1.
Indiana
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Indiana /ɪndiˈænə/ is a U. S. state located in the midwestern and Great Lakes regions of North America. Indiana is the 38th largest by area and the 16th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th U. S. state on December 11,1816, before becoming a territory, varying cultures of indigenous peoples and historic Native Americans inhabited Indiana for thousands of years. Indiana has an economy with a gross state product of $298 billion in 2012. Indiana has several areas with populations greater than 100,000. The states name means Land of the Indians, or simply Indian Land and it also stems from Indianas territorial history. On May 7,1800, the United States Congress passed legislation to divide the Northwest Territory into two areas and named the section the Indiana Territory. In 1816, when Congress passed an Enabling Act to begin the process of establishing statehood for Indiana, a resident of Indiana is officially known as a Hoosier. The first inhabitants in what is now Indiana were the Paleo-Indians, divided into small groups, the Paleo-Indians were nomads who hunted large game such as mastodons. They created stone tools made out of chert by chipping, knapping and flaking, the Archaic period, which began between 5000 and 4000 BC, covered the next phase of indigenous culture. The people developed new tools as well as techniques to cook food, such new tools included different types of spear points and knives, with various forms of notches. They made ground-stone tools such as axes, woodworking tools. During the latter part of the period, they built mounds and middens. The Archaic period ended at about 1500 BC, although some Archaic people lived until 700 BC, afterward, the Woodland period took place in Indiana, where various new cultural attributes appeared. During this period, the people created ceramics and pottery, an early Woodland period group named the Adena people had elegant burial rituals, featuring log tombs beneath earth mounds. In the middle portion of the Woodland period, the Hopewell people began developing long-range trade of goods, nearing the end of the stage, the people developed highly productive cultivation and adaptation of agriculture, growing such crops as corn and squash. The Woodland period ended around 1000 AD, the Mississippian culture emerged, lasting from 1000 until the 15th century, shortly before the arrival of Europeans. During this stage, the people created large urban settlements designed according to their cosmology, with mounds and plazas defining ceremonial
2.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
3.
Crawford County, Indiana
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Crawford County is a county located in the U. S. state of Indiana. As of 2010, the population was 10,713, according to the 2010 census, the county has a total area of 308.72 square miles, of which 305.64 square miles is land and 3.08 square miles is water. Some say it was named for William H. Crawford, who was U. S. Treasury Secretary in 1818. Others say it was named for Col. William Crawford, who fought in the French and Indian War and Revolutionary War, the county seat was in Leavenworth for several decades but eventually moved to English. Average monthly precipitation ranged from 3.13 inches in October to 5.06 inches in May, the county government is a constitutional body, and is granted specific powers by the Constitution of Indiana, and by the Indiana Code. County Council, The county council is the branch of the county government and controls all the spending. Representatives are elected from county districts, the council members serve four-year terms. They are responsible for setting salaries, the budget. The council also has limited authority to local taxes, in the form of an income and property tax that is subject to state level approval, excise taxes. Board of Commissioners, The executive body of the county is made of a board of commissioners, the commissioners are elected county-wide, in staggered terms, and each serves a four-year term. One of the commissioners, typically the most senior, serves as president, the commissioners are charged with executing the acts legislated by the council, collecting revenue, and managing the day-to-day functions of the county government. Court, The county maintains a small court that can handle some civil cases. The judge on the court is elected to a term of four years, the judge is assisted by a constable who is also elected to a four-year term. In some cases, court decisions can be appealed to the state circuit court. County Officials, The county has several other elected offices, including sheriff, coroner, auditor, treasurer, recorder, surveyor, each of these elected officers serves a term of four years and oversees a different part of county government. Members elected to county government positions are required to declare a party affiliation, Crawford County is part of Indianas 9th congressional district and is represented in Congress by Republican Todd Young. It is also part of Indiana Senate district 47 and Indiana House of Representatives district 73, as of the 2010 United States Census, there were 10,713 people,4,303 households, and 2,991 families residing in the county. The population density was 35.1 inhabitants per square mile, there were 5,520 housing units at an average density of 18.1 per square mile
4.
Reno Gang
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The Reno Gang, also known as the Reno Brothers Gang and The Jackson Thieves, were a group of criminals that operated in the Midwestern United States during and just after the American Civil War. Though short-lived, they carried out the first three peacetime train robberies in U. S. history, most of the stolen money was never recovered. The gang was broken up by the lynchings of ten of its members by vigilante mobs in 1868, the murders created an international diplomatic incident with Canada and Great Britain, a general public uproar, and international newspaper coverage. No one was identified or prosecuted for the lynchings. The Reno Brothers have been portrayed in two movies, including Elvis Presleys first movie where he starred as brother Clint, J. Wilkison Reno moved to Indiana in 1813 from the Salt River region of Kentucky, one of the Civil War border states. He married Julia Ann Freyhafer in 1835, future gang members Franklin, John, Simeon, and William Reno were born to the couple in Rockford, Jackson County, Indiana. There was also another son, Clinton, and a daughter, in their early years, the siblings were raised in a strict, religious farming household and were required to read the Bible all day on Sunday, according to John Renos 1879 autobiography. Neither Clint nor Laura were involved in the crime spree. The brothers got into trouble early, John claimed that he and Frank bilked travelers in crooked card games. Also, the Renos were suspected when a series of fires broke out around Rockford over a period of seven years beginning in 1851. The community also suspected the brothers in the theft of a horse, the crimes caused considerable tension in the town and Wilkison and four of his sons fled, living near St. Louis, Missouri, for some time, before returning to their farm in 1860. The war broke shortly after and the enlisted in hopes of escaping the angry citizens of the town. During the American Civil War, Frank, John, and possibly Simeon became bounty jumpers and they were paid to enlist in the Union Army, then failed to appear for duty. They continued to enlist under different names and locales, taking additional money, federal records show that Frank, John and Simeon deserted. Many residents of southern Indiana were sympathetic to the Confederate States of America or were Northern Democrats wanting peace and it is not known if the Reno brothers were Copperheads or simply taking advantage of the situation. William briefly went AWOL, but did return to serve out his enlistment and he was the only one who received an honorable discharge from the army. In 1864, Frank and John returned to Rockford, a gang began to form under their leadership. Late that year, Frank and two gang members, Grant Wilson and a man named Dixon, robbed the post office and Gilberts Store in nearby Jonesville
5.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
6.
Corydon, Indiana
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Corydon is a town in Harrison Township, Harrison County, Indiana. Located north of the Ohio River in the southern part of the U. S. state of Indiana. Corydon was founded in 1808 and served as the capital of the Indiana Territory from 1813 to 1816 and it was the site of Indianas first constitutional convention, which was held June 10–29,1816. Forty-three convened to consider statehood for Indiana and drafted its first state constitution, under Article XI, Section 11, of the Indiana 1816 constitution, Corydon was designated as the capital of the state until 1825, when the seat of state government was moved to Indianapolis. During the American Civil War, Corydon was the site of the Battle of Corydon, more recently, the towns numerous historic sites have helped it become a tourist destination. A portion of its area is listed in the National Register of Historic Places as the Corydon Historic District. As of the 2010 census, Corydon had a population of 3,122, in the early 1800s Edward Smith brought his family to settle at the edge of a fertile valley near a large spring, the site of the present-day Harrison County fairgrounds. In 1804 Harrison purchased a tract of land where Big Indian Creek and Little Indian Creek join to become Indian Creek, the town gets its name from The Pastoral Elegy, a hymn that celebrates the death of a shepherd named Corydon. Tradition says that Harrison asked Edward Smiths daughter, Jenny, to name the town and he chose the name from Harrisons favorite hymn, Harrison sold the town site to Harvey Heth in 1807. Corydons official founding date of 1808 commemorates the year when Heth, Heth donated the town square for public use and sold individual lots to settlers and the territorial government. When Harrison County was established in 1808, Corydon became its county seat of government, in 1809 Corydon was connected by road to Doups Ferry,15 miles to the south at Maucks Port, providing access to the Ohio River for trade. During the War of 1812 Corydon sent a militia company nicknamed the Yellow Jackets to support the territorial army. The company fought in the Battle of Tippecanoe, where it suffered more casualties than any other unit engaged on there, Corydon became the second capital of the Indiana Territory on May 1,1813, when it was relocated from Vincennes in Knox County. Opponents of William Henry Harrison, the territorial governor, wanted to move the capital away from his political stronghold in Knox County. Corydon competed with Charlestown, Clarksville, Lawrenceburg, Madison, pennington pointed out that Corydon would be an ideal location. The Harrison County court had approved a design for a new county courthouse on Corydons public square in 1811, pennington supervised construction of limestone courthouse, which was nearly completed when Indianas first state legislature convened at Corydon in 1816. On April 19,1816, President James Madison signed an Enabling Act that provided for the election of delegates to a convention at Corydon to consider statehood for Indiana. Forty-three delegates, including five men from Harrison County, convened June 10–29,1816, the delegates completed their work in nineteen days, adjourning on June 29,1816, when the newly signed state constitution went into effect
7.
Isaac P. Gray
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Isaac Pusey Gray was the 18th and 20th Governor of the U. S. state of Indiana from 1880 to 1881 and from 1885 to 1889. Originally a Republican, he oversaw the passage of the post-American Civil War constitutional amendments whilst he was a member of the Indiana Senate. Issac Pusey Gray was born on October 18,1828 in Chester County, Pennsylvania, at age eight, his family moved to Urbana, Ohio and in 1842 to New Madison, Ohio. In New Madison, Gray first attended school and obtained some formal education. After school he became a clerk in a store. He married to Eliza Jaqua on September 8,1850, two of them died in infancy, but the other two grew up to become lawyers. Gray and his moved to Union City, Indiana in 1855 where he opened a new store. He soon became involved in politics and became prominent in his community. He began to study law on his own in his time and was admitted to the bar in 1861. He later said that he studied law to further his political career, only a month after he opened a law office the American Civil War began, and Gray set out to raise a company of volunteers. He entered the Union army as a Colonel and given command of the 4th Regiment Indiana Cavalry in the fall of 1862 and he led his regiment against forces under Confederate General John Hunt Morgan near Munfordville, Kentucky in December 1862. He served for about a year before resigning from the army after being denied a promotion, when Morgans Raid into Indiana in July 1863 occurred, Gray was given command of a regiment of the Indiana Legion to help repel the invasion. His unit was disbanded after about a week, once Morgan was forced to flee the state, Gray remained in the militia after the raid, taking a command role in his region, but saw no action. After the war he returned to his law practice, Gray began to become moderately wealthy and expanded his business interest into grain processing and banking. He was one of the members of the Citizens Bank in Union City in 1865. He continued to be interested in politics, and decided to run for public office and he had been a Whig before the party collapsed in the mid-1850s, and decided to become a Republican following the war. In his first run for office, he competed against George Washington Julian in the Republican primary, hoping to become a candidate for Congress, in 1870, he ran as a Republican candidate for the Indiana Senate. He won the election and represented Randolph County and he was elected Senate President pro tempore
8.
