1.
Menteng
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Menteng is a subdistrict of Central Jakarta, one of the administrative city which forms the special capital territory of Jakarta, Indonesia. The subdistrict is best known as the location of the Menteng residential area, at the time of its development, the area was the first planned garden suburb in colonial Batavia. Supported by easy access to service centers and nearby to the business district. Several important people such as former president Suharto take up residence in Menteng, the President of the United States Barack Obama spent his childhood in Menteng, attending local schools including Besuki Public School and St. Francis of Assisi School. Menteng Subdistrict is located to the south of Merdeka Square and it is roughly bounded by Kebon Sirih Road to the north, a canal to the west, the canal Kali Malang to the south, and the river Ciliwung to the east. Menteng Subdistrict is served by railway stations (e. g. Gondangdia Station, Sudirman Station, Cikini Station. Mohammad Husni Thamrin Road is the artery of Jakarta, which lies on the west part of Menteng Subdistrict. The subdistrict of Menteng is divided into five kelurahan or administrative villages, pegangsaan - area code 10320 Known as the location of the house where the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence was read. Cikini - area code 10330 Kebon Sirih - area code 10340 Gondangdia - area code 10350 The northern area of the Menteng Project, Menteng residential area is located in Menteng Subdistrict. The residential area spread over the villages of Menteng and Gondangdia. Menteng residential area is the first modern housing estate in Jakarta and it was developed by the private real estate company N. V. de Bouwploeg, established by P. A. J. Moojen who had been active in Batavia since 1930, the plan of Menteng residential area was designed by Moojen and F. J. Kubatz during the course of the 1910s. Menteng Project was the most ambitious residential planning project between 1910 and 1939, the project was meant to be the southern expansion of the city Batavia. The land that is now Menteng residential area was privately owned estates Menteng. Between 1755-1762, the Menteng estate belonged to a Moor Assan Nina Daut, in 1790, the land was handed over to Pieter J. du Chene de Vienne. In 1815, the land was handed over to Jakob P. Barends, in 1890, this private land was an estate of 73 hectares inhabited by 3,562 peasants, situated south of Kebon Sirih neighborhood. In 1901 the land recorded as being used for rice paddies, fields, de Bouwploeg was established to acquire a plot of land in Menteng and another 73 hectare of land from the Gondangdia private estate. The land in Gondangdia private estate was bought by Bouw- en Cultuur Maatschappij Gondangdia from a Dutch widow J. V. D, bergh in 1892, which at that time inhabited by 3,052 peasants
2.
Central Jakarta
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Central Jakarta is one of the five cities which form Jakarta, Indonesia. It had 898,883 inhabitants at the 2010 Census, Central Jakarta is the smallest in area and population of the five cities of Jakarta. It is the administrative and political center of Jakarta and Indonesia, Central Jakarta contains a number of large international hotels and major landmarks such as Hotel Indonesia. Central Jakarta is bounded by North Jakarta to the north, East Jakarta to the east, South Jakarta to the south, and West Jakarta to the west. At the end of the first quarter of 2010, the Jakarta CBD had a rate of 80%. According to Jones Lang LaSalle, the amount of space in the Jakarta CBD increased by 93,000 square metres between the second half of 2010 and the second half of 2009. The number of serviced office spaces in Central Jakarta increased by 50% in the leading to September 2010. SMA Negeri 4 Jakarta SMA Negeri 68 Jakarta SMA Negeri 77 Jakarta Official site Jakarta/Central travel guide from Wikivoyage
3.
Jakarta
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Jakarta /dʒəˈkɑːrtə/, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and most populous city of the Republic of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of the worlds most populous island of Java, Jakarta is the economic, cultural and political centre. The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world, established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies, today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the countrys independence was declared in 1945. Jakarta is listed as a city in the 2012 Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Based on the global metro monitor by the Brookings Institution, in 2014, Jakarta has grown more rapidly than Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, and Bangkok. Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements along with their names, Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta, Batavia, Djakarta. Its current name derives from the word Jayakarta, the origins of this word can be traced to the Old Javanese and ultimately to the Sanskrit language. Jayakarta translates as victorious deed, complete act, or complete victory, Jakarta is nicknamed the Big Durian, the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, as the city is seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the US city of New York. In the colonial era, the city was known as Koningin van het Oosten, initially in the 17th century for the urban beauty of downtown Batavias canals, mansions. After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this came to be more associated with the suburbs, with their wide lanes, many green spaces. The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda was within the sphere of influence of the Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles, the harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices, in 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading centre, through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and this site became the centre of English trade in Indonesia until 1682
4.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
5.
