1.
Chihuahua (dog)
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The Chihuahua /tʃɪˈwɑːwɑː/ is the smallest breed of dog and is named for the state of Chihuahua in Mexico. Chihuahuas come in a variety of sizes, head shapes, colors. The Chihuahuas history is puzzling and there are many surrounding the origin of the breed. Both folklore and archaeological finds show that the breed originated in Mexico, the most common and most likely theory is that Chihuahuas are descended from the Techichi, a companion dog favored by the Toltec civilization in Mexico. In fact, wheeled dog toys representing both the head and apple head varieties of Chihuahua have been unearthed across Mesoamerica from Mexico to El Salvador. The earliest of these were found at Tres Zapotes in Veracruz, Mexico, Dog effigy pots dating to around 1325 AD discovered in Georgia and Tennessee also appear to represent the Chihuahua. It has been argued that these pots arrived with survivors from the Casas Grandes site in Chihuahua, Mexico, hernan Cortés wrote, in a 1520 letter, that the Aztecs raised and sold the little dogs as food. Small dogs such as Chihuahuas were also used as living hot-water bottles during illness or injury, Chihuahuas as we know them today remained a rarity until the early 20th century, the American Kennel Club did not register a Chihuahua until 1904. Chihuahuas are the smallest breed recognized by some kennel clubs, there are two varieties of Chihuahua – the Smooth Coat and the Long Coat. Both the Smooth and the Long Coats have their attractions, are equally easy to keep clean. The UK Kennel Club considers smooth and long coated Chihuahuas two distinct breeds, matings between the two are not eligible for KC registration, Dogs of either coat type may be identified as either apple head or deer head Chihuahuas, particularly in the United States. Apple heads have rounded heads, close-set eyes, and relatively short ears, deer heads have flat-topped heads, more widely set eyes, larger ears, and longer, more slender legs. Breed standards for this dog do not generally specify a height, only a weight, generally, the height ranges between 15 and 23 cm, however, some dogs grow as tall as 30 to 38 cm. Both British and American breed standards state that a Chihuahua must not weigh more than 2.7 kg for conformation, however, the British standard also states that a weight of 1. 8–2.7 kg is preferred. A clause stating that if two dogs are good in type, the more diminutive one is preferred was removed in 2009. The Fédération Cynologique Internationale standard calls for dogs ideally between 1.5 and 3.0 kg, although smaller ones are acceptable in the show ring. Pet Chihuahuas often range above these weights, even above ten pounds if they have large bone structures or are allowed to become overweight and this does not mean that they are not purebred Chihuahuas, they do not meet the requirements to enter a conformation show. Oversized Chihuahuas are seen in some of the best, and worst, Chihuahuas do not breed true for size, and puppies from the same litter can mature drastically different sizes from one another
2.
Surrey
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Surrey is a county in the south east of England. It shares borders with Kent to the east, East Sussex to the south-east, West Sussex to the south, Hampshire to the west and south-west, Surrey County Council sits extraterritorially at Kingston upon Thames, administered as part of Greater London since 1965. With a resident population of 1.1 million, Surrey is the most densely populated and third most populated county in the South East region, after Kent, the London boroughs of Lambeth, Southwark, Wandsworth, and parts of Lewisham and Bromley were in Surrey until 1889. The boroughs of Croydon, Kingston upon Thames, Merton, Sutton and Richmond upon Thames south of the River Thames were part of Surrey until 1965, when they too were absorbed into Greater London. In the same year, the county was extended north of the Thames by the addition of Spelthorne, due to this expansion, modern Surrey also borders on the London boroughs of Hounslow and Hillingdon. It has the highest GDP per capita of any English county, Surrey is divided in two by the chalk ridge of the North Downs, running east-west. To the north of the Downs the land is mostly flat, the geology of this area is dominated by London Clay in the east, Bagshot Sands in the west and alluvial deposits along the rivers. Much of Surrey is in the Metropolitan Green Belt and it contains a good deal of mature woodland. Among its many notable beauty spots are Box Hill, Leith Hill, Frensham Ponds, Newlands Corner and Puttenham & Crooksbury Commons. Surrey is the most wooded county in England, with 22. 4% coverage compared to an average of 11. 8%. Box Hill has the oldest untouched area of woodland in the UK. Surrey also contains Englands principal concentration of lowland heath, on soils in the west of the county. Agriculture not being intensive, there are many commons and access lands, together with a network of footpaths and bridleways including the North Downs Way. Accordingly, Surrey provides much in the way of leisure activities. The highest elevation in Surrey is Leith Hill near Dorking and it is either 293,294 or 295 metres above sea level and is the second highest point in southeastern England after Walbury Hill 297 metres in West Berkshire. Surrey has a population of approximately 1.1 million people and its largest town is Guildford, with a population of 66,773, Woking comes a close second with 62,796. They are followed by Ewell with 39,994 people and Camberley with 30,155, towns of between 25,000 and 30,000 inhabitants are Ashford, Epsom, Farnham, Staines and Redhill. Guildford is the county town, although the county administration was moved to Newington in 1791
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Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
4.
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals
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People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals is an American animal rights organization based in Norfolk, Virginia, and led by Ingrid Newkirk, its international president. A nonprofit corporation with 300 employees, it claims that it has 3 million members and supporters and is the largest animal group in the world. Its slogan is animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, use for entertainment, today it focuses on four core issues—opposition to factory farming, fur farming, animal testing, and animals in entertainment. It also campaigns against eating meat, fishing, the killing of animals regarded as pests, the keeping of chained backyard dogs, cock fighting, dog fighting, the group has been the focus of controversy, both inside and outside the animal rights movement. Newkirk told Salon in 2001 that PETA works toward the ideal, no one, she says, is being exploited. Sexual attraction is a fact of life, and if it can advance the animals cause, Newkirks view is that PETA has a duty to be press sluts. She argues, It is our obligation and we would be worthless if we were just polite and didnt make any waves. Newkirk was born in England in 1949, and raised in Hertfordshire and later New Delhi, India, Newkirk, now an atheist, was educated in a convent, the only British girl there. She became an officer for Montgomery County and then the District of Columbias first woman poundmaster. By 1976, she was head of the division of D. C. s Commission on Public Health. Or I would say, They are stepping on the animals, crushing them like grapes, in the end, I would go to work early, before anyone got there, and I would just kill the animals myself. Because I couldnt stand to let go through that. I must have killed a thousand of them, sometimes every day. Some of those people would take pleasure in making them suffer, driving home every night, I would cry just thinking about it. And I just felt, to my bones, this cannot be right, in 1980, she divorced Steve Newkirk, whom she had married when she was 19, and the same year met Alex Pacheco, a political major at George Washington University. Pacheco had studied for the priesthood, then worked as a member of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Societys first ship. It just didnt sound great to me, he told The Los Angeles Times in 1992, I had been active in Europe. And I thought there were just too many formalities, I thought we should just do things ourselves
5.
Animal rights
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They maintain that animals should no longer be viewed as property or used as food, clothing, research subjects, entertainment, or beasts of burden. Advocates approach the issue from a variety of perspectives, the abolitionist view is that animals have moral rights, which the pursuit of incremental reform may undermine by encouraging human beings to feel comfortable with using them. Gary Franciones abolitionist position promotes ethical veganism and he argues that animal rights groups that pursue welfare concerns, such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, risk making the public feel comfortable about its use of animals. He calls such groups the new welfarists, PETA argues that Franciones criticism does little to help alleviate the suffering of individual animals and also trivializes the efforts of workers in the field who handle cruelty cases. It also creates divisiveness within the animal liberation movement instead of focusing on shared goals, sentiocentrism is the theory that sentient individuals are the subject of moral concern and therefore are deserving of rights. Protectionists seek incremental reform in how animals are treated, with a view to ending animal use entirely and this position is represented by the philosopher Peter Singer. Multiple cultural traditions around the world—such as Animism, Taoism, Hinduism, Buddhism, the animals most often considered in arguments for personhood are bonobos and chimpanzees. S. Congress with the enactment of the Animal Enterprise Protection Act, Aristotle argued that animals lacked reason, and placed humans at the top of the natural world, yet the respect for animals in ancient Greece was very high. Some animals were considered divine e. g. dolphins, the 21st-century debates about animals can be traced back to the ancient world, and the idea of a divine hierarchy. Dominion need not entail property rights, but it has been interpreted, by some, contemporary philosopher Bernard Rollin writes that dominion does not entail or allow abuse any more than does dominion a parent enjoys over a child. Rollin further states that the Biblical Sabbath requirement promulgated in the Ten Commandments required that animals be granted a day of rest along with humans, correlatively, the Bible forbids plowing with an ox and an ass together. According to the tradition, this prohibition stems from the hardship that an ass would suffer by being compelled to keep up with an ox. Similarly, one finds the prohibition against muzzling an ox when it treads out the grain and these ancient regulations, virtually forgotten, bespeak of an eloquent awareness of the status of animals as ends in themselves, a point also corroborated by Norm Phelps. The philosopher and mathematician, Pythagoras, urged respect for animals, believing that human and nonhuman souls were reincarnated from human to animal, and vice versa. Against this, Aristotle, student to the philosopher Plato, argued that animals had no interests of their own. Theophrastus, one of Aristotles pupils, argued that also had reasoning. Plutarch in his Life of Cato the Elder comments that while law and justice are strictly to men only, beneficence. This is intended as a correction and advance over the merely utilitarian treatment of animals, according to Richard D. Ryder, the first known animal protection legislation in Europe was passed in Ireland in 1635
6.
