigration Act of 1891 established an Office of the Superintendent of Immigration within the Treasury Department and this office was responsible for admitting, rejecting, and processing all immigrants seeking admission to the United States and for implementing national immigration policy. Immigrant Inspectors, as they were called then, were stationed at major U. S. ports of entry collecting manifests of arriving passengers and its largest station was located on Ellis Island in New York harbor. Among other things, a tax of fifty cents was collected on each immigrant. This made immigration more a matter of commerce than revenue. S, each year, the U. S. State Department issued a limited number of visas, only those immigrants who could present valid visas were permitted entry
12.
Romano Mazzoli
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Romano Louis Ron Mazzoli represented Kentuckys Third Congressional District in the United States House of Representatives from 1971 through 1995 as a Democrat. He was the architect, with Senator Alan Simpson, of major immigration reform legislation. He graduated magna cum laude from the University of Notre Dame in Notre Dame, Indiana, in 1954 and from the University of Louisville law school, first in his class, Mazzoli served in the Kentucky Senate from 1968 through 1970. Mazzoli was Chairman of the House of Representatives Immigration, International Law and he also served on the Small Business, Intelligence and District of Columbia Committees. Ultimately, the amendment failed to amass the 218 votes necessary to pass, Mazzoli authored the Simpson-Mazzoli Immigration Reform and Control Act, later known as the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, and cosponsored it with Republican Senator Alan Simpson. The bill enacted the first U. S. laws to sanction employers who hired undocumented aliens, after five years of debate and compromise, the Simpson-Mazzoli Bill was ultimately signed into law on November 7,1986. Mazzoli did not run for reelection in 1994, in 2002, Mazzoli was a Fellow at the Institute of Politics at Harvard Universitys John F. Kennedy School of Government. He graduated with a Masters in Public Administration from Harvard Kennedy School of Government in June 2004, in September 2006 he and Simpson co-authored an article that appeared in the Washington Post revisiting their 1986 immigration legislation in the current political climate. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
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Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
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Wyoming
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Wyoming /waɪˈoʊmɪŋ/ is a state in the mountain region of the western United States. The state is the tenth largest by area, the least populous, Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. Cheyenne is the capital and the most populous city in Wyoming, the state population was estimated at 586,107 in 2015, which is less than the population of 31 of the largest U. S. cities. The Crow, Arapaho, Lakota, and Shoshone were some of the inhabitants of the region. Southwestern Wyoming was included in the Spanish Empire and then Mexican territory until it was ceded to the United States in 1848 at the end of the Mexican–American War. The region acquired the name Wyoming when a bill was introduced to Congress in 1865 to provide a government for the territory of Wyoming. The territory was named after the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania, with the name ultimately being derived from the Munsee word xwé, wamənk, the mineral extraction industry—especially coal, oil, natural gas, and trona—along with the travel and tourism sector are the main drivers behind Wyomings economy. Agriculture has historically been an important component of the economy with the main commodities being livestock, hay, sugar beets, grain. The climate is generally semi-arid and continental, being drier and windier in comparison to the rest of the United States, except for the 1964 election, Wyoming has been a politically conservative state since the 1950s, with the Republican party winning every presidential election. Wyoming is one of three states to have borders along only straight latitudinal and longitudinal lines, rather than being defined by natural landmarks. Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. It is the tenth largest state in the United States in total area, from the north border to the south border it is 276 miles, and from the east to the west border is 365 miles at its south end and 342 miles at the north end. The Great Plains meet the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming, the state is a great plateau broken by many mountain ranges. Surface elevations range from the summit of Gannett Peak in the Wind River Mountain Range, at 13,804 feet, to the Belle Fourche River valley in the states northeast corner, at 3,125 feet. In the northwest are the Absaroka, Owl Creek, Gros Ventre, Wind River, in the north central are the Big Horn Mountains, in the northeast, the Black Hills, and in the southern region the Laramie, Snowy and Sierra Madre ranges. The Snowy Range in the central part of the state is an extension of the Colorado Rockies in both geology and appearance. The Wind River Range in the west central part of the state is remote and includes more than 40 mountain peaks in excess of 13,000 ft tall in addition to Gannett Peak, the highest peak in the state. The Big Horn Mountains in the central portion are somewhat isolated from the bulk of the Rocky Mountains
15.