Muhammadiyah
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Muhammadiyah is a major Islamic non-governmental organization in Indonesia. The group also runs a chain of charity hospitals. At the moment, Muhammadiyah is the second largest Islamic organization in Indonesia with 29 million members, although Muhammadiyah leaders and members are often actively involved in shaping the politics in Indonesia, Muhammadiyah is not a political party. It has devoted itself to social and educational activities, on November 18,1912, Ahmad Dahlan— a court official of the kraton of Yogyakarta and an educated Muslim scholar from Mecca—established Muhammadiyah in Yogyakarta. There were a number of motives behind the establishment of this movement, among the important ones are the backwardness of Muslim society and the penetration of Christianity. Ahmad Dahlan, much influenced by Egyptian reformist Muhammad Abduh, considered modernization and purification of religion from syncretic practices were very vital in reforming this religion, therefore, since its beginning Muhammadiyah has been very concerned with maintaining tawhid, and refining monotheism in society. From 1913 to 1918, Muhammadiyah established five Islamic Schools, in 1919 an Islamic high school, Hooge School Muhammadiyah was established. Unlike its traditionalist counterpart, the Nahdatul Ulama, it never formed a political party, since its establishment, it has devoted itself to educational and social activities. In 1925, two years after the death of Dahlan, Muhammadiyah only has 4,000 members, even has built 55 schools, after Abdul Karim Amrullah introduced the organisation to Minangkabau dynamic Moslem community, Muhammadiyah developed rapidly. In 1938, organisation claimed has 250,000 members, managed the 834 moques,31 libraries,1,774 schools, the Minangkabau Merchants spread organization to the entire of Indonesia. During the 1965-66 political turbulence and violence, Muhammadiyah declared the extermination of the Gestapu/PKI constituted Holy War, during the 1998 Indonesian reformation, some parts of Muhammadiyah urged the leadership to form a party. Therefore, they - including Muhammadiyah chairman, Amien Rais, founded the National Mandate Party, although gaining large support from Muhammadiyah members, this party has no official relationship with Muhammadiyah. The leader of Muhammadiyah says the members of his organisation are free to align themselves with political parties of their choosing provided such parties have shared values with Muhammadiyah, today, with 29 million members Muhammadiyah is the second largest Muslim organization in Indonesia, after Nahdlatul Ulama. The central doctrine of Muhammadiyah is Sunni Islam, however, the main focus of the Muhammadiyah movement is to heighten peoples sense of moral responsibility, purifying their faith to true Islam. Furthermore, Muhammadiyah opposes the tradition of Sufism that allows Sufi leader as the authority of Muslims. As of 2006, it is said to have veered sharply toward a more conservative brand of Islam under the leadership of Din Syamsuddin the head of the Indonesian Ulema Council, Muhammadiyah is noted as a Muslim reformists organization. Its main activities are religion and education and it has built Islamic schools in modern forms, aside from traditional pesantren. Some of its schools are open to non-Muslims
6.
