1.
Ticker symbol
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A ticker symbol or stock symbol is an abbreviation used to uniquely identify publicly traded shares of a particular stock on a particular stock market. A stock symbol may consist of letters, numbers or a combination of both, ticker symbol refers to the symbols that were printed on the ticker tape of a ticker tape machine. Stock symbols are unique identifiers assigned to each security traded on a particular market, for example, AAPL is for Apple Inc. OODH is for Orion DHC, Inc. and HD is for Home Depot, a stock symbol can consist of letters, numbers, or a combination of both, and is a way to uniquely identify that stock. The symbols were kept as short as possible to reduce the number of characters that had to be printed on the ticker tape, the allocation of symbols and formatting convention is specific to each stock exchange. In the US, for example, stock tickers are typically between 1 and 4 letters and represent the name where possible. In Europe, most exchanges use three-letter codes, for example Dutch consumer goods company Unilever traded on the Amsterdam Euronext exchange has the symbol UNA, while in Asia, numbers are often used as stock tickers to avoid issues for international investors when using non-Latin scripts. For example, the bank HSBCs stock traded on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange has the ticker symbol 0005, symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Prior to the 1999 merger with Mobil Oil, Exxon used a spelling of the company XON as its ticker symbol. The symbol of the firm after the merger was XOM, symbols are sometimes reused, in the US the single-letter symbols are particularly sought after as vanity symbols. For example, since Mar 2008 Visa Inc. has used the symbol V that had previously used by Vivendi which had delisted. To fully qualify a stock, both the ticker and the exchange or country of listing needs to be known, on many systems both must be specified to uniquely identify the security. This is often done by appending the location or exchange code to the ticker, although stock tickers identify a security, they are exchange dependent, generally limited to stocks and can change. These limitations have led to the development of other codes in financial markets to identify securities for settlement purposes, the most prevalent of these is the International Securities Identifying Number. An ISIN uniquely identifies a security and its structure is defined in ISO6166, Securities for which ISINs are issued include bonds, commercial paper, stocks, and warrants. The ISIN identifies the security, not the exchange on which it trades, for instance, Daimler AG stock trades on twenty-two different stock exchanges worldwide, and is priced in five different currencies, it has the same ISIN on each, though not the same ticker symbol. ISIN cannot specify a particular trade in this case, and another identifier, following the introduction of the Sequence trading platform in 1996, EPICs were renamed Tradable Instrument Display Mnemonics, but they are still widely referred to as EPICs. Stocks can also be identified using their SEDOL number or their ISIN, in the United States, modern letter-only ticker symbols were developed by Standard & Poors to bring a national standard to investing
2.
Bombay Stock Exchange
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The Bombay Stock Exchange is an Indian stock exchange located at Dalal Street, Kala Ghoda, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. Established in 1875, the BSE is Asia’s first stock exchange and it claims to be the worlds fastest stock exchange, with a median trade speed of 6 microseconds. The BSE is the worlds 11th largest stock exchange with a market capitalization of $1.43 Trillion as of March,2016. More than 5500 companies are listed on the BSE. Unlike countries like the United States where 70% of the GDP is derived from larger companies and the corporate sector, of these, as of November 2016, there are only 7,800 listed companies of which only 4000 trade on the stock exchanges at BSE and NSE. Hence the stocks trading at the BSE and NSE account for only about 4% of the Indian economy, Bombay Stock Exchange founded by Premchand Roychand. He was one of the most influential businessmen in 19th-century Bombay, a man who made a fortune in the stockbroking business and came to be known as the Cotton King, the Bullion King or just the Big Bull. He was also the founder of the Native Share and Stock Brokers Association, the Bombay Stock Exchange is the oldest exchange in Asia. Its history dates back to 1855, when five stockbrokers would gather under banyan trees in front of Mumbais Town Hall, the location of these meetings changed many times to accommodate an increasing number of brokers. The group eventually moved to Dalal Street in 1874 and became an organization known as The Native Share & Stock Brokers Association in 1875. On August 31,1957, the BSE became the first stock exchange to be recognized by the Indian Government under the Securities Contracts Regulation Act, in 1980, the exchange moved to the Phiroze Jeejeebhoy Towers at Dalal Street, Fort area. In 1986, it developed the BSE SENSEX index, giving the BSE a means to measure the performance of the exchange. In 2000, the BSE used this index to open its derivatives market, the development of SENSEX options along with equity derivatives followed in 2001 and 2002, expanding the BSEs trading platform. Historically an open outcry floor trading exchange, the Bombay Stock Exchange switched to a trading system developed by CMC Ltd. in 1995. It took the exchange only 50 days to make this transition and this automated, screen-based trading platform called BSE On-Line Trading had a capacity of 8 million orders per day. The BSE has also introduced a centralized exchange-based internet trading system, the BSE is also a Partner Exchange of the United Nations Sustainable Stock Exchange initiative, joining in September 2012. Robert Owen was the first to start co operative society at year of 18441 March 2001 Corporatisation of Exchanges proposed by the Union Govt. e, date on which Corporatisaton and Demutualisation was achieved. BSEs normal trading sessions occur on all days of the week except weekends, the launch of SENSEX in 1986 was later followed up in January 1989 by the introduction of the BSE National Index
3.
National Stock Exchange of India
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The National Stock Exchange of India Limited is the leading stock exchange of India, located in Mumbai. NSE was established in 1992 as the first demutualized electronic exchange in the country. National Stock Exchange has a market capitalization of more than US$1.41 trillion. NSEs flagship index, the NIFTY50, the 51 stock index, is used extensively by investors in India, however, only about 4% of the Indian economy / GDP is actually derived from the stock exchanges in India. NSE was set up by a group of leading Indian financial institutions at the behest of the government of India to bring transparency to the Indian capital market. Based on the laid out by the government committee, NSE has been established with a diversified shareholding comprising domestic. The key domestic investors include Life Insurance Corporation of India, State Bank of India, IFCI Limited IDFC Limited and Stock Holding Corporation of India Limited. And the key global investors are Gagil FDI Limited, GS Strategic Investments Limited, SAIF II SE Investments Mauritius Limited, Aranda Investments Pte Limited, NSE offers trading, clearing and settlement services in equity, equity derivatives, debt and currency derivatives segments. It is the first exchange in India to introduce electronic trading facility thus connecting together the investor base of the entire country, NSE has 2500 VSATs and 3000 leased lines spread over more than 2000 cities across India. NSE commenced operations in the Wholesale Debt Market segment in June 1994, the capital market segment of the NSE commenced operations in November 1994, while operations in the derivatives segment commenced in June 2000. Of these only 7,800 companies are listed of which only 4000 trade on the stock exchanges at BSE and NSE. Hence the stocks trading at the BSE and NSE account for only around 4% of the Indian economy, NSE was mainly set up to bring in transparency in the markets. Instead of trading membership being confined to a group of brokers, NSE ensured that anyone who was qualified, experienced, in this context, NSE was ahead of its times when it separated ownership and management in the exchange under SEBIs supervision. The price information which could earlier be accessed only by a handful of people could now be seen by a client in a location with the same ease. The paper-based settlement was replaced by electronic depository-based accounts and settlement of trades was always done on time, one of the most critical changes was that a robust risk management system was set in place, so that settlement guarantees could protect investors against broker defaults. NSE was also instrumental in creating the National Securities Depository Limited which allows investors to hold and transfer their shares. It also allows investors to hold and trade in as few as one share or bond, the futures and options segment of NSE has made a global mark. In the Futures and Options segment, trading in NIFTY50 Index, NIFTY IT index, NIFTY Bank Index, NIFTY Next 50 index, trading in Mini Nifty Futures & Options and Long term Options on NIFTY50 are also available. The average daily turnover in the F&O Segment of the Exchange during the financial year April 2013 to March 2014 stood at ₹1.52236 trillion
4.