Theodore Hesburgh
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Theodore Martin Hesburgh, CSC was an American priest of the Congregation of Holy Cross. He served as president of the University of Notre Dame for 35 years, tIAA–CREFs Hesburgh Award is named after him. Theodore Hesburgh was born in Syracuse, New York to Anne Murphy Hesburgh and Theodore Bernard Hesburgh and had one brother and he had wished to become a priest since early childhood. He enrolled at Notre Dame in 1934, but after three years he was relocated to Rome and in 1939 he earned a bachelor of degree from the Gregorian University. Because he was sent to Rome, Hesburgh never finished his Notre Dame degree and he studied in Rome until he was forced to leave due to the outbreak of World War II. In 1943 he was ordained a priest in the Congregation of Holy Cross at Notre Dames Sacred Heart Church and he graduated from The Catholic University of America in 1945, having earned a Doctorate in Sacred Theology, and taught Religion at Notre Dame. In 1948 he was named head of the Department of Theology, in 1949 Notre Dame president Rev. John J. Cavanaugh, C. S. C. Appointed him executive vice-president and Hesburgh served in that position for three years, Hesburgh served as Notre Dames President for 35 years, the longest tenure to date. He supervised dramatic growth, as well as a transition to coeducation in 1972, enrollment nearly doubled from 4,979 to 9,600, faculty more than doubled 389 to 950, and degrees awarded annually doubled from 1,212 to 2,500. In 1967 he turned governance of the University over to a two-tiered, mixed board of lay and religious trustees, according to Rick Perlstein in Nixonland, Hesburgh was considered by George McGovern as his running mate in the 1972 presidential election. Hesburgh was a key figure in anti-Vietnam War student activism, after discovering a student plot to burn the Notre Dame campus ROTC building in 1969, Hesburgh issued a letter to the student body outlining the Universitys stance. The letter was reprinted by the New York Times and Washington Post. At the request of President Richard Nixon, Hesburgh advised Vice President Spiro Agnew regarding controlling violence on college campuses, Hesburgh generally disagreed with American policy in Vietnam and favored accelerated withdrawal of the troops. In 1953 he created the Distinguished Professors Program to attract top scholars to Notre Dame, in 1954 he was appointed by President Eisenhower to the National Science Board. He was a contributor to the 1958 analysis of the U. S. education system, The Pursuit of Excellence, in 1964 he was awarded the Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest honor, by President Johnson. The same year he joined hands with Martin Luther King Jr. in support for civil rights during a rally in Chicago, from 1977 to 1982 Hesburgh was chairman of the Rockefeller Foundation. In 1968 he was appointed by Pope Paul VI as head of the Vatican representatives attending the 20th anniversary of the United Nations’ human rights declaration in Tehran, Iran. In 1972 he organized the establishment of the Tantur Institute for Ecumenical Studies in Jerusalem, in 1974 Paul VI appointed him as a member of the Holy See’s U. N. delegation
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University of Notre Dame
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The University of Notre Dame du Lac is a Catholic research university located adjacent to South Bend, Indiana, in the United States. In French, Notre Dame du Lac means Our Lady of the Lake and refers to the patron saint. The main campus covers 1,250 acres in a setting and it contains a number of recognizable landmarks, such as the Golden Dome, the Word of Life mural. The school was founded on November 26,1842, by Father Edward Sorin, CSC, Today, many Holy Cross priests continue to work for the university, including the president of the university. Notre Dame is a large, four-year, highly residential research university, undergraduate students are organized into four colleges, and the Architecture School. The latter is known for teaching New Classical Architecture and for awarding the globally renowned annual Driehaus Architecture Prize, the university offers over 50 foreign study abroad yearlong programs and over 15 summer programs. It maintains a system of libraries, cultural venues, artistic and scientific museums, including the Hesburgh Library and the Snite Museum of Art. Over 80% of the universitys 8,000 undergraduates live on campus in one of 29 single-sex residence halls, each with its own traditions, legacies, events, the university counts approximately 120,000 alumni. The universitys athletic teams are members of the NCAA Division I and are known collectively as the Fighting Irish, other ND sport teams, chiefly in the Atlantic Coast Conference, have accumulated 16 national championships. The Notre Dame Victory March is often regarded as the most famous, started as a small all-male institution in 1842 and charter in 1844, Notre Dame reached international fame at the beginning of the 20th century. Ever since, the University has seen growth, and under the leadership of the next two presidents, Rev. Malloy and Rev. Jenkins, many infrastructure and research expansions have been completed. In 1842, the Bishop of Vincennes, Célestine Guynemer de la Hailandière, offered land to Father Edward Sorin of the Congregation of Holy Cross, on the condition that he build a college in two years. Sorin arrived on the site with eight Holy Cross brothers from France and Ireland on November 26,1842 and he soon erected additional buildings, including the Old College, the first church, and the first main building. They immediately acquired two students and set about building additions to the campus, Notre Dame began as a primary and secondary school, but soon received its official college charter from the Indiana General Assembly on January 15,1844. Under the charter the school is named the University of Notre Dame du Lac. Because the university was only for male students, the female-only Saint Marys College was founded by the Sisters of the Holy Cross near Notre Dame in 1844. The first degrees from the college were awarded in 1849, the university was expanded with new buildings to accommodate more students and faculty. With each new president, new programs were offered and new buildings built to accommodate them
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Alien (law)