Neutering
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Neutering, from the Latin neuter, is the removal of an animals reproductive organ, either all of it or a considerably large part. Neutering is often used incorrectly to refer only to male animals, the male-specific term is castration, while spaying is usually reserved for female animals. Colloquially, both terms are referred to as fixing. In male horses, castrating is referred to as gelding, modern veterinary practice tends to use the term de-sexing. Neutering is the most common method for the sterilization of animals, many states require that all adopted cats and dogs be sterilized before going to their new homes. After Barkers retirement, Drew Carey continued to sign off with his own message regarding spaying and neutering, in female animals, spaying involves abdominal surgery to remove the ovaries and uterus. Traditional spaying is performed commonly on household pets, as a method of birth control and it is performed less commonly on livestock, as a method of birth control or for other reasons. In mares, these reasons include behavior modification. The surgery can be performed using an open approach or by laparoscopic keyhole surgery. Open surgery is widely available as laparoscopic surgical equipment costs are expensive. Traditional open surgery is performed through a ventral midline incision below the umbilicus. The incision size varies depending upon the surgeon and the size of the animal, the uterine horns are identified and the ovaries are found by following the horns to their ends. There is a ligament that attaches the ovaries to the body wall, the ovarian arteries are then ligated with resorbable suture material and then the arteries transected. The uterine body and related arteries are also tied off just in front of the cervix, the entire uterus and ovaries are then removed. The abdomen is checked for bleeding and then closed with a three-layer closure, the linea alba and then the subcutaneous layer are closed with resorbable suture material. The skin is then stapled, sutured, or glued closed, laparoscopic surgery is performed using a camera and instruments placed through small incisions in the body wall. The patient is under anaesthesia and lying on the back, the incisions are between 5 and 10 millimetres and the number varies according to the equipment and technique used. The surgeon watches on a screen during the operation, the first port is made just behind the umbilicus and the camera is inserted
7.
Alex Pacheco (activist)
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Alexander Fernando Pacheco is an American animal rights activist. Pacheco first crewed with Captain Paul Watson in 1979 on the ship Sea Shepherd across the Atlantic Ocean, during a campaign of opposition to the Sierra, both The Sea Shepherd and the Sierra were sunk after being seized by the Portuguese authorities. Oliver Stone writes that the campaign to save the monkeys gave birth to the animal rights movement in the United States. Instead of animals being killed for food in slaughterhouses, pigs, oxen, chickens, the family left Mexico when Pacheco was in junior high, and moved between Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. He bought turtles and birds from pet stores, and a baby crab-eating macaque, whom he called Chi Chi and who would perch on his shoulder as he walked around the house. He attended Catholic university in Ohio, intending to enter the priesthood, guillermo writes that he was shocked by the sight of two men throwing a newborn calf, cut from the uterus of its slaughtered mother, into a dumpster. Later in the week, a friend gave him a copy of Peter Singers Animal Liberation and his heart was no longer in becoming a priest, and he decided to attend Ohio University in Athens, Ohio instead to devote himself to helping what he called other-than-human beings. At university, Pacheco organized campaigns against the use of traps and castrating pigs. Guillermo writes that, as Ohio is a state, his activism met with stiff opposition. In 1979, he attended a talk in Columbus, Ohio by Cleveland Amory of the Saturday Review, who was also the founder of the Fund for Animals, which funded the anti-whaling vessel and he sought Amory out after the talk and volunteered. The Silver Spring monkeys case began in 1981, when Pacheco took a job as a volunteer inside the Institute of Behavioral Research in Silver Spring, Taub used restraint and electric shock to force the monkeys to use the limbs they could not feel. He discovered that, when motivated by hunger or the desire to avoid electric shock. Pacheco reported Taub for violations of animal cruelty laws based on the living conditions. 113 charges were dismissed at the first court hearing, Taub was initially convicted on six misdemeanor counts of failure to provide adequate veterinary care. The legal battle for custody of the monkeys, following their removal by PETA and it was the first animal-rights case to do so, though the newly formed PETA ultimately failed in its battle to secure the animals release. The proceedings, which lasted years, generated a large amount of publicity for PETA, the Peace Abbey, of Sherborn, MA, awarded Alex Pacheco the Courage of Conscience award in 1995. In 2001, Pacheco was inducted into the US Animal Rights Hall of Fame, video testimony on the Silver Spring monkeys case, U. S. House Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology, PETA, accessed July 1,2010. The Silver Spring Monkeys in Singer, Peter, new York, Basil Blackwell,1985, pp. 135–147
8.
Silver Spring monkeys
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The Silver Spring monkeys were 17 wild-born macaque monkeys from the Philippines who were kept in the Institute of Behavioral Research in Silver Spring, Maryland. Within the scientific community, the became known for their use in experiments into neuroplasticity—the ability of the adult primate brain to reorganize itself. In July 1991, PETAs application to the Supreme Court for custody was rejected and this evidence of the brains plasticity helped overturn the widely held view that the adult brain cannot reorganize itself in response to its environment. Edward Taub is a behavioral neuroscientist currently based at the University of Alabama at Birmingham and he became interested in behaviorism while studying philosophy at Columbia University, and went on to study under Fred Keller and Wiliam N. Schoenfeld, the experimental psychologists. He took a job as a assistant in a neurology lab to gain more understanding of the nervous system. An afferent nerve is a nerve that conveys impulses from the skin and other sensory organs to the spine. Deafferentation is a procedure in which the spinal cord is opened up. A monkey whose limbs have been deafferented will not feel them, Taub continued working with deafferented monkeys at New York University, where he obtained his Ph. D. in 1970. Engaged in what he saw at first as pure research, he conducted several kinds of deafferentation experiments and he deafferented monkeys entire bodies, so that they could feel no part of themselves. He removed monkey fetuses from the uterus, deafferented them, then returned them to be born with no sense of their own bodies. When Taub began his research in the lab, the prevalent view was that monkeys would not be able to use limbs they could not feel. Norman Doidge writes that Taub wondered whether the reason the monkeys abandoned use of the limbs was simply that they were still able to use their good ones. He tested his idea by deafferenting one arm of a monkey, the monkey subsequently used its deafferented arm to feed and move itself around. He even deafferented the entire spinal cord, so that the monkey received no input from any of its limbs. Doidge writes that Taub had an epiphany, guessing that the reason the monkeys would not use their deafferented limbs was simply because they had learned not to, an idea he called learned non-use. Alex Pacheco was a student at George Washington University when he volunteered in May 1981 to work as a research assistant in Taubs lab. The Washington Post writes that he was raised in Mexico, the son of a doctor and he took a tour of a slaughterhouse in the 1970s and said it changed his life, he read Peter Singers Animal Liberation, stopped eating meat, and became an animal rights activist. Taub offered him a position and put him to work with a student
9.
Silver Spring, Maryland
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Silver Spring is an unincorporated community and census-designated place in Montgomery County, Maryland, United States. It had a population of 76,716 according to 2013 estimates by the United States Census Bureau, making it the fourth most populous place in Maryland, after Baltimore, Columbia, and Germantown. The urbanized, oldest, and southernmost part of Silver Spring is a business hub that lies at the north apex of Washington. As of 2004, the Central Business District held 7,254,729 square feet of space,5216 dwelling units and 17.6 acres of parkland. The population density of this CBD area of Silver Spring was 15,600 per square mile all within 360 acres, the community has recently undergone a significant renaissance, with the addition of major retail, residential, and office developments. Silver Spring takes its name from a spring discovered there in 1840 by Francis Preston Blair. Acorn Park, tucked away in an area of south Silver Spring away from the downtown area, is believed to be the site of the original spring. As an unincorporated area, Silver Springs boundaries are not officially defined and this definition is a 15% reduction from the 9.4 sq. mi. used in previous years. The United States Geological Survey locates the center of Silver Spring at 38°59′26″N 77°1′35″W, by another definition, Silver Spring is located at 39°0′15″N 77°1′8″W. Residents of a swath of South-Eastern Montgomery County have Silver Spring mailing addresses. This area extends roughly from the Washington, D. C, Prince Georges County, Maryland and Howard County, Maryland lines to the west, north and east, and Rock Creek Park and Plyers Mill Road to the west and north-west. These boundaries make Silver Spring larger in area than any city in Maryland except for Baltimore. Rock Creek Park passes along the west side of Silver Spring, and offers hiking trails, picnic grounds, and bicycling on weekends, Sligo Creek Park follows Sligo Creek through Silver Spring, it offers hiking trails, tennis courts, playgrounds and bicycling. The latter is facilitated on weekends, when parts of Sligo Creek Parkway are closed to automobiles, the bike trails are winding and slower than most in the region. Recently, rocks have been spread along either side of the road, providing a hazardous bike ride, acorn Park in the downtown area of Silver Spring is believed to be the site of the eponymous silver spring. The 14. 5-acre Jesup Blair Park was recently renovated and features a field, tennis courts, basketball courts. Brookside Gardens is a 50-acre park within Wheaton Regional Park, in greater Silver Spring and it is located on the original site of Stadler Nursery. Northwest Branch Park is a 700-acre park surrounding the Northwest Branch of the Anacostia River, the park includes hiking, equestrian, and cycling trails on the Northwest Branch and Rachel Carson Greenway Trails
10.