Shia Islam
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Shia is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Shia Islam primarily contrasts with Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor, instead they consider Abu Bakr to be the correct Caliph. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shias of Ali, Shias or the Shia as a collective or Shii individually, Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, in 2009, Shia Muslims constituted 10–13% of the worlds Muslim population. Twelver Shia is the largest branch of Shia Islam, in 2012 it was estimated that perhaps 85 percent of Shias were Twelvers. Shia Islam is based on the Quran and the message of Muhammad attested in hadith, Shia consider Ali to have been divinely appointed as the successor to Muhammad, and as the first Imam. The word Shia means follower and is the form of the historic phrase shīʻatu ʻAlī, meaning followers of Ali, faction of Ali. Shia and Shiism are forms used in English, while Shiite or Shiite, as well as Shia, the term for the first time was used at the time of Muhammad. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the community after Muhammad belongs to Ali, nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims that at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded Ali as the Imam and Caliph. Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that Ali is designated as the Heir, Imam and caliph by Muhammad, for the Shia, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and history of Islam. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing, Shia search for the true meaning of the revelation to get the purpose of the life blood and the human destiny. Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone and they believe God chose Ali to be Muhammads successor, infallible, the first caliph of Islam. The Shias believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by Gods command, Ali was Muhammads first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammads daughter Fatimah. Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph, after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Shia Muslims believe Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor. The hadith of the pond of Khumm was narrated on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad there stated, Shia Muslims believe this to be Muhammads appointment of Ali as his successor, when Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali and Muhammads closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali and his family accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community. Alis rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, as a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate, the Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, Uthman ibn Affan
7.
Ahmadiyya
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Ahmadiyya is an Islamic religious movement founded in Punjab, British India, near the end of the 19th century. He claimed to have been appointed as the Mujaddid of Islam. The adherents of the Ahmadiyya movement are referred to as Ahmadi Muslims or simply Ahmadis, Ahmadiyya adherents believe that Ahmad appeared in the likeness of Jesus, to end religious wars, condemn bloodshed and reinstitute morality, justice, and peace. Thus, Ahmadis view themselves as leading the revival and peaceful propagation of Islam, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founded the movement on 23 March 1889. The Ahmadis have a strong tradition and were among the earliest Muslim communities to arrive in Britain. Currently, the community is led by its Caliph, Mirza Masroor Ahmad, the population is almost entirely contained in the single, highly organized and united movement. In this sense there is one major branch. Some Ahmadiyya-specific beliefs have been thought of as opposed to contemporary mainstream Islamic thought since the movements birth, many Muslims consider Ahmadi Muslims as either kafirs or heretics. In a manifesto dated 4 November 1900, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad explained that the name did not refer to himself but to Ahmad, the alternative name of Muhammad. According to Ahmad, these names refer to two aspects or phases of Islam, and in later times it was the latter aspect that commanded greater attention. He also called it the Ahmadiyya madhab, And it is permissible that this also be referred to as ‘Muslims of the Aḥmadī way. Ahmadi beliefs are more aligned with the Sunni tradition, than they are with the Shia tradition, such as The Five Pillars of Islam and The Six articles of Islamic Faith. Likewise, Ahmadis accept the Quran as their text, face the Kaaba during prayer, practice the Sunnah. These are the central beliefs constituting Ahmadi Muslim thought, the distinguishing feature of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is their belief in Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as the Promised Messiah and Mahdi, as prophesied by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Through the proclamation of truth and by putting an end to conflicts, I should bring about peace. I am called upon to demonstrate spirituality which lies buried under egoistic darkness and it is for me to demonstrate by practice, and not by words alone, the Divine powers which penetrate into a human being and are manifested through prayer or attention. All this will be accomplished, not through my power, but through the power of the Almighty God, Who is the God of heaven and he believed that his message had special relevance for the Western world, which, he believed, had descended into materialism. The message which the founders of these religions brought was, therefore, essentially the same as that of Islam, the completion and consummation of the development of religion came about with the advent of Muhammad
8.
