1.
Ocean's Kingdom
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Oceans Kingdom is the fifth classical album by Paul McCartney. It is the score from the ballet, commissioned by the New York City Ballet. It was performed by the London Classical Orchestra and conducted by John Wilson, the album was released on CD and vinyl, on 3 October 2011 by Decca and October 4 by Hear Music/Telarc. In the United States, it peaked at number 144 on the Billboard 200 chart, the album has a score of 60 out of 100 at Metacritic, based on eight reviews, signifying a mixed or average critical response. The ballet tells of a story based in two fantastic worlds – the pure ocean kingdom, and the Earth kingdom with its sort of baddies who threaten the underwater way of life. According to McCartney, love happens when earth meets water, and his score for the ballet consists of four orchestral movements. The live tracks are from the world première on 21 September 2011, Movement 1 Oceans Kingdom –12,15 Movement 2 Hall of Dance –14,27 Movement 3 Imprisonment –10,14 Movement 4 Moonrise –10,31
2.
Prison
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Besides their use for punishing crimes, jails and prisons are frequently used by authoritarian regimes against perceived opponents. Prisons often have facilities that are designed with long term confinement in mind in comparison to jails. In times of war, prisoners of war or detainees may be detained in prisons or prisoner of war camps. The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization, corresponding with the advent of the state was the development of written language, which enabled the creation of formalized legal codes as official guidelines for society. The best known of early legal codes is the Code of Hammurabi. Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas of using punishment to reform instead of simply using it as retribution. Imprisonment as a penalty was used initially for those who could not afford to pay their fines, eventually, since impoverished Athenians could not pay their fines, leading to indefinite periods of imprisonment, time limits were set instead. The prison in Ancient Athens was known as the desmoterion, the Romans were among the first to use prisons as a form of punishment, rather than simply for detention. A variety of existing structures were used to house prisoners, such as cages, basements of public buildings. One of the most notable Roman prisons was the Mamertine Prison, the Mamertine Prison was located within a sewer system beneath ancient Rome and contained a large network of dungeons where prisoners were held in squalid conditions, contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public projects was also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens were sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula, during the Middle Ages in Europe, castles, fortresses, and the basements of public buildings were often used as makeshift prisons. Another common punishment was sentencing people to slavery, which involved chaining prisoners together in the bottoms of ships. However, the concept of the modern prison largely remained unknown until the early 19th-century, Punishment usually consisted of physical forms of punishment, including capital punishment, mutilation, flagellation, branding, and non-physical punishments, such as public shaming rituals. However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London and these houses held mostly petty offenders, vagrants, and the disorderly local poor. In these facilities, inmates were given jobs, and through prison labor they were taught how to work for a living, by the end of the 17th century, houses of correction were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of the local justice of the peace. From the late 17th century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public execution, rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard labor, the prison reform movement that arose at this time was heavily influenced by two somewhat contradictory philosophies
3.
Liberty
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Liberty, in philosophy, involves free will as contrasted with determinism. In politics, liberty consists of the social and political freedoms to all community members are entitled. In theology, liberty is freedom from the effects of sin, spiritual servitude, as such, the exercise of liberty is subject to capability and limited by the rights of others. Philosophers from earliest times have considered the question of liberty, according to Thomas Hobbes, a free man is he that in those things which by his strength and wit he is able to do is not hindered to do what he hath the will to do. John Locke rejected that definition of liberty, while not specifically mentioning Hobbes, he attacks Sir Robert Filmer who had the same definition. According to Locke, In the state of nature, liberty consists of being free from any power on Earth. People are not under the will or lawmaking authority of others but have only the law of nature for their rule, in political society, liberty consists of being under no other lawmaking power except that established by consent in the commonwealth. People are free from the dominion of any will or legal restraint apart from that enacted by their own constituted lawmaking power according to the trust put in it. Thus, freedom is not as Sir Robert Filmer defines it, A liberty for everyone to do what he likes, to live as he pleases, freedom is constrained by laws in both the state of nature and political society. Freedom of nature is to be no other restraint but the law of nature. Freedom of people under government is to be under no restraint apart from standing rules to live by that are common to everyone in the society and made by the lawmaking power established in it. Persons have a right or liberty to follow their own will in all things that the law has not prohibited and not be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, and arbitrary wills of others. John Stuart Mill, in his work, On Liberty, was the first to recognize the difference between liberty as the freedom to act and liberty as the absence of coercion, the modern concept of political liberty has its origins in the Greek concepts of freedom and slavery. To be free, to the Greeks, was to not have a master and that was the original Greek concept of freedom. It is closely linked with the concept of democracy, as Aristotle put it, This, another is that a man should live as he likes. This, they say, is the privilege of a freeman, since, on the other hand and this applied only to free men. In Athens, for instance, women could not vote or hold office and were legally and socially dependent on a male relative, the populations of the Persian Empire enjoyed some degree of freedom. Citizens of all religions and ethnic groups were given the rights and had the same freedom of religion, women had the same rights as men
4.
Sentence (law)
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A sentence is a decree of punishment. In law, a forms the final explicit act of a judge-ruled process. The sentence can generally involve a decree of imprisonment, a fine and/or other punishments against a defendant convicted of a crime and those imprisoned for multiple crimes will serve a consecutive sentence, a concurrent sentence, or somewhere in between, sometimes subject to a cap. Additional sentences include, Intermediate or those served on the weekend, if a sentence gets reduced to a less harsh punishment, then the sentence is said to have been mitigated or commuted. Rarely murder charges are mitigated and reduced to manslaughter charges, Sentencing law sometimes includes cliffs that result in much stiffer penalties when certain facts apply. For instance, a career criminal or habitual offender law may subject a defendant to a significant increase in his sentence if he commits a third offense of a certain kind. This makes it difficult for fine gradations in punishments to be achieved, the first use of this word with this meaning was in Roman law, where it indicated the opinion of a jurist on a given question, expressed in written or in oral responsa. It was also the opinion of senators and it finally was also the decision of the judging organ, as well as the decision of the Arbiters. Sentences are variously classified depending on the field, or kind of action, or system it refers to, civil, penal, administrative. Sentences of mere clearance, of condemnation, of constitution, the jurisdiction and the legal competence, single judges, courts, tribunals, appeals, supreme courts, constitutional courts, etc. meant as the various degrees of judgment and appeal. The content, partial, cautelar, interlocutory, preliminar, definitive sentences and this kind of sentence became better developed and remained in wider use in common law systems. The sentence meted out depends on the principle used by the court. Depending on respective systems, the phases that precede the sentence may vary relevantly, the sentence usually has to be rendered of public domain and in most systems it has to be accompanied by the reasons for its content. A sentence can be annulled in some cases, that many systems usually pre-determine. The most frequent case is related to irregularities found ex-post in the procedure, the most éclatant is perhaps in penal cases, in most systems the definitive sentence is unique, in the precise sense that no one can be judged more than once for the same action. Sentences are in many systems a source of law, as an interpretation of the law in front of concrete cases. The sentence is issued by the judge in the name of the superior authority of the state. Criminal costs Criminal sentencing in Canada Criminal sentencing in the United States English criminal law Incapacitation Sentencing disparity Sentencing in England and Wales Sentencing
5.