Governor of Indiana
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The Governor of Indiana is the chief executive of the state of Indiana. The governor is elected to a term, and responsible for overseeing the day-to-day management of the functions of many agencies of the Indiana state government. The governor also shares power with other executive officers, who manage other state government agencies. The governor works out of the Indiana Statehouse and holds official functions at the Indiana Governors Residence in the capital of Indianapolis. The 51st and current governor is Republican Eric Holcomb, the position of governor has developed over the course of two centuries. The governors powers are established in Article V of the Constitution of Indiana, constitutionally, the governor has very limited executive authority to manage the government of the state, most exercisable powers over state agencies are held by independent elected cabinet heads. The governor works in concert with the legislature and the state supreme court to govern the state. The governor has the power to veto legislation passed by the General Assembly, if vetoed, a bill is returned to the General Assembly for reconsideration. Unlike other states, most of which require a supermajority to override a veto. One of the governors most important political powers is the ability to call a session of the General Assembly. During a two-year period, the assembly can meet on its own for no more than 91 days, and this can give the governor considerable influence in the body which will often compromise on issues with him or her in exchange for a special legislative session. Among his other powers, the governor can call out the defense force or the Indiana National Guard in times of emergency or disaster. The governor is also charged with the enforcement of all the states laws, the governor also has the ability to grant a pardon or commutation of sentence of any person convicted of a crime in the state, except in cases of treason or impeachment. In addition to powers, governors also have a considerable degree of statutory authority. Most of the authority exercised by governors on a basis is derived from statute. The governor also can influence the court system through the appointment of judges. Justices of the peace and superior courts judges are elected in Indiana, if a vacancy occurs the governor may make an appointment, the authority to make such appointments gives the governor considerable sway in setting the makeup of the judiciary. The annual salary of the governor of Indiana is US$111,688, additionally, he receives $6,000 annually for discretionary spending and expenses
9.
James A. Mount
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James Atwell Mount was the 24th Governor of Indiana from 1897 to 1901. His term coincided with the recovery following the Panic of 1893. James Atwell Mount was born in Montgomery County, Indiana on March 24,1843, one of the children of Atwell. He enlisted in the Union Army in 1862, during the height of the American Civil War and his regiment was part of the famous Lightning Brigade commanded by John T. Wilder. Mount gained a reputation for valor and bravery, and twice volunteered for charges against superior forces during the Battle of Chickamauga during September 1863 and he remained in the service for the duration of the war and served primarily as a scout and skirmisher. During Shermans march to the sea he was one of the scouts of the army. He remained with the army throughout its march across the state. After the war ended, Mount returned to Indiana in 1865 where he used the money he had earned as a soldier to pay for schooling and he attend the Presbyterian Academy in Boone County and received a classical education. While in school he met Kate Byrd, who one of his closest friends. He only had funds to one year at the university. Kate and Mount continued their relationship and fell in love, marrying after she graduated in 1867, the couple rented a small run-down house and farm in Montgomery County and began to work it. After working the farm for years they were able to save enough to purchase it. They soon had three children who grew to help them on the growing farm and they purchased neighboring land, eventually owning over 500 acres and building a new large home. He called the estate Willow Brook, Mount was known for his business acumen in the community and was very good at predicting the most profitable times to sell crops. Mount became instrumental in the formation of several farming co-ops and became known in the region. Mount had been approached several times to run for office by the Republican Party, to which he belonged. In 1888 he was nominated to run for the Indiana State Senate, despite his protests, the party at that time was losing farming votes to the Populist Party, and bringing farmers to the ticket was seen as a way to reverse the trend. He reluctantly accepted the nomination expecting to lose, but won the election in an ordinarily Democratic-controlled district, in 1890, his party nominated him to run for Congress, again against his wishes
10.
Winfield T. Durbin
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Winfield Taylor Durbin was the 25th Governor of the U. S. state of Indiana from 1901 to 1905. His term focused on legislation and suppression of white cap vigilante organizations operating in the southern part of the state. He was the seventh and last veteran of the American Civil War to serve as governor, Durbin was born in Lawrenceburg, Indiana, on May 4,1847, the son of William S. and Eliza Ann Sparks, the youngest of seven sons. While still a boy, his family moved to New Philadelphia, Indiana where he attended public school. At the outbreak of the American Civil War, he and his brothers enlisted in the Union army and his brothers were accepted, but he was turned away because of a recent arm injury. After it healed he attempted to enlist again, and helped raise a company of the 139th Regiment Indiana Infantry and he mustered in at Camp Morton and his regiment was first dispatched to the Siege of Vicksburg, and was then in the expedition to Arkansas Post. He left the army after the war and studied briefly in a community college in St. Louis, Missouri before moving to Indianapolis, in 1879 he left Indianapolis and moved to Anderson where he met Bertha McCullough. The two were married on October 6,1875 and had two children, during the Indiana Gas Boom, Durbin worked with his father-in-law to found a number of manufacturing businesses and became moderately wealthy. Durbin became active in politics and was elected as a member of the State Republican Central Committee and was appointed to the executive committee in charge of western headquarters. He played a prominent role nationally in the Grand Army of the Republic, at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War he enlisted in the army and promoted by Governor James A. Mount to colonel, and was given command of the 161st Regiment Indiana Infantry in July 1898. His regiment was deployed in the occupation of Havana, Cuba for three months after which he returned home, Durbin was nominated to run for governor in 1900, and easily won the convention vote. Opinion was strongly against Democrats, and the members of the party refused to run for governor that year. The party fielded John Kern to oppose Durbin, but Durbin became the first governor to win by majority in twenty-five years, durbins primary goal as governor was to bring efficiency to the state, and reform the government to function more economically, and to enact progressive legislation. His predecessors policy toward white cap organizations had led to an increase of their activities, most of their activity was in the southern part of the state. Despite the law, lynchings continued until Durbin took office, in 1902 he invoked the law after a lynching, removing from office numerous law enforcement officials and putting the militia on patrol. In 1903, an officer was killed in Evansville. Durbin dispatched a company of militia to protect the jailhouse, a mob of the white caps soon surrounded the jailhouse and the militia and began taunting them for several hours. Someone in the crowd fired a shot at the soldiers, who responded by opening fire on the crowd, wounding eleven, no more lynchings would occur in Indiana for more another thirty years until the deaths of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith
11.
Indiana General Assembly
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The Indiana General Assembly is the state legislature, or legislative branch, of the state of Indiana. It is a legislature that consists of a lower house, the Indiana House of Representatives, and an upper house. The General Assembly meets annually at the Indiana Statehouse in Indianapolis, members of the General Assembly are elected from districts that are realigned every ten years. Representatives serve terms of two years and senators serve terms of four years, both houses can create bills, but bills must pass both houses before it can be submitted to the governor and enacted into law. Currently the Republican Party holds supermajorities in both chambers of the General Assembly, Republicans outnumber Democrats in the Senate by a 40-10 margin, and in the House of Representatives by a 71-29 margin. The Indiana General Assembly is made up of two houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate, Indiana has a part-time legislature that does not meet year-round. The General Assembly convenes on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in January, during odd-numbered years the legislature meets for 61 days and must be adjourned by April 30. During even-numbered years the legislature meets for 30 days and must be adjourned by March 15, the General Assembly may not adjourn for more than three days without a resolution approving adjournment being passed in both houses. The governor has the authority to call on the General Assembly to convene a special session if legislators are unable to complete necessary work within time allotted by the regular sessions. Special sessions of the General Assembly were rarely called in the early history. The General Assembly delegates are elected from districts, every ten years the districts are realigned by the General Assembly using information from the U. S. Census Bureau to ensure that each district is roughly equal in population. The districting is maintained to comply with the United States Supreme Court ruling in Reynolds v. Sims, the Indiana Senate and House of Representatives each have several committees that are charged with overseeing certain areas of the state. Committees vary in size, from three to eleven members, the committees are chaired by senior members of the majority party. Senators and representatives can be members of multiple committees, most legislation begins within the committees who have responsibility for the area that the bill will affect. Once approved by a committee, a bill can be entered into the agenda for debate and vote in the full chamber, although not common, bills can be voted on by the full house without going through the committee process. Indiana legislators make an annual salary of $22,616, plus $155 for each day in session or at a committee hearing. Article 4, Section 7, of the Indiana Constitution states the qualifications to become a Senator or Representative. The candidate must have been a U. S. citizen for a minimum of two prior to his candidacy and must have been resident of the district that he seeks to represent for one year
12.
Vincennes, Indiana
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Vincennes is a city in and the county seat of Knox County, Indiana, United States. It is located on the lower Wabash River in the part of the state. According to the 2010 census, its population was 18,423, the vicinity of Vincennes was inhabited for thousands of years by different cultures of indigenous peoples. During the Late Woodland period, some of these peoples used local loess hills as burial sites, some of the prominent examples are the Sugar Loaf Mound. In historic times, prominent local native groups were the Shawnee, Wabash, the first European settlers were French, when Vincennes was founded as part of the French colony of New France. Later on, it would be transferred to the colony of Louisiana, several years later, France lost the French and Indian War, and as result ceded territory east of the Mississippi River, including Vincennes, to the victorious British. Once the area was under British rule, it was associated with the Province of Quebec and it then became part of the Illinois Country of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia. Next it became part of Knox County in the Northwest Territory, Vincennes served as capital of the Indiana Territory from 1800 until 1813, when the government was moved to Corydon. The first trading post on the Wabash River was established by Sieur Juchereau, with thirty-four Canadiens, he founded the company post on October 28,1702 to trade for Buffalo hides with American Indians. The exact location of Juchereaus trading post is not known, but because the Buffalo Trace crosses the Wabash at Vincennes, the post was a success, in the first two years, the traders collected over 13,000 buffalo hides. When Juchereau died, the post was abandoned, the French-Canadian settlers left what they considered hostile territory for Mobile, then the capital of Louisiana. The oldest European town in Indiana, Vincennes was officially established in 1732 as a second French fur trading post in this area. The Compagnie des Indes commissioned a Canadian officer, François-Marie Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes, de Vincennes founded the new trading post near the meeting points of the Wabash and White rivers, and the overland Buffalo Trace. De Vincennes, who had lived with his father among the Miami tribe and he also encouraged Canadien settlers to move there, and started his own family to increase the village population. Because the Wabash post was so remote, however, Vincennes had a time getting trade supplies from Louisiana for the native nations. The boundary between the French colonies of Louisiana and Canada, although inexact in the first years of the settlement, was decreed in 1745 to run between Fort Ouiatenon and Vincennes. In 1736, during the French war with the Chickasaw nation, de Vincennes was captured and burned at the stake near the town of Fulton. His settlement on the Wabash was renamed Poste Vincennes in his honor, Louisiana Governor Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville next appointed Louis Groston de Saint-Ange de Bellerive to command Poste Vincennes
13.
Lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith
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Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith were young African American men who were lynched on August 7,1930, in Marion, Indiana, after being taken from jail and beaten by a mob. They had been arrested that night as suspects in a robbery, murder and he was later convicted and sentenced as an accessory before the fact. After dedicating his life to civil rights activism, in 1991 he was pardoned by the state of Indiana. The local chapter of the NAACP and the States Attorney General struggled to indict some of the lynch mob, a large crowd broke into the jail with sledgehammers, pulled out the three suspects, beating them and hanging them. When Abram Smith tried to free himself from the noose as his body was hauled up, he was lowered, police officers in the crowd cooperated in the lynching. A third person, 16-year-old James Cameron, narrowly escaped death after being strung up, a local studio photographer, Lawrence Beitler, took a photograph of the dead men hanging from a tree surrounded by the large lynch mob, it included women and children. He sold thousands of copies of the photograph in the ten days. Mary Ball later testified that she had not been raped, according to Camerons 1982 memoir, the police had originally accused all three men of murder and rape. After the lynchings, and Mary Balls testimony, the charge was dropped. James Cameron stated in interviews that Shipp and Smith had, in fact, shot, James Cameron was tried in 1931 as an accessory before the fact, convicted and sentenced to state prison for several years. After being released on parole, he moved to Detroit, worked, in the 1940s he worked in Indiana as a civil rights activist and headed a state agency for equal rights. In the 1950s he moved to Wisconsin, there in 1988 he founded Americas Black Holocaust Museum, for African-American history. Mrs. Flossie Bailey, a local NAACP official, and the State Attorney General worked to gain indictments against leaders of the mob in the lynchings, no one was ever charged in the murders of Shipp and Smith, nor the assault on Cameron. The night of the lynching, studio photographer Lawrence Beitler took a photograph of the crowd by the bodies of the men hanging from a tree and he sold thousands of copies over the next 10 days, and it has become an iconic image of a lynching. In 1937 Abel Meeropol, a Jewish schoolteacher from New York City, Meeropol later said that the photograph haunted for days and inspired his poem Bitter Fruit. It was published in the New York Teacher in 1937 and later in the magazine New Masses, Meeropol set his poem to music, renaming it Strange Fruit. He performed it at a meeting in Madison Square Garden. In 1939 it was performed, recorded and popularized by American singer Billie Holiday, the song reached 16th place on the charts in July 1939, and has since been recorded by numerous artists, continuing into the 21st century
14.