New Order (Indonesia)
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The New Order is the term coined by the second Indonesian President Suharto to characterise his regime as he came to power in 1966. Suharto used this term to contrast his rule with that of his predecessor, the term New Order in more recent times has become synonymous with the Suharto years. The generation of 66 epitomised talk of a new group of young leaders, strident anti-communism remained a hallmark of the regime for its subsequent 32 years. Within a few years, however, many of its allies had become indifferent or averse to the New Order. Among much of the movement which forced Suharto to resign in the 1998 Indonesian Revolution and then gained power. It is frequently employed to describe figures who were tied to the Suharto period, or who upheld the practises of his authoritarian regime, such as corruption, collusion. Sukarno was Indonesias founding president, a position he had held since the Republics formation in 1945, in 1955, the first general parliamentary elections delivered an unstable parliament and from the late 1950s, Sukarnos rule became increasingly autocratic under his Guided Democracy. To the resentment of the Military and Muslim groups, this arrangement became increasingly reliant on the PKI which had become the country’s strongest political party, Sukarno’s anti-imperial ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on the Soviet Union and China which was met with indignation from Western countries. Sukarno’s administration became increasingly ineffective in providing an economic system to lift its citizens out of poverty. Meanwhile, Sukarno led Indonesia into Konfrontasi, a confrontation with Malaysia, removed Indonesia from the United Nations. By 1965 at the height of the Cold War, the PKI penetrated all levels of government, with the support of Sukarno and the Air Force, the party gained increasing influence at the expense of the Army, thus ensuring the Armys enmity. Muslim clerics, many of whom were landowners, felt threatened by the PKIs rural land confiscation actions, the army was alarmed at Sukarno’s support for the PKI’s wish to quickly establish a fifth force of armed peasants and labourers. On 30 September 1965, six generals were killed by a group calling themselves the 30 September Movement who alleged a plot to kill the President. General Suharto led the army in suppressing the coup attempt. The Communist Party of Indonesia were quickly blamed and the led an anti-communist purge which killed an estimated 500,000 people. Student groups, such as KAMI, were encouraged by, and sided with, in March 1966, Suharto secured a presidential decree, which gave him authority to take any action necessary to maintain security. A June session of the parliament banned Marxism-Leninism, ratified the Supersemar. In August–September 1966, and against the wishes of Sukarno, the New Order ended Indonesias confrontation with Malaysia, in March 1967, the MPRS stripped Sukarno of his remaining power, and Suharto was named Acting President
9.
Suharto
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Suharto was the second President of Indonesia, holding the office for 31 years from the ousting of Sukarno in 1967 until his resignation in 1998. Suharto was born in a village, Kemusuk, in the Godean area near the city of Yogyakarta. He grew up in humble circumstances and his Javanese Muslim parents divorced not long after his birth, and he was passed between foster parents for much of his childhood. During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, Suharto served in Japanese-organised Indonesian security forces, Indonesias independence struggle saw his joining the newly formed Indonesian army. Suharto rose to the rank of major general following Indonesian independence, an attempted coup on 30 September 1965 allegedly backed by the Indonesian Communist Party was countered by Suharto-led troops. The army subsequently led an anti-communist purge which the CIA described as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century and Suharto wrested power from Indonesias founding president and he was appointed acting president in 1967, replacing Indonesian founding father Sukarno, and elected President the following year. He then mounted a campaign known as De-Soekarnoization in an effort to reduce the former Presidents influence. Support for Suhartos presidency was strong throughout the 1970s and 1980s, by the 1990s, the New Orders authoritarianism and widespread corruption were a source of discontent and, following a severe financial crisis, led to widespread unrest and his resignation in May 1998. Suharto died in 2008 and was given a state funeral, the legacy of Suhartos 31-year rule is debated both in Indonesia and abroad. Under his New Order administration, Suharto constructed a strong, centralised and military-dominated government, an ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia and an avowedly anti-Communist stance won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during the Cold War. For most of his presidency, Indonesia experienced significant economic growth and industrialisation, dramatically improving health, education, plans to bestow Suharto with a National Hero title are currently being considered by the Indonesian government and has been highly debated in Indonesia. According to Transparency International, Suharto is the most corrupt leader in modern history, Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 during the Dutch East Indies era, in a plaited bamboo walled house in the hamlet of Kemusuk, a part of the larger village of Godean. The village is 15 kilometres west of Yogyakarta, the heartland of the Javanese. Born to ethnic Javanese parents, he was the child of his fathers second marriage. His father, Kertosudiro, had two children from his previous marriage, and was a village irrigation official and his mother, Sukirah, a local woman, was distantly related to Sultan Hamengkubuwono V by his first concubine. Five weeks after Suhartos birth, his mother suffered a breakdown and he was placed in the care of his paternal great-aunt. Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suhartos life and both later remarried, at the age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother, who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in the rice paddies. Over the following two years, he was back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and then back again to Wuryantoro by his father
10.