English criminal law
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Criminal acts are considered offences against the whole of a community. The state, in addition to international organizations, has responsibility for crime prevention, for bringing the culprits to justice. The fundamentals of a crime are known as the actus reus and these two Latin terms mean guilty act and guilty mind. The traditional view is that moral culpability requires that one should have recognized or intended that one was acting wrongly and these are issues to be raised at trial, for which there are detailed rules of evidence and procedure to be followed. England and Wales does not have a Criminal Code, though such an enactment has been recommended and attempted. Many criminal offences are common law offences rather being specified in legislation, in 1980, a Committee of JUSTICE said that, upon conducting a search, they found over 7,200 offences, and that they thought that there were probably many more. They said that it is now impossible to ascertain the entire content of the law at any given time. In 1989, the Law Commission said that a criminal code that contained all existing criminal offences would be impossibly bulky. In 2001, Peter Glazebrook said the law was voluminous, chaotic. In March 2011, there were more than ten thousand offences excluding those created by by-laws, the two basic elements of a crime are the act of doing that which is criminal, and the intention to carry it out. In Latin this is called the actus reus and the mens rea, in many crimes however, there is no necessity of showing criminal intention, which is why the term strict liability is used. Actus reus is Latin for guilty act and is the element of committing a crime. It is usually the application or threat of force, though exceptionally an omission or failure to act can result in liability. Simple examples might be A hitting B with a stick, or X pushing Y down a water well and these are guilty acts and the unlawful application or force. Alternatively, one may have a duty to another person and by deliberately not performing it. For instance, not giving food is a rather than an act. Pre-existing duties can arise also through contract, an undertaking, a blood relation with whom one lives. As the 19th century English judge, Lord Coleridge CJ wrote, “It would not be correct to say that every moral obligation involves a legal duty, in R v Miller a squatter flicked away a still lit cigarette, which landed on a mattress
6.
Detention (imprisonment)
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Detention is the process when a state or private citizen lawfully holds a person by removing his or her freedom of liberty at that time. This can be due to charges being raised against the individual as part of a prosecution or to protect a person or property. Being detained does not always result in being taken to an area, either for interrogation. The term can also be used in reference to the holding of property, the process of detainment may or may not have been preceded or followed with an arrest. The prisoners in Guantánamo Bay are for example referred to as detainees and it is used to refer to any person captured or otherwise detained by an armed force. More generally, it is held in custody. Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that, No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, in wars between nations, detainees are referenced in the Fourth Geneva Convention. Being detained for the purposes of a search is tantamount to a temporary arrest, as it is not yet known whether charges can be brought against an individual. The term detained often refers to the immediacy when someone has their liberty deprived, for example, a shoplifter being pursued and restrained, but not yet informed he/she is under arrest or read his rights would be classed as detained. The detention of suspects is the process of keeping a person who has arrested in a police-cell. The Terrorism Act 2006 in the United Kingdom lengthened the 14-day limit for detention without an arrest warrant or an indictment from the Terrorism Act 2000 to 28 days, a controversial Government proposal for an extension to 90 days was rejected by the House of Commons. English criminal law requires the detainer/arrestor to have grounds to suspect when detaining someone. Indefinite detention of an individual occurs frequently in wartime under the laws of war and this has been applied notably by the United States after the September 11,2001 attacks. The U. S. military regulates treatment of detainees in the manual Military Police, Enemy Prisoners of War, Retained Personnel, Civilian Internees and Other Detainees and this had generated considerable debate around the globe. The U. S. government refers to these captured enemy combatants as detainees because they did not qualify as prisoners of war under the definition found in the Geneva Conventions. Under the Obama administration the term enemy combatants was also removed from the lexicon and further defined under the 2010 Defense Omnibus Bill, article 9, part 1a of Wetboek van Strafrecht states that there are 4 kinds of primary punishment. Two of them are two kinds of detentions, which are called gevangenisstraf and hechtenis, where the first is a punishment than the second. The two other kinds of punishment is light community service and fines, prisons are designed in several ways and there are 5 levels of regimes
7.
Life imprisonment
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Life imprisonment is any sentence of imprisonment for a crime under which convicted persons are to remain in prison for the rest of their lives or until paroled. Life imprisonment can, in cases, also be imposed for traffic offenses causing death. Canada and some U. S. states allow judges to impose life imprisonment for such offenses and this sentence does not exist in all countries. Portugal was the first country in the world to life imprisonment by the prison reforms of Sampaio e Melo in 1884. However, where life imprisonment is a sentence, there may also be formal mechanisms to request parole after a certain period of imprisonment. This means that a convict could be entitled to spend the rest of the sentence outside prison, early release is usually conditional depending on past and future conduct, possibly with certain restrictions or obligations. In contrast, when a term of imprisonment has ended. The United States leads in life sentences, at a rate of 50 people per 100,000 residents imprisoned for life, the length of time and the conditions surrounding parole vary greatly for each jurisdiction. In some places, convicts are entitled to apply for parole relatively early, in others, however, the time until being entitled to apply for parole does not necessarily tell anything about the actual date of parole being granted. The highest determined prison sentence that can be imposed in the ICC, after this period, the court will review the sentence to determine whether or not it should be reduced. Some technically finite sentences are handed out, especially in the U. S. that exceed the maximum life span and are therefore seen as de facto life sentences. He committed suicide in his cell one month later. Courts in South Africa have handed out at least two sentences that have exceeded a century and were thus symbolic life sentences, unlike other areas of criminal law, sentences handed to minors do not differ from those given to legal adults. A few countries worldwide allow for minors to be given sentences that have no provision for eventual release. Of these, only the United States currently has minors serving such sentences, as of 2009, Human Rights Watch had calculated that there were 2,589 youth offenders serving life without parole in the United States. Graham v. Florida was a significant case in juvenile justice, in Jacksonville, Florida, Terrence J. Graham tried to rob a restaurant along with three adolescent accomplices. During the robbery one of Grahams accomplices had a bar that he used to hit the restaurant manager twice in the head. Once arrested, Graham was charged with attempted armed robbery and armed burglary with assault/battery, the maximum sentence he faced from these charges was life without the possibility of parole, and the prosecutor wanted to charge him as an adult
8.
Google Books
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Books are provided either by publishers and authors, through the Google Books Partner Program, or by Googles library partners, through the Library Project. Additionally, Google has partnered with a number of publishers to digitize their archives. The Publisher Program was first known as Google Print when it was introduced at the Frankfurt Book Fair in October 2004, the Google Books Library Project, which scans works in the collections of library partners and adds them to the digital inventory, was announced in December 2004. But it has also criticized for potential copyright violations. As of October 2015, the number of scanned book titles was over 25 million, Google estimated in 2010 that there were about 130 million distinct titles in the world, and stated that it intended to scan all of them. Results from Google Books show up in both the universal Google Search as well as in the dedicated Google Books search website, if Google believes the book is still under copyright, a user sees snippets of text around the queried search terms. All instances of the terms in the book text appear with a yellow highlight. The four access levels used on Google Books are, Full view, Books in the domain are available for full view. In-print books acquired through the Partner Program are also available for full view if the publisher has given permission, usually, the publisher can set the percentage of the book available for preview. Users are restricted from copying, downloading or printing book previews, a watermark reading Copyrighted material appears at the bottom of pages. All books acquired through the Partner Program are available for preview and this could be because Google cannot identify the owner or the owner declined permission. If a search term appears many times in a book, Google displays no more than three snippets, thus preventing the user from viewing too much of the book. Also, Google does not display any snippets for certain reference books, such as dictionaries, Google maintains that no permission is required under copyright law to display the snippet view. No preview, Google also displays search results for books that have not been digitized, in effect, this is similar to an online library card catalog. Google also stated that it would not scan any in-copyright books between August and 1 November 2005, to provide the owners with the opportunity to decide which books to exclude from the Project. It can let Google scan the book under the Library Project and it can opt out of the Library Project, in which case Google will not scan the book. If the book has already been scanned, Google will reset its access level as No preview and this information is collated through automated methods, and sometimes data from third-party sources is used. This information provides an insight into the book, particularly useful when only a view is available
9.