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In law, an alien is a person who resides within the borders of a country and is not a national of that country, though definitions and terminology differ to some degree. The term Alien is derived from the Latin alienus, meaning stranger, foreign and it is a non-citizen who has entered a country through irregular migration, for example entered illegally, or an alien who entered a country legally but who has fallen out of status. A legal alien is a non-citizen who is permitted to remain in a country. This is a broad category which includes tourists, guest workers, legal permanent residents. A nonresident alien is a non-citizen who is visiting a country, for example as a tourist, on business, entertainers, a resident alien is a non-citizen who has permanent resident status in a country. An enemy alien is a non-citizen who is a national of an enemy country, an alien in English law was someone who was born outside of the monarchs dominions and who did not have allegiance to the monarch. Aliens were not allowed to own land and were subject to different taxes to subjects and this idea was passed on in the Commonwealth to other common law jurisdictions. In Australia, citizenship is defined in the Australian nationality law, non-citizens living in Australia are either permanent residents, temporary residents, or illegal residents. Most non-citizens travelling to Australia must obtain a prior to travel. In Canada, the alien is not used in federal laws. Instead, the foreign national serves as its equivalent and is found in legal documents. The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act defines foreign national as a person who is not a Canadian citizen or a permanent resident, permanent residents and Canadian citizens are not considered as foreign. The British Nationality Act 1772 regulated who was to be called a British national, the Aliens Act 1905, the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 and the Aliens Restriction Act 1919 were all products of the turbulence in the early part of the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, the British Nationality Act 1981 defines an alien as a person who is not a British citizen, a citizen of Ireland, in the United States, an alien is any person not a citizen or national of the United States. Governments use of alien dates back to 1798, when it was used in the Alien, U. S. law makes a clear distinction between aliens and immigrants by defining immigrants as a subset of aliens. Although U. S. law provides no overarching explicit definition of the term illegal alien, U. S. law also uses the term unauthorized alien. U. S. immigration laws do not refer to illegal immigrants, because at law, a corporation is a person, the term alien is not limited to natural humans because what are colloquially called foreign corporations are technically called alien corporations. Because corporations are creations of local law, a foreign corporation is an out of state corporation
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Fine (penalty)
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A fine or mulct is money that a court of law or other authority decides has to be paid as punishment for a crime or other offence. The amount of a fine can be determined case by case, the most usual use of the term is for financial punishments for the commission of crimes, especially minor crimes, or as the settlement of a claim. A synonym, typically used in civil law actions, is mulct, one common example of a fine is money paid for violations of traffic laws. Currently in English common law, relatively small fines are used either in place of or alongside community service orders for low-level criminal offences. For instance, fraud is often punished by very large fines since fraudsters are typically banned from the position or profession they abused to commit their crimes, fines can also be used as a form of tax. Money for bail may be applied toward a fine, a day-fine is a fine that, above a minimum, is based on personal income. Some fines are small, such as for loitering, for which range from about $25 to $100. In some areas of the United States, fines for petty crimes, in section 32 of that Act, the expression fine includes a pecuniary penalty but does not include a pecuniary forfeiture or pecuniary compensation. In sections 15 to 32 and 48 of the Criminal Law Act 1977, while technically not a fine, which, under the Bill of Rights 1689, may be levied only following a conviction, it serves the same purpose of punishment. Early examples of fines include the weregild or blood money payable under Anglo-Saxon common law for causing a death, the murderer would be expected to pay a sum of money or goods dependent on the social status of the victim. See also English criminal law#General power to impose a fine on indictment, the Dutch Criminal Code doesnt contain specific amounts for fines for every violation of the law. Instead of that the Criminal Code provides six fine categories, every penalty clause of the Criminal Code contains a fine category. The categories are, These sums are only an upper limit, however, the amount of the fine must be at least €3. The sums of catogories are always 1,10,20,50,200 and 2000 times the amount of the first catogory, in addition to the fine, the convict also does have to pay an administration fee of €9. The amounts are established by the government, via a royal order, when the judge convicts an individual to a fine, the judge must also set a term of substitute imprisonment. This substitute imprisonment will be executed in the case that the fine remains unpaid, the judge may count one day imprisonment for every unpaid €25, however normally judges reckon one day for every €50 which stays unpaid. Though, the substitute imprisonment must be at least one day, once a person is irrevocable convicted to a fine, its up to the public prosecutor to collect the fine. To do so, the cjib is established, first, the cjib will send the convict the fine
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Punishment
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Punishment may be self-inflicted as with self-flagellation and mortification of the flesh in the religious setting, but is most often a form of social coercion. The unpleasant imposition may include a fine, penalty, or confinement, the individual may be a person, or even an animal. The authority may be either a group or a single person, negative consequences that are not authorized or that are administered without a breach of rules are not considered to be punishment as defined here. Research into punishment often includes similar research into prevention, justifications for punishment include retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation. The last could include such measures as isolation, in order to prevent the wrongdoers having contact with potential victims, if only some of the conditions included in the definition of punishment are present, descriptions other than punishment may be considered more accurate. Inflicting something negative, or unpleasant, on a person or animal, in addition, the word punishment is used as a metaphor, as when a boxer experiences punishment during a fight. In other situations, breaking a rule may be rewarded, finally the condition of breaking the rules must be satisfied for consequences to be considered punishment. Corporal punishment refers to punishments in which pain is intended to be inflicted upon the transgressor. Punishments may be judged as fair or unfair in terms of their degree of reciprocity and proportionality to the offense, Punishment can be an integral part of socialization, and punishing unwanted behaviour is often part of a system of pedagogy or behavioral modification which also includes rewards. Various philosophers have presented definitions of punishment, introduced by B. F. Skinner, punishment has a more restrictive