1.
Seiko Epson
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Seiko Epson Corporation, or simply Epson, is a Japanese electronics company and one of the worlds largest manufacturers of computer printers, and information and imaging related equipment. It is one of three companies of the Seiko Group, a name traditionally known for manufacturing Seiko timepieces since its founding. In 1968 the company moved its UK headquarters to Audenshaw, Manchester, after acquiring the Jones Sewing Machine Company, Daiwa Kogyo was supported by an investment from the Hattori family and began as a manufacturer of watch parts for Daini Seikosha. The company started operation in a 2, 500-square-foot renovated miso storehouse with 22 employees, in 1943, Daini Seikosha established a factory in Suwa for manufacturing Seiko watches with Daiwa Kogyo. In 1959, the Suwa Factory of Daini Seikosha was split up, Ltd, the forerunner of the Seiko Epson Corporation. The company has developed many timepiece technologies, the watches made by the company are sold through the Seiko Watch Corporation, a subsidiary of Seiko Holdings Corporation. In 1961, Suwa Seikosha established a company called Shinshu Seiki Co. as a subsidiary to supply parts for Seiko watches. In September 1968, Shinshu Seiki launched the worlds first mini-printer, in June 1975, the name Epson was coined for the next generation of printers based on the EP-101 which was released to the public. In April of the same year Epson America Inc. was established to sell printers for Shinshu Seiki Co, in June 1978, the TX-80, eighty-column dot-matrix printer was released to the market, and was mainly used as a system printer for the Commodore PET Computer. After two years of development, an improved model, the MX-80, was launched in October 1980. It was soon described in the companys advertising as the best selling printer in the United States, in November 1985, Suwa Seikosha Co. Ltd. and the Epson Corporation merged to form Seiko Epson Corporation. Shortly after in 1994, Epson released the first high resolution color inkjet printer, newer models of the Stylus series employed Epson’s special DURABrite ink. They also had two hard drives, the HD850 and the HD860 MFM interface. The specifications are reference The WINN L. ROSCH Hardware bible 3rd addition SAMS publishing, in 1994 Epson started outsourcing sales reps to help sell their products in retail stores in the United States. In 1994 Epson started the Epson Weekend Warrior sales program, the purpose of the program was to help improve sales, improve retail sales reps knowledge of Epson products and to address Epson customer service in a retail environment. Reps were assigned on weekend shift, typically around 12–20 hours a week, Epson started the Weekend Warrior program with TMG Marketing, later with Keystone Marketing Inc, then to Mosaic, and now with Campaigners INC. The Mosaic contract expired with Epson on June 24,2007 and Epson is now represented by Campaigners, the sales reps of Campaigners, Inc. are not outsourced as Epson hired rack jobbers to ensure their retail customers displayed products properly. This frees up their regular sales force to concentrate on profitable sales solutions to VARs and system integrators, in June 2003, the company became public following their listing on the 1st section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange
2.
History of printing
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The history of printing goes back to the duplication of images by means of stamps in very early times. In both China and Egypt, the use of stamps for seals preceded the use of larger blocks. In China, India and Europe, the printing of cloth certainly preceded the printing of paper or papyrus, the process is essentially the same - in Europe special presentation impressions of prints were often printed on silk until the seventeenth century. Block printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia both as a method of printing on textiles and later, under the influence of Buddhism, on paper. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from China date to about 220, ukiyo-e is the best known type of Japanese woodblock art print. Most European uses of the technique on paper are covered by the term woodcut, the worlds earliest printer printed fragments to survive are from China and are of silk printed with flowers in three colours from the Han Dynasty. It reached Europe, via the Islamic world, and by around 1400 was being used on paper for old master prints, the third oldest wood-block printed book ever found after Mugujeonggwang great Dharani sutraand Hyakumantō Darani is the Diamond Sutra. It carries a date of the 13th day of the moon of the ninth year of the Xiantong era. A number of printed dhāraṇīs, however, predate the Diamond Sūtra by about two hundred years, in Buddhism, great merit is thought to accrue from copying and preserving texts. The fourth-century master listed the copying of scripture as the first of ten essential religious practices and this ‘cult of the book’ led to techniques for reproducing texts in great numbers, especially the short prayers or charms known as dhāraṇīs. Stamps were carved for printing these prayers on clay tablets from at least the seventh century, especially popular was the Pratītyasamutpāda Gāthā, a short verse text summing up Nāgārjunas philosophy of causal genesis or dependent origination. Nagarjuna lived in the centuries of the current era and the Buddhist Creed. This tradition was transmitted to China and Tibet with Buddhism, Printing text from woodblocks does not, however, seem to have been developed in India. Printing with a press was practiced in Christian Europe as a method for printing on cloth and these prints were produced in very large numbers from about 1425 onwards. Around the mid-century, block-books, woodcut books with text and images, usually carved in the same block, emerged as a cheaper alternative to manuscripts. These were all heavily illustrated works, the bestsellers of the day, repeated in many different block-book versions, the Ars moriendi. In Europe, from about 1450 they were commonly used to colour old master prints printed in black and white. This was especially the case with playing-cards, which continued to be coloured by stencil long after most other subjects for prints were left in black, stenciling back in the 27th century BCE was different
3.