Court of General Gaol Delivery
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The High Court of Justice of the Isle of Man is governed by the High Court Act 1991. The Judge of Appeal, an appointment, can only sit in the Appeal Division. Unless the parties consent, the quorum of the Appeal Division is at least two judges of the High Court. A Deemster may not sit on an appeal from his own judgment or order, at present there is a panel of Acting Deemsters, who may be called upon to assist in the discharge of the business of the High Court. The High Court of Justice of the Isle of Man came into existence on 1 January 1884 and it merged the former Courts of Chancery, Court of Exchequer, Court of the Staff of Government, Court of Common Law and Court of Admiralty and the Deemster’s Courts. Its judges were the Lieutenant Governor, the Clerk of the Rolls and it consisted of a Chancery Division and Common Law Division with original jurisdiction, and a Staff of Government Division with appellate jurisdiction. The former summary jurisdiction of the Deemsters in contract, debt etc. was to be exercised by the Common Law Division, the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts relating to probate, administration of estates and matrimonial causes was vested in the High Court on 5 July 1884. The Governor ceased to be a judge of the Court in 1921, the jurisdiction of the Court of Criminal Appeal, which was set up in 1921, was transferred to the Staff of Government Division of the High Court on 1 December 1969. From 1991 the jurisdiction of the court in family matters was to be exercised by a new Family Division, a new office of Deputy Deemster was created in 2002 but abolished in 2009. With effect from 1 September 2009 the constitution of the High Court was changed, at present there is one full-time additional Deemster, and additional part-time Deemsters are appointed from time to time to hear a particular case. At present there is no full-time additional Judicial Officer, but additional part-time Judicial Officers are appointed from time to time to hear a particular case, all serious crimes on the Isle of Man are tried in the Court of General Gaol Delivery. The Second Deemster normally sits as the judge and this court is not formally part of the High Court, but is administered as though it were part of the High Court. The Court deals with all matters where defendants have been committed for trial or sentence by a court of summary jurisdiction. Juries are normally composed of seven persons, the equivalent court in England and Wales is the Crown Court. In 1992 the last-ever death sentence in any court in the British Isles was pronounced by Deemster Callow upon Anthony Teare for murder, see also, Capital punishment in the Isle of Man. Judiciary of the Isle of Man Isle of Man Courts
10.
English Reports
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The English Reports is a collection of nominate reports of judgments of the English Courts reported between 1220 and 1866. It contains most, but not all, of the nominate reports and it reproduces many reports not from their original editions but from dependable, although not always verbatim, later editions. It was published in 178 volumes from 1900 to 1932 by Stevens & Sons in London, under the British citation system, it is cited using the abbreviation E. R. for example, Planché v. Colburn 131 E. R.305. It is also cited in the American courts, where it is normally cited by using the original nominate report citation followed by Eng. Rep. for example, Planché v. Colburn,8 Bing, an index chart supplied with the reports states where each volume of the nominate reports is to be found in the English Reports. A full chart is now published by Professional Books
11.
Criminology
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Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, management, causes, control, consequences, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the individual and social levels. The term criminology was coined in 1885 by Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo as criminologia, later, French anthropologist Paul Topinard used the analogous French term criminologie. In the mid-18th century criminology arose as social philosophers gave thought to crime, over time, several schools of thought have developed. There were three schools of thought in early criminological theory spanning the period from the mid-18th century to the mid-twentieth century, Classical, Positive. The Classical School, which developed in the century, was based on utilitarian philosophy. Cesare Beccaria, author of On Crimes and Punishments, Jeremy Bentham, thus, it ignores the possibility of irrationality and unconscious drives as motivators. Punishment can deter people from crime, as the costs outweigh benefits, the more swift and certain the punishment, the more effective it is in deterring criminal behavior. The Classical school of thought came about at a time when major reform in penology occurred, also, this time period saw many legal reforms, the French Revolution, and the development of the legal system in the United States. The Positivist school presumes that criminal behavior is caused by internal and external factors outside of the individuals control, the scientific method was introduced and applied to study human behavior. Positivism can be broken up into three segments which include biological, psychological and social positivism, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian sociologist working in the late 19th century, is regarded as the father of criminology. He was one of the key contributors to biological positivism and founded the Italian school of criminology, Lombroso took a scientific approach, insisting on empirical evidence for studying crime. This approach, influenced by the theory of phrenology and by Charles Darwin. Criminologists have since rejected Lombrosos biological theories, with groups not used in his studies. Sociological positivism suggests that factors such as poverty, membership of subcultures. Adolphe Quetelet made use of data and statistical analysis to gain insight into the relationship between crime and sociological factors and he found that age, gender, poverty, education, and alcohol consumption were important factors related to crime. Lance Lochner conducted three different research experiments that shared the same conclusion, schooling reduces crime by a significant margin, Rawson W. Rawson utilized crime statistics to suggest a link between population density and crime rates, with crowded cities creating an environment conducive for crime. Joseph Fletcher and John Glyde also presented papers to the Statistical Society of London on their studies of crime, Henry Mayhew used empirical methods and an ethnographic approach to address social questions and poverty, and presented his studies in London Labour and the London Poor. Émile Durkheim viewed crime as an aspect of society, with uneven distribution of wealth
12.
Penology
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The Oxford English Dictionary defines penology as the study of the punishment of crime and prison management, and in this sense it is equivalent with corrections. Penology is concerned with the effectiveness of social processes devised and adopted for the prevention of crime. The study of penology therefore deals with the treatment of prisoners and it also encompasses aspects of probation as well as penitentiary science relating to the secure detention and retraining of offenders committed to secure institutions. Penology concerns many topics and theories, including those concerning prisons, contemporary penology concerns itself mainly with criminal rehabilitation and prison management. The word seldom applies to theories and practices of punishment in less formal environments such as parenting, school, historical theories put based on the notion that fearful consequences would discourage potential offenders. Similarly, certain hudud offenses under Sharia hadith tradition may incur fearful penalties and they center on the concept of proportionality. Subsequent development of the ideas of Beccaria made non-lethal punishment more socially acceptable, consequently, convicted prisoners had to be re-integrated into society when their punishment was complete. Auburn System Zebulon Brockway Jeremy Bentham Elmira System Incapacitation Panopticon Diiulio, John J. Governing Prisons, A Comparative Study of Correctional Management, Simon, ISBN 0-02-907883-0 The Florida State University College of Criminology and Criminal Justice CrimLinks UK based site
13.
Punishment
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Punishment may be self-inflicted as with self-flagellation and mortification of the flesh in the religious setting, but is most often a form of social coercion. The unpleasant imposition may include a fine, penalty, or confinement, the individual may be a person, or even an animal. The authority may be either a group or a single person, negative consequences that are not authorized or that are administered without a breach of rules are not considered to be punishment as defined here. Research into punishment often includes similar research into prevention, justifications for punishment include retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation. The last could include such measures as isolation, in order to prevent the wrongdoers having contact with potential victims, if only some of the conditions included in the definition of punishment are present, descriptions other than punishment may be considered more accurate. Inflicting something negative, or unpleasant, on a person or animal, in addition, the word punishment is used as a metaphor, as when a boxer experiences punishment during a fight. In other situations, breaking a rule may be rewarded, finally the condition of breaking the rules must be satisfied for consequences to be considered punishment. Corporal punishment refers to punishments in which pain is intended to be inflicted upon the transgressor. Punishments may be judged as fair or unfair in terms of their degree of reciprocity and proportionality to the offense, Punishment can be an integral part of socialization, and punishing unwanted behaviour is often part of a system of pedagogy or behavioral modification which also includes rewards. Various philosophers have presented definitions of punishment, introduced by B. F. Skinner, punishment has a more restrictive and technical definition. Along with reinforcement it belongs under the operant conditioning category, operant conditioning refers to learning with either punishment as a negative rienforcer or a reward that serves as a positive reinforcement of the lesson to be learned. In psychology, punishment is the reduction of a behavior via application of an unpleasant stimulus or removal of a pleasant stimulus, extra chores or spanking are examples of positive punishment, while removing an offending students recess or play privileges are examples of negative punishment. The definition requires that punishment is only determined after the fact by the reduction in behavior, if the behavior of the subject does not decrease. There is some conflation of punishment and aversives, though an aversion that does not decrease behavior is not considered punishment in psychology, additionally, aversive stimulus is a label behaviorists generally apply to negative reinforcers, rather than punishers. During a period of heavy fishing and tourism that encroached on their territory, they started to live in groups, learning from each other, especially hunting techniques. Small, younger octopuses could be near the fully grown octopuses without being eaten by them, even though they, the authors also note that the octopuses adopted observational learning without any evolutionary history of specialized adaptation for it. There are also arguments against the notion of punishment requiring intelligence, there is proof of honey bee workers with mutations that makes them fertile laying eggs only when other honey bees are not observing them, and that the few that are caught in the act are killed. The authors argue that this falsifies the claim that punishment evolved as a strategy to deal with individuals capable of knowing what they are doing, certain scientists argue that this disproves the notion of humans having a biological feeling of intentional transgressions deserving to be punished
14.