Petroleum industry
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The petroleum industry includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting, and marketing of petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline, Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, synthetic fragrances, and plastics. The industry is divided into three major components, upstream, midstream and downstream. Midstream operations are included in the downstream category. Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrial civilization in its current configuration, and thus is a critical concern for many nations. Oil accounts for a percentage of the world’s energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32% for Europe and Asia. Other geographic regions consumption patterns are as follows, South and Central America, Africa, the world consumes 30 billion barrels of oil per year, with developed nations being the largest consumers. The United States consumed 25% of the oil produced in 2007, the production, distribution, refining, and retailing of petroleum taken as a whole represents the worlds largest industry in terms of dollar value. Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock formations and it consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds. It is generally accepted that oil is formed mostly from the carbon rich remains of ancient plankton after exposure to heat, Petroleum in an unrefined state has been utilized by humans for over 5000 years. Oil in general has been used since early history to keep fires ablaze. Its importance to the world economy evolved slowly, with oil used for lighting in the 19th century and wood. The Industrial Revolution generated an increasing need for energy which was met mainly by coal, Imperial Russia produced 3,500 tons of oil in 1825 and doubled its output by mid-century. Batum is renamed to Batumi in 1936, at the turn of the 20th century, Imperial Russias output of oil, almost entirely from the Apsheron Peninsula, accounted for half of the worlds production and dominated international markets. Nearly 200 small refineries operated in the suburbs of Baku by 1884, as a side effect of these early developments, the Apsheron Peninsula emerged as the worlds oldest legacy of oil pollution and environmental negligence. In 1846, Baku the first ever well drilled with percussion tools to a depth of 21 meters for oil exploration, in 1878, Ludvig Nobel and his Branobel company revolutionized oil transport by commissioning the first oil tanker and launching it on the Caspian Sea. Samuel Kier established Americas first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh avenue near Grant Street, one of the first modern oil refineries were built by Ignacy Łukasiewicz near Jasło, Poland in 1854–56. These were initially small as demand for refined fuel was limited, the refined products were used in artificial asphalt, machine oil and lubricants, in addition to Łukasiewiczs kerosene lamp
5.
New Delhi
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New Delhi is the capital of India and one of Delhi citys 11 districts. The National Capital Region is a larger entity comprising the entire National Capital Territory along with adjoining districts. The foundation stone of the city was laid by George V and it was designed by British architects, Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker. The new capital was inaugurated on 13 February 1931, by Viceroy, New Delhi has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Prime Minister of India Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Calcutta was the capital of India during the British Raj until December 1911, Delhi had served as the political and financial centre of several empires of ancient India and the Delhi Sultanate, most notably of the Mughal Empire from 1649 to 1857. During the early 1900s, a proposal was made to the British administration to shift the capital of the British Indian Empire, as India was officially named, from Calcutta on the east coast, to Delhi. The Government of British India felt that it would be easier to administer India from Delhi in the centre of northern India. The land for building the new city of Delhi was acquired under the Land Acquisition Act 1894. The foundation stone of New Delhi was laid by King George V and Queen Mary at the site of Delhi Durbar of 1911 at Kingsway Camp on 15 December 1911, during their imperial visit. Large parts of New Delhi were planned by Edwin Lutyens, who first visited Delhi in 1912, the contract was given to Sobha Singh. The original plan called for its construction in Tughlaqabad, inside the Tughlaqabad fort, construction really began after World War I and was completed by 1931. The city that was later dubbed Lutyens Delhi was inaugurated in ceremonies beginning on 10 February 1931 by Lord Irwin, Lutyens designed the central administrative area of the city as a testament to Britains imperial aspirations. Soon Lutyens started considering other places, however, it was rejected by the Viceroy when the cost of acquiring the necessary properties was found to be too high. The central axis of New Delhi, which faces east at India Gate, was previously meant to be a north-south axis linking the Viceroys House at one end with Paharganj at the other. During the projects early years, many believed it was a gate from Earth to Heaven itself. Eventually, owing to space constraints and the presence of a number of heritage sites in the North side. A site atop the Raisina Hill, formerly Raisina Village, a Meo village, was chosen for the Rashtrapati Bhawan, then known as the Viceroys House. The reason for this choice was that the hill lay directly opposite the Dinapanah citadel, which was considered the site of Indraprastha
6.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
7.
Sri Lanka
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Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia near south-east India. Sri Lanka has maritime borders with India to the northwest and the Maldives to the southwest, Sri Lankas documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of pre-historic human settlements dating back to at least 125,000 years. Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to World War II. Sri Lanka was known from the beginning of British colonial rule until 1972 as Ceylon, Sri Lankas recent history has been marred by a thirty-year civil war which decisively ended when the Sri Lankan military defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in 2009. A diverse and multicultural country, Sri Lanka is home to many religions, ethnic groups, in addition to the majority Sinhalese, it is home to large groups of Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils, Moors, Burghers, Malays, Kaffirs and the aboriginal Vedda. Sri Lanka has a rich Buddhist heritage, and the first known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state governed by a semi-presidential system. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the capital and largest city. Along with the Maldives, Sri Lanka is one of the two countries in South Asia that are rated among high human development on the Human Development Index. In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names, according to the Mahavamsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the land Tambapanni, because his followers hands were reddened by the red soil of the area. In Hindu mythology, such as the Mahabharata, the island was referred to as Lankā, in Tamil, the island is referred to as Eelam. Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā or Taprobanē from the word Tambapanni, as a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948. The country is known in Sinhalese as Śrī Laṃkā and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai, in 1972, its formal name was changed to Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. Later in 1978 it was changed to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, as the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority. The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years, the era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala and it is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravanas airport, early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. According to the Mahāvamsa, a written in Pāḷi, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600BC and other signs of advanced civilization has also discovered in Sri Lanka
8.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
9.