and technical definition. Along with reinforcement it belongs under the operant conditioning category, operant conditioning refers to learning with either punishment as a negative rienforcer or a reward that serves as a positive reinforcement of the lesson to be learned. In psychology, punishment is the reduction of a behavior via application of an unpleasant stimulus or removal of a pleasant stimulus, extra chores or spanking are examples of positive punishment, while removing an offending students recess or play privileges are examples of negative punishment. The definition requires that punishment is only determined after the fact by the reduction in behavior, if the behavior of the subject does not decrease. There is some conflation of punishment and aversives, though an aversion that does not decrease behavior is not considered punishment in psychology, additionally, aversive stimulus is a label behaviorists generally apply to negative reinforcers, rather than punishers. During a period of heavy fishing and tourism that encroached on their territory, they started to live in groups, learning from each other, especially hunting techniques. Small, younger octopuses could be near the fully grown octopuses without being eaten by them, even though they, the authors also note that the octopuses adopted observational learning without any evolutionary history of specialized adaptation for it. There are also arguments against the notion of punishment requiring intelligence, there is proof of honey bee workers with mutations that makes them fertile laying eggs only when other honey bees are not observing them, and that the few that are caught in the act are killed. The authors argue that this falsifies the claim that punishment evolved as a strategy to deal with individuals capable of knowing what they are doing, certain scientists argue that this disproves the notion of humans having a biological feeling of intentional transgressions deserving to be punished
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Illegal immigration
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Many countries have had or currently have laws restricting immigration. Whether a person is permitted to stay in a country legally may be decided by quotas or point systems or may be based on such as family ties. Article 13 on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares the right to any country, including ones own. Illegal immigration, as well as immigration in general, is overwhelmingly upward, however, it is also noted that illegal immigrants tend not to be the poorest within the populations they emigrate from. Living in another country illegally includes a variety of restrictions as well as the risk of being detained and deported or of facing other sanctions, if the status of being illegal is any way perceivable to host community residents, illigal migrants may additionally face visible or verbal disdain. There have been campaigns in many countries since 2007 discouraging the use of the illegal immigrant. They are generally based on the argument that the act of immigrating illegally does not make the people themselves illegal, however, related terms that do not directly describe people are still used. For example, Associated Press still uses the illegal immigration to describe the action of entering or residing in a country illegally. In contrast, in some contexts the term illegal immigrants is shortened, often pejoratively, there are multiple models that try to explain illegal immigration from the perspective of the immigrants. Gaining employment and legal status are mainly what is perceived as successful result of the illegal immigration, there are two contradicting views on the impact of illegal immigrants on the labor market in terms of competition between host community workers and newcomers. According to this view it is assumed that illegal workers tend to add to, and compete with, Illegal workers may find employment by accepting lower wages than host community workers, sometimes below the minimum wage and off-the-books. This may result in a downward spiralling of wages, economist George Borjas has calculated that real wages of US workers without a high school degree declined by 9% from 1980–2000 and claims that this was due to competition from illegal immigrants. Since the decline of middle-class blue-collar jobs in manufacturing and industry, in the US, only 12% of the labor force has less than high school education, but 70% of illegal workers from Mexico lack a high school degree. The majority of new blue-collar jobs qualify as Masseys underclass work, and suffer from unreliability, subservient roles and, critically, from this it is assumed that the willingness to take undesirable jobs is what gives illegal immigrants their employment. Entry-level white-collar and service jobs offer advancement opportunities only for people with work permits, however, the advantage decreases with the skill level of the firms workers, In recent years, developing countries have pursued the benefits of globalization by adopting measures to liberalize trade. Illegal immigrants are not impoverished by standards of the home country, the poorest classes in a developing country may lack the resources needed to mount an attempt to cross illegally, or the connections to friends or family already in the destination country. Other examples do show that increases in poverty, especially associated with immediate crises. It also marked the start of a swell in Mexican immigration
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Employment
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Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment, benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws or regulations or legal contracts, employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship. The main ways for employers to workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers and online. Employers and job seekers also find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees, a more traditional approach is with a Help Wanted sign in the establishment. Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skill to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments, employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of job interview. Training and development refers to the effort to equip a newly hired employee with necessary skills to perform at the job. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve job satisfaction. There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, in sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions, employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets, employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employee in addition to their wages or salaries. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover. Organizational justice is a perception and judgement of employers treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the relationship is also a part of organizational justice. Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working. Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time and this is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include such as notice periods, severance pay. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some jobs, some employees may have tenure