Pinkerton (detective agency)
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Pinkerton became famous when he claimed to have foiled a plot to assassinate president-elect Abraham Lincoln, who later hired Pinkerton agents for his personal security during the Civil War. Pinkertons agents performed services ranging from security guarding to private military contracting work, Pinkerton was the largest private law enforcement organization in the world at the height of its power. The ensuing battle between Pinkerton agents and striking workers led to the deaths of seven Pinkerton agents and nine steelworkers, the organization was pejoratively called the Pinks by its opponents. The company now operates as Pinkerton Consulting & Investigations, Inc. d. b. a, Pinkerton Corporate Risk Management, a division of the Swedish security company Securitas AB. The former Government Services division, PGS, now operates as Securitas Critical Infrastructure Services, in the 1850s, Allan Pinkerton met Chicago attorney Edward Rucker in a local Masonic Hall and formed the North-Western Police Agency, later known as the Pinkerton Agency. Historian Frank Morn writes, By the mid-1850s a few businessmen saw the need for control over their employees. In February 1855, Allan Pinkerton, after consulting with six midwestern railroads, in 1871, Congress appropriated $50,000 to the new Department of Justice to form a suborganization devoted to the detection and prosecution of those guilty of violating federal law. The amount was insufficient for the DOJ to fashion an integral investigating unit, white, who had been hired as a Special Officer during a strike, was shot and killed. July 19,1919, Hans Rassmuson, Special Officer, was shot, March 12,1924, Frank Miller, Pinkerton Watchman, was shot and killed. Gowen, then president of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, hired the agency to investigate the labor unions in the companys mines, the incident inspired Arthur Conan Doyles Sherlock Holmes novel The Valley of Fear. This resulted in a fight and siege in which 16 men were killed and 23 others were wounded. To restore order, two brigades of the Pennsylvania militia were called out by the Governor, as a legacy of the Pinkertons involvement a bridge connecting the nearby Pittsburgh suburbs of Munhall and Rankin was named Pinkertons Landing Bridge. In 1895, detective Frank Geyer tracked down the murderer of the three Pitezel children, leading to the trial and execution of the United States first known serial killer H. H. Holmes. His story is told in his book, The Holmes-Pitezel Case, Pinkertons had previously apprehended Holmes in 1894 in Boston on an outstanding warrant for insurance fraud perpetrated in Chicago. Harry Orchard was arrested by the Idaho police and confessed to Pinkerton agent James McParland that he assassinated former Governor Frank Steunenberg of Idaho in 1905. Orchard testified, under threat of hanging, against Western Federation of Miners president Big Bill Haywood, with a stirring defense by Clarence Darrow, Haywood and the other defendants of the WFM were acquitted in a nationally publicized trial. Orchard received a sentence, but it was commuted. In 1890, Indiana University hired the Pinkerton Agency to investigate the authorship of a student bogus that had been distributed throughout town, while boguses were not uncommon, this particular one attacked IU faculty and students with such graphic language that Bloomington residents complained
15.
New Albany, Indiana
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New Albany /ˈɑːlbəni/ is a city in Floyd County, Indiana, United States, situated along the Ohio River opposite Louisville, Kentucky. The population was 36,372 at the 2010 census, the city is the county seat of Floyd County. It is bounded by I-265 to the north and the Ohio River to the south, the mayor of New Albany is Jeff Gahan, a Democrat, he was re-elected in 2015. The land of New Albany was officially granted to the United States after the American Revolutionary War, the territory had been captured by George Rogers Clark in 1779. For his services Clark was awarded large tracts of land in Southern Indiana including most of Floyd County, after the war Clark sold and distributed some of his land to his fellow soldiers. The area of New Albany ended up in the possession of Col. John Paul. New Albany was founded in July 1813 when three brothers from Connecticut —Joel, Abner, and Nathaniel Scribner—arrived at the Falls of the Ohio and named the site after the city of Albany and they purchased the land from Col. John Paul. New Albany was platted by John Graham on the owned by the Scribner brothers. In 1814 Joel and Mary Scribner built their home in New Albany, New Albany was incorporated as a town in 1817 as part of Clark County. In 1819, three years after Indiana was admitted as a state, New Albany became the seat of government for newly established Floyd County, a courthouse was finally built in 1824. New Albany grew rapidly and was the largest city in Indiana from 1816 until 1860 when overtaken by Indianapolis, before the Civil War, over half of Hoosiers worth over $100,000 lived in New Albany, making it by far the wealthiest part of the state. The steamboat industry was the engine of the economy during the mid-19th century. Shipbuilding was accompanied by a range of ancillary business including machine shops, foundries, cabinet and furniture factories. Its second largest business was the American Plate Glass Works, in 1847 the city was connected to the port at Michigan City, Indiana on Lake Michigan via the Monon railroad. In 1853 the New Albany High School opened, the first public school in the state. The original school was built at the corner of West First Street, New Albany would also be the first in the state to create a consolidated school district several years later. Ashbel P. Willard, governor of the state of Indiana and that year, the Indiana State Fair was held in New Albany. During the Civil War, the fairgrounds were converted to become Camp Noble, during the Civil War New Albany served as both a supply center for Union troops and as a medical care center for wounded soldiers
16.
Great Britain
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Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination
17.
Freemasonry
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The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow, and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft Freemasonry, members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, the basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the level by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry, each Grand Lodge is independent, modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Continental Freemasonry is now the term for the liberal jurisdictions who have removed some, or all. The Masonic Lodge is the organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the formal business of any small organisation. In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, at the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies, candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft. In all of ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs. Another ceremony is the installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge. In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, in other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge. Most Lodges have some sort of calendar, allowing Masons. Often coupled with events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level, Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief. These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these, there also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research
18.
Harrison County, Indiana
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Harrison County is located in the far southern part of the U. S. state of Indiana along the Ohio River. The county was established in 1808. As of the 2010 census, the population was 39,364. The county seat is Corydon, the capital of Indiana. Harrison County is part of the Louisville-Jefferson County, KY-IN Metropolitan Statistical Area, the county has a diverse economy with no sector employing more than 13% of the local workforce. Horseshoe Southern Indiana is the largest employer, followed by Tyson Foods, Tourism also plays a significant role in the economy and is centered on the countys many historic sites. The county has 10 incorporated towns with a population of over 5,000. One Interstate highway and one U. S. Route run through the county, as do eight Indiana State Roads, the population grew rapidly during first decade of the 19th century. Corydon was officially platted in 1808 and became the capital of the Indiana Territory in 1813, many of the states early important historic events occurred in the county, including the writing of Indianas first constitution. Corydon was the capital until 1825, but in the years afterward remained an important hub for southern Indiana. In 1859 there was a meteorite strike. In 1863 the Battle of Corydon was fought, the battle of the American Civil War to occur in Indiana. Humans first entered what would become Indiana near the end of the last ice age, the region around Harrison County was of particular value to the early humans because of the abundance of flint. There is evidence of flint mining in local caves as early as 2000 BCE, passing migratory tribes frequented the area which was influenced by succeeding groups of peoples including the Hopewells and Mississippians. One flint-working and camping location is known as the Swans Landing Archeological Site, permanent human settlements in the county began with the arrival of American settlers in the last decade of the 18th century. The area became part of the United States following its conquest during the American Revolutionary War, veterans of the revolution received land grants in the eastern part of the county as part of Clarks Grant. Daniel Boone and his brother Squire Boone were early explorers of the county, harvey Heth, Spier Spencer, and Edward Smith were among the first to settle in the county beginning in the 1790s. Smith built the first home in later became the county seat of Corydon
19.
Alvin Peterson Hovey
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Alvin Peterson Hovey was a Union general during the American Civil War, an Indiana Supreme Court justice, congressman, and the 21st Governor of Indiana from 1889 to 1891. During the war he played an important role in the Western theatre, earning high approval from Grant, as governor, he launched several legal challenges to the Indiana General Assemblys removal of his powers, but was mostly unsuccessful. He successfully advocated election reform before he died in office, Alvin Peterson Hovey was born in Mount Vernon, Indiana on September 6,1821 to Abiel and Francis Hovey. His mother died while he was a boy, and his father died when he was fifteen leaving him orphaned. His youth was spent in poverty, and after being sent to an orphanage following his fathers death, he received a basic education before being turned out at age eighteen. Hovey wanted to become a lawyer, and went work as a bricklayer by day, and studied law at night in the office of John Pitcher, after over three years of study in the office, he was admitted to bar in 1843 and opened his own law office. Hovey was propelled into the spotlight in 1849 when he was appointed to oversee the estate of the deceased William McClure. McClure was a wealthy idealist who was one of the co-founders of the utopian settlement of New Harmony. In his will, he ordered that his estate be sold and his two siblings had already seized much of his estate, sold it, and made off with the funds. Posey filed over sixty lawsuits to reclaim the assets of the estate, the estate successfully funded the opening of 160 libraries in Indiana and Illinois. The case gained considerable press coverage around Indiana, and Hovey gained considerable popularity from his success and he met and married his wife Mary Ann in 1844, and the couple had five children. Only two of the children survived infancy, Hovey was elected as a Democrat to serve as a delegate in 1850 to help create a new constitution for the state of Indiana. Hovey supported the educational and governmental reforms to the constitution, as well as being a force in some of the more controversial aspects of the constitution. He opposed the extension of suffrage to women and blacks, and his proposal was accepted because it was viewed as a punishment to the southern states, who would be required to care for the free blacks. He also opposed the reforms, saying that it would grant too much protection from creditors. The constitution was approved by the public, but the portions were ruled unconstitutional by the U. S. Supreme Court two years later. In 1854, Hovey was appointed by Governor Joseph A. Wright to fill a vacancy on the Indiana Supreme Court until an election could be held, at the time of his appointment, he was 34, making him the youngest justice in the history of the court. It also made him the only delegate to become the interpreter of a document which he himself had helped write
20.