Animal Welfare Act of 1966
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The Animal Welfare Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on August 24,1966. It is the only Federal law in the United States that regulates the treatment of animals in research, the USDA and APHIS oversee the AWA and the House and Senate Agriculture Committees have primary legislative jurisdiction over the Act. Excluded from the Act are birds, rats of the genus Rattus, mice of the genus Mus, farm animals, such committees regularly assess animal care, treatment, and practices during research, and are required to inspect all animal study areas at least once every 6 months. The committees are required to ensure that alternatives to animal use in experimentation would be used whenever possible. Worldwide, the first law to regulate animal experimentation was Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 and it established a central governing body that reviewed and approved all animal use in research. After that, numerous countries in Europe adopted regulations regarding research with animals, the first article, written by Coles Phinizy, appeared in the November 29,1965 issue of Sports Illustrated. The piece detailed the story of Pepper the Dalmatian, a dog that disappeared from the yard of the Lakavage family home in Pennsylvania. It was later discovered that Pepper had been stolen by dog-nappers, was bought by a Bronx hospital, on July 9,1965, Representative Joseph Y. A hearing was held on September 30,1965, and similar legislation was sponsored in the Senate, in 1966, Life Magazine published an article documenting the housing conditions at animal dealer facilities. As a result of these articles, the public lobbied Congress to pass a Federal law that would institute animal housing and care standards. There was increasing evidence that dogs and cats kept as pets were being stolen by dealers, taken across states lines, many sportsmen supported national legislation because it was their hunting dogs that often went missing. The Act was amended eight times and is enforced by the USDA, APHIS, in 1970, the Act was amended to include all warm-blooded animals used in testing, experimentation, exhibition, as pets or sold as pets. Certain cases could be exempted from such definitions unless they used live animals in substantial numbers, fines were increased for those interfering with an investigation of an experimentation facility. Those found guilty of assaulting or killing Federal inspectors responsible for such tasks also faced additional sentencing, the Act was further amended in 1976 to further regulate animal treatment during transportation. Animals were to be kept in adequately-sized traveling accommodations, and to be kept from fighting amongst one another, the definition of animal was broadened to rid the law of the possible interpretation that dogs used for hunting, security, and breeding were not included in its protection. The Act was amended in the Food Security Act of 1985 and this amendment directed new minimum standards for the handling, housing, sanitation, feeding and other care practices. The psychological well-being of the animals was now taken into consideration as it never had been before, one provision that stood out at this time was the requirement for the exercise of dogs and psychological well being of primates. The law also requires research facilities to be able to describe painful practices as well as implement practices that minimize pain, in 1990, The Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 was amended by adding SEC
11.
Testing cosmetics on animals
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Testing cosmetics on animals is a type of animal testing used to test the safety and hypoallergenic properties of products for use by humans. Because of the harm done to the subjects, this testing is opposed by animal rights activists. Cosmetic animal testing is banned in the European Union, India, Israel, methods of testing cosmetics on animals include many different tests that are categorized differently based on which areas the cosmetics will be used for. Draize test, This is a method of testing that may cause irritation or corrosion to the skin or eye on animals, dermal sensitization, airway sensitization, endocrine disruption, and LD50. Acute toxicity, This test is used to determine danger of exposure to a chemical by mouth, skin, Rats and mice are injected in lethal dose 50. This test can cause convulsions, loss of motor function. Skin corrosivity or irritation, This method of test assesses the potential of a substance causing irreversible damage to the skin and it is typically performed on rabbits and involves putting chemicals on a shaved patch of skin. This determines the level of damage to the skin that includes itching, inflammation, swelling, skin sensitisation, This is a method that determines if a chemical causes an allergic reaction. The chemical adjuvant is injected to boost the immune system, in the past it was performed on guinea pigs, and applied on a shaved patch of skin. Substances are assessed based on appearance of skin, dermal penetration, Rats are mostly used in this method that analyzes moment of a chemical, and the penetration of the chemical in the bloodstream. Dermal penetration is a method that creates a better understanding of skin absorption, Cosmetics manufacturers who do not test on animals may now use in vitro screens to test for endpoints which can determine potential risk to humans with a very high sensitivity and specificity. By using safe ingredients from a list of 5,000 which have already been tested in conjunction with modern methods of cosmetics testing, epiSkin™, EpiDerm™ and SkinEthic—each composed of artificial human skin is an option for alternative testing. It can imitate the reaction actual human skin will have to a product and it is a safe animal free way of testing for skin reactions, also known as Pyrogen tests, to product chemicals. The program sets global standard of operations and sales, internationally headquartered companies can obtain certification from Cruelty Free International. Companies headquartered in the US and Canada can obtain certification from The Coalition for Consumer Information on Cosmetics In 2013 over 500 companies were certified, however, some companys certifications were revoked after it was discovered they continued to test on animals in Asia. There is a used in animal testing laboratories titled the Three Rs, Reduction, refinement. The approach of reduction is built upon the ethics to have a number of animal subjects being tested on for current. Refinement suggests the planned distress and pain caused to an animal subject be as little as possible, refinement focuses on making a home for the animals before entering testing grounds in order to elongate the life of laboratory animals
12.
Animal welfare
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Animal welfare is the well-being of animals. The standards of animal welfare vary considerably between different contexts. These standards are under constant review and are debated, created and revised by animal groups, legislators. These concerns can include how animals are slaughtered for food, how they are used in research, how they are kept. Animal welfare was a concern of some ancient civilizations but began to take a place in Western public policy in 19th-century Great Britain. In the 21st century, it is a significant focus of interest in science, ethics, there are two forms of criticism of the concept of animal welfare, coming from diametrically opposite positions. One view, dating back centuries, asserts that animals are not consciously aware, however, some still maintain that consciousness is a philosophical question that may never be scientifically resolved. The other view is based on the animal rights position that animals should not be regarded as property, accordingly, some animal rights proponents argue that the perception of better animal welfare facilitates continued and increased exploitation of animals. Some authorities therefore treat animal welfare and animal rights as two opposing positions, others see the increasing concern for animal welfare as incremental steps towards animal rights. There are many different approaches to describing and defining animal welfare, providing good animal welfare is sometimes defined by a list of positive conditions which should be provided to the animal. This approach is taken by the Five Freedoms and the three principles of Professor John Webster, in the past, many have seen farm animal welfare chiefly in terms of whether the animal is producing well. g. Others in the field, such as Professor Ian Duncan and Professor Marian Dawkins and this approach indicates the belief that animals should be considered as sentient beings. In any assessment of welfare, it is these feelings that should be assessed, Dawkins wrote, Let us not mince words, Animal welfare involves the subjective feelings of animals. Yew-Kwang Ng defines animal welfare in terms of economics, Welfare biology is the study of living things. Despite difficulties of ascertaining and measuring welfare and relevancy to normative issues and they have offered the following eight principles for developing and evaluating animal welfare policies. Decisions regarding animal care, use, and welfare shall be made by balancing scientific knowledge, Animals must be provided water, food, proper handling, health care, and an environment appropriate to their care and use, with thoughtful consideration for their species-typical biology and behavior. Animals should be cared for in ways that minimize fear, pain, stress, procedures related to animal housing, management, care, and use should be continuously evaluated, and when indicated, refined or replaced. Conservation and management of animal populations should be humane, socially responsible, Animals shall be treated with respect and dignity throughout their lives and, when necessary, provided a humane death
13.