Stanford prison experiment
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The Stanford prison experiment was an attempt to investigate the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle between prisoners and prison guards. It was conducted at Stanford University on August 14–20,1971 and it was funded by the U. S. Office of Naval Research as an investigation into the causes of difficulties between guards and prisoners in the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps. The experiment is a topic covered in most introductory psychology textbooks, some participants developed their roles as the guards enforced authoritarian measures and ultimately subjected some prisoners to psychological torture. Many of the prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and, by the guards request, Zimbardo, in his role as the superintendent, allowed abuse to continue. Two of the prisoners left mid-experiment, and the exercise was abandoned after six days following the objections of graduate student Christina Maslach. Certain portions of the experiment were filmed, and excerpts of footage are publicly available, Zimbardo and his team aimed to test the hypothesis that the inherent personality traits of prisoners and guards are the chief cause of abusive behavior in prison. Participants were recruited and told they would participate in a two-week prison simulation, the team selected the 24 males whom they deemed to be the most psychologically stable and healthy. These participants were white and of the middle class. The group was selected to exclude those with criminal backgrounds, psychological impairments. They all agreed to participate in a 7- to 14-day period, the experiment was conducted in the basement of Jordan Hall. 12 of the 24 participants were assigned the role of prisoner, Zimbardo took on the role of the superintendent, and an undergraduate research assistant the role of the warden. Zimbardo designed the experiment in order to induce disorientation, depersonalization, the researchers held an orientation session for guards the day before the experiment, during which guards were instructed not to physically harm the prisoners or withhold food or drink. Were going to take away their individuality in various ways, in general what all this leads to is a sense of powerlessness. That is, in this well have all the power. The researchers provided the guards with wooden batons to establish their status, clothing similar to that of a prison guard. Prisoners wore uncomfortable, ill-fitting smocks and stocking caps, as well as a chain around one ankle, guards were instructed to call prisoners by their assigned numbers, sewn on their uniforms, instead of by name. The prisoners were arrested at their homes and charged with armed robbery, the local Palo Alto police department assisted Zimbardo with the arrests and conducted full booking procedures on the prisoners, which included fingerprinting and taking mug shots. The prisoners were transported to the prison from the police station
15.
Prisoner
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A prisoner, also known as an inmate or detainee, is a person who is deprived of liberty against his or her will. This can be by confinement, captivity, or by forcible restraint, the term applies particularly to those on trial or serving a prison sentence in a prison. Prisoner is a term for a person who is imprisoned. Prisoner was a term for a person prosecuted for felony. It was not applicable to a person prosecuted for misdemeanour, the abolition of the distinction between felony and misdemeanour by section 1 of the Criminal Law Act 1967 has rendered this distinction obsolete. Glanville Williams described as invidious the practice of using the term prisoner in reference to a person who had not been convicted, the earliest evidence of the existence of the prisoner dates back to 8,000 BC from prehistoric graves in Lower Egypt. This evidence suggests that people from Libya enslaved a San-like tribe, among the most extreme adverse effects suffered by prisoners, appear to be caused by solitary confinement for long durations. When held in Special Housing Units, prisoners are subject to sensory deprivation, long durations may lead to depression and changes to brain physiology. Social connection and the support provided from social interaction are prerequisite to long-term social adjustment as a prisoner, Prisoners exhibit the paradoxical effect of social withdrawal after long periods of solitary confinement. A shift takes place from a craving for social contact. They may grow lethargic and apathetic, and no longer be able to control their own conduct when released from solitary confinement and they can come to depend upon the prison structure to control and limit their conduct. Long-term stays in solitary confinement can cause prisoners to develop clinical depression and those with pre-existing mental illnesses are at a higher risk for developing psychiatric symptoms. Some common behaviours are self-mutilation, suicidal tendencies, and psychosis, a psychopathological condition identified as SHU syndrome has been observed among such prisoners. Symptoms are characterized as problems with concentration and memory, distortions of perception, most convicts suffering from SHU syndrome exhibit extreme generalized anxiety and panic disorder, with some suffering amnesia. The psychological syndrome known as Stockholm syndrome, describes a phenomenon where, over time. Competency in following the routines demanded by the code partly determined the identity as a convict. Sykes outlined some of the most salient points of this code as it applied in the period in the United States, Both federal. Prisoners in the United States do not have rights under the Constitution, however, they are protected by Amendment VIII which prohibits cruel
16.
Crime
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In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition. The most popular view is that crime is a created by law, in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence is an act not only to some individual. Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law, the notion that acts such as murder, rape and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is an offence is defined by criminal law of each country. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, the state has the power to severely restrict ones liberty for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere, usually, to be classified as a crime, the act of doing something criminal must – with certain exceptions – be accompanied by the intention to do something criminal. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime, breaches of private law are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure. With institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the State can compel populations to conform to codes, authorities employ various mechanisms to regulate certain behaviors in general. In addition, authorities provide remedies and sanctions, and collectively these constitute a criminal justice system, Legal sanctions vary widely in their severity, they may include incarceration of temporary character aimed at reforming the convict. Some jurisdictions have penal codes written to inflict permanent harsh punishments, legal mutilation, usually a natural person perpetrates a crime, but legal persons may also commit crimes. Conversely, at least under U. S. law, nonpersons such as animals cannot commit crimes, the sociologist Richard Quinney has written about the relationship between society and crime. When Quinney states crime is a phenomenon he envisages both how individuals conceive crime and how populations perceive it, based on societal norms. The word crime is derived from the Latin root cernō, meaning I decide, originally the Latin word crīmen meant charge or cry of distress. The Ancient Greek word krima, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to a mistake or an offense against the community. In 13th century English crime meant sinfulness, according to etymonline. com and it was probably brought to England as Old French crimne, from Latin crimen. In Latin, crimen could have signified any one of the following, charge, indictment, accusation, crime, fault, the word may derive from the Latin cernere – to decide, to sift
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Hostage
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A hostage is a person or entity which is held by one of two belligerent parties to the other or seized as security for the carrying out of an agreement, or as a preventive measure against war. A person who seizes one or more hostages is known as a hostage-taker, if the hostages are present voluntarily, then the receiver is known as a host. These obligations would be in the form of signing of a peace treaty and this would eventually influence them culturally and open the way for an amicable political line if they ascended to power after release. This caused the element gīsl = hostage in many old Germanic personal names, the practice was also commonplace in the Imperial Chinese tributary system, especially between the Han and Tang dynasties. The practice continued through the early Middle Ages, the Irish High King Niall of the Nine Hostages got his epithet Noígiallach because, by taking nine petty kings hostage, he had subjected nine other principalities to his power. This practice was adopted in the early period of the British occupation of India. The practice of taking hostages as security for the out of a treaty between civilized states is now obsolete. In France, after the revolution of Prairial, the law of hostages was passed. Relatives of émigrés were taken from disturbed districts and imprisoned, and were liable to execution at any attempt to escape. Sequestration of their property and deportation from France followed on the murder of a republican, four to every such murder, the law only resulted in an increase in the insurrection. Napoleon in 1796 had used similar measures to deal with the insurrection in Lombardy, another case where hostages have been taken in modern warfare has been the subject of much discussion. The measure seems to have been effective, in 1900 during the Second Boer War, by a proclamation issued at Pretoria, Lord Roberts adopted the plan for a similar reason, but shortly afterwards it was abandoned. The Germans also, between the surrender of a town and its occupation, took hostages as security against outbreaks of violence by the inhabitants. It may be noticed, however, that the hostages would suffer should the acts aimed at be performed by the authorized belligerent forces of the enemy, the regulations, however do not allude to the practice of taking hostage. In May 1871, at the close of the Paris Commune and it was an act of maniacal despair, on the defeat at Mont Valrien on the 4 April and the entry of the army into Paris on the 21 May. Taking hostages is today considered a crime or an act of terrorism, the criminal activity is known as kidnapping. An acute situation where hostages are kept in a building or a vehicle that has taken over by armed terrorists or common criminals is often called a hostage crisis. Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions states that the taking of hostages during a conflict is a war crime and shall remain prohibited at any time
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Political prisoner
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A political prisoner is someone imprisoned because they have opposed or criticized the government responsible for their imprisonment. The term is used by persons or groups challenging the legitimacy of the detention of a prisoner, supporters of the term define a political prisoner as someone who is imprisoned for his or her participation in political activity. If a political offense was not the reason for the prisoners detention. Some understand the political prisoner narrowly, equating it with the term prisoner of conscience. Amnesty International campaigns for the release of prisoners of conscience, which include political prisoners as well as those imprisoned for their religious or philosophical beliefs. To reduce controversy, and as a matter of principle, the organizations policy applies only to prisoners who have not committed or advocated violence, thus, there are political prisoners who do not fit the narrower criteria for POCs. The organisation defines the differences as follows, AI uses the political prisoner broadly. It does not use it, as others do, to imply that all such prisoners have a special status or should be released. It uses the only to define a category of prisoners for whom AI demands a fair. Governments often say they have no political prisoners, only prisoners held under the criminal law. AI however describes cases like the examples given above as political, for instance, French anarchist groups typically call the former members of Action Directe held in France political prisoners. While the French government deemed Action Directe illegal, the group fashioned itself as a guerilla movement. In this sense, political prisoner can be used to describe any politically active prisoner who is held in custody for a violent action which supporters deem ethically justified, some libertarians also include all convicted for treason and some convicted of espionage in the category of political prisoners. Currently, there is much controversy and debate around how to define this term. Political prisoners can also be imprisoned with no legal veneer by extrajudicial processes, some political prisoners need not be imprisoned at all. Supporters of Gedhun Choekyi Nyima in the 11th Panchen Lama controversy have called him a political prisoner and he is held under secluded house arrest. This is common in situations which may otherwise be decried nationally and internationally as a human rights violation or suppression of a political dissident, particularly in this latter situation, whether an individual is regarded as a political prisoner may depend upon subjective political perspective or interpretation of the evidence. In the Soviet Union, dubious psychiatric diagnoses were sometimes used to political prisoners in the so-called psikhushkas
19.