Claude Matthews
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Claude Matthews was the 23rd Governor of the U. S. state of Indiana from 1893 to 1897. A farmer, he was nominated to prevent the loss of voters to the Populist Party, the Panic of 1893 occurred just before he took office, leading to severe economic problems during his term. Republicans took the Indiana General Assembly in the 1894 mid-term election and repudiated many of the Democrats laws, leading to violence in the assembly. A popular party figure when he left office, he was a nominee to run for president at the 1896 Democratic National Convention, Matthews was born in Bethel, Kentucky on December 14,1845, the son of Thoas A. and Eliza Ann Fletcher Matthews. His mother died when he was four months old and his father sent him to be raised by an aunt in Kentucky and his father remarried in 1858 and he returned to live with them near Danville, Kentucky. He worked on the farm and attended Centre College and graduated in 1867. The same year he moved to Clinton, Indiana where he met Martha Whitcomb, the couple married on January 1,1868 and had three children. Matthews purchased a farm and began to raise livestock and produce grain and he became prominent in the area because of his breeding program and the qualify cattle and horses he produced. In 1872 he was one of the members of the National Association of Breeders of Short-Horn Cattle. In 1876 he was elected to a seat in the Indiana House of Representatives, in 1882 he ran for the state senate, but was defeated. In 1890, Democratic party leaders approached Matthews and encouraged him to run for Indiana Secretary of State and he was one of several men the party was grooming as a potential candidate for governor in the upcoming election. Democrats at that time were losing members to the Populist Party and he campaigned against Republican John B. Stoll and won the election by 20,000 votes. He continued in office for two years before resigning to run for governor. He used his position to become an advocate of the unlimited coinage of silver. Matthews was nominated to run as the Democratic candidate for Governor in 1893 and ran in the election against incumbent Republican governor Ira Joy Chase. The campaign focused primarily on depressed farm prices and farmers desires to inflate the currency to alleviate debt problems, Matthews won the election by seven-thousand votes. The populist party failed to make significant gains in the state, shortly before Matthews took office, the national economy was stuck by the Panic of 1893, caused in part by the inflationary acts of the government, which Matthews supported in the campaign. In Indiana it led to a rise in unemployment, the bankruptcy of most of the state railroad companies, the collapse of many state banks, business failures
21.
Indiana Klan
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It was strongly white supremacist, as well as anti-Semitic and anti-Catholic. It also opposed immigration from southern and eastern Europe, which was reduced by a new law in 1923. In Indiana, the Klan generally did not practice overt violence, nationally it practiced racism and terrorism against minority ethnic and religious groups. By 1922 the state had the largest organization nationally, and its membership continued to increase dramatically under the leadership of D. C and it averaged 2,000 new members per week from July 1922 to July 1923, when he was appointed as the Grand Dragon of Indiana. He led the Indiana Klan and other chapters he supervised to break away from the organization in late 1923. Indianas Klan organization reached its peak of power in the years, when it had 250,000 members. By 1925 over half the members of the Indiana General Assembly, the Governor of Indiana. Politicians had also learned they needed Klan endorsement to win office and that year Stephenson was charged and convicted for the rape and murder of Madge Oberholtzer, a young schoolteacher. His vile behavior caused a drop in Klan membership, which decreased further with his exposure to the press of secret deals. Denied pardon, in 1927 Stephenson began to talk to the Indianapolis Times and their press investigation exposed many Klan members, showed they were not law-abiding, and ended the power of the organization, as members dropped out by the tens of thousands. By the end of the decade, the Klan was down to about 4,000 members, efforts by some to revive it in the period of the 1960s and 1970s were not successful. In 1920 Imperial Wizard William J. Simmons of Atlanta, Georgia chose Joe Huffington to start an official Indiana chapter of the Ku Klux Klan, Huffington left for Indiana and set up his first headquarters in Evansville. Stephenson, a war veteran with a background in Texas and Oklahoma. Stephenson was active in the local Democratic Party and had run unsuccessfully in the Democratic Congressional primary of 1922 as an anti-prohibition candidate and he was more successful with recruiting and organizing new members. Like other agents, Stephenson got to keep a portion of the entrance fees, entrance in the Klan cost $10, plus dues, and the recruiter personally kept $4 of each registration. It is estimated that Stephenson made between two and five dollars from his position in the Klan. Southern Indiana had already had significant vigilante activity among White Cap groups and he initially stressed the concept of the Klan as a fraternal society and brotherhood, organized for civic activism, to help the poor and defend morality. He gained the support of ministers and church congregations for these appeals to populist issues
22.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
23.
Rochester, Indiana
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Rochester is a city in, and the county seat of, Fulton County, Indiana, United States. The population was 6,218 at the 2010 census, Rochester was laid out in 1835. The founder Alexander Chamberlain named it for his hometown of Rochester. The Rochester post office was established in 1836, the Potawatomi Trail of Death came though the town in 1838. Rochester was incorporated as a city in 1853, the Lyman M. Brackett House, Fulton County Courthouse, Rochester Downtown Historic District, and John W. Smith House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The formerly listed Germany Bridge was located nearby, according to the 2010 census, Rochester has a total area of 5.801 square miles, of which 4.69 square miles is land and 1.111 square miles is water. As of the census of 2010, there were 6,218 people,2,702 households, the population density was 1,325.8 inhabitants per square mile. There were 3,211 housing units at a density of 684.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 95. 9% White,0. 6% African American,0. 4% Native American,0. 9% Asian,1. 0% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 4% of the population. 33. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.84. The median age in the city was 41.6 years. 22. 5% of residents were under the age of 18,8. 4% were between the ages of 18 and 24,22. 9% were from 25 to 44,26. 6% were from 45 to 64, and 19. 5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47. 9% male and 52. 1% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 6,414 people,2,757 households, and 1,734 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,407.4 people per square mile, there were 3,188 housing units at an average density of 699. 5/sq mi. The racial makeup of the city was 96. 24% White,0. 59% Native American,0. 45% African American,0. 84% Asian,0. 86% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 86% of the population. 32. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.90. In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 23. 6% under the age of 18,7. 8% from 18 to 24,26. 5% from 25 to 44,22. 3% from 45 to 64, the median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 90.2 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.3 males
24.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
25.
History of Indiana
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The history of human activity in Indiana, a US state in the Midwest, began with migratory tribes of Native Americans who inhabited Indiana as early as 8000 BC. Tribes succeeded one another in dominance for several years and reached their peak of development during the period of Mississippian culture. The region entered recorded history in the 1670s when the first Europeans came to Indiana, after France ruled for 100 years, it was defeated by Great Britain in the French and Indian War and ceded its territory east of the Mississippi. Britain held the land for more than twenty years, until after its defeat in the American Revolutionary War, at that time, Britain ceded the entire trans-Allegheny region, including what is now Indiana, to the new United States. The United States government divided the region into several new territories. The largest of these was the Northwest Territory, which was divided into several smaller territories by the United States Congress. In 1800, the Indiana Territory was the first new territory established from a portion of the Northwest Territory, the territory grew in population and development until it was admitted to the Union in 1816 as the nineteenth state, Indiana. Following statehood, the established state government laid out on an ambitious plan to transform Indiana from a segment of the frontier into a developed, well populated. The states founders initiated a program led to the construction of roads, canals, railroads. Despite the noble aims of the project, profligate spending ruined the states credit, by 1841 the state was near bankruptcy and forced to liquidate most of its public works. By its new constitution of 1851, it restricted rights of free blacks, during the 1850s, the states population grew to exceed one million. The ambitious program of its founders was realized as Indiana became the fourth-largest state in terms of population, Indiana became politically influential and played an important role in the Union during the American Civil War. Indiana was the first western state to mobilize for the war, following the Civil War, Indiana remained politically important as it became a critical swing state in U. S. It helped decide control of the presidency for three decades, during the Indiana Gas Boom of the late 19th century, industry began to develop rapidly in the state. The states Golden Age of Literature began in the time period. By the early 20th century, Indiana developed into a strong manufacturing state and attracted numerous immigrants and it experienced setbacks during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Construction of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, expansion of the industry, urban development. During the second half of the 20th century, Indiana became a leader in the industry due to the innovations of companies such as Eli Lilly
26.
Clovis culture
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The Clovis culture appears around 11, 500–11,000 uncal RCYBP, at the end of the last glacial period, and is characterized by the manufacture of Clovis points and distinctive bone and ivory tools. Archaeologists most precise determinations at present suggest that this age is equal to roughly 13,200 to 12,900 calendar years ago. Clovis people are considered to be the ancestors of most of the cultures of the Americas. The only human burial that has been associated with tools from the Clovis culture included the remains of an infant boy named Anzick-1. Researchers from the United States and Europe conducted paleogenetic research on Anzick-1s ancient nuclear, mitochondrial, the results of these analyses reveal that Anzick-1 is closely related to modern Native American populations, which lends support to the Beringia hypothesis for the peopling of the Americas. The Clovis culture was replaced by more localized regional cultures from the time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period onward. Post-Clovis cultures include the Folsom tradition, Gainey, Suwannee-Simpson, Plainview-Goshen, Cumberland, each of these is commonly thought to derive directly from Clovis, in some cases apparently differing only in the length of the fluting on their projectile points. Recent preliminary carbon dating shows a culture from around or prior to 13,000 years ago, along with horse, camel, a hallmark of the toolkit associated with the Clovis culture is the distinctively shaped, fluted stone spear point, known as the Clovis point. The Clovis point is bifacial and typically fluted on both sides, the culture was originally named for a small number of artifacts found between 1932 and 1936 at Blackwater Locality No. 1, a site between the towns of Clovis and Portales, New Mexico. These finds were deemed especially important due to their association with mammoth sp. Clovis sites have since been identified throughout much, but not all, of the contiguous United States, as well as Mexico and Central America and it is generally accepted that Clovis people hunted mammoths, as Clovis points have repeatedly been found in sites containing mammoth remains. In total, more than 125 species of plants and animals are known to have used by Clovis people in the portion of the Western Hemisphere they inhabited. The oldest Clovis site in North America is believed to be El Fin del Mundo in northwestern Sonora, Mexico and it features occupation dating around 13,390 calibrated years BP. In 2011, remains of Gomphothere were found, the evidence suggests that humans did in fact two of them here. Theres also the Aubrey site in Denton County, Texas, which produced a date that is almost identical. After this time, Clovis-style fluted points were replaced by other fluted-point traditions with an uninterrupted sequence across North. An effectively continuous cultural adaptation proceeds from the Clovis period through the ensuing Middle, whether the Clovis culture drove the mammoth, and other species, to extinction via overhunting – the so-called Pleistocene overkill hypothesis – is still an open, and controversial, question
27.
Adena culture
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The Adena culture was a Pre-Columbian Native American culture that existed from 1000 to 200 BC, in a time known as the Early Woodland period. The Adena culture refers to what were probably a number of related Native American societies sharing a burial complex, the Adena lived in an area including parts of present-day Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, West Virginia, Kentucky, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland. The importance of the Adena complex comes from its influence on other contemporary. The Adena culture is seen as the precursor to the traditions of the Hopewell culture, the Adena culture was named for the large mound on Thomas Worthingtons early 19th-century estate called Adena, in Chillicothe, Ohio. Lasting traces of Adena culture are seen in their substantial earthworks. At one point, Adena mounds numbered in the hundreds, and these mounds generally ranged in size from 20 feet to 300 feet in diameter and served as burial structures, ceremonial sites, historical markers and possibly gathering places. These mounds were built using hundreds of thousands of full of specially selected and graded earth. According to archaeological investigations, Adena mounds were built as part of burial ritual. These mortuary buildings were intended to keep and maintain the dead until their burial was performed. Before the construction of the mounds, some utilitarian and grave goods would be placed on the floor of the structure, the mound would then be constructed, and often a new mortuary structure would be placed atop the new mound. After a series of repetitions, mound/mortuary/mound/mortuary, a quite prominent earthwork would remain, in the later Adena period, circular ridges of unknown function were sometimes constructed around the burial mounds. Adena mounds stood in isolation from domestic living areas, although the mounds are beautiful artistic achievements themselves, Adena artists created smaller, more personal pieces of art. Art motifs that became important to many later Native Americans began with the Adena, motifs such as the weeping eye and cross and circle design became mainstays in many succeeding cultures. Many pieces of art seemed to revolve around shamanic practices, and this may indicate a belief that the practice imparted the animals qualities to the wearer or holder of the objects. Deer antlers, both real and constructed of copper, wolf, deer and mountain lion jawbones, and many objects were fashioned into costumes, necklaces. Distinctive tubular smoking pipes, with flattened or blocked-end mouthpieces. The objective of pipe smoking may have been altered states of consciousness, all told, Adena was a manifestation of a broad regional increase in the number and kind of artifacts devoted to spiritual needs. The Adena also carved stone tablets, usually 4 or 5 inches by 3 or 4 inches by.5 inches thick
28.
