1.
AkzoNobel
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Akzo Nobel N. V. trading as AkzoNobel, is a Dutch multinational company, which creates everyday essentials. Headquartered in Amsterdam, the company has activities in more than 80 countries, sales in 2016 were EUR14.2 billion. Following the acquisition of ICI, the company restructured on 2 January 2008, AkzoNobel consists of three main business areas, as well as corporate functions, with business responsibility and autonomy. The ExCo includes Chairman and CEO Ton Büchner, CFO Maëlys Castella, Marten Booisma, Sven Dumoulin, Werner Fuhrmann, Ruud Joosten, the board holds office in Amsterdam. Prior to August 2007, the Executive Committee was headquartered in Arnhem, due to high revenues from the sales of its pharmaceutical business, AkzoNobel was the worlds most profitable company in 2008. AkzoNobel is a coatings company whose key products include automotive coatings, specialised equipment for the car repair and transportation market. As chemicals producer, AkzoNobel is a leading salt specialist, chloralkali products. Ultimately, AkzoNobel products are found in items such as paper, ice cream, bakery goods, cosmetics, plastics. Each business unit has a turnover of approx EUR1.000 –1.900 million. AkzoNobel has a history of mergers and divestments. Parts of the current company can be traced back to 17th century companies, in 1887 Zwanenberg, a pharmaceutical laboratory based in Oss was established. In 1965, the acquired the chemical company, Kortman and Schulte. In 1967 KZO merged with Koninklijke Zout Ketjen - itself the result of a merger of Ketjen and Koninklijke Nederlandse Zoutindustrie - and acquired Sikkens Lakken, in 1929 Vereinigte Glanzstoff Fabrike and Nederlandse Kunstzijdefabriek merged, forming Algemene Kunstzijde Unie. The latter, known as the ENKA, is acknowledged as the parent of AkzoNobel. Jacques Coenraad Hartogs, the founder of the Nederlandse Kunstzijdefabriek, turned to Dutch industrialist and friend and they created a joint venture, the NV I. S. E. M. Whose success and profits laid the foundation for the ENKAs subsequent acquistions and mergers, NV I. S. E. M. was absorbed by the AKU in 1938 with Hofstede Crulls death. In 1969 Algemene Kunstzijde Unie and Koninklijke Zout Organon merged, forming Akzo, in 1993, Akzo formed a joint venture with Harrisons Chemicals Ltd a subsidiary of Harrisons & Crosfield. In 1646 the Swedish weapons manufacturer Bofors was established in Karlskoga, in 1893 the company became majority owned by famed Swedish Chemist, Alfred Nobel
2.
Alfred Mond, 1st Baron Melchett
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Alfred Moritz Mond, 1st Baron Melchett, PC, FRS, DL, known as Sir Alfred Mond, Bt, between 1910 and 1928, was a British industrialist, financier and politician. In his later life he became an active Zionist and he was educated at Cheltenham College and St. Johns College, Cambridge, but failed his natural sciences tripos. He then studied law at Edinburgh University and was called to the bar by the Inner Temple in 1894, following this he joined his fathers business, Brunner Mond & Company as director, later becoming its managing director. He was also managing director of his fathers other company the Mond Nickel Company, other directorships included those of the International Nickel Corporation of Canada, the Westminster Bank and the Industrial Finance Investment Corporation. His major business achievement was in 1926 working to create the merger of four companies to form Imperial Chemical Industries one of the worlds largest industrial corporations at the time. Mond was also involved in politics and sat as Liberal Member of Parliament for Chester from 1906 to 1910, for Swansea from 1910 to 1918 and for Swansea West from 1918 to 1923. He served in the government of David Lloyd George as First Commissioner of Works from 1916 to 1921. He later switched party and represented Carmarthen from 1924 to 1928, Mond was created a Baronet, of Hartford Hill in Great Budworth in the County of Chester, in 1910, and was admitted to the Privy Council in 1913. In 1928 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Melchett, monds father had bequeathed a collection of old master paintings to the National Gallery and Alfred provided housing for them in 1924. In 1929 he provided land in Chelsea for the Chelsea Health Society and he became President of the British Zionist Foundation and made financial contributions to Zionist causes. He was the first President of the Technion in 1925, Melchett founded the town of Tel Mond, now in Israel. Melchett also started building what is now one of the few houses on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. Tel Aviv and several other Israeli cities have a Melchett Street commemorating him, in 1894 Mond married Violet Goetze and they had one son, Henry Ludwig, and three daughters. Mond died in his London home in 1930, and his son succeeded in the barony, industry and Politics Imperial Economic Unity Mond is mentioned in T. S. Eliots 1920 poem A Cooking Egg. Mond is also considered to be the inspiration behind Mustapha Mond. Ludwig Mond Award Melchett Medal Mond gas Brunner Mond & Co, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Alfred Mond Portraits of Alfred Mond, 1st Baron Melchett at the National Portrait Gallery, London
3.
John Harvey-Jones
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Sir John Harvey-Jones MBE was an English businessman. He was the chairman of Imperial Chemical Industries from 1982 to 1987 and he was best known by the public for his BBC television show, Troubleshooter, in which he advised struggling businesses. John Henry Harvey-Jones was born in Hackney, London, but spent most of his childhood in Dhar, India. He was shipped back to Britain at age six to attend a school at Deal. He entered Dartmouth Royal Naval College at age 13, Harvey-Jones joined Dartmouth Royal Naval College as a cadet in 1937, and in 1940, at the age of 16, he joined HMS Diomede as a midshipman. The next two ships that he served with, HMS Ithuriel and HMS Quentin, were sunk by enemy action, Harvey-Jones went on to join the submarine service in 1942, and received his first command at age 24. With the end of World War II, Harvey-Jones went to the University of Cambridge to learn Russian in six months, in 1973, at age 49, he was promoted to sit on the main board of directors. In April 1982, he became chairman of ICI, only the second split-career man, mentored in part by John Adair, Harvey-Jones saw his responsibilities to both stockholders and employees as making a profit out of the markets where the market is. He maintained a belief in speed rather than direction, on the assumption that once travelling a company can veer. After only 30 months in the job, having cut the UK workforce by one third, he had doubled the price of ICI shares and turned a loss into a one billion pound profit. According to one newspaper, it was the BBCs Troubleshooter series, first broadcast in 1990 and it ran to five series and several specials in the 1990s and also won him a BAFTA award. His advice was at times controversial – in particular he was critical of the Morgan Motor Company, in 1989, he became chairman of The Economist, was a non-executive director of Grand Metropolitan plc, and honorary vice-president of the Institute of Marketing. Harvey-Jones was also chairman of the Burns-Anderson Group plc, a conglomerate spanning merchant banking, financial services, recruitment, marketing and business services, between 1986 and 1991, Harvey-Jones served as the second Chancellor of the University of Bradford. A commemorative painting exists in the University of Bradford collection, and he was chairman of the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust and member of the Advisory Council of the Princes Trust. In 2001, he became the president of the MS Trust, described by The Guardian as one of the best-known British advocates of Transcendental Meditation, Harvey-Jones said, I dont make a drama out of a crisis. If I gave it up now, my wife would leave me, having lived most of his post-retirement period in Ross-on-Wye, he died in his sleep after a long illness, aged 83, at the Hereford County Hospital. In 1952 he was awarded a military MBE for his work in Naval Intelligence, in 1985 he was voted Britains most impressive industrialist by company directors interviewed for MORIs annual Captains of Industry survey. He was knighted for services to industry in 1985, in 1986,1987 and 1988, he received the title of Industrialist of the Year
4.
Earnings before interest and taxes
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In accounting and finance, earnings before interest and taxes, is a measure of a firms profit that includes all expenses except interest and income tax expenses. It is the difference between operating revenues and operating expenses, when a firm does not have non-operating income, then operating income is sometimes used as a synonym for EBIT and operating profit. To calculate EBIT, expenses are subtracted from revenues, net income is later obtained by subtracting interest and taxes from the result
5.
Net income
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In business, net income is an entitys income minus cost of goods sold, expenses and taxes for an accounting period. In the context of the presentation of financial statements, the IFRS Foundation defines net income as synonymous with profit, net income is a distinct accounting concept from profit but the same as net profit. Net income can also be calculated by adding a companys operating income to non-operating income, net income can be distributed among holders of common stock as a dividend or held by the firm as an addition to retained earnings. As profit and earnings are used synonymously for income, net earnings, often, the term income is substituted for net income, yet this is not preferred due to the possible ambiguity. Net income is called the bottom line because it is typically found on the last line of a companys income statement. The items deducted will typically include tax expense, financing expense, likewise, preferred stock dividends will be subtracted too, though they are not an expense. For a merchandising company, subtracted costs may be the cost of goods sold, sales discounts, for a product company advertising, manufacturing, and design and development costs are included
6.