Woodblock printing
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Woodblock printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and originating in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later paper. Ukiyo-e is the best known type of Japanese woodblock art print, most European uses of the technique for printing images on paper are covered by the art term woodcut, except for the block-books produced mainly in the 15th century. Prior to the invention of printing, seals and stamps were used for making impressions. The oldest of these came from Mesopotamia and Egypt. A few much larger brick stamps for marking clay bricks survive from Akkad from around 2270 BC. There are also Roman lead pipe inscriptions of some length that were stamped, however none of these used ink, which is necessary for printing, but stamped marks into relatively soft materials. In both China and Egypt, the use of stamps for seals preceded the use of larger blocks. In Europe and India, the printing of cloth certainly preceded the printing of paper or papyrus, the process is essentially the same—in Europe special presentation impressions of prints were often printed on silk until at least the 17th century. The block was cut along the grain of the wood and it is necessary only to ink the block and bring it into firm and even contact with the paper or cloth to achieve an acceptable print. The content would of course print in reverse or mirror-image, a further complication when text was involved, the art of carving the woodcut is technically known as xylography, though the term is rarely used in English. For colour printing, multiple blocks are used, each for one colour, multiple colours can be printed by keying the paper to a frame around the woodblocks. There are three methods of printing to consider, Stamping Used for many fabrics, and most early European woodcuts. These items were printed by putting paper or fabric on a table or a surface with the block on top, and pressing, or hammering. Rubbing Apparently the most common for Far Eastern printing, Used for European woodcuts and block-books later in the 15th century, and very widely for cloth. The block is placed face side up on a table, with the paper or fabric on top, the back of the paper or fabric is rubbed with a hard pad, a flat piece of wood, a burnisher, or a leather frotton. Printing in a press Presses only seem to have used in Asia in relatively recent times. Simple weighted presses may have used in Europe, but firm evidence is lacking. A deceased Abbess of Mechelen in Flanders in 1465 had unum instrumentum ad imprintendum scripturas et ymagines, cum 14 aliis lapideis printis which is probably too early to be a Gutenberg-type printing press in that location
4.
Movable type
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Movable type is the system and technology of printing and typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document usually on the medium of paper. In 1377, currently the oldest extant movable metal print book, the diffusion of both movable-type systems was, however, limited. Around 1450 Johannes Gutenberg made another version of a metal printing press in Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix. The more limited number of characters needed for European languages was an important factor, Gutenberg was the first to create his type pieces from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony—and these materials remained standard for 550 years. For alphabetic scripts, movable-type page setting was quicker than woodblock printing, the metal type pieces were more durable and the lettering was more uniform, leading to typography and fonts. The high quality and relatively low price of the Gutenberg Bible established the superiority of movable type in Europe, the printing press may be regarded as one of the key factors fostering the Renaissance and due to its effectiveness, its use spread around the globe. The 19th-century invention of hot metal typesetting and its successors caused movable type to decline in the 20th century, the technique of imprinting multiple copies of symbols or glyphs with a master type punch made of hard metal first developed around 3000 BC in ancient Sumer. These metal punch types can be seen as precursors of the letter punches adapted in later millennia to printing with metal type. Cylinder seals were used in Mesopotamia to create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay and they were used to sign documents and mark objects as the owners property. By 650 BC the ancient Greeks were using larger diameter punches to imprint small page images onto coins and tokens, seals and stamps may have been precursors to movable type. A few authors even view the disc as technically meeting all definitional criteria to represent an early incidence of movable-type printing, recently it has been alleged by Jerome Eisenberg that the disk is a forgery. The Prüfening dedicatory inscription is medieval example of movable type stamps being used, yet copying books by hand was still labour-consuming. Not until the Xiping Era, towards the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty did sealing print and it was soon used for printing designs on fabrics, and later for printing texts. Woodblock printing, invented by about the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty, then carvers cut away the parts of the board that were not part of the character, so that the characters were cut in relief, completely differently from those cut intaglio. When printing, the characters would have some ink spread on them. With workers’ hands moving on the back of paper gently, characters would be printed on the paper, by the Song Dynasty, woodblock printing came to its heyday. Although woodblock printing played a role in spreading culture, there remained some apparent drawbacks. Firstly, carving the printing plate required considerable time, labour and materials, secondly, it was not convenient to store these plates, with woodblock printing, one printing plate could be used for tens of hundreds of books, playing a magnificent role in spreading culture
5.