Mauritius
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Mauritius, officially the Republic of Mauritius, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean about 2,000 kilometres off the southeast coast of the African continent. The country includes the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues, and the outer islands, the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues form part of the Mascarene Islands, along with nearby Réunion, a French overseas department. The area of the country is 2,040 km², the capital and largest city is Port Louis. Mauritius was a British colonial possession from 1810 to 1968, the year of its independence, the government uses English as the main language. The sovereignty over the Chagos Archipelago is disputed between Mauritius and the United Kingdom, the UK excised the archipelago from Mauritian territory in 1965, three years prior to Mauritian independence. The UK gradually depopulated the archipelagos indigenous population and leased its biggest island, Diego Garcia, access to the archipelago is prohibited to casual tourists, the media, and its former inhabitants. Mauritius also claims sovereignty over Tromelin Island from France, the people of Mauritius are multiethnic, multi-religious, multicultural and multilingual. The islands government is modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system. Along with the other Mascarene Islands, Mauritius is known for its flora and fauna. The island is known as the only known home of the dodo. Mauritius is the country in Africa where Hinduism is the largest religion. The first historical evidence of the existence of an island now known as Mauritius is on a map produced by the Italian cartographer Alberto Cantino in 1502. From this, it appears that Mauritius was first named Dina Arobi around 975 by Arab sailors, in 1507 Portuguese sailors visited the uninhabited island. The island appears with a Portuguese name Cirne on early Portuguese maps, another Portuguese sailor, Dom Pedro Mascarenhas, gave the name Mascarenes to the Archipelago. In 1598 a Dutch squadron under Admiral Wybrand van Warwyck landed at Grand Port and named the island Mauritius, in honour of Prince Maurice van Nassau, later the island became a French colony and was renamed Isle de France. On 3 December 1810 the French surrendered the island to Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars, under British rule, the islands name reverted to Mauritius /məˈrɪʃəs/. Mauritius is also known as Maurice and Île Maurice in French. The island of Mauritius was uninhabited before its first recorded visit during the Middle Ages by Arab sailors, in 1507 Portuguese sailors came to the uninhabited island and established a visiting base
10.
Chairman
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The chairman is the highest officer of an organized group such as a board, a committee, or a deliberative assembly. The person holding the office is elected or appointed by the members of the group. The chair presides over meetings of the group and conducts its business in an orderly fashion. When the group is not in session, the officers duties include acting as its head, its representative to the outside world. In some organizations, this position is called president, in others, where a board appoints a president. Other terms sometimes used for the office and its holder include chair, chairperson, chairwoman, presiding officer, president, moderator, facilitator, the chairman of a parliamentary chamber is often called the speaker. The term chair is used in lieu of chairman, in response to criticisms that using chairman is sexist. In his 1992 State of the Union address, then-U. S, president George H. W. Bush used chairman for men and chair for women. A1994 Canadian study found the Toronto Star newspaper referring to most presiding men as chairman, the Chronicle of Higher Education uses chairman for men and chairperson for women. An analysis of the British National Corpus found chairman used 1,142 times, chairperson 130 times, the National Association of Parliamentarians does not approve using chairperson. In World Schools Style debating, male chairs are called Mr. Chairman, the FranklinCovey Style Guide for Business and Technical Communication, as well as the American Psychological Association style guide, advocate using chair or chairperson, rather than chairman. The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style suggests that the forms are gaining ground. It advocates using chair to refer both to men and to women, the word chair can refer to the place from which the holder of the office presides, whether on a chair, at a lectern, or elsewhere. During meetings, the person presiding is said to be in the chair and is referred to as the chair. Major dictionaries state that the word derives from chair and man, some authorities, however, including Riddicks Rules of Procedure, suggest that the second part of chairman derives from the Latin manus, and thus claim gender-neutrality for the word. Vladimir Lenin, for example, officially functioned as the head of Soviet Russia not as tsar or as president, note in particular the popular standard method for referring to Mao Zedong, Chairman Mao. In the absence of the chairman and vice chairman, groups sometimes elect a chairman pro tempore to fill the role for a single meeting. In some organizations that have titles, deputy chairman ranks higher than vice chairman, as there are often multiple vice chairs
11.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
12.
Natural gas
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It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of bonds in the gas. Natural gas is a fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a feedstock in the manufacture of plastics. Natural gas is found in underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in proximity to. Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms, biogenic and thermogenic, biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material. In petroleum production gas is burnt as flare gas. The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of gas are flared or vented annually. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, especially in North America, Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE. They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to salt water to extract the salt. The worlds first industrial extraction of gas started at Fredonia, New York. By 2009,66000 km³ had been used out of the total 850000 km³ of estimated remaining reserves of natural gas. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, unwanted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was expensive to pipe to the end user. In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas was burned off at oil fields
13.
Petrochemical
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Petrochemicals, also called petroleum distillates, are chemical products derived from petroleum. Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas. The two most common classes are olefins and aromatics. Oil refineries produce olefins and aromatics by fluid catalytic cracking of petroleum fractions, chemical plants produce olefins by steam cracking of natural gas liquids like ethane and propane. Aromatics are produced by catalytic reforming of naphtha, Olefins and aromatics are the building-blocks for a wide range of materials such as solvents, detergents, and adhesives. Olefins are the basis for polymers and oligomers used in plastics, resins, fibers, elastomers, lubricants, global ethylene and propylene production are about 115 million tonnes and 70 million tonnes per annum, respectively. Aromatics production is approximately 70 million tonnes, the largest petrochemical industries are located in the USA and Western Europe, however, major growth in new production capacity is in the Middle East and Asia. There is substantial inter-regional petrochemical trade, primary petrochemicals are divided into three groups depending on their chemical structure, Olefins includes ethylene, propylene, and butadiene. Ethylene and propylene are important sources of chemicals and plastics products. Butadiene is used in making synthetic rubber, aromatics includes benzene, toluene, and xylenes. Benzene is a raw material for dyes and synthetic detergents, manufacturers use xylenes to produce plastics and synthetic fibers. Synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen used to make ammonia, ammonia is used to make the fertilizer urea and methanol is used as a solvent and chemical intermediate. The prefix petro- is an abbreviation of the word petroleum, since petro- is Ancient Greek for rock. Therefore, the correct term would be oleochemicals. However, the term oleochemical is used to describe chemicals derived from plant, benzene, toluene and xylenes, as a whole referred to as BTX and primarily obtained from petroleum refineries by extraction from the reformate produced in catalytic reformers. Methane and BTX are used directly as feedstocks for producing petrochemicals, the output ethylene capacity of large steam crackers ranged up to as much as 1.0 –1.5 Mt per year. Steam crackers are not to be confused with steam reforming plants used to produce hydrogen, like commodity chemicals, petrochemicals are made on a very large scale. Petrochemical manufacturing units differ from commodity chemical plants in that often produce a number of related products
14.
Earnings before interest and taxes
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In accounting and finance, earnings before interest and taxes, is a measure of a firms profit that includes all expenses except interest and income tax expenses. It is the difference between operating revenues and operating expenses, when a firm does not have non-operating income, then operating income is sometimes used as a synonym for EBIT and operating profit. To calculate EBIT, expenses are subtracted from revenues, net income is later obtained by subtracting interest and taxes from the result
15.
Net income
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In business, net income is an entitys income minus cost of goods sold, expenses and taxes for an accounting period. In the context of the presentation of financial statements, the IFRS Foundation defines net income as synonymous with profit, net income is a distinct accounting concept from profit but the same as net profit. Net income can also be calculated by adding a companys operating income to non-operating income, net income can be distributed among holders of common stock as a dividend or held by the firm as an addition to retained earnings. As profit and earnings are used synonymously for income, net earnings, often, the term income is substituted for net income, yet this is not preferred due to the possible ambiguity. Net income is called the bottom line because it is typically found on the last line of a companys income statement. The items deducted will typically include tax expense, financing expense, likewise, preferred stock dividends will be subtracted too, though they are not an expense. For a merchandising company, subtracted costs may be the cost of goods sold, sales discounts, for a product company advertising, manufacturing, and design and development costs are included
16.