Millbank
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Millbank is an area of central London in the City of Westminster. Millbank is located by the River Thames, east of Pimlico, Millbank is known as the location of major government offices, the Millbank Tower and prominent art institutions such as Tate Britain and the Chelsea College of Art and Design. The area derives its name from a watermill owned by Westminster Abbey that once stood at a close to present day College Green. Described as a place of plague pits and a low, marshy locality suitable for shooting snipe in the nearby bogs, facilities at the prison camp on the marshy ground were so poor that 1,200 prisoners were recorded as having died in the primitive conditions. Baltic Wharf, a site just to the north of Vauxhall Bridge, was for much of the 19th century the location of a Henry Castle & Son, a ship breaking and timber merchant. Numerous wooden ships of the line of the Royal Navy were dismantled at this location, their ornate figureheads often displayed on the gates and perimeter of the yard walls. Millbank shares the name of the road along the north bank of the River Thames, extending northwards from Vauxhall Bridge to Abingdon Street. There are parliamentary offices situated across this road, notably No.7, the road was created as part of the Thames Embankment in the mid 19th century and lies above a large interceptor sewer. The listed site has since been renovated as a purpose built arts college for the Chelsea College of Art, the Tate Britain art gallery is directly opposite near the end of Vauxhall Bridge, providing a distinct arts presence in the area. The headquarters of the British chemicals giant ICI was originally located at Imperial Chemical House on Millbank before it relocated to Manchester Square, the headquarters for the Northern Ireland Office, MI5 and Thames House are also nearby. On 18 December 1973, the Provisional Irish Republican Army exploded a bomb on Thorney Street at 8, the bomb resulted in over 50 people injured, including two seriously. Millbank Studios reside in the area as an independent broadcast company, the studio is situated opposite the Houses of Parliament. The BBC Parliament broadcasting channel is situated nearby. No.4 is the commonly used by broadcasters for producing coverage of the Westminster area, including the BBC, Sky News. RTÉ News and Current Affairs also have their London bureau at the same location, neighbouring College Green is used as a setting for interviewing politicians outdoors. Millbank Estate is a large but highly regarded Grade II-listed red-brick housing estate that gives the area behind Tate Britain a distinct character, the estate was built between 1897 and 1902, the bricks being recycled from Millbank Prison, which had closed in 1890. The 17 buildings, comprising one of Londons earliest social housing schemes, are named after distinguished painters such as Turner, Gainsborough, Millais, the estate has 562 flats, all managed on behalf of Westminster City Council by MEMO, the largest tenant management organisation in Westminster. The estates management board is elected annually from the resident population, half of the estates flats are private leaseholds, the other half are rented from Westminster City Council
7.
Polymer
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A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
8.
Henkel
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Henkel AG & Company, KGaA, is a German chemical and consumer goods company headquartered in Düsseldorf, Germany. It is a company active both in the consumer and industrial sector. Founded in 1876, the DAX30 company is organized into three globally operating business units and is known for such as Loctite, Persil. In the fiscal year 2015, Henkel reported sales of 18.1 billion euros, more than 80 percent of its about 50,000 employees work outside of Germany. The company was founded in 1876 in Aachen as Henkel & Cie by Fritz Henkel and they marketed his first product, Universalwaschmittel, a universal detergent based on silicate. In 1878, to advantage of the better transport links and sales opportunities. Düsseldorf was the gateway to the Ruhr region, which became the most important industrial area of the German Empire from the 19th century onward and that year, the first German brand-name detergent appeared, Henkels Bleich-Soda, an affordably-priced product supplied in sturdy paper bags. Made from water-glass and soda, it was the result of Fritz Henkels own research, the soda was obtained from Matthes & Weber in Duisburg. In 1879, Fritz Henkel was entered as the owner in the register of companies. Sales of Henkels Bleaching Soda increased so rapidly that within just one year the factory on the Schützenstraße in Düsseldorf was unable to meet the demand. Fritz Henkel decided to build his own factory with a railway link, in 1883, to improve liquidity and make better use of the companys travelling sales staff, Fritz Henkel decided to sell merchandise in addition to his detergents. The range included the colorant ultramarine, gloss starch, a cleaning agent, a pomade for cleaning, beef extract. Very soon Henkel developed its international presence—in 1886, Henkel opened its first international office in Austria. Carl Pathe had gone to Vienna as a representative the year before, in 1893, Henkel established its first business links with England and Italy. In 1903, Schwarzkopf founded by Hans Schwarzkopf launched a powder shampoo, Persil came in 1907 as the first “self-acting laundry detergent”. Henkel has been a business since the beginning. In 1893, Fritz Henkel, Jr. joined the firm as an apprentice, after receiving commercial training he became his fathers right-hand man in commercial matters. He put Henkels brand-name product business on a footing, developed its already successful advertising still further and was responsible for the companys field service
9.
Tata Chemicals Europe
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Tata Chemicals Europe is a UK-based chemicals company that is a subsidiary of Tata Chemicals Limited, itself a part of the India-based Tata Group. Its principal products are soda ash, sodium bicarbonate, calcium chloride, the original company was formed as a partnership in 1873 by John Brunner and Ludwig Mond. They built Winnington Works in Northwich, Cheshire and produced their first soda ash in 1874, in 1911 it acquired soap and fat manufacturer Joseph Crosfield and Sons and Gossage, another soap company that owned palm plantations. A few years later it sold the soap and chemical businesses to Unilever, in 1917, the companys TNT factory in Silvertown, London exploded having caught fire. Alfred Mond – son of Ludwig and Chairman of Brunner Mond – was a key figure along with Harry McGowan of Nobels in bringing this merger about, during the early 20th century the company built managers and workers houses in nearby Hartford. In 1991 Brunner Mond Holdings Limited was formed by the break-off of the UK and this saw the return of the Brunner Mond name to the stock market but was unrelated to the original enterprise in all but name. In 1998 the company acquired the soda ash production capabilities of Akzo Nobel in The Netherlands to form Brunner Mond B. V. now a wholly owned company of the group. Brunner Mond was purchased by Tata Chemicals in 2006, in April 2011 Brunner Mond was re-branded as Tata Chemicals Europe. Solvay process Silvertown explosion Mond gas Timeline of hydrogen technologies Ludwig Mond Award Melchett Medal Baron Melchett Robert Mond Brunner Mond website Magadi Soda website
10.
Imperial Chemical House
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Imperial Chemical House is a Grade II listed building situated on Millbank, London, England, near the west end of Lambeth Bridge. It was designed by Sir Frank Baines in the style of the inter-war years. Thames House, the next building south along Millbank, across Horseferry Road, was designed by Baines. Both buildings were built to house offices for the newly formed ICI, created in 1926 after the mergers of Nobel Industries, United Alkali, British Dyestuffs, the buildings were completed in the aftermath of the 1928 Thames flood, and Lambeth Bridge was also replaced. Imperial Chemical House was divided in 1987 to create Norwest House at 9 Millbank, ICI moved out in the 1990s. Imperial Chemical House has five storeys, with a four-storey attic. It was constructed on a frame, with the ground floor façades faced in grey granite. The higher floors are faced in Portland stone, rusticated on the second to fifth stories, to the rear, part of the building faces onto Smith Square. The six door panels on the left showing scenes of primitive man, the three main façades are decorated with giant niches spanning the fourth and fifth storeys, five on the Millbank façade, one on the corner splay, and one on Horseferry Road. Giant pilasters on the span the first to fifth storeys. Above the fifth storey is an entablature, with balustrade on the parapet above bearing carved allegorical figures in Portland stone, the figures were sculpted by Charles Sargeant Jagger, and represent the industries of construction, marine transport, for agriculture, and chemistry. Portions of giant order Ionic colonnade span the second and third storey on the Millbank façade. The building was occupied by ICI from the 1920s to the 1990s and it originally contained some 700 rooms, covering 2.8 hectares, with a floor area of 34,000 square metres, arranged around three large light wells. ICI moved out after the demerger of AstraZeneca in 1992, Imperial Chemical House became a grade II listed building in 1981. In 1987, the listing was amended to refer to Norwest House and it is currently occupied by Ofgem. Nobel House at 17 Smith Square has been leased to the government since 1987 and it is currently the headquarters of the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, between Kings Buildings and Transport House. A proposal has made to recombine Norwest House and Nobel House, and convert then to the block and Ergon House
11.