Gary L. Francione
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Gary Lawrence Francione is an American legal scholar. He is the Distinguished Professor of Law and Nicholas deB, katzenbach Scholar of Law & Philosophy at Rutgers School of Law–Newark. Francione is known for his work on animal rights theory, Francione is the author or co-author of several books about animal rights, including The Animal Rights Debate, Abolition or Regulation. Animals as Persons, Rain Without Thunder, The Ideology of the Animal Rights Movement, and Animals, Property, and he has also written papers on copyright, patent law, and law and science. He received his MA in philosophy and his JD from the University of Virginia, where he was articles editor of the Virginia Law Review. After graduation, he clerked for Judge Albert Tate, Jr. U. S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, and for Justice Sandra Day OConnor of the U. S. Supreme Court. After practising law at the New York firm Cravath, Swaine & Moore, he joined the faculty at the University of Pennsylvania Law School in 1984 and he began to teach animal rights theory as part of his course in jurisprudence in 1985. Francione and Charlton closed the clinic in 2000, but continue to teach courses in animal rights theory, animals and the law, Francione also teaches criminal law, criminal procedure, and legal philosophy. In 1989, Francione taught the first course in an American law school on animal rights, for the most part, these laws and regulations require only that animals receive that level of protection that is required for their use as human property. Animals only have value as commodities and their interests do not matter in any moral sense, as a result, despite having laws that supposedly protect them, Francione contends that we treat animals in ways that would be regarded as torture if humans were the ones being used. Legal, social, and economic forces militate strongly against recognizing animal interests unless there is a benefit to humans. Francione contends that the difference between these two approaches is obvious. A central tenet of Franciones philosophy is that the most important form of change within the abolitionist framework is veganism. Francione has also argued that the animal rights movement is the logical extension of the peace movement. He maintains that a movement is truly radical and that violence is reactionary. In his Introduction to Animal Rights, Your Child or the Dog, Francione derives this right from the principle of equal consideration in that he maintains that if animals are property, their interests can never receive equal consideration. As part of discussion, Francione identifies what he calls our “moral schizophrenia” when it comes to nonhumans. On the one hand, we say that we take animal interests seriously, according to Francione, if animals are going to matter morally and not be things, we cannot treat them as property
14.
Animal Liberation Front
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The Animal Liberation Front is an international, clandestine leaderless resistance that engages in illegal direct action in pursuit of animal rights. Critics have classified them as terrorists, active in over 40 countries, ALF cells operate clandestinely, consisting of small groups of friends and sometimes just one person, which makes the movement difficult for the authorities to monitor. Robin Webb of the British Animal Liberation Press Office has said, That is why the ALF cannot be smashed, it cannot be effectively infiltrated and you, each and every one of you, you are the ALF. Activists say the movement is non-violent, the criticism has been accompanied by dissent within the animal rights movement itself about the use of violence, and increasing attention from the police and intelligence communities. In protest, he formed the Hunt Saboteurs Association, which evolved into groups of volunteers trained to thwart the hunts hounds by blowing horns, Animal rights writer Noel Molland writes that one of these HSA groups was formed in 1971 by a law student from Luton named Ronnie Lee. In 1972, Lee and fellow activist Cliff Goodman decided more militant tactics were needed, in 1973, the Band learned that Hoechst Pharmaceuticals was building a research laboratory near Milton Keynes. On 10 November 1973, two activists set fire to the building, causing £26,000 worth of damage, returning six days later to set fire to what was left of it and it was the animal liberation movements first known act of arson. In June 1974, two Band activists set fire to boats taking part in the annual seal cull off the coast of Norfolk, which Molland writes was the last time the cull took place. Between June and August 1974, the Band launched eight raids against animal-testing laboratories, then, as now, the use of violence against property caused a split within the fledgling movement. In August 1974, Lee and Goodman were arrested for taking part in a raid on Oxford Laboratory Animal Colonies in Bicester, daily demonstrations took place outside the court during their trial, Lees local Labour MP, Ivor Clemitson, was one of their supporters. They were sentenced to three years in prison, during which Lee went on the movements first hunger strike to obtain vegan food and they were paroled after 12 months, Lee emerging in the spring of 1976 more militant than ever. He gathered together the remaining Band of Mercy activists and two new recruits,30 in all. Molland writes that the Band of Mercy name sounded wrong as a description of what Lee saw as a revolutionary movement, Lee wanted a name that would haunt those who used animals, according to Molland. Thus, the Animal Liberation Front was born, the movement has underground and above-ground components, and is entirely decentralized with no formal hierarchy, the absence of which acts as a firebreak when it comes to legal responsibility. Volunteers are expected to stick to the ALFs stated aims when using its banner, To inflict economic damage on those who profit from the misery and exploitation of animals. To liberate animals from places of abuse, i. e. laboratories, factory farms, fur farms etc. and place them in homes where they may live out their natural lives. Any group of people who are vegans and who carry out actions according to ALF guidelines have the right to themselves as part of the ALF. A number of groups exist to support covert volunteers
15.
Animal rights movement
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It is one of the few examples of a social movement that was created, and is to a large extent sustained academically, by philosophers. All animal liberationists believe that the interests of non-human animals deserve recognition and protection. To exclude animals from that consideration, they argue, is a form of discrimination that they call speciesism, see, for example, despite these differences, the terms animal liberation and animal rights are generally used interchangeably. The movement is regarded as having founded in the UK in the early 1970s by a group of Oxford university post-graduate philosophy students. The group was led by Roslind and Stanley Godlovitch, graduate students of philosophy who had recently become vegetarians, the Godlovitches met John Harris and David Wood, also philosophy graduates, who were soon persuaded of the arguments in favour of animal rights and themselves became vegetarian. The group began to raise the issue with pre-eminent Oxford moral philosophers, including Professor Richard Hare. Their approach was based not on sentimentality, but on the rights of animals. It was a 1965 article by novelist Brigid Brophy in The Sunday Times which was pivotal in helping to spark the movement, Brophy wrote, The philosophers found this article and were inspired by its vigorous unsentimental polemic. At about the time, Ryder wrote three letters to the Daily Telegraph in response to Brophys arguments. Brophy read Ryders letters and put him in touch with the Godlovitches and John Harris, the philosophers had also been to see Brophy about the possibility of a book of essays on the subject. This was the idea that became Animals, Men and Morals, out of the review came Singers Animal Liberation, published in 1975, now regarded as the bible of the movement. Wise, and Animal Rights and Moral Philosophy by Julian H. Franklin, the movement is no longer viewed as hovering on the fringe. Chapters of animal rights law have created in several state bar associations. This shift has not yet reached popular opinion, however, in, social change has and can occur through the courts, which in many instances do not operate as democratic institutions. Therefore, the evolution in elite legal opinion is extremely significant, the movement aims to include animals in the moral community by putting the basic interests of non-human animals on an equal footing with the basic interests of human beings. A basic interest would be, for example, not being made to suffer pain on behalf of individual human or non-human animals. The aim is to remove animals from the sphere of property and to award them personhood, liberationists argue that animals appear to have value in law only in relation to their usefulness or benefit to their owners, and are awarded no intrinsic value whatsoever. In the United States, for example, state and federal laws formulate the rules for the treatment of animals in terms of their status as property, Animal Welfare Act excludes pet stores
16.
Jallikattu
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Participants hold the hump for as long as possible, attempting to bring the bull to a stop. In some cases, participants must ride long enough to remove flags on the bulls horns, Jallikattu is typically practised in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu as a part of Pongal celebrations on Mattu Pongal day. Ancient Tamil Sangams described the practice as Yeru thazhuvuthal, literally bull embracing, the modern term Jallikattu or Sallikattu is derived from salli and kattu, which refers to a prize of coins that are tied to the bulls horns and that participants attempt to retrieve. Manju virattu literally means bull chasing, Jallikattu has been known to be practiced during the Tamil classical period. It was common among the ancient people Aayars who lived in the geographical division of the ancient Tamil country. Later, it became a platform for display of bravery and prize money was introduced for participation encouragement, a seal from the Indus Valley Civilization depicting the practice is preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi. A cave painting in white kaolin discovered near Madurai depicting a man trying to control a bull is estimated to be about 2,500 years old. Some variants include, Vadi majuviraṭṭu, This is the most common category of Jallikattu, the bull is released from a closed space and the contestants attempt to wrap their arms or hands around the hump of the bull and hold on to it to win the award. Only one person is allowed to attempt at a time and this variant is most common in the districts of Madurai, Thanjavur, and Salem. Vēli viraṭṭu, In this variant the approach is different as the bull is directly released into open ground. The rules are the same as that of vadi majuviraṭṭu and this is a popular variant in the districts of Sivagangai and Madurai. Vaṭam manjuviraṭṭu, In this variant, the bull is tied with a 15 m rope, there are no other physical restrictions for the bull and hence it can move freely anywhere. The maximum time period given is 30 minutes, a team of seven to nine members can attempt to seal the bull. Bulls enter the area through a gate called the vadi vasal. Typically, participants must only hold onto the bulls hump, and in some variations they are disqualified if they hold onto the bulls neck, there may be several goals to the game depending on region. In some versions, contestants must either hold the hump for 30 seconds or for 15 metres. If the contestant is thrown by the bull or falls, they lose, some variations only allow for one contestant. If two people grab the hump, then neither person wins, bos indicus bulls are bred specifically by people of the village for the event
17.