Hopewell tradition
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The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations. They were connected by a network of trade routes, known as the Hopewell exchange system. Within this area, societies participated in a degree of exchange with the highest amount of activity along waterways. The Hopewell exchange system received materials from all over what is now the United States, most of the items traded were exotic materials and were received by people living in the major trading and manufacturing areas. These people then converted the materials into products and exported them through local and regional exchange networks, the objects created by the Hopewell exchange system spread far and wide and have been seen in many burials outside the Midwest. Although the origins of the Hopewell are still under discussion, the Hopewell culture can also be considered a cultural climax, Hopewell populations originated in western New York and moved south into Ohio, where they built upon the local Adena mortuary tradition. Or, Hopewell was said to have originated in western Illinois, similarly, the Havana Hopewell tradition was thought to have spread up the Illinois River and into southwestern Michigan, spawning Goodall Hopewell. The name Hopewell was applied by Warren K. Moorehead after his explorations of the Hopewell Mound Group in Ross County, Ohio, the mound group itself was named for the family who owned the earthworks at the time. What any of the groups now defined as Hopewellian called themselves is unknown. The Hopewell inherited from their Adena forebears an incipient social stratification and this increased social stability and reinforced sedentism, social stratification, specialized use of resources, and probably population growth. Hopewell societies cremated most of their deceased and reserved burial for only the most important people, in some sites, hunters apparently received a higher status in the community because their graves were more elaborate and contained more status goods. The Hopewellian peoples had leaders, but they were not like powerful rulers who could command armies of slaves and these cultures likely accorded certain families a special place of privilege. Some scholars suggest that these societies were marked by the emergence of big-men and these leaders acquired their position because of their ability to persuade others to agree with them on important matters such as trade and religion. They also perhaps were able to influence by the creation of reciprocal obligations with other important members of the community. Today, the features of the Hopewell tradition era are mounds built for uncertain purposes. Great geometric earthworks are one of the most impressive Native American monuments throughout American prehistory, eastern Woodlands mounds have various geometric shapes and rise to impressive heights. The gigantic sculpted earthworks often took the shape of animals, birds, the function of the mounds is still under debate. Due to considerable evidence and surveys, plus the good condition of the largest mounds
29.
Mississippian culture
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The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American civilization archeologists date from approximately 800 CE to 1600 CE, varying regionally. It was composed of a series of settlements and satellite villages linked together by a loose trading network. The Mississippian way of life began to develop in the Mississippi River Valley, cultures in the tributary Tennessee River Valley may have also begun to develop Mississippian characteristics at this point. Almost all dated Mississippian sites predate 1539–1540, with exceptions being Natchez communities that maintained Mississippian cultural practices into the 18th century. A number of traits are recognized as being characteristic of the Mississippians. Although not all Mississippian peoples practiced all of the following activities, the construction of large, truncated earthwork pyramid mounds, or platform mounds. Such mounds were usually square, rectangular, or occasionally circular, structures were usually constructed atop such mounds. The adoption and use of shells as tempering agents in their shell tempered pottery. Widespread trade networks extending as far west as the Rockies, north to the Great Lakes, south to the Gulf of Mexico, the development of the chiefdom or complex chiefdom level of social complexity. The development of institutionalized social inequality, a centralization of control of combined political and religious power in the hands of few or one. The beginnings of a settlement hierarchy, in one major center has clear influence or control over a number of lesser communities. The adoption of the paraphernalia of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, also called the Southern Cult and this is the belief system of the Mississippians as we know it. SECC items are found in Mississippian-culture sites from Wisconsin to the Gulf Coast, the SECC was frequently tied in to ritual game-playing, as with chunkey. The Mississippians had no writing system or stone architecture, the Mississippi stage is usually divided into three or more chronological periods. Each period is an historical distinction varying regionally. At a particular site, each period may be considered to begin earlier or later, the Mississippi period should not be confused with the Mississippian culture. The Mississippi period is the stage, while Mississippian culture refers to the cultural similarities that characterize this society. The Early Mississippi period had just transitioned from the Late Woodland period way of life, different groups abandoned tribal lifeways for increasing complexity, sedentism, centralization, and agriculture
30.
Beaver Wars
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The Beaver Wars—also known as the Iroquois Wars or the French and Iroquois Wars—encompass a series of conflicts fought intermittently during the 17th century in eastern North America. During the 17th century, the Beaver Wars were battles for economic welfare throughout the St. Lawrence, the wars were between the Iroquois trying to take control of the fur trade from the Hurons, the northern Algonquians, and their French allies. From medieval times, Europeans had obtained furs from Russia and Scandinavia, the Iroquois sought to expand their territory and monopolize the fur trade and the trade between European markets and the tribes of the western Great Lakes region. They were a confederation of five nations—Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, each of these Native American nations has beliefs in tribal sovereignty and a collective body called a league. These nations had a supralevel affirmation in the sovereignty of the two leagues between Onondaga and New York, government officials in Washington DC and Ottawa recognized the Iroquois sovereignty only in existence of individual tribal governments. The Iroquois Confederation, led by the dominant Mohawk, mobilized against the largely Algonquian-speaking tribes of the Great Lakes region, the Iroquois were armed by their Dutch and English trading partners, the Algonquian were backed by the French, their chief trading partner. The wars were brutal and are considered one of the bloodiest series of conflicts in the history of North America and they pushed some eastern tribes to the west of the Mississippi River, or southward into the Carolinas. The Iroquois gained control of the Ohio Valley lands as hunting ground, the Ohio Country and the Lower Peninsula of Michigan had become virtually empty of Native people as refugees fled westward to escape the Iroquois warriors. Both Algonquian and Iroquoian societies were disrupted by these wars. After the Iroquois became trading partners with the English, their alliance was a component of the later English expansion. The English used the Iroquois conquests as a claim to the old Northwest Territory, the expeditions of French explorer Jacques Cartier in the 1540s made the first written records of the Native Americans in North America. French explorers and fishermen had traded in the region near the mouth of the St. Lawrence River estuary a decade before then for valuable furs. Cartier recorded an ongoing war between the Stadaconans and another known as the Toudaman, who had destroyed one of their forts the previous year. Wars and politics in Europe distracted French efforts at colonization in the St. Lawrence Valley until the beginning of the 17th century, when the French returned to the area, they found the sites of both Stadacona and Hochelaga abandoned, completely destroyed by an unknown enemy. When the French returned, they found no inhabitants in this part of the river valley. The Iroquois and the Iroquoian-speaking Huron used it as hunting ground and this was perhaps in response to the formation of the League of the Iroquois. Before 1603, Champlain had formed an alliance against the Iroquois. He decided that the French would not trade firearms to the Iroquois and he had a commercial rationale, the northern Natives provided the French with valuable furs and the Iroquois, based in present-day New York, interfered with that trade
31.
La Salle expeditions
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Much of the area that was explored was land that no European had ever ventured into. The expeditions led to the establishment of a trade route connecting French colonies in Canada with French colonies in Louisiana. All of the land covered in the expedition was claimed on behalf of Louis XIV, King of France, rené-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle arrived in New France in 1666. He was the son of a merchant family from Rouen, France. He went immediately to Montreal, which was then the furthest inland post the French controlled, at that time, the post was little more than a mission where his brother served as a Jesuit priest who was working to convert the local Huron to Christianity. At that time, the region was in the height of the Beaver Wars, La Salle purchased a large tract of land near modern Lachine, Quebec. There he set up a trading post, purchasing furs from the local tribes and serving as a middleman. From Seneca traders, La Salle first learned of the Ohio country, the possibility of such a river intrigued La Salle because of its obvious value to trade. If such a route existed, it would make trading trips deep into the interior of North America possible, if discovered, the trade from such a route could also be very lucrative. On July 6,1669, La Salle set out with his first expedition to explore the region he had heard of and he put together a group of twenty-four men and canoes and set off up the St. Lawrence River and into Lake Ontario. After thirty-five days they reached the mouth of the Seneca River on the shore of Lake Nassau in New York State. A Seneca village was located there, but they discouraged him from continuing his expedition westward and he paid a ransom for the captive after he agreed to lead the explorers into the Ohio Country. The actual routes of La Salles early expeditions are not geographically known, from there the party continued westward overland reaching Lake Erie where they turned toward the south. If La Salle struck Lake Erie near present-day Erie, Pennsylvania and they continued moving overland until they reached a branch of the Ohio River which they canoed down to reach the main channel of the river. One possible route would have been up the Grand River, upon reaching the Ohio, in the area of modern western Pennsylvania, it would have been obvious that the expedition had reached a major river, rivaling the size of the largest European rivers. La Salle continued downstream and westward reaching the Falls of the Ohio near modern Louisville, there his men refused to go further and deserted him to return to Canada. La Salle continued to explore only briefly on his own, during his trip, his group became the first Europeans to see the Ohio River. He had also traveled further into the Ohio country than any previous expeditions
32.