DuPont
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In the 20th century, DuPont developed many polymers such as Vespel, neoprene, nylon, Corian, Teflon, Mylar, Kapton, Kevlar, Zemdrain, M5 fiber, Nomex, Tyvek, Sorona, Corfam, and Lycra. DuPont developed Freon for the refrigerant industry, and later more environmentally friendly refrigerants and it also developed synthetic pigments and paints including ChromaFlair. In 2014, DuPont was the fourth largest chemical company based on market capitalization. Its stock price is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average, DuPont was founded in 1802 by Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, using capital raised in France and gunpowder machinery imported from France. It began as a manufacturer of gunpowder, as du Pont noticed that the industry in North America was lagging behind Europe, the Eleutherian Mills site is now a museum and a National Historic Landmark. DuPont continued to expand, moving into the production of dynamite, in 1902, DuPonts president, Eugene du Pont, died, and the surviving partners sold the company to three great-grandsons of the original founder. Charles Lee Reese was appointed as director and the company began centralizing their research departments, the company subsequently purchased several smaller chemical companies, and in 1912 these actions gave rise to government scrutiny under the Sherman Antitrust Act. The courts declared that the dominance of the explosives business constituted a monopoly. The court ruling resulted in the creation of the Hercules Powder Company, at the time of divestment, DuPont retained the single base nitrocellulose powders, while Hercules held the double base powders combining nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. DuPont subsequently developed the Improved Military Rifle line of smokeless powders, in 1910, DuPont published a brochure entitled Farming with Dynamite. DuPont also established two of the first industrial laboratories in the United States, where began the work on cellulose chemistry, lacquers. DuPont Central Research was established at the DuPont Experimental Station, across the Brandywine Creek from the powder mills. In 1914, Pierre S. du Pont invested in the automobile industry. The following year he was invited to sit on GMs board of directors, the DuPont company would assist the struggling automobile company further with a $25 million purchase of GM stock. In 1920, Pierre S. du Pont was elected president of General Motors, under du Ponts guidance, GM became the number one automobile company in the world. However, in 1957, because of DuPonts influence within GM, in the 1920s, DuPont continued its emphasis on materials science, hiring Wallace Carothers to work on polymers in 1928. Carothers invented neoprene, a rubber, the first polyester superpolymer. The invention of Teflon followed a few years later, DuPont introduced phenothiazine as an insecticide in 1935
12.
IG Farben
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IG Farben was a German chemical and pharmaceutical industry conglomerate. Its name is taken from Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AktienGesellschaft, the company was formed in 1925 from a number of major chemical companies that had been working together closely since World War I. During its heyday, IG Farben was both the largest company in Europe overall and the largest chemical and pharmaceutical company in the world, IG Farben scientists made fundamental contributions to all areas of chemistry and the pharmaceutical industry. Notably IG Farben scientists discovered the first antibiotic, fundamentally reformed medical research, otto Bayer discovered the polyaddition for the synthesis of polyurethane in 1937. Several IG Farben scientists were awarded Nobel Prizes, Carl Bosch and Friedrich Bergius were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1931 in recognition of their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods. Gerhard Domagk was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1939 for the discovery of the effects of prontosil. Kurt Alder was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1950 for his discovery, following the Nazi takeover of Germany, the company became embroiled in the Nazi regimes policies as a large government contractor. In 1951, IG Farben was split into its four largest original constituent companies, the current main successor companies are AGFA, BASF, Bayer and Sanofi. IG Farben was founded on 9 December 1925, as a merger of the six companies. Weiler Ter Meer At the beginning of the 20th century, the German chemical industry dominated the market for synthetic dyes. Weiler-ter Meer concentrated on high-quality specialty dyes, in 1913, these eight firms produced almost 90% of the world supply of dyestuffs and sold about 80% of their production abroad. Because of this situation, the economic historian Alfred Chandler called the German dye companies the worlds first truly managerial industrial enterprises. With the world market for synthetic dyes and other chemical products dominated by the German industry, although cartels were attempted, they lasted at most for a few years. Others argued for the formation of a pool or Interessen-Gemeinschaft. In contrast, the chairman of Bayer, Carl Duisberg, argued for a merger. During a trip to the United States in the spring of 1903 he had visited several of the large American trusts such as Standard Oil, U. S. Steel, International Paper and Alcoa. In 1904, after having returned to Germany he proposed a merger of the producers of dye and pharmaceuticals in a memorandum to Gustav von Brüning. Hoechst and several pharmaceutical firms refused to join, instead, Hoechst and Cassella made an alliance based on mutual equity stakes in 1904
13.
Chemical industry
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The chemical industry comprises the companies that produce industrial chemicals. Central to the world economy, it converts raw materials into more than 70,000 different products. The plastics industry contains some overlap, as most chemical companies produce plastic as well as other chemicals, although chemicals were made and used throughout history, the birth of the heavy chemical industry coincided with the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution in general. One of the first chemicals to be produced in large amounts through industrial process was sulfuric acid, in 1736, the pharmacist Joshua Ward developed a process for its production that involved heating saltpeter, allowing the sulfur to oxidize and combine with water. It was the first practical production of acid on a large scale. John Roebuck and Samuel Garbett were the first to establish a factory in Prestonpans, Scotland, in 1749. In the early 18th century, cloth was bleached by treating it with urine or sour milk and exposing it to sunlight for long periods of time. His powder was made by reacting chlorine with dry slaked lime and proved to be a cheap and he opened a factory in St Rollox, north of Glasgow, and production went from just 52 tons in 1799 to almost 10,000 tons just five years later. Soda ash was used since ancient times in the production of glass, textile, soap, and paper, and the source of the potash had traditionally been wood ashes in Western Europe. By the 18th century, this source was becoming uneconomical due to deforestation, the Leblanc process was patented in 1791 by Nicolas Leblanc who then built a Leblanc plant at Saint-Denis. He was denied his prize money because of the French Revolution, however, it was in Britain that the Leblanc process really took off. William Losh built the first soda works in Britain at the Losh, Wilson and Bell works on the River Tyne in 1816, when these tariffs were repealed, the British soda industry was able to rapidly expand. James Muspratts chemical works in Liverpool and Charles Tennants complex near Glasgow became the largest chemical production centres anywhere, by the 1870s, the British soda output of 200,000 tons annually exceeded that of all other nations in the world combined. These huge factories began to produce a diversity of chemicals as the Industrial Revolution matured. Originally, large quantities of waste were vented into the environment from the production of soda. This provided for inspection of the factories and imposed heavy fines on those exceeding the limits on pollution. Methods were soon devised to make useful byproducts from the alkali, the Solvay process was developed by the Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay in 1861. In 1864, Solvay and his brother Alfred constructed a plant in the Belgian town of Charleroi and in 1874, they expanded into a plant in Nancy
14.
Fertilizer
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A fertilizer or fertiliser is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants and this goal is met in two ways, the traditional one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilizers act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and aeration and this article, like many on fertilizers, emphasises the nutritional aspect. The nutrients required for plant life are classified according to the elements. Instead compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers, the macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0. 15% to 6. 0% on a dry matter basis. Plants are made up of four elements, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide, although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA, to be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a fixed form. Only some bacteria and their host plants can fix atmospheric nitrogen by converting it to ammonia, phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids. Micronutrients are consumed in quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts-per-million, ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM. These elements are present at the active sites of enzymes that carry out the plants metabolism. Because these elements enable catalysts their impact far exceeds their weight percentage, Fertilizers are classified in several ways. They are classified according to whether they provide a single nutrient, multinutrient fertilizers provide two or more nutrients, for example N and P. Fertilizers are also sometimes classified as inorganic versus organic. Inorganic fertilizers exclude carbon-containing materials except ureas, organic fertilizers are usually plant- or animal-derived matter. Inorganic are sometimes called synthetic fertilizers since various chemical treatments are required for their manufacture, the main nitrogen-based straight fertilizer is ammonia or its solutions. Ammonium nitrate is widely used. Urea is another source of nitrogen, having the advantage that it is solid and non-explosive, unlike ammonia and ammonium nitrate. A few percent of the fertilizer market has been met by calcium ammonium nitrate
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Insecticide
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An insecticide is a substance used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to be a factor behind the increase in agricultural 20th centurys productivity. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems, many are toxic to humans, Insecticides can be classified in two major groups, systemic insecticides, which have residual or long term activity, and contact insecticides, which have no residual activity. Furthermore, one can distinguish three types of insecticide, natural insecticides, such as nicotine, pyrethrum and neem extracts, made by plants as defenses against insects. Organic insecticides, which are chemical compounds, mostly working by contact. The mode of action describes how the pesticide kills or inactivates a pest and it provides another way of classifying insecticides. Mode of action is important in understanding whether an insecticide will be toxic to unrelated species, such as fish, birds, Insecticides are distinct from insect repellents, which do not kill. Systemic insecticides become incorporated and distributed throughout the whole plant. When insects feed on the plant, they ingest the insecticide, systemic insecticides produced by transgenic plants are called plant-incorporated protectants. For instance, a gene that codes for a specific Bacillus thuringiensis biocidal protein was introduced into corn, the plant manufactures the protein, which kills the insect when consumed. Contact insecticides are toxic to insects upon direct contact and these can be inorganic insecticides, which are metals and include arsenates, copper and fluorine compounds, which are less commonly used, and the commonly used sulfur. Contact insecticides can be organic insecticides, i. e. organic chemical compounds, synthetically produced, or they can be natural compounds like pyrethrum, neem oil etc. Contact insecticides usually have no residual activity, efficacy can be related to the quality of pesticide application, with small droplets, such as aerosols often improving performance. Many organic compounds are produced by plants for the purpose of defending the host plant from predation, a trivial case is tree rosin, which is a natural insecticide. Specific, the production of oleoresin by conifer species is a component of the response against insect attack. Many fragrances, e. g. oil of wintergreen, are in fact antifeedants, the technique has been expanded to include the use of RNA interference RNAi that fatally silences crucial insect genes. RNAi likely evolved as a defense against viruses, midgut cells in many larvae take up the molecules and help spread the signal
16.