New Delhi
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New Delhi is the capital of India and one of Delhi citys 11 districts. The National Capital Region is a larger entity comprising the entire National Capital Territory along with adjoining districts. The foundation stone of the city was laid by George V and it was designed by British architects, Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker. The new capital was inaugurated on 13 February 1931, by Viceroy, New Delhi has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Prime Minister of India Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Calcutta was the capital of India during the British Raj until December 1911, Delhi had served as the political and financial centre of several empires of ancient India and the Delhi Sultanate, most notably of the Mughal Empire from 1649 to 1857. During the early 1900s, a proposal was made to the British administration to shift the capital of the British Indian Empire, as India was officially named, from Calcutta on the east coast, to Delhi. The Government of British India felt that it would be easier to administer India from Delhi in the centre of northern India. The land for building the new city of Delhi was acquired under the Land Acquisition Act 1894. The foundation stone of New Delhi was laid by King George V and Queen Mary at the site of Delhi Durbar of 1911 at Kingsway Camp on 15 December 1911, during their imperial visit. Large parts of New Delhi were planned by Edwin Lutyens, who first visited Delhi in 1912, the contract was given to Sobha Singh. The original plan called for its construction in Tughlaqabad, inside the Tughlaqabad fort, construction really began after World War I and was completed by 1931. The city that was later dubbed Lutyens Delhi was inaugurated in ceremonies beginning on 10 February 1931 by Lord Irwin, Lutyens designed the central administrative area of the city as a testament to Britains imperial aspirations. Soon Lutyens started considering other places, however, it was rejected by the Viceroy when the cost of acquiring the necessary properties was found to be too high. The central axis of New Delhi, which faces east at India Gate, was previously meant to be a north-south axis linking the Viceroys House at one end with Paharganj at the other. During the projects early years, many believed it was a gate from Earth to Heaven itself. Eventually, owing to space constraints and the presence of a number of heritage sites in the North side. A site atop the Raisina Hill, formerly Raisina Village, a Meo village, was chosen for the Rashtrapati Bhawan, then known as the Viceroys House. The reason for this choice was that the hill lay directly opposite the Dinapanah citadel, which was considered the site of Indraprastha
18.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
19.
Mother Teresa
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Mother Teresa MC, known in the Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta, was an Albanian-Indian Roman Catholic nun and missionary. She was born in Skopje, then part of the Kosovo Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire, after living in Macedonia for eighteen years she moved to Ireland and then to India, where she lived for most of her life. In 1950 Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity, a Roman Catholic religious congregation which had over 4,500 sisters and was active in 133 countries in 2012. Members, who take vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, also profess a fourth vow, Teresa received a number of honours, including the 1962 Ramon Magsaysay Peace Prize and 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. She was canonised on 4 September 2016, and the anniversary of her death is her feast day, a controversial figure during her life and after her death, Teresa was admired by many for her charitable work. She was praised and criticised for her opposition to abortion, and her authorised biography was written by Navin Chawla and published in 1992, and she has been the subject of films and other books. Teresa was born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu on 26 August 1910 into a Kosovar Albanian family in Skopje and she was baptized in Skopje, the day after her birth. She later considered 27 August, the day she was baptised and she was the youngest child of Nikollë and Dranafile Bojaxhiu. Her father, who was involved in Albanian-community politics in Macedonia and he may have been from Prizren, Kosovo, and her mother may have been from a village near Gjakova. Her resolve strengthened on 15 August 1928 as she prayed at the shrine of the Black Madonna of Vitina-Letnice and she never saw her mother or her sister again. Her family lived in Skopje until 1934, when moved to Tirana. She arrived in India in 1929 and began her novitiate in Darjeeling, in the lower Himalayas, Teresa took her first religious vows on 24 May 1931. She chose to be named after Thérèse de Lisieux, the saint of missionaries, because a nun in the convent had already chosen that name. Teresa took her vows on 14 May 1937 while she was a teacher at the Loreto convent school in Entally. She served there for twenty years, and was appointed its headmistress in 1944. Although Teresa enjoyed teaching at the school, she was disturbed by the poverty surrounding her in Calcutta. The Bengal famine of 1943 brought misery and death to the city, on 10 September 1946, Teresa experienced what she later described as the call within the call when she travelled by train to the Loreto convent in Darjeeling from Calcutta for her annual retreat. I was to leave the convent and help the poor while living among them, to fail would have been to break the faith
20.
Leper colony
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A leper colony, leprosarium, or lazar house is a place to quarantine people with leprosy. The term lazaretto can refer to sites, which were at some time also leper colonies. Leper colonies or houses became widespread in the Middle Ages, particularly in Europe and India, historically, leprosy has been greatly feared because it causes visible disfigurement and disability, was incurable, and was commonly believed to be highly contagious. A leper colony administered by a Roman Catholic order was called a lazar house, after Lazarus. Some colonies were located on mountains or in locations in order to ensure quarantine, some on main roads. There is even doubt that the current definition of leprosy can be applied to the Medieval condition. What was classified as leprosy then covers a range of skin conditions that would be classified as distinct afflictions today. Some leper colonies issued their own money, in the belief that allowing lepers to handle regular money could spread the disease, the last existing leper colony in Europe is Tichilești in Romania. In 2002, an inquiry into these colonies was set up, and in March 2005. Did not have any scientific grounds, history of leprosy Kalawao, Hawaii Leprosy colony money Losheng Sanatorium
21.
Himalayas
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The Himalayas, or Himalaya, form a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The Himalayan range has the Earths highest peaks, including the highest, the Himalayas include over a hundred mountains exceeding 7,200 metres in elevation. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia – Aconcagua, in the Andes – is 6,961 metres tall. The Himalayas are spread across five countries, Bhutan, India, Nepal, China, the Himalayan range is bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Some of the major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges, and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, rise in the Himalayas. The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia, many Himalayan peaks are sacred in Hinduism and Buddhism. Lifted by the subduction of the Indian tectonic plate under the Eurasian Plate and its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river. Its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, is just west of the bend of the Tsangpo river. The range varies in width from 400 kilometres in the west to 150 kilometres in the east, the name of the range derives from the Sanskrit Himā-laya, from himá and ā-laya. They are now known as the Himalaya Mountains, usually shortened to the Himalayas, formerly, they were described in the singular as the Himalaya. This was also previously transcribed Himmaleh, as in Emily Dickinsons poetry and Henry David Thoreaus essays. The mountains are known as the Himālaya in Nepali and Hindi, the Himalaya or The Land of Snow in Tibetan, the Hamaleh Mountain Range in Urdu, the flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice, the amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall and soil conditions combined with the high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant. The extremes of high altitude combined with extreme cold favor extremophile organisms, the unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to climate change. The increase in temperature is shifting various species to higher elevations, the oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some species, especially rhododendron, apple. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica located at 4,900 metres in Southeastern Tibet, the Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock
22.
Michael Specter
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Michael Specter is an American journalist who has been a staff writer, focusing on science and technology, and global public health at The New Yorker since September 1998. He has also written for The Washington Post and The New York Times, Specter initially covered local news at The Washington Post in 1985 but then became a national science reporter for the Post and finally the New York City bureau chief. In 1991, Specter transferred to the Times, there, from 1994 to 1998, he was based in Moscow. In 1995, he was appointed co-chief of the Moscow bureau of the Times, while in Russia, he covered stories such as the war in Chechnya, the 1996 Russian presidential elections, and the declining state of Russian health care. In 1998, he became a correspondent based in Rome covering topics as varied as Europes demographic crisis, Michelangelos Florentine Pietà. They instead are embracing what often seem to be more comfortable fictions about issues such as the value of food, vaccine safety. He recently delivered a talk titled The danger of science denial at TED2010 and he has also written profiles of many people, including Lance Armstrong, Richard Branson, the ethicist Peter Singer, P. Diddy, Manolo Blahnik, AIDS activist Larry Kramer, and Ingrid Newkirk. In 1996, Specter was awarded the Overseas Press Club Citation for Excellence for his coverage of the War in Chechnya, in 2002, he won the A. A. A. S. In 2009, Specter received the Robert P. Balles Annual Prize in Critical Thinking for his book Denialism, the yearly award is given by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry to the author of the published work that best exemplifies healthy skepticism, logical analysis, or empirical science. Specter is a son of Howard and Eileen Specter and he was previously married to Alessandra Stanley, now a television critic for The New York Times. Specter is a 1977 graduate of Vassar College, where he majored in English, Denialism, how irrational thinking hinders scientific progress, harms the planet, and threatens our lives. Archived from the original on December 14,2006, archived from the original on December 12,2006. The operator, is the most trusted doctor in America doing more harm than good, the Lyme wars, the Lyme-disease infection rate is growing. So is the battle over how to treat it
23.
Formula One
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Formula One is the highest class of single-seat auto racing that is sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile. The FIA Formula One World Championship has been the form of racing since the inaugural season in 1950. The formula, designated in the name, refers to a set of rules, the F1 season consists of a series of races, known as Grands Prix, held worldwide on purpose-built F1 circuits and public roads. The results of each race are evaluated using a system to determine two annual World Championships, one for drivers, one for constructors. The racing drivers are required to be holders of valid Super Licences, the races are required to be held on tracks graded 1, the highest grade a track can receive by the FIA. Most events are held in locations on purpose-built tracks, but there are several events in city centres throughout the world. Formula One cars are the fastest road racing cars in the world. Formula One cars race at speeds of up to approximately 375 km/h with engines currently limited in performance to a maximum of 15,000 RPM, the cars are capable of lateral acceleration in excess of five g in corners. The performance of the cars is very dependent on electronics – although traction control and other driving aids have been banned since 2008 – and on aerodynamics, suspension, the formula has radically evolved and changed through the history of the sport. F1 had a global television audience of 425 million people during the course of the 2014 season. Grand Prix racing began in 1906 and became the most popular internationally in the second half of the twentieth century. The Formula One Group is the holder of the commercial rights. Its high profile and popularity have created a major merchandising environment, since 2000 the sports spiraling expenditures and the distribution of prize money favoring established top teams have forced complaints from smaller teams and led several teams to bankruptcy. On 23 January 2017 it was confirmed that Liberty Media had completed its $8 billion acquisition of Delta Topco, the Formula One series originated with the European Grand Prix Motor Racing of the 1920s and 1930s. The formula is a set of rules that all cars must meet. Formula One was a new formula agreed upon after World War II during 1946, the first world championship race was held at Silverstone, United Kingdom in 1950. A championship for constructors followed in 1958, national championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s. Non-championship Formula One events were held for years, but due to the increasing cost of competition
24.