Fort Wayne (fort)
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Fort Wayne in modern Fort Wayne, Indiana, was established by Captain Jean François Hamtramck under orders from General Mad Anthony Wayne as part of the campaign against the Indians of the area. It was named after General Wayne, who was victorious at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, Wayne may have chosen the name himself—the fort was dedicated the day after he left it. The fort was occupied by the army on October 21,1794. The fort was a stockade with few buildings, and was located near the present intersection of Berry. Fort Wayne was the successor of previous military outposts at the location. Jean Baptiste Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes built the first fortified trading post on the site in 1704 called Fort Miami, Waynes Legion arrived at Kekionga on 17 September 1794, and Wayne personally selected the site for the new U. S. fort. Wayne wanted a fort built, capable of withstanding not only an Indian uprising. The fort was finished by 17 October, and was capable of withstanding 24-pound cannons and it was named Fort Wayne and placed under command of Major Jean François Hamtramck, who had been commandant of Fort Knox in Vincennes. The fort was officially dedicated 22 October, and the day is considered the founding of the city of Fort Wayne. The garrison at Fort Wayne normally consisted of about 100 men, in 1796, the garrison was ordered to march down the Maumee River to counteract a British demonstration. Colonel David Strong, a veteran of the American Revolution and Waynes Legion, the new fort contained multiple guard houses and Indian factories. The first fort was demolished about 1800, during the War of 1812, Fort Dearborn was evacuated and the residents tried to reach Fort Wayne, but were massacred before they arrived. Fort Wayne was next besieged by the Indian forces of Tecumseh during the Siege of Fort Wayne, Captain James Rhea was in charge of the fort and considered surrendering the fort, but his two lieutenants relieved him of duty. General William Henry Harrison arrived on September 12,1812 and broke the siege, Captain Rhea was formally relieved of duty and one of the lieutenants, named Ostrander, was given official command of the fort. After the war, a town began growing around the fort, a third fort was built in 1816 by Major John Whistler. The fort was abandoned on April 19,1819. The Tragic Saga of the Indiana Indians, outpost in the Wilderness, Fort Wayne, 1706-1828. Allen County, Fort Wayne Historical Society
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Pontiac's War
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Warriors from numerous tribes joined the uprising in an effort to drive British soldiers and settlers out of the region. The war is named after the Odawa leader Pontiac, the most prominent of many leaders in the conflict. The war began in May 1763 when Native Americans, offended by the policies of British General Jeffrey Amherst, eight forts were destroyed, and hundreds of colonists were killed or captured, with many more fleeing the region. Hostilities came to an end after British Army expeditions in 1764 led to negotiations over the next two years. Native Americans were unable to drive away the British, but the uprising prompted the British government to modify the policies that had provoked the conflict. Warfare on the North American frontier was brutal, and the killing of prisoners, the targeting of civilians, the ruthlessness and treachery of the conflict was a reflection of a growing divide between the separate populations of the British colonists and Native Americans. This proved unpopular with British colonists, and may have one of the early contributing factors to the American Revolution. The conflict is named after its most famous participant, the Ottawa leader Pontiac, variations include Pontiacs War, Pontiacs Rebellion, an early name for the war was the Kiyasuta and Pontiac War, Kiyasuta being an alternate spelling for Guyasuta, an influential Seneca/Mingo leader. The war became known as Pontiacs Conspiracy after the publication in 1851 of Francis Parkmans The Conspiracy of Pontiac. Parkmans influential book, the account of the war for nearly a century, is still in print. In the 20th century, some argued that Parkman exaggerated the extent of Pontiacs influence in the conflict. Alternate titles for the war have been proposed, but historians continue to refer to the war by the familiar names. Pontiacs Conspiracy is now used by scholars. In the decades before Pontiacs Rebellion, France and Great Britain participated in a series of wars in Europe that also involved the French, the largest of these wars was the worldwide Seven Years War, in which France lost New France in North America to Great Britain. British troops proceeded to occupy the forts in the Ohio Country. Even before the war ended with the Treaty of Paris. While the French had long cultivated alliances among certain of the Native Americans, before long, Native Americans who had been allies of the defeated French found themselves increasingly dissatisfied with the British occupation and the new policies imposed by the victors. Native Americans involved in Pontiacs Rebellion lived in a defined region of New France known as the pays den haut
34.
George Rogers Clark
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He served as leader of the militia in Kentucky throughout much of the war. Clark is best known for his celebrated captures of Kaskaskia and Vincennes during the Illinois Campaign, because the British ceded the entire Northwest Territory to the United States in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, Clark has often been hailed as the Conqueror of the Old Northwest. Clarks major military achievements occurred before his thirtieth birthday, afterwards, he led militia in the opening engagements of the Northwest Indian War, but was accused of being drunk on duty. Despite his demand for a investigation into the accusations, he was disgraced and forced to resign. Clark left Kentucky to live on the Indiana frontier, never fully reimbursed by Virginia for his wartime expenditures, Clark spent the final decades of his life evading creditors and living in increasing poverty and obscurity. He was involved in two failed attempts to open the Spanish-controlled Mississippi River to American traffic, after suffering a stroke and the amputation of his right leg, Clark became an invalid. He was aided in his final years by members, including his younger brother William, one of the leaders of the Lewis. George Rogers Clark died of a stroke on February 13,1818, George Rogers Clark was born on November 19,1752 in Albemarle County, Virginia, near Charlottesville, the hometown of Thomas Jefferson. He was the second of ten children of John and Ann Rogers Clark, five of their six sons became officers during the American Revolutionary War. Their youngest son, William Clark, was too young to fight in the war and he lived with his grandfather so he could receive a common education at Donald Robertsons school with James Madison and John Taylor of Caroline and. He was also tutored at home, as was usual for Virginian planters children of the period, Clarks grandfather trained him to be a surveyor. In 1771, at age nineteen, Clark left his home on his first surveying trip into western Virginia, in the meantime, thousands of settlers were entering the area as a result of the Treaty of Fort Stanwix of 1768. Clarks military career began in 1774, when he served as a captain in the Virginia militia, although most of Kentucky was not inhabited by Native Americans, several tribes used the area for hunting. Tribes in the Ohio country that had not been party to the treaty signed with the Cherokee were angry because the Kentucky hunting grounds had been ceded to Great Britain without their approval. As a result, they tried to push the European-American settlers to out of the area, Clark spent a few months surveying in Kentucky, as well as assisted in organizing Kentucky as a county for Virginia prior to the American Revolutionary War. As the American Revolutionary War began in the East, Kentuckys settlers became involved in a dispute about the regions sovereignty, richard Henderson, a judge and land speculator from North Carolina, had purchased much of Kentucky from the Cherokee in an illegal treaty. Henderson intended to create a colony known as Transylvania. In June 1776, these settlers selected Clark and John Gabriel Jones to deliver a petition to the Virginia General Assembly, Clark and Jones traveled the Wilderness Road to Williamsburg, where they convinced Governor Patrick Henry to create Kentucky County, Virginia
35.
Illinois campaign
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The campaign is the best-known action of the western theater of the war and the source of Clarks reputation as an early American military hero. In July 1778, Clark and his men crossed the Ohio River from Kentucky and took control of Kaskaskia, Vincennes, to counter Clarks advance, Henry Hamilton, the British lieutenant governor at Fort Detroit, reoccupied Vincennes with a small force. In February 1779, Clark returned to Vincennes in a winter expedition and retook the town. Virginia capitalized on Clarks success by establishing the region as Illinois County, the importance of the Illinois campaign has been the subject of much debate. For this reason, Clark was nicknamed the Conqueror of the Northwest, other historians have downplayed the importance of the campaign, arguing that Clarks conquest was a temporary occupation that had no impact on the boundary negotiations in Europe. The Illinois Country was a defined region which included much of the present U. S. states of Indiana. In the Quebec Act of 1774, the British made the Illinois country a part of its newly expanded Province of Quebec, in 1778, the population of the Illinois Country consisted of about 1,000 people of European descent, mostly French-speaking, and about 600 African-American slaves. Thousands of American Indians lived in villages concentrated along the Mississippi, Illinois, the British military presence was sparse, most of the troops had been withdrawn in 1776 to cut back on expenses. Philippe-François de Rastel de Rocheblave, a French-born soldier and official, was hired by the British to be the commandant, of Fort Gage. When the American Revolutionary War began, in 1775, the Ohio River marked the border between the Illinois Country and Kentucky, a recently settled by American colonists. From 1777 on, wrote historian Bernard Sheehan, the line of settlements was under almost constant assault by white-led raiding parties that had originated at Detroit. In 1777, George Rogers Clark was a 25-year-old major in the Kentucky County, Clark believed that he could end the raids on Kentucky by capturing the British posts in the Illinois Country and then moving against Detroit. In April 1777, Clark sent two spies into the Illinois country, Clark wrote a letter to Governor Patrick Henry of Virginia in which he outlined a plan to capture Kaskaskia. Clark presented his plan to Governor Henry on December 10,1777, to maintain secrecy, Clarks proposal was only shared with a small group of influential Virginians, including Thomas Jefferson, George Mason, and George Wythe. Although Henry initially expressed doubts whether the campaign was feasible, Clark managed to win the confidence of Henry. The plan was approved by the members of the Virginia General Assembly, publicly, Clark was authorized to raise men for the defense of Kentucky. In a secret set of instructions from Governor Henry, Clark was instructed to capture Kaskaskia, Governor Henry commissioned Clark as a lieutenant colonel in the Virginia militia and authorized him to raise seven militia companies, each to contain fifty men. The men were enlisted to serve for three months, after they reached Kentucky, to maintain secrecy, Clark did not tell any of his recruits, that the purpose of the expedition was to invade the Illinois Country
36.
Clark's Grant
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Clarks Grant was a tract of land granted to George Rogers Clark and the soldiers who fought with him during the American Revolutionary War by the state of Virginia in honor of their service. The tract was 150,000 acres and located in present-day Clark County, Indiana, during the American Revolutionary War, George Rogers Clark led the militia of Virginia in capturing a large part of the Illinois Country as part of the Illinois Campaign. Land was offered as an incentive to adventurers to sign up as soldiers, after the war ended, as a reward, Virginia granted the soldiers and officers land to make good their promise. The grant was made by the legislature of Virginia on January 2,1781, a commission of officers from the group was created and they were granted the right to choose any 150,000 acres within the defined region. They chose a tract across the Ohio River opposite from Louisville, Kentucky and their land included all of present-day Clark County, Indiana, as well as part of the surrounding counties. The group took part in land speculation and they purchased the rights to a large part of southern Indiana. Early settlements in the grant included Clarksville and Jeffersonville, Clark himself was still owed a vast sum of money for helping to finance the campaigns which was never repaid to him during his life. Most of his land was taken from him by creditors, and he died nearly penniless, Virginia finally repaid most of his debt several years after his death. Clarks Grant was the basis of the establishment of the first American settlements in the state of Indiana. The land was allotted during 1784, Clark himself received the largest tract, containing over 8,000 acres. Officers were also granted large tracts, and the 236 privates each were given a 108-acre tract, the sergeants were each given tracts of 216 acres. Higher-ranking officers were given progressively larger tracts, each person was given one or more large tracts in the countryside, and one smaller tract. The smaller tracts were grouped together around the entire grants and were intended to become settlements and it was hoped that the soldiers would build their homes on the small tracts that were near together, and sell or farm the larger tracts granted to them in the countryside. There was some controversy over the grant, because privates were promised at least 300-acre tracts at the start of the war as reward, history of Indiana English, William Hayden. Conquest of the Country Northwest of the River Ohio, 1778–1783, and Life of Gen. George Rogers Clark
37.
Northwest Territory
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In the 18th century, Great Britain and the France disputed for control of this region. The French had claimed it in the 17th century as part of New France and this activity stimulated the development of the eastern parts of the eventual National Road by private investors. Most of the territory and its successors was settled by emigrants passing through the Cumberland Narrows, the Congress of the Confederation enacted the Northwest Ordinance in 1787 to provide for the administration of the territories and set rules for admission of jurisdictions as states. On August 7,1789, the new U. S. Congress affirmed the Ordinance with slight modifications under the Constitution, the territory included all the land of the United States west of Pennsylvania and northwest of the Ohio River. It covered all of the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan. The area covered more than 260,000 square miles, European exploration of the region began with French-Canadian voyageurs in the 17th century, followed by French missionaries and French fur traders. French-Canadian explorer Jean Nicolet was the first recorded European entrant into the region, landing in 1634 at the current site of Green Bay, Wisconsin. The French exercised control from widely separate posts in the region, France ceded the territory to the Kingdom of Great Britain as part of the Indian Reserve in the 1763 Treaty of Paris, after being defeated in the French and Indian War. A new colony, named Charlotina, was proposed for the southern Great Lakes region, however, facing armed opposition by Native Americans, the British issued the Proclamation of 1763, which prohibited white colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. This action angered American colonists interested in expansion, as well as those who had settled in the area. In 1774, by the Quebec Act, Britain annexed the region to the Province of Quebec in order to provide a civil government, the prohibition of settlement west of the Appalachians remained, contributing to the American Revolution. In February 1779, George Rogers Clark of the Virginia Militia captured Kaskaskia, the Old Northwest Territory included all the then-owned land of the United States west of Pennsylvania, east of the Mississippi River, and northwest of the Ohio River. It covered all of the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan. The area covered more than 260,000 square miles and was a significant addition to the United States, several states then had competing claims on the territory. As a concession in order to obtain ratification, these states ceded their claims on the territory to the government, New York in 1780, Virginia in 1784, Massachusetts. So the majority of the territory became public land owned by the U. S. government, Virginia and Connecticut reserved the land of two areas to use as compensation to military veterans, The Virginia Military District and the Connecticut Western Reserve. In this way, the United States included territory and people outside any of the states, Thomas Jeffersons Land Ordinance of 1784 was the first organization of the territory by the United States. Some older French communities property claims based on systems of long
38.