Dye
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A dye is a colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. The dye is applied in an aqueous solution, and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber. Both dyes and pigments are colored because they absorb some wavelengths of light more than others, in contrast to dyes, pigments are insoluble and have no affinity for the substrate. Some dyes can be precipitated with a salt to produce a lake pigment. The majority of natural dyes are from plant sources, roots, berries, bark, leaves, and wood, fungi, textile dyeing dates back to the Neolithic period. Throughout history, people have dyed their textiles using common, locally available materials, scarce dyestuffs that produced brilliant and permanent colors such as the natural invertebrate dyes Tyrian purple and crimson kermes were highly prized luxury items in the ancient and medieval world. Plant-based dyes such as woad, indigo, saffron, and madder were raised commercially and were important trade goods in the economies of Asia, across Asia and Africa, patterned fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques to control the absorption of color in piece-dyed cloth. Dyes from the New World such as cochineal and logwood were brought to Europe by the Spanish treasure fleets, dyed flax fibers have been found in the Republic of Georgia in a prehistoric cave dated to 36,000 BP. Archaeological evidence shows that, particularly in India and Phoenicia, dyeing has been carried out for over 5,000 years. The dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral origin, by far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, but only a few have ever been used on a commercial scale. The discovery of synthetic dyes late in the 19th century ended the large-scale market for natural dyes. These dyes are made from synthetic resources such as petroleum by-products, the first human-made organic aniline dye, mauveine, was discovered serendipitously by William Henry Perkin in 1856, the result of a failed attempt at the total synthesis of quinine. Other aniline dyes followed, such as fuchsine, safranine, many thousands of synthetic dyes have since been prepared. These may be natural or synthetic, other than pigmentation, they have a range of applications including organic dye lasers, optical media and camera sensors. This is the basic classification Dyes are classified according to their solubility, acid dyes are water-soluble anionic dyes that are applied to fibers such as silk, wool, nylon and modified acrylic fibers using neutral to acid dye baths. Attachment to the fiber is attributed, at least partly, to salt formation between anionic groups in the dyes and cationic groups in the fiber, acid dyes are not substantive to cellulosic fibers. Most synthetic food colors fall in this category, basic dyes are water-soluble cationic dyes that are mainly applied to acrylic fibers, but find some use for wool and silk. Usually acetic acid is added to the dye bath to help the uptake of the dye onto the fiber, basic dyes are also used in the coloration of paper
17.
Phthalocyanine
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Phthalocyanine is an intensely blue-green-coloured aromatic macrocyclic compound that is widely used in dyeing. Phthalocyanines form coordination complexes with most elements of the periodic table and these complexes are also intensely colored and also are used as dyes or pigments. Unsubstituted phthalocyanine, abbreviated H 2Pc, and many of its complexes have low solubility in organic solvents. Benzene at 40 °C dissolves less than a milligram of H 2Pc or CuPc per litre, H 2Pc or CuPc dissolve easily in sulfuric acid due to the protonation of the nitrogen atoms bridging the pyrrole rings. Many phthalocyanine compounds are very stable, do not melt but can be sublimed. Substituted phthalocyanine complexes often have higher solubility. They are less stable and often can not be sublimed. Unsubstituted phthalocyanines strongly absorb light between 600 and 700 nm, thus these materials are blue or green, substitution can shift the absorption towards longer wavelengths, changing the color from pure blue to green to colorless. Phthalocyanines are structurally related to other macrocyclic pigments, especially the porphyrins, both feature four pyrrole-like subunits linked to form a 16-membered ring. The pyrrole-like rings within H 2Pc are closely related to isoindole, both porphyrins and phthalocyanines function as planar tetradentate dianionic ligands that bind metals through four inwardly projecting nitrogen centers. Such complexes are formally derivatives of Pc2−, the base of H 2Pc. An unidentified blue compound, which is now known to be metal-free phthalocyanine, was first reported in 1907 and they remarked on the enormous stability of these complexes but did not further characterize these blue complexes. In the same year, copper phthalocyanine was also discovered at Scottish Dyes, Phthalocyanine forms upon heating phthalic acid derivatives that contain nitrogen functional groups. Classical precursors are phthalonitrile and diiminoisoindole, in the presence of urea, the heating of phthalanhydride is a useful route to H2Pc. These reactions are more efficient in the presence of metal salts, other precursors include o-cyanobenzamide and phthalimide. Several of these materials are shown in the figure below. Using such methods, approximately 57000 tonnes of various phthalocyanines were produced in 1985, halogenated and sulfonated derivatives of copper phthalocyanines are commercially important. Such compounds are prepared by treating CuPc with chlorine, bromine or oleum, approximately 25% of all artificial organic pigments are phthalocyanine derivatives
18.
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
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The same material can be utilised as a casting resin, in inks and coatings, and has many other uses. Chemically, it is the polymer of methyl methacrylate. PMMA is an alternative to polycarbonate when extreme strength is not necessary. Additionally, PMMA does not contain the potentially harmful bisphenol-A subunits found in polycarbonate and it is often preferred because of its moderate properties, easy handling and processing, and low cost. The first acrylic acid was created in 1843, methacrylic acid, derived from acrylic acid, was formulated in 1865. The reaction between acid and methanol results in the ester methyl methacrylate. In 1877 the German chemist Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig discovered the process that turns methyl methacrylate into polymethyl methacrylate. In 1933, the brand name Plexiglas was patented and registered by another German chemist, in 1936 Imperial Chemical Industries began the first commercially viable production of acrylic safety glass. During World War II both Allied and Axis forces used acrylic glass for submarine periscopes and aircraft windshields, canopies, common orthographic stylings include polymethyl methacrylate and polymethylmethacrylate. The full chemical name is poly, although often called simply acrylic, acrylic can also refer to other polymers or copolymers containing polyacrylonitrile. The other notable names include, Acrylite, a trademark of Evonik Cyro since 1976 Lucite, a trademark of DuPont, first registered in 1937 R-Cast. Founded in 1987 after spinning off from Reynolds & Taylor and they specialize in large scale and thick monolithic acrylic. Plexiglas, a trademark of ELF Atochem, now a subsidiary of Arkema in the US, generally, radical initiation is used, but anionic polymerization of PMMA can also be performed. To produce 1 kg of PMMA, about 2 kg of petroleum is needed, PMMA produced by radical polymerization is atactic and completely amorphous. The glass transition temperature of atactic PMMA is 105 °C, PMMA is thus an organic glass at room temperature, i. e. it is below its Tg. The forming temperature starts at the transition temperature and goes up from there. All common molding processes may be used, including molding, compression molding. The highest quality PMMA sheets are produced by casting, but in this case
19.
Dulux
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Dulux is an internationally available brand of architectural paint. It is produced by AkzoNobel although the US markets are now served by PPG, the brand name Dulux has been used by both ICI and DuPont since 1931 and was one of the first alkyd-based paints. In the early days of its existence, decorators and their suppliers were the customers for Dulux. The name Dulux is derived from the words DuPont and Luxury, in 2010, alongside Dulux Valentine, Coral and Marshall, Dulux launched the Lets Colour Project, a global marketing campaign featuring the painting of public spaces with bright colours. The Old English Sheepdog is the mascot for Dulux paint. The dog was first introduced in advertising campaigns in 1961, since then they have been a constant and highly popular feature of Dulux television and print adverts wherever the paint is sold. So much so, that people in those markets refer to the breed as a Dulux dog rather than a Sheepdog. Over the years, different dogs have appeared in the adverts, however, they all look very similar, due to the carefully managed selection process carried out by ICIs advertising agency. The first Dulux dog was Shepton Daphnis Horsa, pet name Dash and his successor, Fernville Lord Digby, was the most famous Dulux dog and also made his owner, Cynthia & Norman Harrison, famous. When filming advertisements, Digby was treated like a star, being driven to the studio in a chauffeur driven car, barbara Woodhouse was employed to train Digby and his three stunt doubles, who were used whenever specific tricks or actions needed to be filmed. Digbys popularity led him to play the role in the 1973 British comedy film Digby. Gambit - another Dulux dog, was used in a shoot in 1980 for Philips Video. By the time the shoot was finished there was enough hair to fill a mattress - the dog was constantly groomed during the shoot, king Hotspur of Amblegait was used from 1974 to 1979 and appeared in over 50 television programmes as well as his public appearances for ICI/Dulux. Apart from Dash, all the Dulux dogs have been breed champions, the Dulux dog was placed at No.51 in Channel 4s 100 Greatest TV Ads. In Australia and New Zealand, Dulux has been involved with the manufacture and marketing of paint and related systems since 1904, Dulux had its origins in H. L. Vosz Ltd. founded in Port Adelaide in 1904, Australias first paint manufacturer. Vosz later became Clarkson Ltd. and both Clarkson and Adelaide competitor Australasian United Paints Pty. Ltd. were purchased by British Australian Lead Manufacturers Pty. Ltd, the company became BALM Paints Pty. Ltd. later BALM Paints Ltd. It opened a new factory and Central Research Labs in Clayton, taking its cue from survey evidence that the Australian public had no idea what BALM Paints was, but that everyone knew DULUX, the Company changed its name in 1971 to Dulux Australia Ltd. In the course of the 1970s, it acquired Walpamur Paints, the former ICI Australia became an independent company on 2 February 1998 and was named Orica Limited
20.