Indonesian Army
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The Indonesian Army, the land component of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, has an estimated strength of 300,000 active personnel. The history of the Indonesian Army has its roots in 1945 when the Tentara Keamanan Rakyat Civil Security Forces first emerged as a paramilitary and police corps. The Indonesia Army is composed of a headquarters,12 military area commands, a reserve command KOSTRAD, a special forces command Kopassus. In the week following the Japanese surrender of 1945, the Giyugun, most PETA and Heiho members did not yet know about the declaration of independence. Command structures and membership vital for an army were consequently dismantled. In the self-created Indonesian army, Japanese-trained Indonesian officers prevailed over those trained by the Dutch, a thirty-year-old former school teacher, Sudirman, was elected commander-in-chief at the first meeting of Division Commanders in Yogyakarta on 12 November 1945. At critical moments during the revolution, the managed to manifest itself as a peoples army, the army of the revolution. As the power of the newborn, in addition to arranging the TNI itself, at the time must also face various challenges. From within the country, the military face-undermining undermining both a political dimension as well as military dimensions, political undermining sourced from the communist groups who want to put the military under their influence through political officers, the Bureau of Struggle, and TNI community. Challenges from abroad, namely TNI twice face the Dutch military aggression that had a more advanced weaponry, thus, the integrity and existence of the Unitary Republic of Indonesia has been able to be maintained by military force with the people. In accordance with the decision of the Round Table Conference, at the end of 1949 formed the United States of Indonesia, correspondingly, also formed the Angkatan Perang Republik Indonesia Serikat which is combined with the TNI and the former KNIL as its core. In August 1950 RIS was disbanded and returned to form unitary State, APRIS was renamed to Angkatan Perang Republik Indonesia. The period is called the period of liberal democracy is characterized by various rebellions in the country. The army also need to confront the uprising in Makassar led by Andi Azis, meanwhile, DaruI Tslam in West Java widen its influence to South Kalimantan, South Sulawesi and Aceh. In 1958 the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia / Peoples Struggle started arebellion in large parts of Sumatra, all of the rebellion were crushed by the military along with the strength of other national components. On 17 November 1952, General Nasution is suspended as army chief of staff following army indiscipline over command, on 5 July 1959, Sukarno, with armed forces support, issued a decree dissolving the Constituent Assembly and reintroducing the Constitution of 1945 with strong presidential powers. He assumed the role of Prime Minister, which completes the structure of Guided Democracy. At the same time, the Indonesian government started sending their troops on UN peacekeeping mission, the first batch of soldiers were sent to Sinai, Egypt and were known as Garuda Contingent 1
11.