Northwest Indian War
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Under the Treaty of Paris, which ended the American Revolutionary War, Great Britain ceded to the U. S. control of the Northwest Territory, which was occupied by numerous Native American peoples. Despite the treaty, the British kept forts there and continued policies that supported the Native Americans in the Northwest Territories, in 1787, there were 45,000 Native Americans in the territory, and 2,000 French. President George Washington directed the United States Army to enforce U. S. sovereignty over the territory, about 1,000 soldiers and militiamen were killed and the United States forces suffered many more casualties than their opponents. After St. Clairs disaster, Washington ordered Revolutionary War hero, General Mad Anthony Wayne, to organize, Wayne took command of the new Legion of the United States late in 1793. He led his men to a victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. The defeated tribes were forced to cede territory, including much of present-day Ohio. The land east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes had been fought over for centuries before the United States government was formed. In 1608, French explorer Samuel Champlain sided with the Huron people living along the St. Lawrence River against the Haudenosaunee Confederacy living in what is now upper and western New York state. The result was a lasting enmity by the Haudenosaunee Confederacy towards the French, the Dutch offered better prices than the French and traded firearms, hatchets and knives to the Iroquois in exchange for furs. The Native American tribes were competing for hunting grounds for the fur trade, the western tribes had also been weakened by epidemics of European infectious diseases, against which they had no acquired immunity. The Five Nationss use of weapons caused the wars to become deadlier. Historians consider the Beaver Wars to have one of the bloodiest conflicts in the history of North America. About 1664, the Five Nations became trading partners with the British, the Five Nations enlarged their territory by right of conquest. The number of paying tribute to them realigned the tribal map of eastern North America. Several large confederacies were destroyed or relocated, including the Huron, Neutral, Erie, Susquehannock, the Five Nations pushed several other eastern tribes to and even across the Mississippi River. The Ohio country was virtually emptied, as the defeated tribes fled west to escape the Five Nations warriors, after the Five Nations warriors were defeated, they left much of the Northwest territory, Kentucky and Ohio almost unpopulated and with abandoned villages. They had claimed the entire Ohio Valley as their own hunting ground. After about 1700, some remnants of the Native American tribes began returning to the Northwest Territory and they were often conglomerations of several tribes who paid tribute to the Five Nations
39.
Petit Fort
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Petit Fort was a structure located in northwestern Indiana, in or near the Indiana Dunes, near the mouth of Fort Creek, now known as Dunes Creek. It may have been a French military outpost, but was likely a private residence, trading post. The National Park Service refers to it as a fur depot, the fort came under the dominion of the British following their ultimate victory in the French and Indian War. It is unclear whether the British ever really utilized Petit Fort and it was abandoned in 1779 as American settlers rebelled and Great Britain consolidated power in more fortified strongholds. There are few records of Petit Fort, it being mentioned in only a few letters, Petit Fort is, in fact, a description rather than a proper name, translating literally to small fort. It is remembered due to a small military action that occurred there during the American Revolution. The party recruited from frontier settlements along the way, and doubled in size to about thirty men. The company travelled up the Illinois River and Kankakee River, portaged near modern-day South Bend, Indiana, and continued down the St. Joseph River to Fort St. Joseph, which they plundered. The raid was timed while local Indians would be away hunting, the raiders returned by way of the Sauk Trail with pack-horses loaded down with plunder, mostly trade furs. British Lt. Dagreaux Du Quindre, however, learned of the raid and quickly formed a band of loyalist traders and Potawatomi under Chief Anaquiba and his son and they followed Bradys company and overtook it at the sandy dunes South of Lake Michigan. A race ensued for miles through the dunes, until the raiders took up positions at Petit Fort. Joseph’s with Pack Horses, when the Indians were out on their first Hunt and they took the Traders Prisoners, and carried off all the goods, consisting of at least Fifty Bales, and took the Route of Chicagou. Dagreaux Du Quindre, who I had stationed near St, without a loss of a man on his side, killed four, wounded two, and took seven Prisoners, the other Three escaped in the thick Wood. Three of the Prisoners were brought in here amongst whom is Brady a Superintendent of Indian affairs, the rest he suffered the Indians to take to M. Makina. I look upon these Gentry as Robbers and not Prisoners of war, having no commission, trottier an Inhabitant of the Cahoes. The Tragic Saga of the Indiana Indians, barnhart, John D, Riker, Dorothy L. Indiana to 1816. History unclear about battle at Le Petit Fort, history of Indiana Dunes, National Park Service Les Habitants du Petit Fort, a reenacting group which has researched Petit Fort. The St. Joseph Mission from the Glenn A. Black Laboratory of Archaeology
40.
Indiana Territory
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The Indiana Territory was created by an Act of Congress and signed into law by President John Adams on May 7,1800, effective on July 4. It was the first new territory created from lands of the Northwest Territory, the territory originally contained approximately 259,824 square miles of land, but twice decreased in size as it was further subdivided into new territories. The territory was first governed by William Henry Harrison who oversaw the negotiation with the inhabitants to open large parts of the territory to settlement. In 1810 a popularly elected government was established as the continued to grow in population and develop a very basic road network, government. In June 1816, a convention was held and a state government was formed. The territory was dissolved on December 11,1816, by an act of Congress granting statehood to Indiana and this latter parcel became part of the state of Ohio when it was admitted to the Union in 1803. At the same time in 1803, the southeast boundary shifted to the mouth of the Great Miami River from its location at the point opposite the mouth of the Kentucky River. The eastern part of Michigan was added to the Indiana Territory at that time, the area of the Indiana Territory was reduced in 1805 by the creation of the Michigan Territory, and in 1809 by the creation of the Illinois Territory. When the Indiana Territory was first created, no provision was allowed for the creation of elected government. Congress granted the President power to appoint a General Court to serve as a legislative, the court consisted of five members, and the President delegated the task of choosing the members to the Governor of the territory. This remained the form of government until 1805 when Congress granted the territory the right to slavery if they so choose. In doing so, they removed the legislative powers, leaving it with only judicial authority. The formation of a new council was approved and each county in the territory was granted the right to elect one representative to it. The council had the authority to pass laws, but they all had to be approved by the Governor before they could be enacted, in 1809, the makeup of the legislature was altered again by Congress to a bicameral body. A House of Representatives was created and the representation was apportioned by population, the House was then to choose ten candidates from whom the President, through the governor, would choose five to form a council which served as the upper house of the legislature. Thereafter, the structure of the legislature remained unchanged for the remainder of the territorys existence, the delegate from the Indiana Territory was elected at large in a territory-wide election. The delegate attended Congress with the right to debate, submit legislation, and serve on committees, the federal government paid the salaries of the governor, legislature, and judicial council, but did not provide funds for any additional governmental offices. At first, the territory had very limited revenue and could not afford to fund a large government, as the population increased, and revenues grew, so did the size and scope of the government with new offices being created at different times
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Vincennes Trace
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The Vincennes Trace was a major trackway running through what are now the American states of Kentucky, Indiana, and Illinois. This buffalo migration route, often 12 to 20 feet wide in places, was well known, later European traders and American settlers learned of it, and many used it as an early land route to travel west into Indiana and Illinois. It is considered the most important of the traces to the Illinois country and it was known by various names, including Buffalo Trace, Louisville Trace, Clarksville Trace, and Old Indian Road. After being improved as a turnpike, the New Albany-Paoli Pike, the Traces continuous use encouraged improvements over the years, including paving and roadside development. U. S. Route 150 between Vincennes, Indiana, and Louisville, Kentucky, follows a portion of this path, sections of the improved Trace have been designated as part of a National Scenic Byway that crosses southern Indiana. The Trace was created by millions of migrating bison that were numerous in the region from the Great Lakes to Tennessee, the trail was well known among the areas natives and used for centuries. It later became known and used by European traders and white settlers who crossed the Ohio River at the Falls and it is considered to be the most important of the early traces leading to the Illinois country. In Indiana the Traces main line split into several smaller trails that converged north of Jasper, near several large ponds, or mud holes, due to the large number of buffalo that used the Trace, the well-worn path was twelve to twenty feet wide in places. Various trails also converged around a salt lick, probably near present-day French Lick. The Trace crossed the White River at several points, including places near the towns of Petersburg and Portersville. After a major crossing at the Wabash River, the Trace split into separate trails that led west across Illinois to the Mississippi River or north to what would become Chicago, the Trace across southern Indiana became integral to early development. Two main areas of settlement in the Indiana Territory were made along it, Vincennes to the west. In the early 18th century, the French developed colonial posts in the Illinois Country by moving down the Mississippi, in 1732 François-Marie Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes, founded a trading post near the Traces Wabash River crossing, it developed as the town of Vincennes. After the American Revolutionary War, in the late 1780s the U. S. government granted land in New York, Ohio and Indiana to veterans as payment for service. The US granted so many acres of land to George Rogers Clark and it became known as Clarks Grant. George Rogers Clark used the Trace to return to the Louisville area after his Illinois Campaign, as the Continentals took control of the Illinois country during the Revolutionary War, the Trace became a busy overland route, which made it a target for Indian war parties. Clarks memoirs mentioned the Trace in describing an early Indian attack on traders in 1779, after Hamilton surrendered at Fort Sackville and he led his force against the Indians in the Battle of the White River Forks. Richard Dickie Clark, the brother of General George Rogers Clark and Captain William Clark
42.
Treaty of Vincennes
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The Treaty of Vincennes is the name of two separate treaties. One was an 1803 agreement between the United States of America and the Miami and their allies, the Wea tribes, the second occurred in 1804 and was to purchase land from the tribes. The United States was represented by William Henry Harrison, the Governor of the Indiana Territory, Harrison had been granted authority to settle the American claim to the Vincennes tract by President Thomas Jefferson. The Vincennes tract had been purchased by the Kingdom of France from the Piankeshaw, the tract was given to the Great Britain as part of the peace settlement after the French and Indian War. George Rogers Clark had captured the territory from the British in the American Revolutionary War, and the United States claimed the tract by right of conquest. In 1802, the government surveyor Thomas Freeman, began a survey of the land, leading to objections from some of the tribes as to the exact boundaries. Jefferson decided the best solution would be open talks with the tribes, the Vincennes tract was a parcel of land that lay rectangular across the Wabash River. The majority of the lay on the east bank, but a small parcel was also included along the west bank. The fortified town of Vincennes, an old French trading post, was the settlement in the area. In total, the tract contained about 1,600,000 acres of land, the negotiations were successful and in exchange for compensation, the tribes recognized the American ownership of the tract. The Treaty of Vincennes signed in 1804 was to additional lands for settlement. The area purchased was south of the Vincennes tract and the Buffalo Trace, north of the Ohio River, the treaty had the effect of connecting Clarks Grant and the Vincennes Tract. The area had many squatters living on native owned lands which led to rising tensions with the tribes, history of Indiana Treaty of Grouseland Woodfill, Roger
43.