Polyethylene terephthalate
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It may also be referred to by the brand name Dacron, in Britain, Terylene, or, in Russia and the former Soviet Union, Lavsan. The majority of the worlds PET production is for synthetic fibers, in the context of textile applications, PET is referred to by its common name, polyester, whereas the acronym PET is generally used in relation to packaging. Polyester makes up about 18% of world production and is the fourth-most-produced polymer, polyethylene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride are first, second and third. PET consists of polymerized units of the monomer ethylene terephthalate, with repeating units, PET is commonly recycled, and has the number 1 as its recycling symbol. Depending on its processing and thermal history, polyethylene terephthalate may exist both as an amorphous and as a semi-crystalline polymer, the semicrystalline material might appear transparent or opaque and white depending on its crystal structure and particle size. Polymerization is through a reaction of the monomers with water as the byproduct. Because PET is an excellent water and moisture barrier material, plastic bottles made from PET are widely used for soft drinks, for certain specialty bottles, such as those designated for beer containment, PET sandwiches an additional polyvinyl alcohol layer to further reduce its oxygen permeability. Biaxially oriented PET film can be aluminized by evaporating a thin film of metal onto it to reduce its permeability and these properties are useful in many applications, including flexible food packaging and thermal insulation. Because of its mechanical strength, PET film is often used in tape applications. Non-oriented PET sheet can be thermoformed to make packaging trays and blister packs, if crystallizable PET is used, the trays can be used for frozen dinners, since they withstand both freezing and oven baking temperatures. As opposed to amorphous PET, which is transparent, crystallizable PET or CPET tends to be black in colour, when filled with glass particles or fibres, it becomes significantly stiffer and more durable. PET is also used as a substrate in thin film solar cells, Terylene is also spliced into bell rope tops to help prevent wear on the ropes as they pass through the ceiling. PET was patented in 1941 by John Rex Whinfield, James Tennant Dickson and their employer the Calico Printers Association of Manchester, DuPont de Nemours in Delaware, USA, first used the trademark Mylar in June 1951 and received registration of it in 1952. It is still the name used for polyester film. The current owner of the trademark is DuPont Teijin Films US, in the Soviet Union, PET was first manufactured in the laboratories of the Institute of High-Molecular Compounds of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1949, and its name Lavsan is an acronym thereof. The PET bottle was patented in 1973 by Nathaniel Wyeth, PET in its natural state is a colorless, semi-crystalline resin. Based on how it is processed, PET can be semi-rigid to rigid and it makes a good gas and fair moisture barrier, as well as a good barrier to alcohol and solvents. PET becomes white when exposed to chloroform and also certain other chemicals such as toluene, about 60% crystallization is the upper limit for commercial products, with the exception of polyester fibers
21.
Courtaulds
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Courtaulds was a United Kingdom-based manufacturer of fabric, clothing, artificial fibres, and chemicals. It was established in 1794 and became the worlds leading man-made fibre production company before being broken up in 1990 into Courtaulds plc and Courtaulds Textiles Ltd. The Company was founded by George Courtauld and his cousin Peter Taylor in 1794 as a silk, crepe, in 1810, his American-born son Samuel Courtauld was managing his own silk mill in Braintree, Essex. In 1818, George Courtauld returned to America, leaving Samuel Courtauld and Taylor to expand the business – now known as Courtauld & Taylor – by building further mills in Halstead and Bocking. In 1825 Courtauld installed an engine at the Bocking mill. His mills, however, remained dependent on young female workers – in 1838. By this time, Courtauld was a wealthy man but was also suffering from deafness. His great-nephew Samuel Courtauld became chairman of the Courtauld company in 1921 but is remembered today as the founder of the Courtauld Institute of Art in London. William Julien Courtauld was also a benefactor of the arts, he gave artworks to the Essex County Council chamber at Chelmsford and the town hall at Braintree in the 1930s. Wishing to reduce their dependence on natural silk, in 1904, Courtaulds acquired the Cross and they set up the first factory to produce it in Coventry UK in 1905. The early yarns were first woven into fabrics at the Halstead Mill in Essex in March 1906, however, in a few years the process became highly successful and was responsible for transforming the silk weaver into the worlds leading man-made fibre production company. Courtaulds also entered the market of cellulosics in North America with the setting up of the American Viscose Corporation in 1909, the investment in the US was highly successful, but its sale at a knock-down price was enforced in 1941 as part of the negotiations which preceded Lend-Lease. In 1927–28 Courtaulds and Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken gained control of the Italian rayon manufacturer SNIA Viscosa from Riccardo Gualino, a German director of VGF, Karl Scherer, replaced Gualino as head of the firm and cut output drastically. The foreign intervention was seen as humiliating by the fascists, in Europe Courtaulds expanded its cellulosics business both directly and in joint ventures, including British Cellophane. In 1945 Courtaulds remained one of the four groups which dominated the man-made fibre industry in Europe and this activity expanded until the 1960s, when these products were replaced by newer developments. Courtaulds acquired Fine Spinners and Doublers in 1963 and the Lancashire Cotton Corporation in 1964, Courtaulds was one of the earliest companies in the UK to establish an economics department. In the three decades following World War II that department made notable contributions to the understanding of investment appraisal, Courtaulds had closed many of its UK factories and moved production to new Asian sites, but its main customer Marks and Spencer wanted better prices. Further, its profit was coming from its fiber and chemicals businesses
22.
Sunbeam Cycles
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Sunbeam Cycles made by John Marston Limited of Wolverhampton was a British brand of bicycles and, from 1912 to 1956 motorcycles. On John Marstons death after the First World War it was bought by Nobel Industries, Associated Motor Cycles bought it in 1937 then BSA bought Sunbeam in 1943. Sunbeam Cycles is most famous for its S7 balloon-tyred shaft-drive motorcycle with an overhead valve in-line twin engine, Sunbeam Cycles was founded by John Marston, who was born in Ludlow, Shropshire, UK in 1836 of a minor landowning family. In 1851, aged 15, he was sent to Wolverhampton to be apprenticed to Edward Perry as a japanware manufacturer, at the age of 23 he left and set up his own japanning business making any and every sort of domestic article. He did so well that when Perry died in 1871 Marston bought Perrys business, in 1887 Marston began making bicycles and, on the suggestion of his wife Ellen, he adopted the trademark brand Sunbeam, their Paul Street works were named Sunbeamland. Sunbeam bicycles were made until 1936, from 1903 John Marston Limited had made some early experiments in adding engines to bicycles but they were unsuccessful, a man was killed. John Marstons aversion to motorcycles did not encourage further development. Following experimental products made in the late 1890s cars were built from 1902, a quite separate organisation located a mile away in Blakenhall and named Sunbeam Motor Car Company Limited was founded in 1905. However, suffering from a slump which hit car making, Marston was pushed into making motorcycles from 1912 onwards, for there was a large. Following in the tradition of their bicycles, the motorcycles were of high-quality, usually with a single cylinder, Sunbeam motorcycles performed well in the early days of the famous TT races in the Isle of Man. Another Marston company product line started in 1931, with outboard engines first marketed as Marston Seagull. After the First World War John Marston Limited was sold to a consortium, in 1919, the consortium became part of Nobel Industries Limited. In 1927 Nobel Industries amalgamated with Brunner Mond Ltd. to form Imperial Chemical Industries, in this huge organization motorcycles were a small part. In 1937 the Sunbeam motorcycle trademark was sold to Associated Motor Cycles Ltd which continued to make Sunbeam bicycles and motorcycles until 1939, aMCs core business was the manufacture of Matchless and AJS motorcycles. Some years after it sold Sunbeam, AMC went on to own Norton, James, in 1943 AMC sold the Sunbeam name to BSA and Sunbeam Cycles Limited was incorporated. Sunbeams were built not at BSAs main factory at Small Heath, Birmingham, three Sunbeam motorcycle models were produced from 1946 to 1956, inspired by BMW motorcycles supplied to the Wehrmacht during the Second World War. They were followed by two models from 1959 to 1964. Sunbeam bicycles were made in Wolverhampton from 1887 to 1937, as the factory was used to sheet-metal working and japanning the construction of cycles presented few problems. At first of similar design to other machines, the company adopted a version of Harrison Carters Little oil-bath chaincase in the mid-1890s
23.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
24.