Sumo
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The characters 相撲 literally mean striking one another. The sport originated in Japan, the country where it is practiced professionally. It is generally considered a gendai budō, but this definition is misleading, life as a wrestler is highly regimented, with rules regulated by the Japan Sumo Association. In recent years, a number of controversies and scandals have rocked the sumo world, with an associated effect on its reputation. These have also affected the ability to attract new recruits. It was an important ritual at the court, where representatives of each province were ordered to attend the contest at the court. The contestants were required to pay for their travels themselves, the contest was known as sumai no sechie, or sumai party. Over the rest of Japanese recorded history, sumos popularity has changed according to the whims of its rulers, the form of wrestling combat changed gradually into one where the main aim in victory was to throw ones opponent. The concept of pushing ones opponent out of a defined area came some time later, at this point, wrestlers would wear loose loincloths rather than the much stiffer mawashi wrestling belts of today. During the Edo period, wrestlers would wear a fringed decorative apron called a kesho-mawashi during the match, most of the rest of the current forms within the sport developed in the early Edo period. Professional sumo roots trace back to the Edo period in Japan as a form of sporting entertainment, the original wrestlers were probably samurai, often rōnin, who needed to find an alternative form of income. Current professional sumo tournaments began in the Tomioka Hachiman Shrine in 1684, western Japan also had its own sumo venues and tournaments in this period, with the most prominent center being in Osaka. Osaka sumo continued to the end of the Taishō period in 1926, for a short period after this, four tournaments were held a year, two tournaments in locations in western Japan such as Nagoya, Osaka, and Fukuoka, and two in the Ryōgoku Kokugikan in Tokyo. From 1933 onward, tournaments were held almost exclusively in the Ryōgoku Kokugikan, until the American occupation forces appropriated it, then, an alternate location, the Kuramae Kokugikan near Ryōgoku, was built for sumo. Also in this period, the Sumo Association began expanding to venues in western Japan again, reaching a total of six tournaments a year by 1958, in 1984, the Ryōgoku Kokugikan was rebuilt and sumo tournaments in Tokyo have been held there ever since. For example, a wrestler using an illegal technique automatically loses, a wrestler failing to show up for his bout also automatically loses. Matches consist solely of a round and often last only a few seconds. However, they can occasionally last for several minutes, each match is preceded by an elaborate ceremonial ritual
25.
Vegetarianism
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Vegetarianism /vɛdʒɪˈtɛəriənɪzəm/ is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat, and may also include abstention from by-products of animal slaughter. Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons, many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs, as well as animal rights advocacy, other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental, cultural, aesthetic, economic, or personal preference. A vegan diet excludes all animal products, including eggs and dairy, some vegans also avoid other animal products such as beeswax, leather or silk clothing, and goose-fat shoe polish. Often, prior to purchase or consumption, vegetarians will scrutinize products for animal-derived ingredients, vegetarians feelings vary with regard to these ingredients. Semi-vegetarian diets consist largely of vegetarian foods but may include fish or poultry, or sometimes other meats and those with diets containing fish or poultry may define meat only as mammalian flesh and may identify with vegetarianism. A pescetarian diet has been described as fish but no other meat, the term vegetarian has been in use since 1839 to refer to what was previously described as a vegetable diet. The word is believed to be a compound of vegetable. The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester, the earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House, a school on the north side of Ham Common, London, opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves. The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from Indus Valley Civilization as early as the 7th century BCE, in the Indian culture, the diet was closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers. The ancient Indian work of Tirukkural explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes vegetarianism, chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, through couplets 251 to 260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism. Among the Hellenes, Egyptians and others, it had medical or ritual purification purposes and those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt, one animal is not to be fed to another. —Edicts of Ashoka, Fifth Pillar Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did on other continents, except India. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons and it re-emerged during the Renaissance, becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, in 1886, the vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived. The International Vegetarian Union, an association of the societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the century as a result of nutritional, ethical
26.
Stockbroker
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Stockbrokers are known by numerous professional designations, depending on the license they hold, the type of securities they sell, or the services they provide. In the United States, a stockbroker must pass both the Series 7 and either the Series 63 or the Series 66 exams in order to be properly licensed. The first stockbroking began in Rome, where the first recorded buying and selling of shares occurred in the 2nd century BCE, after Rome fell, stockbroking did not become a realistic career until after the Renaissance, when government bonds traded in Italian city-states such as Genoa or Venice. New stock exchanges opened their doors in the 16th and 17th centuries, including the London Stock Exchange, in the 1800s, in the United States, the New York Stock Exchange opened its doors under a buttonwood tree in New York City. 24 stockbrokers signed the Buttonwood Agreement, agreeing to trade five securities under that buttonwood tree, in Canada, a stockbroker is called a Registered Representative or an Investment Advisor. To become a one has to work for a licensed firm. Passing a fourth exam results in obtaining a specialist license, all tests can be taken with the HKSI. However, passing all tests doesnt result in obtaining the license. It still needs to be approved by the regulatory body. Stockbrokers typically earn a degree in finance or business administration. A finance degree prepares students to work as stockbrokers by focusing their studies on financial laws and regulations, accounting methods, students study the principles of economics and currency, financial planning and financial forecasting. On-the-job training programs are available to aspiring stockbrokers, which allow them to gain practical experience. In Singapore, becoming a trading representative requires passing 4 exams, Modules 1A,5,6 and 6A, from the Institute of Banking and Finance and applying for the license through MAS and SGX. Stockbroking is a profession in the UK and brokers must achieve a recognised qualification from the Financial Conduct Authority s Appropriate Qualifications list. A number of qualifications are available and the one a trainee does will depend on their duties and it evolved from the London Stock Exchange, has around 40,000 members in over 100 countries and delivers more than 37,000 exams each year. It represents the interests of around 11,000 investment professionals and is part of the network of members of the CFA Institute. While the term stockbroker is still in use, more terms are broker, financial advisor. Other FINRA licenses or series exams exist, selling variable products typically requires the broker to also have one or another state insurance department licenses
27.
Animal euthanasia
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Animal euthanasia is the act of putting an animal to death or allowing it to die by withholding extreme medical measures. Reasons for euthanasia include incurable conditions or diseases, lack of resources to supporting the animal. Euthanasia methods are designed to cause pain and distress. Euthanasia is distinct from animal slaughter and pest control although in cases the procedure is the same. In domesticated animals, this process is referred to by euphemisms such as put down, put to sleep. The methods of anesthesia can be divided into pharmacological and physical methods, acceptable pharmacological methods include injected drugs and gases that first depress the central nervous system and then cardiovascular activity. Acceptable physical methods must first cause rapid loss of consciousness by disrupting the nervous system. The most common methods are discussed here, but there are other methods used in different situations. Unconsciousness, respiratory then cardiac arrest follow rapidly, usually within 30 seconds, observers generally describe the method as leading to a quick and peaceful death. For companion animals euthanized in shelters,14 states in the US now prescribe intravenous injection as the required method. These laws date to 1990, when Georgias Humane Euthanasia Act became the first state law to mandate this method, before that, gas chambers and other means were commonly employed. The Georgia law was resisted by the Georgia Commissioner of Agriculture, Tommy Irvin, in March 2007, he was sued by former State Representative Chesley V. Morton, who wrote the law, and subsequently ordered by the Court to enforce all provisions of the Act. Some veterinarians perform a two-stage process, an injection that simply renders the pet unconscious. This allows the owner the chance to say goodbye to a pet without their emotions stressing the pet. It also greatly mitigates any tendency toward spasm and other involuntary movement which tends to increase the emotional upset that the pets owner experiences, for large animals, the volumes of barbiturates required are considered by some to be impractical, although this is standard practice in the United States. For horses and cattle, other drugs may be available, occasionally, a horse injected with these mixtures may display apparent seizure activity before death. This may be due to cardiac arrest. However, if precautions are taken, this is rarely a problem
28.