Asset
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In financial accounting, an asset is an economic resource. Anything tangible or intangible that can be owned or controlled to produce value, simply stated, assets represent value of ownership that can be converted into cash. The balance sheet of a firm records the value of the assets owned by that firm. It covers money and other valuables belonging to an individual or to a business, one can classify assets into two major asset classes, tangible assets and intangible assets. Tangible assets contain various subclasses, including current assets and fixed assets, current assets include inventory, while fixed assets include such items as buildings and equipment. Intangible assets are resources and rights that have a value to the firm because they give the firm some kind of advantage in the marketplace. Examples of intangible assets include goodwill, copyrights, trademarks, patents and computer programs, an asset is a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity. One of the most widely accepted accounting definitions of asset is the one used by the International Accounting Standards Board, employees are not considered assets like machinery is, even though they can generate future economic benefits. This is because an entity does not have sufficient control over its employees to satisfy the Frameworks definition of an asset, similarly, in economics an asset is any form in which wealth can be held. The accounting equation is the structure of the balance sheet. It relates assets, liabilities, and owners equity, Assets = Liabilities + Capital Liabilities = Assets − Capital Equity = Assets − Liabilities Assets are listed on the balance sheet. On a companys balance sheet certain divisions are required by generally accepted accounting principles, Assets can be divided into e. g. current assets and fixed assets, often with further subdivisions such as cash, receivables and inventory. Assets are formally controlled and managed within larger organizations via the use of asset tracking tools and these monitor the purchasing, upgrading, servicing, licensing, disposal etc. of both physical and non-physical assets. Current assets are cash and other assets expected to be converted to cash or consumed either in a year or in the operating cycle and these assets are continually turned over in the course of a business during normal business activity. There are 5 major items included into current assets, Cash and cash equivalents – it is the most liquid asset, which includes currency, deposit accounts, short-term investments – include securities bought and held for sale in the near future to generate income on short-term price differences. Receivables – usually reported as net of allowance for non-collectable accounts, inventory – trading these assets is a normal business of a company. The inventory value reported on the sheet is usually the historical cost or fair market value. This is known as the lower of cost or market rule, prepaid expenses – these are expenses paid in cash and recorded as assets before they are used or consumed
17.
Indane
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Indane or indan is a hydrocarbon petrochemical compound, with formula C9H10. Derivatives include compounds such as 1-methyl-indane and 2-methyl-indane, 4-methyl-indane and 5-methyl-indane, various dimethyl-indanes, other derivatives can be obtained indirectly, e. g. the reaction of diethyl phthalate with ethyl acetate, using metallic sodium and ethanol as a catalyst. The reaction yields indanedione ethyl ester, which can react with the sodium ions yielding a salt and this can be reversed by adding an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid. Indane can also be converted in a reactor to other aromatics such as xylene. Dr. David E. Nichols developed a family of derivatives that are empathogen-entactogens. They are very close derivatives of other such as MDMA. However, they are not neurotoxic at therapeutic doses because the group is bound. Examples include MDAI, MDMAI, and MDAT. Nichols also created an indane isomer of amphetamine, 2-aminoindane, indane is also known to be used in the synthesis of sulofenur
18.
Oil
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An oil is any neutral, nonpolar chemical substance that is a viscous liquid at ambient temperatures and is both hydrophobic and lipophilic. Oils have a carbon and hydrogen content and are usually flammable. The general definition of oil includes classes of compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties. Oils may be animal, vegetable, or petrochemical in origin and they are used for food, fuel, medical purposes, lubrication, and the manufacture of many types of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in religious ceremonies and rituals as purifying agents. First attested in English 1176, the oil comes from Old French oile, from Latin oleum, which in turn comes from the Greek ἔλαιον, olive oil, oil. The earliest attested forms of the word are the Mycenaean Greek
19.
Gas
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Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter. A pure gas may be made up of atoms, elemental molecules made from one type of atom. A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air, what distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer, the interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image. One type of commonly known gas is steam, the gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states, the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention, high-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas. For a comprehensive listing of these states of matter see list of states of matter. The only chemical elements which are stable multi atom homonuclear molecules at temperature and pressure, are hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. These gases, when grouped together with the noble gases. Alternatively they are known as molecular gases to distinguish them from molecules that are also chemical compounds. The word gas is a neologism first used by the early 17th-century Flemish chemist J. B. van Helmont, according to Paracelsuss terminology, chaos meant something like ultra-rarefied water. An alternative story is that Van Helmonts word is corrupted from gahst and these four characteristics were repeatedly observed by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Jacques Charles, John Dalton, Joseph Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro for a variety of gases in various settings. Their detailed studies ultimately led to a relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law. Gas particles are separated from one another, and consequently have weaker intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids. These intermolecular forces result from interactions between gas particles. Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another, transient, randomly induced charges exist across non-polar covalent bonds of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Van der Waals forces. The interaction of these forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas. A comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion, the drifting smoke particles in the image provides some insight into low pressure gas behavior
20.
Hydrocarbon
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In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon, and thus are group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons from which one atom has been removed are functional groups. Aromatic hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons, the classifications for hydrocarbons, defined by IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry are as follows, Saturated hydrocarbons are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species. They are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen, the formula for acyclic saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2. The most general form of saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2, where r is the number of rings and those with exactly one ring are the cycloalkanes. Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are found as linear or branched species. Substitution reaction is their characteristics property, hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae are called structural isomers. As given in the example of 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues, chiral saturated hydrocarbons constitute the side chains of biomolecules such as chlorophyll and tocopherol. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms and those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with one double bond have the formula CnH2n and those containing triple bonds are called alkyne. Those with one triple bond have the formula CnH2n−2, aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at least one aromatic ring. Hydrocarbons can be gases, liquids, waxes or low melting solids or polymers, in terms of shells, carbon consists of an incomplete outer shell, which comprises 4 electrons, and thus has 4 electrons available for covalent or dative bonding. Some hydrocarbons also are abundant in the solar system, lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on Titan, Saturns largest moon, confirmed by the Cassini-Huygens Mission. Hydrocarbons are also abundant in nebulae forming polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, hydrocarbons are a primary energy source for current civilizations. The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a fuel source. In their solid form, hydrocarbons take the form of asphalt, mixtures of volatile hydrocarbons are now used in preference to the chlorofluorocarbons as a propellant for aerosol sprays, due to chlorofluorocarbons impact on the ozone layer. Methane and ethane are gaseous at ambient temperatures and cannot be liquefied by pressure alone. Propane is however easily liquefied, and exists in propane bottles mostly as a liquid, butane is so easily liquefied that it provides a safe, volatile fuel for small pocket lighters
21.