Prisoner of conscience
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Prisoner of conscience is a term coined by Peter Benenson in a 28 May 1961 article for the London Observer newspaper. Most often associated with the human rights organisation Amnesty International, the term can refer to anyone imprisoned because of their race, sexual orientation, religion and it also refers to those who have been imprisoned and/or persecuted for the non-violent expression of their conscientiously held beliefs. The article The Forgotten Prisoners by Peter Benenson, published in The Observer 28 May 1961, launched the campaign Appeal for Amnesty 1961, any person who is physically restrained from expressing any opinion which he honestly holds and which does not advocate or condone personal violence. We also exclude those people who have conspired with a government to overthrow their own. In early 1962, the campaign had received public support to become a permanent organization and was renamed Amnesty International. Under British law, Amnesty International was classed as a political organisation, to work around this, the Fund for the Persecuted was established in 1962 to receive donations to support prisoners and their families. Amnesty International has, since its founding, pressured governments to release those persons it considers to be prisoners of conscience, below is an incomplete list of individuals that Amnesty International considers to be prisoners of conscience, organized by country. Amnesty International resources about prisoners of conscience Prisoners of Conscience Appeal Fund
20.
Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
21.
Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
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Black site
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In military terminology, a black site is a location at which an unacknowledged black project is conducted. It can refer to the facilities that are controlled by the CIA, U. S. President George W. Bush acknowledged the existence of secret prisons operated by the CIA during a speech on September 6,2006. A claim that the black sites existed was made by The Washington Post in November 2005, after denying the fact for years, Poland confirmed in 2014 that it has hosted black sites. In January 2012, Polands Prosecutor Generals office initiated investigative proceedings against Zbigniew Siemiątkowski, Siemiątkowski is charged with facilitating the alleged CIA detention operation in Poland, where foreign suspects may have been tortured in the context of the War on Terror. The possible involvement of Leszek Miller, Polands Prime Minister in 2001–04, is also considered, black sites operated by the U. S. government and its surrogates were first officially acknowledged by U. S. President George W. Bush in the fall of 2006. The International Committee of the Red Cross reported details of black site practices to the U. S. government in early 2007, and the contents of that report became public in March 2009. On September 6,2006, Bush publicly admitted the existence of secret prisons, the report was submitted to Bush administration officials. On March 15,2009, Mark Danner provided a report in the New York Review of Books describing and commenting on the contents of the ICRC report, according to Danner, the report was marked confidential and was not previously made public before being made available to him. Danner provided excerpts of interviews with detainees, including Abu Zubaydah, Walid bin Attash, black sites are embroiled in controversy over the legal status of the detainees held there, the legal authority for the operation of the sites, and full disclosure by the governments involved. An important aspect of black site operation is that the status of black site detainees is not clearly defined. In practice, inmates in black sites have no other than those given by the captors. The revelation of such black sites adds to the controversy surrounding US government policy regarding those whom it describes as unlawful enemy combatants, approximately 30 detainees are considered the most dangerous or important terrorism suspects and are held by the CIA at black sites under the most secretive arrangements. A further 100 ghost detainees kidnapped in Europe and rendered to other countries must be counted and this process is called extraordinary rendition. Marty also underlined that European countries probably had knowledge of covert operations. Furthermore, the CIA apparently financially assists and directs the jails in these countries, while the US and host countries have signed the United Nations Convention Against Torture, CIA officers are allowed to use what the agency calls enhanced interrogation techniques. These have been alleged to constitute severe pain or suffering under the UN convention, there is little or no stated legal authority for the operation of black sites by the United States or the other countries believed to be involved. In fact, the specifics of the network of black sites remains controversial, the United Nations has begun to intervene in this aspect of black sites. Polish Prime Minister Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz characterized the accusation as libel, while Romania similarly said there was no evidence, British Prime Minister Tony Blair said that the report added absolutely nothing new whatever to the information we have
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Debtors' prison
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A debtors prison is a prison for people who are unable to pay debt. Through the mid 19th century, debtors prisons were a way to deal with unpaid debt in Western Europe. Increasing access and lenience throughout the history of law have made prison terms for unaggravated indigence illegal over most of the world. In this case the crime is not indigence, but disobeying the order to appear before the court. During Europes Middle Ages, debtors, both men and women, were locked up together in a single, large cell until their families paid their debt, debt prisoners often died of diseases contracted from other debt prisoners. Conditions included starvation and abuse from other prisoners, if the father of a family was imprisoned for debt, the family business often suffered while the mother and children fell into poverty. Unable to pay the debt, the father often remained in prison for many years. Some debt prisoners were released to become serfs or indentured servants until they paid off their debt in labor, article 1 of Protocol 4 of the European Convention on Human Rights prohibits the imprisonment of people for breach of a contract. Turkey and the United Kingdom have signed but never ratified Protocol 4, greece and Switzerland have neither signed nor ratified this protocol. In the late Middle Ages, and at the beginning of the modern era and this served to standardize the coercive arrest, and got rid of the many arbitrary sanctions that were not universal. In some areas the debtor could sell or redistribute their debt, in most of the cities, the towers and city fortifications functioned as jails. For certain sanctions there were designated prisons, hence some towers being called debtors prison, the term Schuldturm, outside of the Saxon constitution, became the catchword for public law debtor’s prison. In the early era, the debtor’s detainment or citizen’s arrest remained valid in Germany. This practice was particularly disgraceful to an identity, but had different rules than criminal trials. It was more similar to the enforcement of sentences e. g. the debtor would be able to work off their debt for a certain amount of days. The North German Confederation eliminated debtors prisons on May 29,1868, in England during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,10,000 people were imprisoned for debt each year. A prison term did not alleviate a persons debt, however, in the Kingdom of Great Britain and the later United Kingdom, debtors prisons varied in the amount of freedom they allowed the debtor. Life in these prisons, however, was far from pleasant, some debtor prisoners were even less fortunate, being sent to prisons with a mixture of vicious criminals and petty criminals, and many more were confined to a single cell
24.