Peter Singer
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Peter Albert David Singer, AC is an Australian moral philosopher. He is the Ira W. DeCamp Professor of Bioethics at Princeton University, and he specializes in applied ethics and approaches ethical issues from a secular, utilitarian perspective. For most of his career, he was a preference utilitarian, on two occasions, Singer served as chair of the philosophy department at Monash University, where he founded its Centre for Human Bioethics. In 1996 he stood unsuccessfully as a Greens candidate for the Australian Senate, Singer is a cofounder of Animals Australia and the founder of The Life You Can Save. Singers parents were Austrian Jews who immigrated to Australia from Vienna in 1938 and they settled in Melbourne, where Singer was born. Singers grandfather, David Oppenheim, published papers with Sigmund Freud before a falling out between the two in Venice. Singers father imported tea and coffee, while his mother practiced medicine and he attended Preshil and later Scotch College. After leaving school, Singer studied law, history, and philosophy at the University of Melbourne, subsequently, he received an MA degree for a thesis entitled Why should I be moral. At the same university in 1969, Singer names Hare and Australian philosopher H. J. McCloskey as his two most important mentors. After spending two years as a Radcliffe lecturer at University College, Oxford, he was a professor at New York University for 16 months. He returned to Melbourne in 1977, where he spent most of his career, aside from appointments as visiting faculty abroad, until his move to Princeton in 1999. In June 2011 it was announced he would join the professoriate of New College of the Humanities, according to philosopher Helga Kuhse, Singer is almost certainly the best-known and most widely read of all contemporary philosophers. Michael Specter wrote that Singer is among the most influential of contemporary philosophers, since 1968 he has been married to Renata Singer, they have three children, Ruth, Marion, and Esther. Renata Singer is a novelist and author and she also has collaborated on publications with her husband, Singers Practical Ethics analyzes why and how living beings interests should be weighed. His principle of equal consideration of interests does not dictate equal treatment of all those with interests, all have an interest in avoiding pain, for instance, but relatively few have an interest in cultivating their abilities. Not only does his principle justify different treatment for different interests, for example, this approach would privilege a starving persons interest in food over the same interest of someone who is only slightly hungry. The fundamental interest that entitles a being to equal consideration is the capacity for suffering and/or enjoyment or happiness, Singer holds that a beings interests should always be weighed according to that beings concrete properties. He favors a journey model of life, which measures the wrongness of taking a life by the degree to which doing so frustrates a life journeys goals, the journey model is tolerant of some frustrated desire and explains why persons who have embarked on their journeys are not replaceable
29.
Animal Liberation (book)
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Animal Liberation, A New Ethics for Our Treatment of Animals is a 1975 book by Australian philosopher Peter Singer. It is widely considered within the animal movement to be the founding philosophical statement of its ideas. Singer himself rejected the use of the framework of rights when it comes to human and nonhuman animals. His ethical ideas fall under the umbrella of biocentrism and he popularized the term speciesism in the book, which had been coined by Richard D. Ryder to describe the treatment of animals. Singers central argument is an expansion of the idea that the greatest good is the only measure of good or ethical behavior. He argues that there is no reason not to apply this principle to other animals, in Animal Liberation, Singer argues against what he calls speciesism, discrimination on the grounds that a being belongs to a certain species. He argues that rights should be based on their capacity to feel pain more than on their intelligence. Therefore, intelligence does not provide a basis for giving nonhuman animals any less consideration than such intellectually challenged humans, Singer concludes that the most practical solution is to adopt a vegetarian or vegan diet. He also condemns vivisection except where the benefit outweighs the harm done to the animals used, Animal Liberation is one of the most widely-read books by a moral philosopher. Ingrid Newkirk wrote of Animal Liberation, It forever changed the conversation about our treatment of animals and it made people—myself included—change what we ate, what we wore, and how we perceived animals. Others who claim that their attitudes to animals changed after reading the book include Peter Tatchell, Singer has expressed regret that the book did not have more impact. In September 1999, he was quoted by Michael Specter in the New Yorker on the impact, Its had effects around the margins, of course. When I wrote it, I really thought the book would change the world, I know it sounds a little grand now, but at the time the sixties still existed for us. It looked as if real changes were possible, and I let myself believe that this would be one of them, all you have to do is walk around the corner to McDonalds to see how successful I have been. The book has received a wide range of philosophical challenges to his formulation of animal rights. Singer replied to and rejected this claim, in addition, Martha Nussbaum has argued that the capability approach provides a more adequate foundation of justice than Utilitarianism can supply. There have been editions of the book published over the years
30.
National Institutes of Health
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The National Institutes of Health is a biomedical research facility primarily located in Bethesda, Maryland. An agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, it is the agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical. The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers that conduct research in different disciplines of biomedical science, NIHs roots extend back to a Marine Hospital Service in the late 1790s that provided medical relief to sick and disabled men in the U. S. Navy. By 1870, a network of hospitals had developed and was placed under the charge of a medical officer within the Bureau of the Treasury Department. In 1887 a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established at the Marine Hospital in New York, in the early 1900s, Congress began appropriating funds for the Marine Hospital Service. By 1922, this changed its name to Public Health Services. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities, in 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings. Over the next few decades, Congress would increase its funding tremendously to the NIH, in 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health. In the 1960s prominent virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital, when three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, this experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a source of funding for Southam’s research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. }Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research involving human experimentation with review boards. In 1967 the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased funding in order to increase research. An advisory committee was formed to further development of the NIH. The funding of NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress and this contention was seen most dramatically during the 1980s, when President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. But it was not until July 1987, as NIH celebrated its 100th anniversary, by the 1990s, the focus of the NIH committee had shifted to DNA research, and the Human Genome Project was launched. In 2009, President Obama reinstated federally funded research, revoking the ban imposed by President Bush in 2001
31.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
32.
Matthew Galkin
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Matthew Galkin is an American film director and producer, best known for his work in documentaries. Galkin directed the 2010 HBO documentary Kevorkian, about the controversial right-to-die advocate Jack Kevorkian and he also served as co-executive producer and director of the Style Network/E. Series Kimora, Life in the Fab Lane, a reality show about Kimora Lee Simmons and he produced HBOs series Family Bonds and served as Co-Producer on John Landiss Slasher for IFC. Galkin is currently producing Morgan Spurlock’s film Comic-Con Episode Four, A Fan’s Hope, which is due for release in 2011
33.
Palestine Liberation Organization
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The Palestine Liberation Organization is an organization founded in 1964 with the purpose of the liberation of Palestine through armed struggle, with much of its violence aimed at Israeli civilians. The PLO was considered by the United States and Israel to be a terrorist organization until the Madrid Conference in 1991, at its first summit meeting in Cairo in 1964, the Arab League initiated the creation of an organization representing the Palestinian people. The Palestinian National Council convened in Jerusalem on 28 May 1964, concluding this meeting the PLO was founded on 2 June 1964. Its stated goal was the liberation of Palestine through armed struggle, the ideology of the PLO was formulated in the founding year 1964 in the Palestinian National Covenant. The document is a combative anti-Zionist statement dedicated to the restoration of the Palestinian homeland and it has no reference to religion. In 1968, the Charter was replaced by a revised version. Until 1993, the only promoted option was armed struggle, from the signing of the Oslo Accords, negotiation and diplomacy became the only official policy. In April 1996, a number of articles, which were inconsistent with the Oslo Accords, were wholly or partially nullified. They demanded that Palestinian refugees should be allowed to return to their homes and this article was adapted in 1996 to meet the Oslo Accords. Article 20 states, ″The Balfour Declaration, the Mandate for Palestine, claims of historical or religious ties of Jews with Palestine are incompatible with the facts of history and the true conception of what constitutes statehood. Judaism, being a religion, is not an independent nationality, nor do Jews constitute a single nation with an identity of its own, they are citizens of the states to which they belong″. This article was nullified in 1996, the PLO has always labelled the Palestinian people as Arabs. This was a consequence of the fact that the PLO was an offshoot of the Arab League. It also has an element, as to keep the backing of Arab states. Over the years, the Arab identity remained the stated nature of the Palestinian State and it is a reference to the ″Arab State″ envisioned in the UN Partition Plan. The PLO and its dominating faction Fatah are often contrasted to more religious orientated factions like Hamas, all, however, represent a predominant Muslim population. Practically the whole population of the Territories is Muslim, most of them Sunni, the National Charter has no reference to religion. The draft Constitution, which never materialized, contains the same provisions, at the time, the PLC did not include a single Hamas member
34.