Alternative energy
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Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels, such as its carbon dioxide emissions. Marine energy, hydroelectric, wind, geothermal and solar power are all sources of energy. The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time, because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates, defining some energy types as alternative is considered very controversial. Historians of economies have examined the key transitions to alternative energies, prior to the shift to an alternative energy, supplies of the dominant energy type became erratic, accompanied by rapid increases in energy prices. In the late period, coal was the new alternative fuel to save the society from overuse of the dominant fuel. The deforestation had resulted in shortage of wood, at that time soft coal appeared as a savior, historian Norman F. Cantor describes how, Europeans had lived in the midst of vast forests throughout the earlier medieval centuries. After 1250 they became so skilled at deforestation that by 1500 AD they were running short of wood for heating and cooking. By 1500 Europe was on the edge of a fuel and nutritional disaster, which it was saved in the century only by the burning of soft coal. In 1917, Alexander Graham Bell advocated ethanol from corn, wheat and other foods as an alternative to coal and oil, for Bell, the problem requiring an alternative was lack of renewability of orthodox energy sources. Since the 1970s, Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to become the second largest producer of ethanol. Brazil’s ethanol fuel program uses modern equipment and cheap sugar cane as feedstock, there are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. By the end of 2008 there were 35,000 filling stations throughout Brazil with at least one ethanol pump, cellulosic ethanol can be produced from a diverse array of feedstocks, and involves the use of the whole crop. As of 2008, there are nine commercial cellulosic ethanol plants which are operating, or under construction. Second-generation biofuels technologies are able to manufacture biofuels from inedible biomass, as of July 2010, there is one commercial second-generation ethanol plant Inbicon Biomass Refinery, which is operating in Denmark. In the 1970s, President Jimmy Carters administration advocated coal gasification as an alternative to imported oil. The program, including the Synthetic Fuels Corporation was scrapped when petroleum prices plummeted in the 1980s, the carbon footprint and environmental impact of coal gasification are both very high. Hydro electricity captures energy from falling water, nuclear energy uses nuclear fission to release energy stored in the atomic bonds of heavy elements
22.
National Capital Region (India)
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The National Capital Region is a coordinated planning region centred upon the National Capital Territory of Delhi in India. It encompasses the entire NCT of Delhi and several districts surrounding it from the states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, the NCR is a rural-urban region, with a population of over 46,069,000 and an urbanization level of 62. 6%. As well as the cities and towns the NCR contains ecologically sensitive areas like the Aravalli ridge, forests, wildlife, all the areas of NCR together generated GDP of $128.9 billion in 2011-12, which was 7.5 percent of the Indian GDP. The National Capital Region and its board were created under the National Capital Region Planning Board Act of 1985. The 1985 boundary of the NCR covered an area of 34,144 km2, in July 2013, NCR was expanded to include three more districts, Bhiwani, and Mahendragarh in the state of Haryana, as well as Bharatpur in the state of Rajasthan. This brought the number of districts in NCR to 19, with the total NCR area increasing 34% to 45,887 km2. On 9 June 2015 the Government of India approved the inclusion of three districts in NCR - Jind and Karnal in the state of Haryana and Muzaffarnagar in U. P. There are now a total of 22 districts within NCR, covering an area of 58,332 km2. Uttar Pradesh is pushing to have the districts of Agra, Aligarh, punjab is also forcing to have Patiala, Dera Bassi and Mohali included in the NCR. Outskirts of Rajasthan like Bhadra are also included in the Future Extension plans, prior to the creation of the NCR, an area described as the Delhi Metropolitan Area was described in the 1962 Master Plan for Delhi.1 million in 1951. The following Master Plan for Delhi, approved in August 1990, added Noida, Bahadurgarh and the township of Kundli to the DMA. Topics covered by the 2001 plan included transport, telecommunications, power and water supply, waste and sewerage, education, health, the environment, housing, the 2021 plan extended these with the additional topics of social infrastructure, heritage, tourism, rural development and disaster management. Sewage connectivity About 46% of the National Capital Region —home to 40 to 50 million people—is not connected to sewage networks, sewage from these areas flows into stormwater drains that empty directly into the Yamuna. The 2001 regional plan defined the Delhi Metropolitan Area as including Ghaziabad, Noida, Faridabad, Gurgaon, Bahadurgarh, the 2021 plan renamed the area as the Central National Capital Region, covering about 2,000 km2 in addition to the 1,483 km2 of NCT Delhi. The 2021 plan estimated the 2001 population of the CNCR outside of Delhi NCT to be over 2.8 million, while Delhi NCTs population was 13.8 million, as of 2016 the most recent population estimates have spanned 25.7 to 26.5 million people. The 1985 Act gives the NCRCB has the ability to select districts outside of the NCR to act as counter magnets, counter-magnet cities are identified as those that can be developed as alternative centres of growth and attract migrants to them rather than Delhi. The counter magnet cities should be given priority when allocating funding for development of land, housing and infrastructure
23.
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
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Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited is an Indian multinational oil and gas company headquartered in Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India. It is a Public Sector Undertaking of the Government of India, under the control of the Ministry of Petroleum. It is Indias largest oil and gas exploration and production company and it produces around 77% of Indias crude oil and around 62% of its natural gas. On 31 March 2013, its market capitalisation was INR2.6 trillion, in a government survey for fiscal year 2011–12, it was ranked as the largest profit making PSU in India. ONGC has been ranked 449th in the Fortune Global 500 list of the worlds biggest corporations for the year 2015 and it is ranked 17th among the Top 250 Global Energy Companies by Platts. ONGC was founded on 14 August 1956 by Government of India and it is involved in exploring for and exploiting hydrocarbons in 26 sedimentary basins of India, and owns and operates over 11,000 kilometers of pipelines in the country. Its international subsidiary ONGC Videsh currently has projects in 17 countries, ONGC has discovered 6 of the 7 commercially producing Indian Basins, in the last 50 years, adding over 7.1 billion tonnes of In-place Oil & Gas volume of hydrocarbons in Indian basins. ONGC has many matured fields with a current recovery factor of 25–33% and its Reserve Replacement Ratio for between 2005 and 2013, has been more than one. During FY 2012–13, ONGC had to share the highest ever under-recovery of INR494.2 billion towards the under-recoveries of Oil Marketing Companies, the major part of Indian sedimentary basins was deemed to be unfit for development of oil and gas resources. After independence, the Central Government of India realized the importance of oil and gas for industrial development. Consequently, while framing the Industrial Policy Statement of 1948, the development of industry in the country was considered to be of utmost necessity. Until 1955, private oil companies mainly carried out exploration of resources of India. In Assam, the Assam Oil Company was producing oil at Digboi, in West Bengal, the Indo-Stanvac Petroleum project was engaged in exploration work. The vast sedimentary tract in other parts of India and adjoining offshore remained largely unexplored, in 1955, Government of India decided to develop the oil and natural gas resources in the various regions of the country as part of the Public Sector development. With this objective, an Oil and Natural Gas Directorate was set up towards the end of 1955, as an office under the then Ministry of Natural Resources. The department was constituted with a nucleus of geoscientists from the Geological Survey of India, experts from Romania, the Soviet Union, the United States and West Germany subsequently visited India and helped the government with their expertise. Soviet experts later drew up a plan for geological and geophysical surveys. So in August,1956, the Directorate was raised to the status of a commission with enhanced powers, in October 1959, the Commission was converted into a statutory body by an act of the Indian Parliament, which enhanced powers of the commission further
24.