Extermination camp
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This genocide of the Jewish people of Europe was the Third Reichs Final Solution to the Jewish question. It is now known as the Holocaust. In 1941, the experience gained in the killing of these hospital patients led to the creation of extermination camps for the implementation of the Final Solution. By then, the Jews were already confined to new ghettos and interned in Nazi concentration camps along with other targeted groups, including Roma, and the Soviet POWs. The Nazi Endlösung der Judenfrage, based on the killing of Europes Jews by gassing, began during Operation Reinhard. Responsibility for the logistics were to be executed by the programme administrator, notably, the order preceded the Wannsee Conference by three months, but the gassings at Kulmhof north of Łódź using gas vans began already in December, under Sturmbannführer Herbert Lange. The camp at Bełżec was operational by March 1942, with leadership brought in from Germany under the guise of Organisation Todt, Auschwitz concentration camp was fitted with brand new gassing bunkers in March 1942. Majdanek had them built in September, todeslagers were designed specifically for the systematic killing of people delivered en masse by the Holocaust trains. The executioners did not expect the prisoners to more than a few hours beyond arrival at Belzec, Sobibór. The Jewish men, women and children were delivered from the ghettos for special treatment in an atmosphere of terror by uniformed police battalions from both, Orpo and Schupo. From March 1936, all Nazi concentration camps were managed by the SS-Totenkopfverbände, who operated extermination camps from 1941 as well. An SS anatomist, Dr. Johann Kremer, after witnessing the gassing of victims at Birkenau, wrote in his diary on 2 September 1942 and they dont call Auschwitz the camp of annihilation for nothing. The distinction was evident during the Nuremberg trials, when Dieter Wisliceny was asked to name the extermination camps, then, when asked How do you classify the camps Mauthausen, Dachau, and Buchenwald. He replied, They were normal concentration camps, from the point of view of the department of Eichmann, irrespective of round-ups for extermination camps, the Nazis abducted millions of foreigners for slave labour in other types of camps, which provided perfect cover for the extermination programme. Prisoners represented about a quarter of the workforce of the Reich, with mortality rates exceeding 75 percent due to starvation, disease, exhaustion, executions. On top of that, the new death camps outside the borders of the Third Reich proper could be kept secret from the German civil populace. The killing method was based on experience gained by the SS during the secretive Aktion T4 programme of involuntary euthanasia, there were two types of death chambers operating during the Holocaust. The three killing centres of Einsatz Reinhard were constructed predominantly for the extermination of Polands Jews trapped in the Nazi ghettos
25.
Internment
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Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people, commonly in large groups, without trial. The term is used for the confinement of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects. Thus, while it can simply mean imprisonment, it tends to refer to preventive confinement, use of these terms is subject to debate and political sensitivities. Interned persons may be held in prisons or in known as internment camps. In certain contexts, these may also be known either officially or pejoratively, internment also refers to a neutral countrys practice of detaining belligerent armed forces and equipment on its territory during times of war under the Hague Convention of 1907. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights restricts the use of internment, article 9 states that No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. The United States set up camps for Cherokee and other Native Americans in the 1830s. From 1863 to 1868, the U. S, military persecuted and imprisoned 9,500 Navajo and 500 Mescalero Apache. Living under armed guards, more than 3,500 Navajo and Mescalero Apache men, women, the term concentration camp saw wider use during the Second Boer War, when the British operated such camps in South Africa for interning Boers. They built 45 tented camps for Boer internees and 64 for black Africans, of the 28,000 Boer men captured as prisoners of war, the British sent 25,630 overseas. The vast majority of Boers remaining in the camps were women and children. Some of them managed to go into exile or went off to join the armies of the Allies in order to fight against the Axis powers, while others ended up in Nazi concentration camps. During the 20th century, the internment of civilians by the state reached its most notorious excesses with the establishment of the Nazi concentration camps. The Nazi concentration camp system was notable for its size, with as many as 15,000 camps. Moreover, Nazi Germany established six camps, specifically designed to kill millions
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Labor camp
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A labor camp or work camp is a simplified detention facility where inmates are forced to engage in penal labor as a form of punishment under the criminal code. Labor camps have many aspects with slavery and with prisons. Conditions at labor camps vary widely depending on the operators, some of those camps were dubbed reeducation facilities for political coercion, but most others served as backbone of industry and agriculture for the benefit of the state especially in times of war. Labor camps of forced labor were abolished by Convention no.105 of the United Nations International Labour Organization, albania Allied Forces The Allies of World War II operated a number of work camps after the war. At the Yalta Conference in 1945, it was agreed that German forced labor was to be utilized as reparations, see Forced labor of Germans after World War II. Bulgaria Burma According to the New Statesman, Burmese military government operated, from 1962 to 2011, China The anti-communist Kuomintang operated various camps between 1938 and 1949, including the Northwestern Youth Labor Camp for young activists and students. The Communist Party of China has operated many labor camps for some crimes at least since taking power in 1949, many leaders of China were put into labor camps after purges, including Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi. May Seventh Cadre Schools are an example of Cultural Revolution-era labor camps, According to CNN, hundreds — if not thousands — of labor camps and forced-labor prisons still exist in modern-day China, housing political prisoners and dissidents alongside dangerous criminals. Chinese state-run media Xinhua reported in early 2013 that the plans to reform its controversial re-education through labor system this year. Cuba Beginning in November 1965, people classified as against the government were summoned to work camps referred to as Military Units to Aid Production, Czechoslovakia After the communists took over Czechoslovakia in 1948, many forced labor camps were created. The inmates included political prisoners, clergy, kulaks, Boy Scouts leaders, about half of the prisoners worked in the uranium mines. Also between 1950 and 1954 many men were considered unreliable for compulsory military service, and were conscripted to labour battalions instead. Nazi Germany During World War II the Nazis operated several categories of Arbeitslager for different categories of inmates, the largest number of them held Jewish civilians forcibly abducted in the occupied countries to provide labor in the German war industry, repair bombed railroads and bridges or work on farms. By 1944,19. 9% of all workers were foreigners, the Nazis employed many slave laborers. They also operated concentration camps, some of which provided free forced labor for industrial, a notable example is the Mittelbau-Dora labor camp complex that serviced the production of the V-2 rocket. See List of German concentration camps for more, the Nazi camps played a key role in the extermination of millions. Hundreds of thousands of people died as a result of the overwork, malnutrition, preventable disease. North Korea North Korea is known to six camps with prison-labor colonies in remote mountain valleys
27.
Chain gang
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A chain gang is a group of prisoners chained together to perform menial or physically challenging work as a form of punishment. Such punishment might include repairing buildings, building roads, or clearing land and this system existed primarily in the Southern United States, and by 1955 had been phased out nationwide, with Georgia the last state to abandon the practice. Chain gangs were reintroduced by a few states during the get tough on crime 1990s, the introduction of chain gangs into the United States began shortly after the American Civil War. The southern states needed finances and public works to be performed, Prisoners were a free way for these works to be achieved. A single ankle shackle with a length of chain attached to a heavy ball is known as a ball. It limited prisoner movement and impeded escape, two ankle shackles attached to each other by a short length of chain are known as a hobble or as leg irons. These could be chained to a longer chain with several other prisoners. The walk required to avoid tripping while in leg irons is known as the convict shuffle, a group of prisoners working outside prison walls under close supervision, but without chains, is a work gang. Their distinctive attire and shaven heads served the purpose of displaying their punishment to the public, however, the public was often brutal, swearing at convicts and even throwing things at them. The use of chains could be hazardous, some of the chains used in the Georgia system in the first half of the twentieth century weighed twenty pounds. Some prisoners suffered from shackle sores — ulcers where the ground against their skin. Gangrene and other infections were serious risks, falls could imperil several individuals at once. Modern prisoners are put into handcuffs or wrist manacles and leg irons. This form of restraint is most often used on prisoners expected to be violent, various claims as to the purpose of chain gangs have been offered. These include, punishment societal restitution for the cost of housing, feeding, the use of chain gangs in the United States generally ended in 1955. Chain gangs experienced a resurgence when Alabama began to use again in 1995. Several jurisdictions in the United States have re-introduced prison labor, arizonas modern chain gangs, rather than chipping rocks, digging ditches or other non-productive tasks, often do work of economic benefit to a correctional department, such as removing trash. Opponents claim that the gangs often work outside in oppressive desert heat, a year after reintroducing the chain gang in 1995, Alabama was forced to again abandon the practice pending a lawsuit from, among other organizations, the Southern Poverty Law Center
28.