Tube Alloys
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Starting before the Manhattan Project in the United States, the British efforts were kept classified and as such had to be referred to by code even within the highest circles of government. The possibility of weapons was acknowledged early in the war. This led to the formation of the MAUD Committee, which called for an effort to develop nuclear weapons. Wallace Akers, who oversaw the project, chose the deliberately misleading name Tube Alloys and his Tube Alloys Directorate was part of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Tube Alloys programme in Britain and Canada was the first nuclear weapons project, due to the high costs, and the fact that Britain was fighting a war within bombing range of its enemies, Tube Alloys was ultimately subsumed into the Manhattan Project. The Soviet Union gained valuable information through its spies, who had infiltrated both the British and American projects. The United States terminated co-operation after the war ended and this prompted the United Kingdom to launch its own project, High Explosive Research. Production facilities were established and British scientists continued their work under the auspices of an independent British programme, finally in 1952, Britain performed a nuclear test under codename Operation Hurricane. In December 1938, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann conducted experiments in Hahns laboratory in Berlin-Dahlem that involved bombarding uranium with slowed neutrons and they discovered that barium had been produced, and therefore that the uranium nucleus had been split. Atoms had been split before, by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1932, the neutron had been discovered by James Chadwick at Cavendish only in 1932. Experiments with bombardment of elements by slow neutrons had always produced heavier elements and this phenomenon was a new type of nuclear disintegration and was radioactively more powerful than ever seen before. Frisch and Meitner calculated this energy released by each disintegration to be approximately 200,000,000 electron volts, by analogy with the division of biological cells, they named this process fission. This was followed up by a group of scientists at the Collège de France in Paris, Frédéric Joliot-Curie, Hans von Halban, Lew Kowarski, in February 1939, the Paris Group showed that when fission occurs in uranium, two or three extra neutrons are given off. This important observation suggested that a nuclear chain reaction might be possible. It was immediately apparent to scientists that, in theory. The term atomic bomb was already familiar to the British public through the writings of H. G. Wells, Perrin defined a critical mass of uranium to be the smallest amount that could sustain a chain reaction. Thus, in order to create a chain reaction, there existed a need for a neutron moderator to contain. The College de France found that water and graphite could be used as acceptable moderators
25.
Pharmaceutical
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A pharmaceutical drug is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy is an important part of the field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement. Drugs are classified in various ways, one of the key divisions is by level of control, which distinguishes prescription drugs from over-the-counter drugs. Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration, biological system affected, an elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies, academic scientists, and governments. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed, controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used drugs. In the US, a drug is, A substance recognized by an official pharmacopoeia or formulary, a substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease. A substance intended to affect the structure or any function of the body, a substance intended for use as a component of a medicine but not a device or a component, part or accessory of a device. Pharmaceutical or a drug is classified on the basis of their origin, Drug from natural origin, Herbal or plant or mineral origin, some drug substances are of marine origin. Drug from chemical as well as origin, Derived from partial herbal and partial chemical synthesis Chemical. Drug derived from animal origin, For example, hormones, Drug derived from microbial origin, Antibiotics Drug derived by biotechnology genetic-engineering, hybridoma technique for example Drug derived from radioactive substances. An elaborate and widely used system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, the main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and Local anesthetics. For consciousness Some anesthetics include Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates, the main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are, NSAIDs, muscle relaxants, neuromuscular drugs, and anticholinesterases. Euthanasia is not permitted by law in countries, and consequently medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries. Administration is the process by which a patient takes a medicine, there are three major categories of drug administration, enteral, parenteral, and other. It can be performed in various forms such as pills, tablets. There are many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous and they can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously
26.
Proguanil
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Proguanil, also known as chlorguanide and chloroguanide, is a medication used to treat and prevent malaria. It is often used together with chloroquine or atovaquone, when used with chloroquine the combination will treat mild chloroquine resistant malaria. Side effects include diarrhea, constipation, skin rashes, hair loss, because malaria tends to be more severe in pregnancy, the benefit typically outweighs the risk. If used during pregnancy it should be taken with folate and it is likely safe for use during breastfeeding. Proguanil is converted by the liver to its metabolite, cycloguanil. Prguanil has been studied at least since 1945 and it is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the world is about 0.10 to 0.50 USD per day. In the United States and Canada it is available in combination as atovaquone/proguanil. Proguanil is used for the prevention and treatment of malaria in both adults and children, particularly in areas where chloroquine-resistant P. faliciparum malaria has been reported and it is usually taken in combination with atovaquone, another antimalarial drug. It is also effective in the treatment of most other multi-drug resistant forms of P. falciparum, proguanil is generally well-tolerated and most people do not experience side effects. However, common effects include abdominal pain, nausea, headache. Taking proguanil with food may lessen these side effects, proguanil should not be taken by people with severe renal impairment, pregnant women, or women who are breastfeeding children less than 5 kg. There have also been reports of increased levels of liver enzymes, when used alone, proguanil functions as a prodrug. Its active metabolite, cycloguanil, is an inhibitor of dihydrofolate reductase, although both mammals and parasites produce DHFR, cycloguanils inhibitory activity is specific for parasitic DHFR. This enzyme is a component of the folic acid cycle. Inhibition of DHFR prevents the parasite from recycling dihydrofolate back to tetrahydrofolate, THF is required for DNA synthesis, amino acid synthesis, and methylation, thus, DHFR inhibition shuts down these processes. Proguanil displays synergism when used in combination with the antimalarial atovaquone and this mechanism of action differs from when proguanil was used as a singular agent. In this case, it is not thought to function as a DHFR inhibitor, the addition of proguanil has shown to reduce resistance to atovaquone and increase the ability of atovaquone to trigger a mitochondrial apoptotic cascade
27.
Halothane
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Halothane, sold under the brandname Fluothane among others, is a general anesthetic. It can be used to start or maintain anaesthesia, one of its benefits is that it does not increase the production of saliva which can be particularly useful in those who are difficult to intubate. Side effects include an irregular heartbeat, decreased effort to breathe and it should not be used in people with porphyria or a history of malignant hyperthermia either in themselves or their family members. It is unclear whether use during pregnancy is harmful to the baby, halothane is a chiral molecule that is used as a racemic mixture. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, as of 2014 the wholesale cost in the developing world is about 22 to 52 USD for a 250 ml bottle. Its use in developed countries has been replaced by newer agents such as sevoflurane. It is no commercially available in the United States. It is a potent anesthetic with a MAC of 0. 74% and its blood/gas partition coefficient of 2.4 makes it an agent with moderate induction and recovery time. It is not a good analgesic and its muscle relaxation effect is moderate, in rare cases, repeated exposure to halothane in adults was noted to result in severe liver injury. This occurred in one in 10,000 exposures. The resulting syndrome was referred to as halothane hepatitis, and is thought to result from the metabolism of halothane to trifluoroacetic acid via oxidative reactions in the liver, about 20% of inhaled halothane is metabolized by the liver and these products are excreted in the urine. The hepatitis syndrome had a mortality rate of 30% to 70%, concern for hepatitis resulted in a dramatic reduction in the use of halothane for adults and it was replaced in the 1980s by enflurane and isoflurane. By 2005, the most common volatile anesthetics used were isoflurane, sevoflurane, however, by 2000, sevoflurane, excellent for inhalation induction, had largely replaced the use of halothane in children. Halothane sensitises the heart to catecholamines, so it is liable to cause cardiac arrhythmias, occasionally fatal and this seems to be especially problematic in dental anaesthesia. Like all the potent inhalational agents, it is a potent trigger for malignant hyperthermia. Similarly, in common with the potent inhalational agents, it relaxes uterine smooth muscle. People can be exposed to halothane in the workplace by breathing it in as waste gas, skin contact, eye contact. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended limit of 2 ppm over 60 minutes
28.
Propranolol
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Propranolol is a medication of the beta blocker type. It is used to high blood pressure, a number of types of irregular heart rate, thyrotoxicosis, capillary hemangiomas, performance anxiety. It is used to prevent migraine headaches, and to prevent further problems in those with angina or previous heart attacks. It can be taken by mouth or by injection into a vein, the formulation that is taken by mouth comes in short acting and long acting versions. Propranolol appears in the blood after 30 minutes and has an effect between 60 and 90 minutes when taken by mouth. Common side effects include nausea, abdominal pain, and constipation and it should not be used in those with an already slow heart rate and most of those with heart failure. Quickly stopping the medication in those with coronary artery disease may worsen symptoms and it may worsen the symptoms of asthma. Greater care is recommended in those with liver or kidney problems, Propranolol may cause harmful effects in the baby if taken during pregnancy. Its use during breastfeeding is safe, but the baby should be monitored for side effects. It is a beta blocker which works by blocking β-adrenergic receptors. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Propranolol is available as a generic medication. The wholesale cost in the world is between 0.24 and 2.16 USD per month as of 2014. In the United States it costs about 15 USD per month at a typical dose and it is occasionally used to treat performance anxiety. Evidence to support the use in other anxiety disorders is poor, Propranolol works to inhibit the actions of norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter that enhances memory consolidation. Individuals given propranolol immediately after trauma experienced fewer stress-related symptoms and lower rates of PTSD than respective control groups who did not receive the drug and this treatment shows promise as being superior to corticosteroids when treating IHs. Extensive clinical case evidence and a controlled trial support its efficacy. Dreaming was reduced and increased awakening, adverse drug reactions associated with propranolol therapy are similar to other lipophilic beta blockers. β-blocking agents in general reduce perfusion of the placenta which may lead to adverse outcomes for the neonate, including pulmonary or cardiac complications, the newborn may experience additional adverse effects such as hypoglycemia and bradycardia
29.