Deforestation in Indonesia
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Deforestation in Indonesia involves the long-term loss of forests and foliage across much of the country, it has had massive environmental and social impacts. Indonesia is home to some of the most biologically diverse forests in the world and ranks third in number of species behind Brazil, as late as 1900, Indonesia was still a densely forested country, forests represented 84 percent of the total land area. Deforestation intensified in the 1970s and has accelerated further since then, the estimated forest cover of 170 million hectares around 1900 decreased to less than 100 million hectares by the end of the 20th century. In 2008, it was estimated that tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in a decade, of the total logging in Indonesia, up to 80% is reported to be performed illegally. Large areas of forest in Indonesia have been cleared by large multinational companies, such as Asia Pulp and Paper. Forests are often burned by farmers and plantation owners, another major source of deforestation is the logging industry, driven by demand from China and Japan. Agricultural development and transmigration programs moved large populations into rainforest areas, logging and the burning of forests to clear land for cultivation has made Indonesia the worlds third largest emitter of greenhouse gases, behind China and the United States. Forest fires often destroy high capacity carbon sinks, including old-growth rainforest, in May 2011, Indonesia declared a moratorium on new logging contracts to help combat this. This appeared to be ineffective in the short-term, as the rate of continued to increase. By 2012 Indonesia had surpassed the rate of deforestation in Brazil, the Indonesian archipelago of about 17,000 islands is home to some of the most biodiverse forests in the world. In 1900 the total forest represented 84% of the land area. By 1950 plantations and smallholder plantings of tree crops still only covered a small area, the forest cover by that time is estimated to 145 million ha of primary forest and another 14 million ha of secondary and tidal forest. In the early 1970s Indonesia used this resource to its economic benefit with the development of the countrys wood-processing industries. The rate of deforestation continues to increase, the 2009 State Environment Report launched by President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono revealed that the number of fire hotspots rose to 32,416 in 2009 from only 19,192 in 2008. The Environment Ministry blamed the increase on weak law enforcement and a lack of supervision from local authorities, between 1990 and 2000 20% of the forest area in Indonesia had been lost and by 2010, only 52% of the total land area was forested. Even despite a moratorium on new logging contracts imposed in 2010, Indonesias lowland tropical forests, the richest in timber resources and biodiversity, are most at risk. By 2000 they have been almost entirely cleared in Sulawesi, and predicted to disappear within few years in Sumatra, in Sumatra tens of thousands of square kilometres of forest have been cleared often under the command of the central government who comply with multi-national companies to remove the forest. In Kalimantan, from 1991–2014, large areas of the forest were burned because of uncontrollable fire causing atmospheric pollution across South-East Asia
12.
Islam in Indonesia
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Indonesia is constitutionally a secular state, with Islam being the dominant religion in the country. Indonesia also has a larger Muslim population than any country in the world. Based on demographic statistics, 99% of Indonesian Muslims mainly follow the Shafii school of Sunni jurisprudence, although when asked, there are around one million Shias, who are concentrated around Jakarta, and about 400,000 Ahmadi Muslims. There is evidence of Arab Muslim traders entering Indonesia as early as the 8th century, Indonesias historical inhabitants were animists, Hindus and Buddhists. However, it was not until the end of the 13th century that the spread of Islam began, the spread of Islam continued as Muslim traders married the local women, with some of the wealthier traders marrying into the families of the ruling elite. In general, traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were the first to adopt the new religion, dominant kingdoms included Samudra Pasai in northern Sumatra, Demak Sultanate and Mataram in Central Java, and the sultanates of Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku Islands to the east. Through assimilation related to trade, royal conversion, and conquest, Islam had supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religion of Java, the eastern islands remained largely animist until adopting Islam and Christianity in the 17th and 18th centuries, whereas Bali still retains a Hindu majority. During this process cultural influences from the Hindu-Buddhist era were mostly tolerated or incorporated into Islamic rituals and this evidence cannot explain more complicated matters such as how lifestyles were affected by the new religion or how deeply it affected societies. By the late century, the Majapahit Empire in Java had begun its decline. Islam in Java then began to spread formally, building on the influences of the Wali Songo. The Dutch entered the region in the 17th century due to its lucrative wealth established through the natural resources. The Maluku Islands in the Indonesian archipelago were known as the spice islands, the countrys natural spices, including nutmeg, pepper, clove, were highly prized. Other popular trade items of the area include sandalwood, rubber, the movement built schools that combined an Islamic and secular curriculum and was unique in that it trained women as preachers for women. The activities of the reformers and the reactions of their opponents, the Minangkabau ulema played an important role in the early reform movement. In 1906, Tahir bin Jalaluddin published al-Iman, the Malay newspaper in Singapore, five years later followed publication of al-Munir newspaper in Padang. In the first 20th century, Muslim modernist school arose in West Sumatra, such as Adabiah, Diniyah Putri, later, Islamic movement also developed in Java with the birth of the NU and Muhammadiyah. Today about 88% of Indonesias 235 million people is Muslim, upon independence there was significant controversy surrounding the role of Islam in politics, this caused enormous tensions. Eventually, Indonesia adopted a civil code instead of an Islamic one, in the New Order years, there was an intensification of religious belief amongst Muslims