Military prison
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A military prison is a prison operated by the military. The Australian Defence Force currently has a prison, the Defence Force Correctional Establishment at Holsworthy Barracks in Sydney. This prison houses military personnel sentenced to between 14 days to two years imprisonment, in addition, there are 15 detention centres located within military bases across Australia. The Canadian Forces have one military prison, the Canadian Forces Service Prison and Detention Barracks, Canadian Forces personnel who are convicted by military courts and receive a sentence of 14 days or more are incarcerated at CFSPDB. Men, although in the prison, are kept separate from women. The prison is maintained and controlled by the Canadian Forces Military Police, any service personnel serving a sentence of 14 days or less are held in local base Military Police Detachment cells at the various Canadian Forces Bases within Canada. In Italy only one military jail now exists, the Santa Maria Capua Vetere and those serving in the police corps are also held in military jail. In Switzerland there are no special military prisons, sentences are to be served in civilian prisons. Women, although in the prison, are kept separate from men. This prison is maintained and controlled by the British Armys Military Provost Staff, more serious offenders with longer sentences are transferred to HM Prison Service as part of their dishonourable discharge. There are three categories of prisoner, Those from the RN, RM, British Army and RAF who are to remain in the Services after sentence and will serve their detention in A Company. Those from the RN, RM, British Army and RAF who are to be discharged after their sentence and will serve their detention in D Company. U. S. military forces currently maintain several regional prisoner holding facilities in the U. S. see list of U. S. military prisons for names and locations. In the United States, differential treatment seems to be suggested, members of the U. S. armed forces are subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice. Enlisted male military convicts who received sentences of less than five years are confined at various regional confinement facilities operated by the U. S, Military both in the continental United States and abroad. All female military personnel convicted of felonies serve their sentences at the Naval Consolidated Brig, Miramar located at the Marine Corps Air Station Miramar near San Diego, California. In former times, criminals in the services, including those convicted of sodomy, were sent to the once-infamous Portsmouth Naval Prison. A brig is a United States military prison aboard a United States Navy or Coast Guard vessel, the term derives from the Navys historical use of twin-mast sailing ships—or brigs—as prison ships
29.
Penal colony
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A penal colony is a settlement used to exile prisoners and separate them from the general population by placing them in a remote location, often an island or distant colonial territory. Historically penal colonies have often used for penal labour in an economically underdeveloped part of a states territories. In practice such penal colonies may be more than slave communities. The British used colonial North America as a colony through a system of indentured servitude. Merchants would transport the convicts and auction them off to plantation owners upon arrival in the colonies and it is estimated that some 50,000 British convicts were sent to colonial America and the majority landed in the Chesapeake colonies of Maryland and Virginia. Transported convicts represented perhaps one-quarter of all British emigrants during the 18th century, the State of Georgia for example was first founded by James Edward Oglethorpe by using penal prisoners taken largely from debtors prison, creating a Debtors Colony. However, even though this failed, the idea that the state began as a penal has stayed both in popular history, and local lore. The British would often ship Irish and Scots to the Americas whenever rebellions took place in Ireland or Scotland, when that avenue closed in the 1780s after the American Revolution, Britain began using parts of what is now known as Australia as penal settlements. Australian penal colonies included Norfolk Island, Van Diemens Land, Queensland, advocates of Irish Home Rule or of Trade Unionism sometimes received sentences of deportation to these Australian colonies. Bermuda, off the North American continent, was used during the Victorian period. In colonial India, the British made various penal colonies, two of the most infamous ones are on the Andaman Islands and Hijli. In the early days of settlement, Singapore was the recipient of Indian convicts, the Qing Empire of 1644–1912 used Xinjiang province in the north-west of China as a penal colony. During the Argentine rule of the Falkland Islands the Buenos Aires government commissioned major Esteban Mestivier, as the new governor of the islands and he arrived at his destination on 15 November 1832, but his soldiers mutinied and killed him. Lt. Col. José María Pinedo quelled the rebellion and took charge as governor, argentinas southernmost city, Ushuaia, hosted a penal colony from 1896 to 1947. France sent criminals to tropical penal colonies including Louisiana in the early 18th century, devils Island in French Guiana, 1852–1939, received forgers and other criminals. New Caledonia and its Isle of Pines in Melanesia received transported dissidents like the Communards, ecuador has used two islands in the Galapagos archipelago as penal colonies, the Island of San Cristóbal and Isabela Island. Imperial Russia used Siberia as a colony for criminals and dissidents. Though geographically contiguous with heartland Russia, Siberia provided both remoteness and a harsh climate, in 1857 a penal colony was established on the island of Sakhalin
30.
Prisoner-of-war camp
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A prisoner-of-war camp is a site for the containment of enemy combatants captured by a belligerent power in time of war. It should be noted there are significant differences among POW camps, internment camps. In addition, non-combatants, such as merchant mariners and civilian aircrews, have imprisoned in some conflicts. Not all belligerents have consistently applied the convention in all conflicts, before the Peace of Westphalia, enemy combatants captured by belligerent forces were usually executed, enslaved, or held for ransom. This, coupled with the small size of armies, meant there was little need for any form of camp to hold prisoners of war. This is generally considered to mark the point where captured enemy combatants would be treated before being released at the end of the conflict or under a parole not to take up arms. The practice of paroling enemy combatants had begun thousands of earlier, at least as early as the time of Carthage. The consequent increase in the number of prisoners was to eventually to the development of the prisoner of war camps. Following General John Burgoynes surrender at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777, several thousand British and German troops were marched to Cambridge, for various reasons, the Continental Congress desired to move them south. For this purpose, one of the congressmen offered his land outside of Charlottesville, the remaining soldiers marched south in late 1778—arriving at the site in January 1779. Since the barracks were barely sufficient in construction, the officers were paroled to live as far away as Richmond, the camp was never adequately provisioned, but the prisoners built a theater on the site. Hundreds escaped Albemarle Barracks because of the shortage of guards, as the British Army moved northward from the Carolinas in late 1780, the remaining prisoners were moved to Frederick, Maryland, Winchester, Virginia, and perhaps elsewhere. No remains of the encampment site are left, while awaiting exchange, prisoners were confined to permanent camps. Neither Union or Confederate prison camps were well run. It is estimated that about 56,000 soldiers died in prisons during the war, during a period of 14 months in Camp Sumter, located near Andersonville, Georgia,13,000 of the 45,000 Union soldiers confined there died. During the Boer Wars the British established concentration camps to hold both civilians and prisoners of war, in total 109 camps were constructed for Boer and black African internees. However, the majority of prisoners of war were sent overseas, the camps were poorly administered, the food rations insufficient to maintain health, standards of hygiene were low, and overcrowding was chronic. Over 26,000 women and children died in the camps during the wars, the first international convention on prisoners of war was signed at the Hague Peace Conference of 1899
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Prison ship
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The vessels were a common form of internment in Britain and elsewhere in the 18th and 19th centuries. Charles F. Campbell writes that around 40 ships of the Royal Navy were converted for use as prison hulks, other hulks were anchored off Woolwich, Portsmouth, Chatham, Deptford, and Plymouth-Dock/Devonport. Private companies owned and operated some of the British hulks holding prisoners bound for penal transportation to Australia, HMP Weare was used by the British as a prison ship between 1997 and 2006. It was towed across the Atlantic from the United States in 1997 to be converted into a jail and it was berthed in Portland Harbour in Dorset, England. During the American War of Independence, more Colonist Americans died as prisoners of war on British prison ships through intentional neglect than died in battle of the war combined. This is now commemorated by the Prison Ship Martyrs Monument in Fort Greene Park, there was 8 died of a day while I was there. In 1778, Robert Sheffield of Stonington, Connecticut, escaped from one of the prison ships and he was one of 350 prisoners held in a compartment below the decks. The heat was so intense that they were all naked, which served well to get rid of vermin. The air was so foul that at times a lamp could not be kept burning, a clear distinction must be made between the use of hulks by the British for the accommodation of Prisoners of war during the Napoleonic Wars and their simultaneous use to hold criminal prisoners. Prisoners of war were held in hulks at Chatham, Portsmouth and Plymouth and this has resulted in the perpetuation of a myth that the hulks were a device for the extermination of prisoners and that conditions on board were intolerable. These topics are brought up to date in the commentary to the version of Louis Garnerays The Floating Prison. The first British use of a ship was the privately owned Tayloe, engaged by the Home Office in 1775 via contract with her owner. Tayloe was moored in the Thames with the intention that she be the point for all inmates whose sentences of transportation to the Americas had been delayed by the War of Independence. Prisoners began arriving from January 1776, by December 1776 all prisoners aboard Tayloe had been pardoned, enlisted or died, and the contract ceased. While the Tayloe was still in use, the British Government was simultaneously developing a plan for the use of transportees. In April and May 1776, legislation was passed to convert sentences of transportation to the Americas. In July 1776, Tayloes owner Duncan Campbell was named Overseer of Convicts on the Thames and awarded a contract for the housing of transportees and use of their labour. Campbell provided three ships for these purposes, the 260-ton Justitia, the 731-ton former French frigate Censor and a condemned East Indiaman