Yasser Arafat
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Mohammed Yasser Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf Arafat al-Qudwa, popularly known as Yasser Arafat or by his kunya Abu Ammar, was a Palestinian political leader. He was Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization from 1969 to 2004, ideologically an Arab nationalist, he was a founding member of the Fatah political party, which he led from 1959 until 2004. Arafat was born to Palestinian parents in Cairo, Egypt, where he spent most of his youth, while a student, he embraced Arab nationalist and anti-Zionist ideas. Opposed to the 1948 creation of the State of Israel, he fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, returning to Cairo, he served as president of the General Union of Palestinian Students from 1952 to 1956. In the latter part of the 1950s he co-founded Fatah, an organisation seeking the disestablishment of Israel. Fatah operated within several Arab countries, from where it launched attacks on Israeli targets, in the latter part of the 1960s Arafats profile grew, in 1967 he joined the PLO and in 1969 was elected chair of the Palestinian National Council. Fatahs growing presence in Jordan resulted in clashes with King Husseins Jordanian government. There, Fatah assisted the Lebanese National Movement during the Lebanese Civil War and continued its attacks on Israel, from 1983 to 1993, Arafat based himself in Tunisia, and began to shift his approach from open conflict with the Israelis to negotiation. In 1988, he acknowledged Israels right to exist and sought a solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. In 1994 he returned to Palestine, settling in Gaza City and he engaged in a series of negotiations with the Israeli government to end the conflict between it and the PLO. These included the Madrid Conference of 1991, the 1993 Oslo Accords, in 1994 Arafat received the Nobel Peace Prize, together with Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres, for the negotiations at Oslo. At the time, Fatahs support among the Palestinians declined with the growth of Hamas, in late 2004, after effectively being confined within his Ramallah compound for over two years by the Israeli army, Arafat fell into a coma and died. While the cause of Arafats death has remained the subject of speculation, investigations by Russian, the majority of the Palestinian people view him as a heroic freedom fighter and martyr who symbolized the national aspirations of his people. Arafat was born in Cairo, Egypt and his father, Abdel Raouf al-Qudwa al-Husseini, was a Palestinian from Gaza City, whose mother, Yassers paternal grandmother, was Egyptian. Arafats father battled in the Egyptian courts for 25 years to claim land in Egypt as part of his inheritance but was unsuccessful. He worked as a merchant in Cairos religiously mixed Sakakini District. Arafat was the second-youngest of seven children and was, along with his younger brother Fathi and his mother, Zahwa Abul Saud, was from a Jerusalem-based family. She died from an ailment in 1933, when Arafat was four years of age
35.
Sam Simon
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While at Stanford University, Simon worked as a newspaper cartoonist and after graduating became a storyboard artist at Filmation Studios. Simon submitted a script for the sitcom Taxi, which was produced. Over the next few years, Simon wrote and produced for Cheers, Its Garry Shandlings Show and other programs, in 1989, Simon developed the animated sitcom The Simpsons with Matt Groening and James L. Brooks. Simon assembled the shows first writing team, co-wrote eight episodes and has credited with developing sensibility. Simons relationship with Groening was strained and he left the show in 1993, the following year Simon co-created The George Carlin Show, before later working as a director on shows such as The Drew Carey Show. Simon won nine Primetime Emmy Awards for his television work, Simon turned to fields outside television in his later years. He also funded the self-christened Sea Shepherd Conservation Society vessel the MY Sam Simon, Simon was engaged at the time of his death, having been previously twice married, including to the actress Jennifer Tilly. Following a profile of Simon on 60 Minutes in 2007, CBS writer Daniel Schorn wrote in an article that Simon was perhaps the Renaissance man of the baffling. Simon was diagnosed with colorectal cancer in 2012 and given only three to six months to live. Simon died on March 8,2015 and he bequeathed his $100 million estate to various charities which he actively supported during his lifetime. Simon was born Samuel Michael Simon on June 6,1955 in Los Angeles, California and he grew up in Beverly Hills and Malibu. Simons family lived opposite Groucho Marx, Simons father was a cheap clothing manufacturer and was of Estonian Jewish heritage. Simon had a childhood which has described as comfortable and privileged. Although his parents wanted Simon to become a lawyer, Simon was interested in art from a young age and he once was told by Walt Disney that he would one day work at his studio. Simon attended Beverly Hills High School, where he was on the football team and he was awarded Most Humorous and Most Talented in his senior yearbook. He later attended Stanford University, graduating in 1977, Simon had not wished to attend college, but Stanford persuaded him to apply due to his sufficient grades and proficiency at football, Simon quit the football team after one day. Simon drew comics for the newspaper, but was denied admission to a drawing class for not being talented enough. As he recalled to the Stanford alumni magazine, he was told, “You’d be taking the space of a student who has talent. ”Simon majored in psychology, but did not focus on his academics
36.
Alec Baldwin
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Alexander Rae Alec Baldwin III is an American actor, writer, producer, and comedian. A member of the Baldwin family, he is the oldest of the four Baldwin brothers, Baldwin first gained recognition appearing on seasons 6 and 7 of the CBS television drama Knots Landing, in the role of Joshua Rush. His performance in the 2003 romantic drama The Cooler garnered him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, Baldwin co-starred in Mission, Impossible – Rogue Nation, the fifth installment of the Mission, Impossible series, released on July 31,2015. He is also a columnist for The Huffington Post, since 2016, he has been the host of Match Game. He has three brothers, Daniel, William, and Stephen, who also became actors. He also has two sisters, Beth and Jane, Alec and his siblings were raised as Roman Catholics. They are of English, Irish, Scottish, French-Canadian, Baldwin attended Alfred G. Berner High School in Massapequa and played football there under Coach Bob Reifsnyder. In New York City, Baldwin worked as a busboy at the disco Studio 54, from 1976 to 1979, he attended George Washington University, afterward transferring to New York Universitys Tisch School of the Arts. There he studied with, among others, Geoffrey Horne and Mira Rostova at the Lee Strasberg Theatre Institute, Later, Baldwin made his Broadway debut in 1986 in a revival of Joe Ortons Loot alongside Zoë Wanamaker, Željko Ivanek, Joseph Maher, and Charles Keating. This production closed after three months, Baldwin also received an Emmy nomination for the 1995 television version of the production, in which both he and Jessica Lange reprised their roles, alongside John Goodman and Diane Lane. In 1998, Baldwin played the role in Macbeth at The Public Theater alongside Angela Bassett. In 2004, Baldwin starred in a revival of Twentieth Century with Anne Heche, on June 9,2005, he appeared in a concert version of the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical South Pacific at Carnegie Hall. He starred as Luther Billis, alongside Reba McEntire as Nellie, the production was taped and telecast by PBS on April 26,2006. In 2006, Baldwin made theater news in Roundabout Theatre Companys Off-Broadway revival of Joe Ortons Entertaining Mr. Sloane. In 2010, Baldwin starred opposite Sam Underwood in an acclaimed revival of Peter Shaffers Equus, directed by Tony Walton at Guild Hall in East Hampton. Baldwin has returned to Broadway as Harold in Orphans, the show, which opened April 18,2013, was also to have starred Shia LaBeouf as Treat, but LaBoeuf left the production in rehearsals and was replaced by Ben Foster. Baldwins first acting role was as Billy Aldrich in the NBC daytime soap opera The Doctors from 1980 to 1982, in fall 1983, he starred in the short-lived television series Cutter to Houston. He went on to appear as the brother of Valene Ewing, in 1986, Baldwin starred in Dress Gray, a four-hour made-for-television miniseries, as an honest cadet sergeant who tries to solve the mystery of a murdered gay classmate
37.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
38.
Women and animal advocacy
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Women have played a central role in animal advocacy since the 19th century. The animal advocacy movement – embracing animal rights, animal welfare, Women are more likely to support animal rights than men.4 million people who call themselves vegetarian, 68% are female, while only 32% are male. Women and animals were considered equally irrational and inferior in the past. She published The Perfect Way in Diet, advocating vegetarianism, and was vocal in her opposition to animal experiments. The affair however continued for years, making a name both for Lind af Hageby and for the society. Australian writer and academic Coral Lansbury writes that the suffragist movement in the United Kingdom became closely linked with the anti-vivisection movement, writing about the Brown Dog affair, she argues that the iconography of vivisection struck a chord with women. In 1944 the Vegan Society, a charity and the oldest vegan society in the world, was founded on 1 November in the UK by Elsie Sally Shrigley. The first vegan society in the United States was founded in 1948 by Catherine Nimmo and Rubin Abramowitz in California, in 1951 the Animal Welfare Institute was founded by Christine Stevens. On November 22,1954, the Humane Society of the United States was founded by Marcia Glaser, Helen Jones, in 1962 the Animal Welfare Board of India was founded by Rukmini Devi Arundale. Brophy wrote, The relationship of homo sapiens to the animals is one of unremitting exploitation. We employ their work, we eat and wear them, to us it seems incredible that the Greek philosophers should have scanned so deeply into right and wrong and yet never noticed the immorality of slavery. Perhaps 3000 years from now it will seem equally incredible that we do not notice the immorality of our own oppression of animals, British political scientist Robert Garner writes that Ruth Harrisons book and Brigid Brophys article led to an explosion of interest in the relationship between humans and nonhumans. They decided to put together a symposium to discuss the theory of animal rights, around the same time, the British writer Richard D. Ryder wrote several letters to The Daily Telegraph criticizing animal experimentation, these letters were seen by Brophy, who put Ryder in touch with the Godlovitches and Harris. Harrison, Brophy, and Ryder subsequently became contributors to the Godlovitches symposium, in 1973 Dr. Shirley McGreal founded the International Primate Protection League in Thailand. In 1980 the English-born British/American animal rights activist Ingrid Newkirk co-founded People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. In 1981 Feminists for Animal Rights was founded in California, it became an organization in the following years and was active nationwide for over two decades, but is now defunct. In 1984 Virginia McKenna OBE founded the Born Free Foundation together with her husband Bill Travers OBE, the Born Free Foundation is a dynamic international wildlife charity
39.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
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