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United States Chamber of Commerce
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The United States Chamber of Commerce is a business-oriented American lobbying group. It is not an agency of the United States government, politically, the Chamber usually supports Republican political candidates, though it has occasionally supported conservative Democrats. The Chamber is the largest lobbying group in the U. S. spending more money than any other lobbying organization on a yearly basis. The U. S. Chamber of Commerces own history of itself describes it as originating from an April 22,1912, the Chamber was created by President Taft as a counterbalance to the labor movement of the time. In 1993, the Chamber lost several members over its support for Clintons healthcare reform efforts, the Chamber had chosen to support healthcare reform at that time due to the spiraling healthcare costs experienced by its members. However, House Republicans retaliated by urging boycotts of the organization, the Chamber operated its own cable television station, Biz-Net until 1997 in order to promote its policies. The Chamber shifted somewhat more to the right when Tom Donohue became head of the organization in 1997, by the time health care reform became a major issue again in 2010–2012, the organization opposed such efforts. The Washington, D. C. headquarters of the U. S. Chamber of Commerce occupies land that was formerly the home of Daniel Webster. S, Chamber of Commerce focuses on national issues at the federal government level. They also work closely with a number of youth organizations in the country about the value. In late 2011 it was revealed that the Chambers computer system was breached from November 2009 to May 2010 by Chinese hackers, the purpose of the breach appeared to be gain information related to the Chambers lobbying regarding Asian trade policy. Since a 1971 internal memo by Lewis Powell advocating a more active role in cases before United States Supreme Court, actively lobbies against anti-tobacco policies implemented in other countries. In particular, it attempts to carve out tobacco from the Investor-state dispute settlement mechanism negotiated under the Trans-Pacific Partnership agreement. Opposed to using the government shutdown and debt ceiling limit as negotiating tactics, supported the Stop Online Piracy Act. Support for business globalization, free trade, and offshoring, qualified opposition to financial regulation. The Chamber views some reform as necessary, but opposed the Dodd/Frank legislation that was passed, asserting that it would damage loan availability. Campaigned against portions of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act, opposes the DISCLOSE Act, which aims to limit foreign influence on U. S. elections. Opposed the Affordable Health Care for America Act, the Chamber emphasizes the economic impact of climate decisions. Supported the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, argued against mandatory immigration status checks by employers in Arizona including in a Supreme Court case. Filed an amicus brief to the U. S. Supreme Court in Citizens United v FEC and its position is opposed by some advocates for independent businesses
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Immigration
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As for economic effects, research suggests that migration is beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries. Studies show that the elimination of barriers to migration would have effects on world GDP. Development economists argue that reducing barriers to labor mobility between developing countries and developed countries would be one of the most efficient tools of poverty reduction. Research shows that country of origin matters for speed and depth of immigrant assimilation, many animals have migrated across evolutionary history, including pre-humans. Human migration started with the out of Africa into the Middle East, and then to Asia, Australia, Europe, Russia. This is discussed in the article pre-modern human migration, recent history is discussed in the articles history of human migration and human migration. When people cross national borders during their migration, they are called migrants or immigrants from the perspective of the country which they enter, from the perspective of the country which they leave, they are called emigrant or outmigrant. Sociology designates immigration usually as migration, as of 2015, the number of international migrants has reached 244 million worldwide, which reflects a 41% increase since 2000. One third of the worlds international migrants are living in just 20 countries, the largest number of international migrants live in the United States, with 19% of the worlds total. Germany and Russia host 12 million migrants each, taking the second, Saudi Arabia hosts 10 million migrants, followed by the United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates. Between 2000 and 2015, Asia added more international migrants than any major area in the world. Europe added the second largest with about 20 million, in most parts of the world, migration occurs between countries that are located within the same major area. In 2015, the number of international migrants below the age of 20 reached 37 million, while 177 million are between the ages of 20 and 64. International migrants living in Africa were the youngest, with an age of 29, followed by Asia, and Latin America/Caribbean, while migrants were older in Northern America, Europe. Nearly half of all international migrants originate in Asia, and Europe was the birthplace of the second largest number of migrants, india has the largest diaspora in the world, followed by Mexico and Russia. The other top desired destination countries were Canada, France, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Germany, one theory of immigration distinguishes between push and pull factors. Push factors refer primarily to the motive for immigration from the country of origin, in the case of economic migration, differentials in wage rates are common. If the value of wages in the new country surpasses the value of wages in ones country, he or she may choose to migrate
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Immigration to the United States