Polyether ether ketone
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Polyether ether ketone is a colourless organic thermoplastic polymer in the polyaryletherketone family, used in engineering applications. PEEK polymers are obtained by step-growth polymerization by the dialkylation of bisphenolate salts, typical is the reaction of 4, 4-difluorobenzophenone with the disodium salt of hydroquinone, which is generated in situ by deprotonation with sodium carbonate. The reaction is conducted around 300 °C in polar aprotic solvents - such as diphenyl sulphone, PEEK is a semicrystalline thermoplastic with excellent mechanical and chemical resistance properties that are retained to high temperatures. The processing conditions used to mold PEEK can influence the crystallinity, the Youngs modulus is 3.6 GPa and its tensile strength 90 to 100 MPa. PEEK has a transition temperature of around 143 °C and melts around 343 °C. Some grades have an operating temperature of up to 250 °C. The thermal conductivity increases nearly linearly with temperature between room temperature and solidus temperature and it is highly resistant to thermal degradation, as well as to attack by both organic and aqueous environments. It is attacked by halogens and strong Bronsted and Lewis acids, as well as some halogenated compounds and it has high resistance to biodegradation. Because of its robustness, PEEK is used to fabricate items used in demanding applications, including bearings, piston parts, pumps, HPLC columns, compressor plate valves and it is one of the few plastics compatible with ultra-high vacuum applications. PEEK is considered an advanced biomaterial used in medical implants, e. g. use with a magnetic resonance imaging. It is finding increased use in fusion devices and reinforcing rods. It is extensively used in the aerospace, automotive, and chemical process industries, PEEK melts at a relatively high temperature compared to most other thermoplastics. In the range of its melting temperature it can be processed using injection moulding or extrusion methods, in January 2016 the German startup Indmatec GmbH, now Apium Additive Technologies GmbH, located in Karlsruhe, presented a PEEK filament for producing medical devices up to class IIa. With this new filament, it is possible to use the FFF method for different medical applications like dentures, PEEK is considered a high-performance polymer, that is to say, its high price restricts its use to the most demanding applications only. PEEK is not traditionally a shape-memory polymer, however, recent advances in processing have allowed shape-memory behavior in PEEK with mechanical activation and this technology has expanded to applications in orthopedic surgery
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Thermoplastic
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A thermoplastic, or thermosoftening plastic, is a plastic material, a polymer, that becomes pliable or moldable above a specific temperature and solidifies upon cooling. Most thermoplastics have a molecular weight. The polymer chains associate through intermolecular forces, which weaken rapidly with increased temperature, thermoplastics differ from thermosetting polymers, which form irreversible chemical bonds during the curing process. Thermosets do not melt, but decompose and do not reform upon cooling, above its glass transition temperature and below its melting point, the physical properties of a thermoplastic change drastically without an associated phase change. Some thermoplastics do not fully crystallize below the transition temperature. Amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics are used when high optical clarity is necessary, amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics are less resistant to chemical attack and environmental stress cracking because they lack a crystalline structure. Brittleness can be decreased with the addition of plasticizers, which increases the mobility of amorphous chain segments to effectively lowers the transition temperature. Modification of the polymer through copolymerization or through the addition of side chains to monomers before polymerization can also lower it. Naval Research Laboratory developed thermoplastic armor, that can be repaired in the field by a user via tools for pressing irons, acrylic, a polymer called poly, is also known by trade names such as Lucite, Perspex and Plexiglas. It serves as a substitute for glass for items such as aquariums, motorcycle helmet visors, aircraft windows, viewing ports of submersibles. It is extensively used to make signs, including lettering and logos, in medicine, it is used in bone cement and to replace eye lenses. Acrylic paint consists of PMMA particles suspended in water, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene is a terpolymer synthesized from styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene. ABS is a material that exhibits high impact resistance and mechanical toughness. It poses few risks to health under normal handling. It is used in consumer products, such as toys, appliances. Nylon belongs to a class of polymers called polyamides and it has served as a substitute mainly for hemp, cotton and silk, in products such as parachutes, cords, sails, flak vests and womens clothing. Nylon fibers are useful in making fabrics, rope, carpets and musical strings, whereas in bulk form, Nylon is used for mechanical parts including machine screws, gears, in addition, it is used in the manufacture of heat-resistant composite materials. Polylactic acid is a biodegradable thermoplastic aliphatic polyester derived from renewable resources, such as starch, tapioca roots, chips or starch
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Pharmaceuticals
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A pharmaceutical drug is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy is an important part of the field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement. Drugs are classified in various ways, one of the key divisions is by level of control, which distinguishes prescription drugs from over-the-counter drugs. Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration, biological system affected, an elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies, academic scientists, and governments. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed, controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used drugs. In the US, a drug is, A substance recognized by an official pharmacopoeia or formulary, a substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease. A substance intended to affect the structure or any function of the body, a substance intended for use as a component of a medicine but not a device or a component, part or accessory of a device. Pharmaceutical or a drug is classified on the basis of their origin, Drug from natural origin, Herbal or plant or mineral origin, some drug substances are of marine origin. Drug from chemical as well as origin, Derived from partial herbal and partial chemical synthesis Chemical. Drug derived from animal origin, For example, hormones, Drug derived from microbial origin, Antibiotics Drug derived by biotechnology genetic-engineering, hybridoma technique for example Drug derived from radioactive substances. An elaborate and widely used system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, the main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and Local anesthetics. For consciousness Some anesthetics include Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates, the main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are, NSAIDs, muscle relaxants, neuromuscular drugs, and anticholinesterases. Euthanasia is not permitted by law in countries, and consequently medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries. Administration is the process by which a patient takes a medicine, there are three major categories of drug administration, enteral, parenteral, and other. It can be performed in various forms such as pills, tablets. There are many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous and they can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously
32.
Crimplene
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Crimplene is a texturised continuous fibre produced by modifying Terylene. The patent was out by Mario Nava of Chesline and Crepes Ltd of Macclesfield. ICI licensed the product to various throwsters, the largest producer by far was William Tatton of Leek, and the Golbourne factory was at one time capable of taking the entire output of ICIs Wilton production of Terylene. Although it was profitable in the 1960s, the market collapsed in the 1970s, with ICI taking control of Tattons. Production was dramatically reduced, and ICI sold Intex at a stage with it closing completely some time later. Astronlon-C, a yarn, and Astralene-C, a polyester yarn, were irritable to the skin when made into clothing. Companies had been trying for some time to find a artificial yarn alternative, by boiling them for various periods in a domestic pressure cooker at home, Dennis Hibbert, chief textile engineer at Cheslene and Crepes Sutton Mills, Macclesfield, believed he had found the answer. Along with the engineer at Scraggs Ltd, Macclesfield, they designed a machine to replicate his findings. The name Crimplene was chosen for two reasons, the first was that ICI had their headquarters in Harrogate, specifically nearby Crimple Valley. The word crimp also means to fold and intertwine, after successful trials, Denniss wife Margaret had the first Crimplene dress, and the patent rights were sold to ICI. The fabric enjoyed popularity upon its introduction in the 1960s in response to its convenient wash-and-wear properties, Crimplene was often used to make the typical A-line dress of 1960s fashion. It was also popular amongst men in British mod culture for use in garish button-down shirts, in the early 1970s, Crimplene began to fall out of fashion. Other, lighter-weight polyester fabrics like Trevira replaced Crimplene for their ease of movement, Crimplene is seldom used today as fashion preferences have drifted towards more natural cottons. Crimplene suits were regarded in some countries as working-mens going-out clothes, Mario Nava received an OBE in June 1979
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Polyester
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Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in their main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate, polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-growth polymerization such as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not and this material is used very widely in clothing. Depending on the structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset. There are also polyester resins cured by hardeners, however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics, industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters, Polyester fabrics are highly stain-resistant— in fact, the only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes. Polyester fibers are spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties. Cotton-polyester blends can be strong, wrinkle and tear-resistant, and reduce shrinking, synthetic fibers in polyester also create materials with water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibers. Disadvantages of cotton and polyester blends include being less breathable than cotton and they are also less fire resistant and can melt when ignited. Polyester blends have been renamed so as to suggest their similarity or even superiority to natural fibers. Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire, polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish. Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers and they are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat, while combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and they are used in the liquid state as casting materials, in sheet molding compounds, as fiberglass laminating resins and in non-metallic auto-body fillers. They are also used as the polymer matrix in pre-pregs. Fiberglass-reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as parts of cars
34.