Kaza, Himachal Pradesh
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The town of Kaza, Kaze or Kaja is the subdivisional headquarters of the remote Spiti Valley in the Lahaul and Spiti district of the state of Himachal Pradesh in the Western Himalayas of India. Kaza, situated along the Spiti River at an elevation of 3,650 metres above sea level, is the largest township. The town is divided into the old, as Kaza Khas, the new town contains the administrative buildings. The Tangyud Gompa dates to the early 14th century and is built like a castle with massive slanted mud walls and battlements with vertical red ochre. It is on the edge of a canyon and overlooking the town of Kaza,4 km from the town. Approaching it from the south one sees Kyu-ling, the palace of the Nono on the other side of the river. Kaza is overlooked by mountain ridges on all sides. It has two points, one from Kinnaur valley and the other from the Lahaul valley,11 km from Ki Monastery. The route through Kinnaur is open throughout the year, except for short periods resulting from landslides or heavy snowfall. This road, starting from Shimla, follows the Sutlej river unto a little beyond Poo and it remains closed during winter months, normally from October end to June due to heavy snowfall on both the passes. Kaza is the coldest places in India, Kaza is known for its colorful festivals and the ancient Sakya Tangyud Monastery in a side valley,4 km from the town. It is also popular with tourists and adventure seekers during summer months because of its location and connections to rest of the valley. Six Weeks in the Spiti Valley,1972 reprint, S. Chand, New Delhi. Kaza travel guide from Wikivoyage Kaza Hill Station Parasol Retreat KAZA
25.
Himachal Pradesh
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Himachal Pradesh is a state of India located in Northern India. It is bordered by Jammu and Kashmir on the north, Punjab and Chandigarh on the west, Haryana on the south-west, Uttarakhand on the south-east and by the Tibet Autonomous Region on the east. The name was coined from Sanskrit him snow and achal mountain, by Acharya Diwakar Datt Sharma, Himachal Pradesh is famous for its natural beauty, hill stations, and temples. Himachal Pradesh has been ranked fifteenth in the list of the highest per capita incomes of Indian states, many perennial rivers flow in the state, and numerous hydroelectric projects set up. Himachal produces surplus hydroelectricity and sells it to states such as Delhi, Punjab. Hydroelectric power projects, tourism, and agriculture form important parts of the states economy, the state has several valleys, and more than 90% of the population living in rural areas. Practically all houses have a toilet and 100% hygiene has been achieved in the state, the villages have good connectivity with roads, public health centres, and now with high-speed broadband. Shimla district has maximum urban population of 25%, according to a 2005 Transparency International survey, Himachal Pradesh was ranked the second-least corrupt state in the country, after Kerala. The history of the area that now constitutes Himachal Pradesh dates to the Indus valley civilisation that flourished between 2250 and 1750 BCE, tribes such as the Koili, Hali, Dagi, Dhaugri, Dasa, Khasa, Kinnar, and Kirat inhabited the region from the prehistoric era. During the Vedic period, several small republics known as Janapada existed which were conquered by the Gupta Empire. After a brief period of supremacy by King Harshavardhana, the region was divided into several local powers headed by chieftains and these kingdoms enjoyed a large degree of independence and were invaded by Delhi Sultanate a number of times. Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Kangra at the beginning of the 10th century, timur and Sikander Lodi also marched through the lower hills of the state and captured a number of forts and fought many battles. Several hill states acknowledged Mughal suzerainty and paid tribute to the Mughals. The Gurkha people, a tribe, came to power in Nepal in the year 1768. They consolidated their power and began to expand their territory. Gradually, the Gorkhas annexed Sirmour and Shimla, under the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa, the Gurkha laid siege to Kangra. They managed to defeat Sansar Chand Katoch, the ruler of Kangra, however, the Gurkha could not capture Kangra fort which came under Maharaja Ranjeet Singh in 1809. After the defeat, the Gurkha began to expand towards the south of the state, however, Raja Ram Singh, Raja of Siba State, captured the fort of Siba from the remnants of Lahore Darbar in Samvat 1846, during the First Anglo-Sikh War
26.
Chembur
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Chembur is a suburb in eastern Mumbai, India. It is 15 km from downtown Mumbai and 10 km from Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, the name Chembur is probably derived from the word “Chimboree” which means Large Crab in Marathi, because the British were unable to pronounce the word chimboree. Before reclamation, Chembur lay on the corner of Trombay Island. This is however disputed and is said to be a reference to Chevul at the mouth of the Kundalika River on mainland Maharashtra. Later the area occupied is said to have occupied a branch of an animal home, the Bombay Presidency Golf Club was established in 1827 and was later re-built to meet international standards. No further activity was seen until the Kurla-Chembur single railway line was built in 1906 for garbage trains, the line was opened to passenger traffic in 1924. After construction activity in the 1920s, Chembur was finally opened up in the 1930s and it was made part of Greater Bombay in 1945. After independence, Chembur was one of the sites where refugee camps were set up to settle refugees after partition, the industrialisation of Trombay during and after the war led to the demand for housing and the growth of Chembur thereafter. Chembur lies in the Mumbai South Central parliamentary constituency and it used to lie in Mumbai North-East Parliamentary constituency prior to delimitation in 2008. After delimitation, it has moved to Mumbai South Central parliamentary Constituency. The Current sitting Member of Parliament of Mumbai South Central is Shiv Senas Rahul Shewale, sitting Member of the Legislative Assembly of Chembur is Mr. Prakash Vaikunth Phaterpekar of the Shiv Sena. Chembur is the seat of the M Ward Offices, the M Ward ranges from Thane Creek in East to Tansa Pipe Line No.2 in West, from Somaiyya Nalla in North to Mahul Creek in South. Chembur lies in ward numbers 141 to 149 with Councillors for each representing it in the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation, Chembur is surrounded by the suburbs of Kurla, Deonar, Mahul, Govandi, Chunabhatti and Ghatkopar. A marine alluvium type of soil is observed in Chembur and it has north-south running basalt hills to its south. Autorickshaws, taxis, BEST buses and trains are the modes of transport. The Harbour Line of the Mumbai Suburban Railway has station in Chembur, Suburban trains bound for Mumbai CST, Andheri and Panvel run throughout the day. The Lokmanya Tilak Terminus for long trains are located nearby. Line 1 of Mumbai Monorail opened in February 2014 and has a terminus at Chembur, Dayanand Saraswati Marg, V N Purav Marg, R C Marg, Station Avenue Road, the Eastern Express Highway and Sion Panvel Highway are some of the arterial roads of Chembur
27.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
28.