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Youth detention center
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Juveniles go through a separate court system, the juvenile court, which sentences or commits juveniles to a certain program or facility. Once processed in the court system there are many different pathways for juveniles. If a juvenile is sent by the courts to a detention center there are two types of facilities, secure detention and secure confinement. Secure detention means that juveniles are held for usually short periods of time in facilities in order to await current trial hearings, by holding juveniles in secure detention, it ensures appearance in court while also keeping the community safe and risk-free of the juvenile. This type of facility is called a juvenile hall, which is a holding center for juvenile delinquents. Juvenile detention is not intended to be punitive, rather, juveniles held in secure custody usually receive care consistent with the doctrine of parens patriae, i. e. the state as parent. Generally speaking, secure detention is reserved for juveniles considered to be a threat to safety or the court process, though in many cases. The reason for the variety in placement options of juveniles is that there does not currently exist a uniform definition of residential treatment programs. As a result, this creates a lack of uniformity across states, many services are supposed to be provided to the youth at both detention centers and confinement facilities. Services vary from facility to facility, but in general the programs, at the core, juvenile facilities function as rehabilitative institutions for youth. Education is seen by many as the primary rehabilitative service that must be provided to detained youth, despite state and federal requirements, there are many problems with the educational systems in juvenile detention centers. Some facilities do not have designated classrooms, libraries, or even books, and the teachers are poorly trained. There is a long-standing connection found in research between youth who commit crimes and mental health concerns, there has been found to be a surprisingly high population of juveniles who present serious mental health illness within juvenile facilities. Being that juvenile detention facilities operate on the foundation of rehabilitating the youth and it is the expectation that juvenile detention centers and juvenile institutions provide mental health services to their residents. The incarcerated youth population requires careful and structured intervention, which must be provided by the facilities, many different mental health treatment strategies exist for juveniles. It is the responsibility of management to decide what type of intervention strategy works best for each youth in his or her mental health treatment plan. Mental health services that can be provided to the include, individual counseling, group counseling, crisis counseling, family intervention, medication management. Education is seen by many as the cornerstone of youth rehabilitation, many landmark court cases, such as the 1981 case of Green v. Johnson, have given way to juveniles receiving their educational rights while incarcerated
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Administrative detention
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Administrative detention is arrest and detention of individuals by the state without trial, usually for security reasons. A large number of countries, both democratic and undemocratic, resort to administrative detention as a means to combat terrorism, to illegal immigration. Unlike criminal incarceration imposed upon conviction following a trial, administrative detention is a forward-looking mechanism and it is meant to be preventive in nature rather than punitive. The practice has been criticized by human rights organizations as a breach of civil, Administrative detentions are defined in the law of many of the worlds states. Proponents of administrative detention maintain that criminal laws reliance on defendant rights and it is also claimed that the conditions under which some suspected terrorists are captured, especially in combat zones, make it impossible to prove criminal cases using normal evidentiary rules. The Laws of War are also seen by the proponents as inadequate and these laws allow the capture of enemy fighters, and also allow holding them for the duration of hostilities without trial. However, these laws grew out of the need to regulate combat between professional armies accountable to a state, who were engaged in combat of possibly lengthy. Opponents of administrative detention challenge the above assumptions and they point to the historical record of prosecutors who were able to obtain convictions against terrorists on the basis of existing laws. Opponents maintain that in essence, administrative detention is a form of collective punishment, since it does not require proof of individual guilt, it attributes to all members of a group the actions of a few. Immigration detention is controversial because it presents a clash between traditional notions of liberty and the territorial sovereignty of states. In many non-democratic countries, administrative detention is used by the regime to suppress dissent. In Asia in particular, administrative detention was first introduced by the British and French colonial authorities prior to, in many cases, they were and codified as emergency measures or internal security acts. Vietnam is an example where administrative detention was used by the French colonial authorities in the 1930s. Post-independence, the now-ruling Communist authorities have employed very similar means to detain those suspected of counter-revolutionary offenses. Some of these prisoners, such as Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar, have become known worldwide due to the detention. The legal basis for this system is found in Australias Migration Act 1958, any member of the Brazilian Armed Forces may be imprisoned if found to be repeatedly in violation of the Military Disciplinary Regulations by his or her superiors. Each military branch has issued a list of transgressions in their Disciplinary Regulations, the harshest punishment of this kind, in the Brazilian Army, is a 30-day imprisonment penalty. Notwithstanding, members of the Brazilian Armed Forces under administrative detention may be granted a habeas corpus by the system to deliver them from imprisonment
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Death row
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Death row is a special section of a prison in the United States that houses inmates who are awaiting execution after being sentenced to death for the conviction of a capital crime. The US is the only Western country that applies the death penalty for capital crimes. Thirty-one of its 50 states and the federal government authorize this penalty, Death row is a term also used figuratively to describe the state of awaiting execution, even in places where no special facility or separate unit for condemned inmates exists. After a person is guilty of a capital offense, the judge will give the jury the option of imposing a death sentence or life imprisonment without the possibility of parole. It is up to a jury to decide whether to give the death sentence, if sentenced to death, a convict will remain on death row during appeal and habeas corpus procedures, which can take years. Since 1973 and later, with an number of persons being freed since 1993, some 157 persons as of January 2017 have been exonerated on appeal. Alabama is the state in the United States that allows a judge to overrule even a unanimous jury decision. Judges are elected to office and some run on their record of imposing the death penalty, in 2016 Florida repealed its law to allow judicial intervention and the Delaware Supreme Court ruled that year that the practice was unconstitutional. If sentenced to death, a convict will remain on death row during appeal and habeas corpus procedures, in the United States,157 inmates have been exonerated and freed from death row from 1973 to January 2017. An increasing number of these exonerations have been won since 1993, Louisiana and several other states hold people on death row in solitary confinement and extreme isolation, in windowless cells 23 hours a day, with virtually no human contact except with guards. Such prisoners are not allowed to take part in any educational or work programs, opponents of capital punishment claim that a prisoners extreme social isolation on death row and uncertainty over his or her fate constitute a form of mental cruelty. Long-time death row inmates are liable to become ill, if they are not already. This is referred to as the death row phenomenon, in extreme cases some inmates may attempt to commit suicide. Each man had held in solitary more than 25 years. Angola has 71 prisoners on death row, but the state has executed a small proportion of such prisoners, so inmates sentenced to death may serve nearly life in solitary. In the United States, prisoners may wait many years as they appeal their convictions or sentences, the time between sentencing and execution has increased relatively steadily from 1977, when some states reinstated their death penalties through new legislation, to 2010. There was a 22% jump between 1989 and 1990, as DNA evidence began to be used regularly in trial. Finding evidence and testing of DNA took more time, although the use of lethal injections was declared constitutional, there has been increasing controversy associated with its use
The dictionary definition of imprisonment at Wiktionary