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It has been a major source of population growth and cultural change throughout much of the history of the United States. Prior to 1965, policies such as the national origins formula limited immigration and naturalization opportunities for people from areas outside Western Europe. Exclusion laws enacted as early as the 1880s generally prohibited or severely restricted immigration from Asia, the Civil Rights Movement led to the replacement of these ethnic quotas with per-country limits. Since then, the number of immigrants living in the United States has quadrupled. As for economic effects, research suggests that immigration to the United States is beneficial to the US economy, Research finds that immigration either has no impact on the crime rate or that it reduces the crime rate in the United States. Research shows that the United States excels at assimilating first- and second-generation immigrants relative to many other Western countries, American immigration history can be viewed in four epochs, the colonial period, the mid-19th century, the start of the 20th century, and post-1965. Each period brought distinct national groups, races and ethnicities to the United States, during the 17th century, approximately 400,000 English people migrated to Colonial America. Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America during the 17th and 18th centuries arrived as indentured servants, the mid-19th century saw mainly an influx from northern Europe, the early 20th-century mainly from Southern and Eastern Europe, post-1965 mostly from Latin America and Asia. Historians estimate that fewer than 1 million immigrants came to the United States from Europe between 1600 and 1799, the 1790 Act limited naturalization to free white persons, it was expanded to include blacks in the 1860s and Asians in the 1950s. In the early years of the United States, immigration was fewer than 8,000 people a year, from 1836 to 1914, over 30 million Europeans migrated to the United States. The death rate on these voyages was high, during which one in seven travelers died. In 1875, the nation passed its first immigration law, the Page Act of 1875, in the late 1800s, immigration from other Asian countries, especially to the West Coast, became more common. The peak year of European immigration was in 1907, when 1,285,349 persons entered the country, by 1910,13.5 million immigrants were living in the United States. In 1921, the Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act, followed by the Immigration Act of 1924, Immigration patterns of the 1930s were dominated by the Great Depression. In the final year,1929, there were 279,678 immigrants recorded. In the early 1930s, more people emigrated from the United States than to it, the U. S. government sponsored a Mexican Repatriation program which was intended to encourage people to voluntarily move to Mexico, but thousands were deported against their will. Altogether about 400,000 Mexicans were repatriated, most of the Jewish refugees fleeing the Nazis and World War II were barred from coming to the United States. In the post-war era, the Justice Department launched Operation Wetback, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, also known as the Hart-Cellar Act, abolished the system of national-origin quotas
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Labour economics
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Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labour. Labour markets or job markets function through the interaction of workers and employers, Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services and the demanders of labour services, and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. In economics, labour is a measure of the work done by human beings and it is conventionally contrasted with such other factors of production as land and capital. There are theories which have developed a concept called human capital, there are two sides to labour economics. Labour economics can generally be seen as the application of microeconomic or macroeconomic techniques to the labour market, microeconomic techniques study the role of individuals and individual firms in the labour market. Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the market, the goods market, the money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at how these interactions influence macro variables such as employment levels, participation rates, aggregate income, the labour force is defined as the number of people of working age, who are either employed or actively looking for work. The participation rate is the number of people in the force divided by the size of the adult civilian noninstitutional population. The unemployment level is defined as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed, the unemployment rate is defined as the level of unemployment divided by the labour force. The employment rate is defined as the number of people currently employed divided by the adult population, in these statistics, self-employed people are counted as employed. Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and they can be contrasted with flow variables which measure a quantity over a duration of time. Changes in the force are due to flow variables such as natural population growth, net immigration, new entrants. Technological advancement often reduces frictional unemployment, for example, internet search engines have reduced the cost, structural unemployment – This reflects a mismatch between the skills and other attributes of the labour force and those demanded by employers. The process of globalization has contributed to changes in labour markets. Natural rate of unemployment – This is the summation of frictional and structural unemployment and it is the lowest rate of unemployment that a stable economy can expect to achieve, given that some frictional and structural unemployment is inevitable. Economists do not agree on the level of the rate, with estimates ranging from 1% to 5%. The estimated rate varies from country to country and from time to time, demand deficient unemployment – In Keynesian economics, any level of unemployment beyond the natural rate is probably due to insufficient goods demand in the overall economy. During a recession, aggregate expenditure is deficient causing the underutilisation of inputs, neoclassical economists view the labour market as similar to other markets in that the forces of supply and demand jointly determine price and quantity
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History of immigration to the United States
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The history of immigration to the United States details the movement of people to the United States starting with the first European settlements from around 1600. Beginning around this time, British and other Europeans settled primarily on the east coast, Later Africans were imported as slaves. The United States experienced successive waves of immigration, particularly from Europe, Immigrants sometimes paid the cost of transoceanic transportation by becoming indentured servants after their arrival in the New World. Later, immigration rules became more restrictive, the ending of numerical restrictions occurred in 1965, recently, cheap air travel has increased immigration from Asia and Latin America. Attitudes toward new immigrants have cycled between favorable and hostile since the 1790s, in 1607 the first successful English colony settled in Jamestown, Virginia. Once tobacco was found to be a cash crop, many plantations were established along the Chesapeake Bay in Virginia. It brought Northern European immigrants, primarily of British, German, the British ruled from the mid-17th century and were by far the largest group of arrivals, remaining within the British Empire. Over 90% of these immigrants became