McKinsey & Company
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McKinsey & Company is a worldwide management consulting firm. It conducts qualitative and quantitative analysis in order to evaluate management decisions across the public, widely considered the most prestigious management consultancy, McKinseys clientele includes 80% of the worlds largest corporations, and an extensive list of governments and non-profit organizations. More current and former Fortune 500 C. E. O. s are alumni of McKinsey than of any other company, James P. Gorman, and many more. McKinsey publishes the McKinsey Quarterly, funds the McKinsey Global Institute research organization, publishes reports on management topics and its practices of confidentiality, influence on business practices, and corporate culture have experienced a polarizing reception. McKinsey was founded in 1926 by James O. McKinsey in order to apply accounting principles to management, McKinsey died in 1937, and the firm was restructured several times, with the modern-day McKinsey & Company emerging in 1939. Marvin Bower is credited with establishing McKinseys culture and practices in the 1930s based on the principles he experienced as a lawyer, the firm developed an up or out policy, where consultants who are not promoted are asked to leave. McKinsey was the first management consultancy to hire recent college graduates, in the 1980s and 1990s, the firm expanded internationally and established new practice areas. It had 88 staff in 1951 and 7,700 by the early 2000s, McKinseys consulting has helped to establish many of the norms in business and contributed to many of the major successes and failures in business in the modern era. McKinsey & Company was founded under the name James O. McKinsey & Company in 1926 by James McKinsey and he conceived the idea after witnessing inefficiencies in military suppliers while working for the U. S. Army Ordnance Department. The firm called itself an accounting and management firm and started out giving consulting on using accounting principles as a management tool, Mr. McKinseys first partners were Tom Kearney, hired in 1929, and Marvin Bower, hired in 1933. In its first few years, the firm grew quickly and began developing rapport among corporations, in 1935, Mr. McKinsey left the firm temporarily to serve as the Chairman and CEO of client Marshall Fields as it implemented the restructuring plan created by his firm. A Wellington project that accounted for 55 percent of McKinsey, Wellington & Companys billings was about to expire and Kearney, Bower wanted to expand nationally and hire young business school graduates, whereas Kearney wanted to stay in Chicago and hire experienced accountants. Additionally, in 1937 James O. McKinsey died after catching pneumonia and this led to the division of McKinsey, Wellington & Company in 1939. The accounting practice returned to Scovell, Wellington & Company, while the management engineering practice was split into McKinsey & Company, the New York office purchased exclusive rights to the McKinsey name in 1946. McKinsey & Company grew quickly in the 1940s and 50s, especially in Europe and it had 88 staff in 1951 and more than 200 by the 1960s, including 37 in London by 1966. In the same year, McKinsey had six offices in major US cities like San Francisco, Los Angeles and these foreign offices were primarily in Europe, such as in London, Paris, Amsterdam, as well as in Melbourne. By this time, one third of the companys revenues originated from its European offices, guy Crockett stepped down as managing director in 1950, and Marvin Bower was elected in his place. McKinseys profit-sharing, executive and planning committees were formed in 1951, the organizations client base expanded especially among governments, defense contractors, bluechip companies and military organizations in the post-World War II era
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Paraquat
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Paraquat or N, N′-dimethyl-4, 4′-bipyridinium dichloride is the organic compound with the chemical formula Cl2. It is classified as a viologen, a family of redox-active heterocycles of similar structure and this salt is one of the most widely used herbicides. It is quick-acting and non-selective, killing green plant tissue on contact and it is also toxic to human beings and animals. It is linked to development of Parkinsons disease, the name is derived from the para positions of the quaternary nitrogens. Quantities are sometimes expressed by cation mass alone, other salts exist, in fact, its redox activity, which produces superoxide anions, is why it is toxic. Pyridine is coupled by treatment with sodium in ammonia followed by oxidation, the resulting 4, 4-bipyridine is then methylated with chloromethane to give the title compound, Although first synthesized in 1882, paraquats herbicidal properties were not recognized until 1955. Paraquat was first manufactured and sold by ICI in early 1962, the European Union approved the use of paraquat in 2004 but Sweden, supported by Denmark, Austria, and Finland, appealed this decision. Paraquat is classified as non-selective contact herbicide and it is rain-fast within minutes of application. It is partially inactivated upon contact with soil and these properties led to paraquat being used in the development of no-till farming. It is classified as restricted use, which means that it can be used by licensed applicators only, in the European Union, paraquat has been forbidden since 2007. A small group of countries, including India and Guatemala and supported by manufacturers, has blocked the listing of paraquat as a chemical for the purposes of the Rotterdam Convention. Paraquat is an oxidant that interferes with electron transfer, a process that is common to all life, in light-exposed plants, it accepts electrons from photosystem I and transfers them to molecular oxygen. In this manner, destructive reactive oxygen species are produced, in forming these reactive oxygen species, the oxidized form of paraquat is regenerated, and is again available to shunt electrons from photosystem I to restart the cycle. Paraquat is often used in science to catalyze the formation of reactive species, more specifically. Paraquat will undergo redox cycling in vivo, being reduced by an electron donor such as NADPH, before being oxidized by an electron receptor such as dioxygen to produce superoxide, one example is the Double Knock system used in Australia. Before planting a crop, weeds are sprayed with glyphosate first, Although twice as expensive as using a single glyphosate spray, the Double Knock system is an important resistance management strategy widely relied upon by farmers. Nevertheless, herbicide resistance has been seen for both herbicides in Western Australia, a Double Knock regime with paraquat cleaning-up after glyphosate was predicted to keep all fields free of glyphosate resistant ryegrass for at least 30 years. Pure paraquat, when ingested, is toxic to mammals, including humans
36.
Myanmar
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Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in South East Asia bordered by Bangladesh, India, China, Laos and Thailand. About one third of Myanmars total perimeter of 5,876 km, forms an uninterrupted coastline of 1,930 km along the Bay of Bengal, the countrys 2014 census revealed a much lower population than expected, with 51 million people recorded. Myanmar is 676,578 square kilometres in size and its capital city is Naypyidaw and its largest city and former capital city is Yangon. Early civilizations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Burma, the Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty, the country was for a period the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia. The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur. The British invaded Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the became a British colony. Myanmar became an independent nation in 1948, initially as a nation and then, following a coup détat in 1962. For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife, during this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country. In 2011, the junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election. While former military leaders still wield enormous power in the country, there is, however, continuing criticism of the governments treatment of the Muslim Rohingya minority and its poor response to the religious clashes. In the landmark 2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyis party won a majority in both houses, Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. In 2013, its GDP stood at US$56.7 billion, the income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government. As of 2016, according to the Human Development Index, Myanmar had a level of human development. The renaming remains a contested issue, many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use Burma because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country. The countrys official name is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form Union of Burma instead, in English, the country is popularly known as either Burma or Myanmar /ˈmjɑːnˌmɑːr/. Both these names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group, Myanmar is considered to be the literary form of the name of the group, while Burma is derived from Bamar, the colloquial form of the groups name
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Burmese Way to Socialism
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The Burmese Way to Socialism refers to the ideology of the Socialist government in Burma, from 1962 to 1988, when the 1962 coup détat was led by Ne Win and the military to remove U Nu from power. However, it may have served to increase stability and keep Burma from being as entangled in the Cold War struggles that affected other Southeast Asian nations. The Burmese Way to Socialism, by far, greatly increased poverty, isolation, Ne Wins later attempt to make the currency based in denominations divisible by 9, a number he considered auspicious, wiped out the savings of millions of Burmese. This resulted in the pro-democracy 8888 Uprising which was halted by the military. Under U Nu and the AFPFL-led coalition government, Burma had implemented socialist economic and welfare policies, Ne Win restored order during the period known as the Ne Win caretaker government. Elections were held in February 1960 and Ne Win handed back power to the victorious U Nu on 4 April 1960, over 400 communist sympathisers were arrested, of which 153 were deported to the Coco Island in the Andaman Sea. Among them was the NUF leader Aung Than, older brother of Aung San, newspapers like Botahtaung, Kyemon and Rangoon Daily were also closed down. Ne Wins caretaker government successfully established the situation and paved the way for new elections in 1960 that returned U Nus Union Party with a large majority. Ne Win had already succeeded in stripping the Shan Saophas of their powers in exchange for comfortable pensions for life in 1959. On the basis of the actual findings derived from study and appraisal it will develop its own ways. In its activities the Revolutionary Council will strive for self-improvement by way of self-criticism, having learnt from contemporary history the evils of deviation towards right or left the Council will with vigilance avoid any such deviation. The Revolutionary Council will diligently seek all ways and means whereby it can formulate, impacts of the Burmese Way to Socialism were multi-fold, affecting the economy, educational standards, and living standards of the Burmese people. Foreign aid organisations, like the American-based Ford Foundation and Asia Foundation, only permitted was aid from a government-to-government basis. Also, English language instruction was reformed and introduced in secondary schools, the government also implemented extensive visa restrictions for Burmese citizens, especially to Western countries. Instead, the government sponsored travel of students, scientists and technicians to the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe to receive training, similarly, visas for foreigners were limited to 24 hours. Furthermore, freedom of expression was limited extensively, Foreign language publications were prohibited, as were newspapers that printed false propaganda news. The Press Scrutiny Board, which censors all publications to this day, was established by the RC through the Printers and Publishers Registration Act in August 1962. The RC set up the News Agency of Burma to serve as a distribution service in the country
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