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport
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Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, formerly known as Sahar International Airport, is the primary international airport serving the Mumbai Metropolitan Area, India.68 million passengers. The airport is the second busiest in the country in terms of cargo traffic also, the airport has three operating terminals spread over an operational area of 750 hectares and handles about 850 aircraft movements per day. It handled a record 51 movements in one hour on 16 September 2014 and it won the 2015 ASQ Best Airport Award in the 25-40 million passengers per annum category by Airports Council International. It has also won the Best Airport in India and Central Asia award at the Skytrax 2016 World Airport Awards and it is one of the three airports in India to have implemented Airport Collaborative Decision Making to ensure timely takeoffs and landings. The new integrated terminal T2 was inaugurated on 10 January 2014, a dedicated six lane, elevated road connecting the new terminal with the main arterial Western Express Highway was also opened to the public the same day. The airport is named after the 17th-century Maratha emperor, Chhatrapati Shivaji and it was re-renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport, adding Maharaj to the name, by the Government of Maharashtra on 8 December 2016. CSIAs IATA airport code – BOM – is derived from Bombay and it is situated across the suburbs of Santacruz, Vile Parle and Sahar village in Andheri with the PIN code 400099. RAF Santacruz was set up in 1942 and it was a bigger airfield than Juhu and was home to several RAF squadrons during World War II from 1942 to 1947. The Airport covered an area of about 1,500 acres, one hangar was used as a domestic terminal and the other for international traffic. It had counters for customs and immigration checks on either side, Air India handled its passengers in its own terminal adjoining the two hangars. In its first year, it handled six civilian services a day, named after the neighbourhood in which it stood and initially under the aegis of the Public Works Department, the new airport was subsequently run by the Ministry of Civil Aviation. A major fire gutted the International section of the building on 21 September 1979. A temporary departure extension or Gulf Terminal was made functional in October that year until the terminal was repaired, with the dawning of the Jumbo Jet era in the 1970s, Santacruz, despite several extensions, began suffering from insufficient operational capacity. The Tata committee, set up in 1967 to examine the issues concerning the airport, had recommended the construction of a new terminal to meet the requirements of traffic in the seventies. The Santa Cruz terminal was to be used for domestic traffic alone, accordingly, construction of the new International terminal at Sahar to the north-east of Santacruz in Andheri was taken up at an estimated cost of ₹110 million. AAI had been considering the modernisation of Mumbai airport in 1996 although the AAI board approved a proposal only in 2003. By then, Mumbai and Delhi airports were handling 38% of the aircraft movement. At that time, Mumbai airport handled 13.3 million passengers, the airport faced severe congestion for both aircraft and passengers as it was handling twice as many aircraft movements per day than it was originally designed for
29.
Ola Cabs
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ANI Technologies Pvt. Ltd. operating under the trade name Ola, is an Indian online transportation network company. Ola was founded as an online cab aggregator in Mumbai, but is now based in Bangalore, as of September 2015, Ola was valued at $5 billion. It was founded on 3rd December 2010 by Bhavish Aggarwal and Ankit Bhati, as of 2014, the company had expanded to a network of more than 200,000 cars across 100 cities. In November 2014, Ola expanded to incorporate autos on-trial basis in Bangalore, post the trial phase, Ola Auto expanded to other cities like Delhi, Pune, Chennai and Hyderabad and Kolkata starting December 2014. In December 2015, Ola expanded its services in Chandigarh, Indore, Jaipur and Guwahati. Ola is valued at $5 billion as of September 2015, in March 2015, OlaCabs acquired Bangalore based cab service TaxiForSure for about $200 million. From the 25th of June 2015, Ola users have gained access to TFS cabs via the Ola mobile application, by November 2015, Ola had acquired Geotagg, a trip-planning applications company, for an undisclosed sum to strengthen its new bus-shuttle service. Ola provides different types of cab service ranging from economic to luxury travel, the cabs are reserved through a mobile app. This cab service supports both cash and cashless payment options with Ola money and it claims to clock an average of more than 150,000 bookings per day and commands 60 percent of the market share in India. November 2014 Ola also started on-demand auto rickshaw service on its app in Bangalore, Pune. OlaCabs technology came under criticism regarding the security of its mobile app, the API calls could be replayed to top up its wallet. In August 2015, a breach had occurred when intended customers details such as names, phone numbers and addresses. Although these unanticipated messages were reported to Ola, the company had chosen to ignore them, the issue was reportedly fixed three weeks later after receiving considerable media coverage and social media attention. The refund policy of OlaCabs has been criticised because of billing errors caused by technical glitches in their system, hackers have claimed that they have been able to hack OlaCabs system and access customer data including credit card/debit card information. The inquiry has revealed that approximately 80% of drivers amongst all services did not possess permits to ply commercial transport services in Delhi, the cab drivers also protested outside the Kukatapally, Hyderabad branch office of Ola demanding more transparency over payments
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Chennai Petroleum Corporation
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Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited is an Indian state-owned oil and gas corporation headquartered in Chennai, India. It was formed as a joint venture in 1965 between the Government of India, AMOCO and National Iranian Oil Company, having a shareholding in the ratio 74%, 13%, 13% respectively. In 1985, AMOCO disinvested in favour of GOI and the percentage of GOI. Later GOI disinvested 16. 92% of the paid up capital in favor of Unit Trust of India, mutual funds, insurance companies and banks on 19 May 1992, thereby reducing its holding to 67. 7%. The public issue of CPCL shares at a premium of Rs.70 in 1994 was oversubscribed to an extent of 27 times, as a part of the restructuring steps taken up by the Government of India, Indian Oil Corporation Limited acquired equity from GOI in 2000-01. Currently IOC holds 51. 88% while NIOC continued its holding at wax, CPCL has two refineries with a combined refining capacity of 11.5 million tonnes per annum. The Manali Refinery in Chennai has a capacity of 10.5 MMTPA and is one of the most complex refineries in India with fuel, lube, wax, cPCLs second refinery is Nagapattnam Refinery located at Cauvery basin at Nagapattinam in Panagudi. This unit was set up in Nagapattinam with a capacity of 0.5 MMTPA in 1993 and later enhanced to 1.0 MMTPA. The wax plant at CPCL has a capacity of 30,000 tonnes per annum. A propylene plant with a capacity of 17,000 tonnes per annum was commissioned in 1988 to supply feedstock to neighbouring downstream industries. The unit was revamped to enhance the production capacity to 30,000 tonnes per annum in 2004. CPCL also supplies LABFS to a unit for the manufacture of liner alkyl benzene. CPCL plays the role of a mother industry supplying feedstocks to the industries in Manali. CPCLs products are marketed through IOCL, cPCLs products are mostly consumed domestically except naphtha, fuel oil and lubes which are partly exported. CPCL has also made pioneering efforts in the field of energy and water conservation by setting up a farm and sewage reclamation. The crude throughput for 2011-12 was 10.557 million metric tonnes, the company’s turnover for 2011-12 was Rs.45385 crores and the profit after tax was Rs.61.83 crores. The company has declared a dividend of 20% on the equity share capital of the company for 2011-12. The production line has been affected multiple times due to natures adversities in form of drought and it is categorized as a Miniratna-I company by the government
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Common stock
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Common stock is a form of corporate equity ownership, a type of security. The terms voting share and ordinary share are also used frequently in other parts of the world and they are known as Equity shares or Ordinary shares in the UK and other Commonwealth realms. This type of share gives the stockholder the right to share in the profits of the company, and to vote on matters of corporate policy and it is called common to distinguish it from preferred stock. In the event of bankruptcy, common stock investors receive any remaining funds after bondholders, creditors, as such, common stock investors often receive nothing after a liquidation bankruptcy Chapter 7. Common stockholders can also earn money through capital appreciation, Common shares may perform better than preferred shares or bonds over time, in part to accommodate the increased risk. Shareholder rights are more conceptual than technical or factual and their most common source is in the statutory and case law of the jurisdiction in which the company was formed. Some shareholders elect to enter into shareholder agreements that create new rights among the shareholders, some common stock shares have voting rights on certain matters, such as electing the board of directors. In practice, its questionable whether or not such actions can be organized or ruled in their favor, common/Equity stock is classified to differentiate it from preferred stock. Each is considered a class of stock, with different series of each issued from time to such as Series B Preferred Stock. Nevertheless, using Class B Common Stock is a label for a super-voting series of common stock. Capital surplus Equity Share capital Shares authorized Shares issued Shares outstanding Treasury stock Common Stock vs. Preferred Stock