farmers. Large numbers of men and women came alone as indentured servants. Their passage was paid by employers in the colonies who needed help on the farms or in shops, indentured servants were provided food, housing, clothing and training but did not receive wages. At the end of the indenture they were free to marry, seeking religious freedom in the New World, one hundred English Pilgrims established a small settlement near Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620. The earliest New English colonies, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, large scale immigration to this region ended before 1700, though a small but steady trickle of later arrivals continued. The New English colonists were the most urban and educated of all their contemporaries and they started the first university, Harvard, in 1635 to train their ministers. They mostly settled in villages for mutual support and common religious activity. Shipbuilding, commerce, agriculture, and fishing were their source of income. New Englands healthy climate, small villages, and abundant food supply resulted in the lowest death rate. The Eastern and Northern frontier around the initial New England settlements was mainly settled by the descendants of the original New Englanders, Immigration to the New England colonies after 1640 and the start of the English Civil War decreased to less than 1% in nearly all years prior to 1845. The rapid growth of the New England colonies was almost entirely due to the birth rate
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The Daily Signal
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The Daily Signal is an American political journalism news website founded in June 2014. The publication focuses on politics, policy, and culture and offers political commentary from a conservative perspective and it is published by conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation. The Daily Signal is a news publication created by American conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation based in Washington D. C. The publication reports on American politics and public issues, both foreign and domestic, with a focus on stories it believes to be unreported or under-reported. The site relies on original investigative reporting and aims to be a news source. It was created as an attempt to remedy what the organization saw as a lack of reporting on public policy issues from understaffed publications. The Daily Signal also includes an opinion section geared toward Millennial readers that features conservative commentary, entertainment and sports stories that relate to politics are also published by the site. As of 2014, the publication has a staff of 12, the editor-in-chief is Robert Bluey, former editor at Human Events and reporter for Cybercast News Service. Other key staff include Katrina Trinko, former National Review political reporter, who is the editor, and Sharyl Attkisson, former CBS News reporter. The Daily Signal is funded entirely by The Heritage Foundation, the publications initial annual budget was US$1 million. Prior to starting The Daily Signal, The Heritage Foundation ran two other publications, The Foundry, a blog, and Townhall. com, a news. Townhall. com was acquired by Salem Communications in 2005, while The Foundry was phased out following the advent of The Daily Signal, the Daily Signal was announced by The Heritage Foundation in May 2014. Atlantic Media Strategies was hired to design the site specifically for mobile phones, in its initial reception, the sites design and mission drew comparisons to Vox and FiveThirtyEight. The announcement was met with skepticism that the publication could be unbiased. It was also criticized for not having advertisers, the Heritage Foundation responded to these criticisms with understanding that The Daily Signal would have to prove its ability to produce fair journalism. The site was launched in June 2014. In September 2014, Sharyl Attkissons interview with former Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Raymond Maxwell was picked up by multiple outlets, including Fox News, CBS, Slate, and Daily News
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JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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Nationality law in the American Colonies
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English common law, under principles of jus sanguinis, viewed English persons and their children in the colonies as full subjects of the king. Issues in early naturalization policy stemmed from the relationships between England and its colonies. Private naturalization before Parliament afforded the highest legal status an alien resident could obtain in the colonies, however, it was an expensive process, costing applicants upwards of 50 pounds during the 1670s. Alternatively, aliens could seek royal denization, which was an accessible path to permanent residency yet conferred a lesser form of citizenship than private naturalization. Moreover, Parliament granted these privileges based on merit rather than on broader statutory decrees to maintain full control over admissions to the colonies. One key innovation of the statute was to reduce the application fee to just one schilling. Tory opposition to immigration policies led to the act’s eventual repeal in 1712. In light of the Tory position, Parliament faced growing pressure from the colonies to open immigration to fulfill its major need, each interested party promoted immigration in their own way. Colonial assemblies soon became active in work, and remained so throughout the colonial period. In 1740 Parliament responded with a liberal and enlightened policy that greatly eased and broadened the ability of aliens in the American colonies to become naturalized subjects of Britain. The Plantation Act 1740 supplanted the private naturalization process in which aliens in the colonies had to travel to London to appeal for subjectship on a costly, case-by-case basis. After 1740, aliens could locally apply for naturalization within the colonies so long as they had resided there for seven years or more, without being absent more than two consecutive months. Further, the Act encompassed all of British America, as opposed to the policy of only conferring subjectship within the colony from which it was requested. The Act also capped the application cost at two shillings, yet required applicants to take an oath of allegiance to the Crown and profess their Protestant belief in open court. As of 1773, at least 6,911 aliens had been naturalized under the 1740 Act, all of the colonial provinces, except for New Hampshire, developed their own naturalization policies outside of English law. These powers were presumed, as the colonial charters did not explicitly grant them. Under the 1701 Act of Settlement, Britain barred naturalized subjects from entering high political office, nonetheless, some colonies continued to permit this practice based on existing precedent, and as it was unclear whether the Parliamentary ban extended to the American colonies. Most colonies employed similar methods of naturalization that England employed, however, colonial legislation was more limited than that of Parliament, in that a colony could not create rights that extended beyond its own borders