Johnny Appleseed
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He became an American legend while still alive, due to his kind, generous ways, his leadership in conservation, and the symbolic importance he attributed to apples. John Chapman was born on September 26,1774, in Leominster, Massachusetts and his birthplace has a granite marker, and the street is called Johnny Appleseed Lane. While Nathaniel was in service, his wife died shortly after giving birth to a second son. The baby died two weeks after his mother. Nathaniel Chapman ended his service and returned home in 1780 to Longmeadow. In the summer of 1780 he married Lucy Cooley of Longmeadow, Massachusetts, according to some accounts, an 18-year-old John persuaded his 11-year-old half-brother Nathaniel to go west with him in 1792. The duo apparently lived a life until their father brought his large family west in 1805. The younger Nathaniel decided to stay and help their father farm the land, shortly after the brothers parted ways, John began his apprenticeship as an orchardist under a Mr. Crawford, who had apple orchards, thus inspiring his lifes journey of planting apple trees. There are stories of Johnny Appleseed practicing his craft in the area of Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. Another story has Chapman living in Pittsburgh on Grants Hill in 1794 at the time of the Whiskey Rebellion, the popular image is of Johnny Appleseed spreading apple seeds randomly everywhere he went. His first nursery was planted on the bank of Brokenstraw Creek, south of Warren, next, he seems to have moved to Venango County along the shore of French Creek, but many of these nurseries were located in the Mohican area of north-central Ohio. This area included the towns of Mansfield, Lisbon, Lucas, Perrysville, according to Harpers New Monthly Magazine, toward the end of his career, he was present when an itinerant missionary was exhorting an open-air congregation in Mansfield, Ohio. The sermon was long and severe on the topic of extravagance, because the pioneers were buying such indulgences as calico, where now is there a man who, like the primitive Christians, is traveling to heaven barefooted and clad in coarse raiment. The flummoxed sermonizer dismissed the congregation and he would tell stories to children and spread The New Church gospel to the adults, receiving a floor to sleep on for the night, and sometimes supper, in return. His was a strange eloquence at times, and he was undoubtedly a man of genius and he made several trips back east, both to visit his sister and to replenish his supply of Swedenborgian literature. He preached the gospel as he traveled, and during his travels he converted many Native Americans, the Native Americans regarded him as someone who had been touched by the Great Spirit, and even hostile tribes left him strictly alone. He cared very deeply about animals, including insects, according to another story, he heard that a horse was to be put down, so he bought the horse, bought a few grassy acres nearby, and turned it out to recover. When it did, he gave the horse to someone needy, during his later life, he was a vegetarian
44.
Treaty of Grouseland
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The treaty was negotiated and signed on Aug 21,1805, at Harrisons home in Vincennes, Indiana, called Grouseland. Negotiated a year after the second Treaty of Vincennes, it was the major land purchase in Indiana since the close of the Northwest Indian War. The Miami Tribe, led by Little Turtle, held the claim to all the land that was purchased. Before the signing of the treaty settlement in Indiana was limited to a tract of land around Vincennes, Clarks Grant. Many settlers were moving outside of areas and the result was rising tensions with the tribes. This line was called the Grouseland Line, all land north of the Ohio River, west of the Wabash River, and south of that line, was purchased for the United States. A second line was established running from the northwest corner of Fort Wayne on a southeasterly route toward Brookville, all land due east of that line, including a small part of Ohio, was purchased as part of the treaty. Shortly after the approval of the treaty, numerous settlements sprung up in the opened land, in 1995 the Indiana Historical Bureau erected a monument where the Grouseland and Greenville lines intersect, commemorating Indianas early pioneers. Treaty of Vincennes History of Indiana Whiting, Isaac, a Sketch of the Life and Public Services of William Henry Harrison
45.
Indiana Rangers
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The Indiana Rangers were a mounted militia formed in 1807 and operated in the early part of the 19th century to defend settlers in Indiana Territory from attacks by Native Americans. The rangers were present at the Battle of Tippecanoe, and served as auxiliaries to the army during the War of 1812, at the peak of their activities they numbered over 400 men. In 1807, the Larkins family was travelling along the Buffalo Trace when they were attacked by a band of Native Americans, the father was killed, and Mrs. Larkins and her five children were taken into captivity. The Rangers were modeled on the troops used by General Anthony Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The first Indiana Rangers who patrolled the road in 1807 did so on foot, the Rangers had three divisions, Captain William Hargroves 1st Division patrolled from the Wabash River to French Lick. The 2nd Division patrolled from French Lick to the Falls of the Ohio, one of their bases was at Cuzco, Indiana. The 3rd Division secured an area East along the Ohio River to Lawrenceburg, Indiana, all Rangers were paid $1 per day, and were required to supply their own horse, ammunition, tomahawk, a large and small knife, and a leather belt. Although the mounted militia units lacked uniformity, the men–and sometimes women–were well trained, in keeping with their mission, the Indiana Rangers were involved in numerous incidents involving Native Americans. Harrison disbanded the Indiana Rangers in 1809, as tensions between settlers and Native Americans increased, the Indiana Rangers were reactivated. Two Rangers companies were based out of Vincennes, Indiana, Prior to the War of 1812, Rangers under Captain William Hargrove found a British spy believed to be instigating Indian attacks upon Indiana settlers. Attacks by American Indians became frequent in Indiana Territory, some, such as the Pigeon Roost Massacre, are still remembered. During the war, the Rangers were used to augment larger armies, in 1813, the federal government authorized an additional four Ranger companies to secure Indiana Territory. The new companies consisted of 100 men each, and as before, the officers of the rangers were paid the same as those regular army officers of the same rank. Those with horses were paid a dollar a day, and those horses were paid 75 cents a day. Following the end of the War of 1812, the Indiana Rangers were discharged from service in June,1815. Another of the new rangers was John Ketcham, who built Ketchams Fort, John Tipton served as a major in command of two companies of rangers at Fort Vallonia during the War of 1812. He would later become a United States senator, and is the namesake of Tipton and Tipton County, the Indiana Rangers inspired the creation of the more famous Texas Rangers. The 151st Infantry Regiment traces its heritage to the pre-statehood Indiana Rangers, the motto of the regiment, Wide Awake - Wide Awake. was earned at the Battle of Tippecanoe
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Tecumseh's War
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Tecumsehs War or Tecumsehs Rebellion was a conflict between the United States Army and an American Indian confederacy led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh in the Indiana Territory. The two principal adversaries in the conflict, Tecumseh and William Henry Harrison, had both been junior participants in the Battle of Fallen Timbers at the close of the Northwest Indian War in 1794. However, many Indian leaders in the region accepted the Greenville terms, Little Turtle, a war chief of the Miamis, who had also participated in the earlier war and signed the Greenville Treaty, lived in his village on the Eel River. Both Black Hoof and Little Turtle urged cultural adaptation and accommodation with the United States, the tribes of the region participated in several treaties, including the Treaty of Grouseland and the Treaty of Vincennes that gave and recognized American possession of most of southern Indiana. The treaties resulted in an easing of tensions by allowing settlers into Indiana, in May 1805, Lenape Chief Buckongahelas, one of the most important native leaders in the region, died of either smallpox or influenza. The surrounding tribes believed his death was caused by a form of witchcraft, the witch-hunts inspired a nativist religious revival led by Tecumsehs brother Tenskwatawa, who emerged in 1805 as a leader among the witch hunters. He quickly posed a threat to the influence of the accommodationist chiefs, as part of his religious teachings, Tenskwatawa urged Indians to reject European American ways, such as drinking liquor, European-style clothing, and firearms. He also called for the tribes to refrain from ceding any more lands to the United States, numerous Indians, who were inclined to cooperate with the United States, were accused of witchcraft, and some were executed by followers of Tenskwatawa. Black Hoof was accused in the witch-hunt, but was not harmed, from his village at Greenville, Tenskwatawa compromised Black Hoofs friendly relationship with the United States, leading to rising tensions with settlers in the region. Black Hoof and other leaders began to put pressure on Tenskwatawa. Little Turtle told the Shawnee that they were there. In 1808, Tecumseh began to be seen as a leader by his community, in 1808, the British in Canada approached him to form an alliance, but he refused. The Americans first took notice of him in 1810, Tecumseh eventually emerged as the leader of the confederation, but it was built upon a foundation established by the religious appeal of his younger brother. Tippecanoe was the largest Native American community in the Great Lakes region and served as important cultural and it was an intertribal, religious stronghold along the Wabash River in Indiana for 3000 Native Americans, it was known as Prophetstown to whites. Led by Tenskwatawa initially, and later jointly with Tecumseh, thousands of Algonquin-speaking Indians gathered at Tippecanoe to gain spiritual strength, meanwhile, in 1800, William Henry Harrison had become the governor of the newly formed Indiana Territory, with the capital at Vincennes. Harrison sought to secure title to Indian lands to allow for American expansion, in particular, Harrison negotiated numerous land cession treaties with American Indians. In 1809, Harrison began to push for the need of another treaty to open land for settlement. The Miami, Wea, and Kickapoo were vehemently opposed to selling any more land around the Wabash River, in September 1809, he invited the Potawatomi, Lenape, Eel Rivers, and the Miami to a meeting in Fort Wayne
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Battle of Tippecanoe
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Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa were leaders of a confederacy of Native Americans from various tribes that opposed US expansion into Native territory. Tecumseh, not yet ready to oppose the United States by force, was away recruiting allies when Harrisons army arrived, Tenskwatawa, a spiritual leader but not a military man, was in charge. Harrison camped near Prophetstown on November 6 and arranged to meet with Tenskwatawa the following day, early the next morning, however, warriors from Prophetstown attacked Harrisons army. Although the outnumbered attackers took Harrisons army by surprise, Harrison, the Native Americans were ultimately repulsed when their ammunition ran low. After the battle, they abandoned Prophetstown and Harrisons men burned it to the ground, destroying the supplies stored for the winter. Harrison, having accomplished his goal of destroying Prophetstown, proclaimed he had won a decisive victory and he gained the nickname Tippecanoe, which was popularized in the campaign song Tippecanoe and Tyler too during the election of 1840, which Harrison won and became president. The defeat was a setback for Tecumsehs confederacy from which it never fully recovered, public opinion blamed the violence on British interference in American affairs through financial and munitions support for the Indians. This led to a deterioration of relations with Britain and was a catalyst of the War of 1812. By the time the US declared war on the United Kingdom in June 1812, in preparation, the Natives soon rebuilt Prophetstown, and frontier violence increased after the battle until Tecumseh was finally killed in 1813 during the Battle of the Thames. Tenskwatawa, known as the Prophet, had been leading a movement among the northwestern tribes. His brother, Tecumseh, was outraged by the Treaty of Fort Wayne, not yet ready to confront the United States directly, Tecumsehs primary adversaries were initially the Native American leaders who had signed the treaty. He began by intimidating them and threatening to kill anyone and their followers who carried out the terms of the treaty, Tecumseh began to travel widely, urging warriors to abandon the accommodationist chiefs and to join the resistance at Prophetstown. Tecumseh insisted that the Fort Wayne treaty was illegitimate, in an 1810 meeting with Harrison, he demanded that Harrison nullify the treaty and warned that settlers should not attempt to settle the lands sold in the treaty. Harrison rejected his demands and insisted that the tribes could have relations with the United States. In the meeting Tecumseh warned Harrison that he would seek an alliance with the British if hostilities broke out, tensions between the United States and Britain had been high for several months as a result of British interference in U. S. commerce with France. In August 1811, Tecumseh again met with Harrison at Vincennes, Tecumseh then traveled to the south on a mission to recruit allies among the Five Civilized Tribes. Harrison left the territory for business in Kentucky shortly after the meeting with Tecumseh, by mid-September, most of the militia regiments had formed. By then, Harrison had returned, accompanied by a force of army regulars