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Government of India
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It is located in New Delhi, the capital of India. There is a bicameral Parliament with the Lok Sabha as a lower house, the judicial branch systematically contains an apex Supreme Court,24 high courts, and several district courts, all inferior to the Supreme Court. Similar to the government, individual state governments each consist of executive, legislative. The legal system as applicable to the federal and individual state governments is based on the English Common, the full name of the country is the Republic of India. No other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name appears on legal banknotes, in treaties. The Union Government, Central Government or Government of India are often used in an official and unofficial capacity to refer to the Government of India, because the seat of government is in New Delhi, New Delhi is commonly used as a metonym for the Central Government. Legislative branch in India is exercised by the Parliament and a legislature consisting of the Rajya Sabha. The latter is considered the house or the House of the people. The Parliament does not have control and sovereignty, as its laws are subject to judicial review by the Supreme Court of India. However, it does exercise some control over the executive branch, the members of the cabinet, including the prime minister and the Council of Ministers, are either chosen from parliament or elected there to within six months of assuming office. The cabinet as a whole is responsible to the Lok Sabha, the Lok Sabha is a temporary house and can only be dissolved when the party in power loses the support of the majority of the house. Whereas the Rajya Sabha is a permanent house which can never be dissolved though the members of the Rajya Sabha who are elected for a six-year term, the Executive Branch of government is the one that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the idea of the separation of powers. The executive power is vested mainly in the President of India, the President has all constitutional powers and exercises them directly or through officers subordinate to him as per the aforesaid Article 53. The President is to act in accordance with aid and advice tendered by the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers remains in power during the pleasure of the President. However, in practice, the Council of Ministers must retain the support of the Lok Sabha, if a President were to dismiss the Council of Ministers on his or her own initiative, it might trigger a constitutional crisis. Thus, in practice, the Council of Ministers cannot be dismissed as long as it holds the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha, the President is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. His/Her work is to facilitate smooth transaction of business in Ministries/ Departments of the Government, the President is de jure the Commander in Chief of the Indian Armed Forces
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Bharat Petroleum
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Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited is an Indian state-controlled oil and gas company headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra. The Corporation operates two large refineries of the located at Mumbai and Kochi. The company is ranked 358th on the Fortune Global 500 list of the worlds biggest corporations as of 2016, in 1889 during vast industrial development, an important player in the South Asian market was the Burmah Oil Company. In 1928, Asiatic Petroleum Company started cooperation with Burma oil company and this alliance led to the formation of Burmah-Shell Oil Storage and Distributing Company of India Limited. Burmah Shell began its operations with import and marketing of Kerosene, on 24 January 1976, the Burmah Shell was taken over by the Government of India to form Bharat Refineries Limited. On 1 August 1977, it was renamed Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited and it was also the first refinery to process newly found indigenous crude Bombay High. As counsel for the CPIL, Rajinder Sachar and Prashant Bhushan said that the way to disinvest in the companies would be to repeal or amend the Acts by which they were nationalized in the 1970s. As a result, the government would need a majority in both houses to push through any privatization, the business of the Company grew substantially given the international backing of Shell and it achieved the leadership position in India. In 1952, Shell and Burmah Oil Company set up Burmah Shell Refineries to set up a refinery in Mumbai, the entire operations of Burmah Shell in India were nationalised in 1976 and the Refinery and Marketing Companies were merged to form BPCL. 1952 - The Company was incorporated on 3 November 1952 under the name Burmahshell Refineries Limited,1955 - The Company has a well established refinery at Mahul, Chembur which has commissioned in January. - The companys refinery in Bombay was commissioned in 1955 and it introduced LPG as a cooking fuel to the Indian home and all along, it went beyond selling petroleum, to educate the customer. 1976 - The companies name changed to Bharat Refineries Limited on 12th,1977 - Companies name changed to its present name on 1 August. Simultaneously also acquired the right to title and interest and liabilities of BSM in relation to its undertakings in India,1992 - During the year the company commissioned 50 retail outlets including 9 in rural areas and 7 superior kerosene oil/light deisel oil dealerships. The total number of retail outlets/light diesel oil dealership at the end of the year stood at 4,090 and 928 respectively, - During the year, 20% of the shares were sold by the govt. to various financial institutions and Mutual Funds. Thus presently the President of India holds 80% of the paid up capital, also installed advanced control system for catalytic control unit. 1994 - During the year, the corporation commissioned 124 retail outlets and 10 oil/light diesel oil dealership, - On 25 February, a joint venture company Bharat Oman Refineries Ltd was incorporated. And was set up as a joint venture between Omen oil Co, - During the year, Bharat Shell Ltd. was promoted by the company and Shell Overseas Investments, B V Netherlands for marketing shell branded lubricants in the country. 1995 - During 95-96, a 6 MMTPA joint venture refinery being set up with Oman Oil Company Ltd. at Bina in M. P
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Hindustan Petroleum
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Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited is an Indian state-owned oil and natural gas company with its headquarters at Mumbai, Maharashtra. It has about 25% marketing share in India among PSUs and a strong marketing infrastructure, the Government of India owns 51. 11% shares in HPCL and others are distributed amongst financial institutes, public and other investors. The company is ranked 367th on the Fortune Global 500 list of the worlds biggest corporations as of 2016, HPCL was incorporated in 1974 after the takeover and merger of erstwhile Esso Standard and Lube India Limited by the Esso Act 1974. Caltex Oil Refining Ltd. was taken over by the Government of India in 1976, kosan Gas Company was merged with HPCL in 1979 by the Kosangas Company Acquisition Act,1979. As counsel for the CPIL, Rajinder Sachar and Prashant Bhushan said that the way to disinvest in the companies would be to repeal or amend the Acts by which they were nationalised in the 1970s. As a result, the government would need a majority in both houses to push through any privatisation, HPCL has been steadily growing over the years. The refining capacity increased from 5.5 million metric tonnes in 1984/85 to 14.80 million metric tonnes as of March 2013. On the financial front, the net income form sales/operations grew from IN ₹2687 crores in 1984-85 to IN ₹2,06,529 crores in financial year 2012-13, during FY 2013-14, its net profit was IN ₹1740 crores. HPCL holds an equity stake of 16. 95% in Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited, another refinery of 9 MMTPA has signed a memorandum of understanding with the Government of Rajasthan for setting up a refinery near Barmer. It would be operated under a joint venture company called HPCL-Rajasthan Refinery Limited, HPCL also owns and operates the largest lubricant refinery in India producing lube base oils of international standards, with a capacity of 335 TMT. This refinery accounts for over 40% of Indias total lube base oil production, presently HPCL produces over 300+ grades of lubes, specialities and greases. HPCL has state-of-the-art information technology infrastructure to support its core business, the data center is at Hitech city in Hyderabad. Petrol is known as spirit in the oil Industry. HPCL markets the product through its retail pumps all over India and its principle consumers are personal vehicle owners. Diesel is known as high speed diesel in the oil industry, HPCL markets the products through its retail pumps as well as terminals and depots. Its consumers are regular auto owners, transport agencies, industries, lubricants, HPCL is the market leader in lubricants and associated products. It commands over 30% of market share in this sector, the popular brands of HP lubes are Laal Ghoda, HP Milcy, Thanda Raja, Koolgard, Racer4. Liquified petroleum gas, The HPCL brand of LPG is a brand across India for domestic