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Plantation Act 1740
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The act also required making specific declarations concerning royal allegiance and succession, profession of the Christian faith, and the payment of two shillings. Compared to other alternatives available at the time, the act provided a cheap and easy method of imperial naturalization, reflecting the situation in Britain, the necessary profession of Christian faith was distinctly Protestant and specifically Anglican. The act was not intended for conscientious Roman Catholics, and they were referred to in the law as Papists, exceptions however for non-conforming religious scruples and conscience were made, in the case of Quakers and Jews. The Plantation Act was enacted to systematize naturalization procedures in all localities as well as to encourage immigration to the American colonies, the act provided a workable naturalization procedure by empowering colonial courts to administer the oath of allegiance to aliens. The secretaries of Colonies were required, under penalty, to send lists of such persons to the Commissioners of Trade. The act endowed colonial courts with the responsibility of deciding when alien petitioners had fulfilled the requirements for imperial citizenship. In proprietary colonies, the judges were appointed by colonial governors, despite the penalties imposed under the act, only six Secretaries of the thirteen American Colonies and one in the West Indies submitted the mandated lists. Over the same period, the American provinces passed their own naturalization laws. These laws were based more on local colonial interpretations of community citizenship than on stricter considerations in the mother-country, but they gave no rights beyond their borders. This situation was accepted as positive and workable in England. Britain began withdrawing support to promote immigration to the colonies at the end of the Seven Years War. The Navigation Acts were a target for evasion, since they were seen as acting more as restraint on both colonial naturalization and its peoples ability to take part fully in the economy. Colonial naturalization of aliens was outright forbidden in December 1773, under any conditions, a ban on royal land grants, initiated earlier in 1773, was made final in February 1774
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Naturalization Act of 1795
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The United States Naturalization Act of January 29,1795 repealed and replaced the Naturalization Act of 1790. The Act specified that naturalized citizenship was reserved only for free white person and it also changed the requirement in the 1790 Act of good character to read good moral character. Before 1795, immigration law was governed primarily by the Naturalization Act of 1790, immigrants intending to naturalize had to go to their local court and declare their intention at least three years prior to their formal application. The Act of 1795 was superseded by the Naturalization Act of 1798, statutes At Large, Third Congress, Session II, p.414
34.
Civil Rights Act of 1866
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The Civil Rights Act of 1866,14 Stat. 27-30, enacted April 9,1866, was the first United States federal law to define citizenship and it was mainly intended to protect the civil rights of persons of African descent born in or brought to America, in the wake of the American Civil War. This legislation was enacted by Congress in 1865 but vetoed by President Andrew Johnson, in April 1866 Congress again passed the bill. Although Johnson again vetoed it, a majority in each chamber overcame the veto. John Bingham and some other congressmen argued that Congress did not yet have sufficient constitutional power to enact this law, following passage of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868, Congress reenacted the 1866 Act in 1870. The author of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 was Senator Lyman Trumbull, do they mean that in all things civil, social, political, all citizens, without distinction of race or color, shall be equal. By no means can they be so construed, do they mean that all citizens shall vote in the several States. Nor do they mean that all citizens shall sit on the juries, the definition given to the term civil rights in Bouviers Law Dictionary is very concise, and is supported by the best authority. It is this, Civil rights are those which have no relation to the establishment, support, john Bingham was an influential supporter of this deletion, on the ground that courts might construe the term civil rights more broadly than people like Wilson intended. It could have no operation in Massachusetts, New York, Illinois, the next day, on April 5,1866, the Senate overrode President Johnsons veto. This marked the first time that the U. S. Congress ever overrode a veto for a major piece of legislation. A similar provision was written a few months later into the proposed Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Additionally, the Act guaranteed to all citizens the full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property, as is enjoyed by white citizens, and. The Act used language similar to that of the Equal Protection Clause in the newly proposed Fourteenth Amendment. This statute was a part of general federal policy during Reconstruction. This section of the United States Code, §1981, is based on one of the Civil Rights Act of 1866. John A. Bingham, principal author of the first section of the Fourteenth Amendment, was one of several Republicans who believed that Congress lacked power to pass the 1866 Act, in the 20th century, the U. S. In any event, there is no consensus that the language of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 actually purports to confer any legal benefits upon white citizens
35.
Naturalization Act of 1870
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The Naturalization Act of 1870 was a United States federal law that created a system of controls for the naturalization process and penalties for fraudulent practices. It is also noted for extending the process to aliens of African nativity. Due to anti-Chinese sentiment in the states, other non-white persons were not included in this act and remained excluded from naturalization. The act of 1870 was passed by the 41st United States Congress, although the act was enacted in the United States Congress during the Reconstruction Era, it is often not noted among the group of major legislative bills passed and enacted during that time period. Black Suffrage, Chinese Suffrage, and the Politics of Making the Naturalization Act of 1870, the Trial of Democracy, Black Suffrage and Northern Republicans, 1860-1910. Athens, Georgia, University of Georgia Press, provides a brief overview of the importance of the Naturalization Act of 1870 among Congressmen during the era of Reconstruction. It also traces the history of bill H. R.2201 in Congress during 1870
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