Printing press
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
6.
Etching
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Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other types of material, as a method of printmaking, it is, along with engraving, the most important technique for old master prints, and remains in wide use today. In a number of variants such as microfabrication etching and photochemical milling it is a crucial technique in much modern technology. In traditional pure etching, a plate is covered with a waxy ground which is resistant to acid. The artist then scratches off the ground with an etching needle where he or she wants a line to appear in the finished piece. The échoppe, a tool with an oval section, is also used for swelling lines. The plate is dipped in a bath of acid, technically called the mordant or etchant. The acid bites into the metal where it is exposed, leaving behind lines sunk into the plate, the remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate. The plate is inked all over, and then the ink wiped off the surface, the plate is then put through a high-pressure printing press together with a sheet of paper. The paper picks up the ink from the lines, making a print. The process can be repeated many times, typically several hundred impressions could be printed before the shows much sign of wear. The work on the plate can also be added to by repeating the whole process, Etching has often been combined with other intaglio techniques such as engraving or aquatint. The process as applied to printmaking is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer of Augsburg, Hopfer was a craftsman who decorated armour in this way, and applied the method to printmaking, using iron plates. Apart from his prints, there are two examples of his work on armour, a shield from 1536 now in the Real Armeria of Madrid. The switch to copper plates was made in Italy. On the other hand, the handling of the ground and acid need skill and experience, prior to 1100 AD, the New World Hohokam independently utilized the technique of acid etching in marine shell designs. Jacques Callot from Nancy in Lorraine made important technical advances in etching technique and he developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchers to create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do. Callot also appears to have responsible for an improved, harder, recipe for the etching ground
7.
Mezzotint
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Mezzotint is a printmaking process of the intaglio family, technically a drypoint method. It was the first tonal method to be used, enabling half-tones to be produced without using line- or dot-based techniques like hatching, cross-hatching or stipple. Mezzotint achieves tonality by roughening the plate with thousands of little dots made by a tool with small teeth. In printing, the pits in the plate hold the ink when the face of the plate is wiped clean. A high level of quality and richness in the print can be achieved, the mezzotint printmaking method was invented by the German amateur artist Ludwig von Siegen. His earliest mezzotint print dates to 1642 and is a portrait of Countess Amalie Elisabeth of Hanau-Münzenberg and this was made by working from light to dark. The rocker seems to have been invented by Prince Rupert of the Rhine, a cavalry commander in the English Civil War, who was the next to use the process. Sir Peter Lely saw the potential for using it to publicise his portraits, the process was especially widely used in England from the mid-eighteenth century, to reproduce portraits and other paintings. Since the mid-nineteenth century it has relatively little used. Robert Kipniss and Peter Ilsted are two notable 20th-century exponents of the technique, M. C, British mezzotint collecting was a great craze from about 1760 to the Great Crash of 1929, also spreading to America. The favourite period to collect was roughly from 1750 to 1820, leading collectors included William Eaton, 2nd Baron Cheylesmore and the Irishman John Chaloner Smith. This became the most common method, the whole surface of a metal, usually copper, plate is roughened evenly, manually with a rocker, or mechanically. If the plate were printed at this point it would show as solid black, a burnisher has a smooth, round end, which flattens the minutely protruding points comprising the roughened surface of the metal printing plate. Areas smoothed completely flat will not hold ink at all, such areas will print white, by varying the degree of smoothing, mid-tones between black and white can be created, hence the name mezzo-tinto which is Italian for half-tone or half-painted. This is called working from dark to light, or the subtractive method, alternatively, it is possible to create the image directly by only roughening a blank plate selectively, where the darker parts of the image are to be. This is called working from light to dark, or the additive method, the first mezzotints by Ludwig von Siegen were made in this way. Especially in this method, the mezzotint can be combined with other techniques, such as engraving, on areas of the plate not roughened. The plate is put through a printing press next to a sheet of paper
8.
Aquatint
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Aquatint is an intaglio printmaking technique, a variant of etching. In intaglio printmaking, the artist makes marks on the plate that are capable of holding ink, the inked plate is passed through a printing press together with a sheet of paper, resulting in a transfer of the ink to the paper. This can be repeated a number of times, depending on the particular technique, like etching, aquatint uses the application of a mordant to etch into the metal plate. Where the engraving uses a needle to make lines that print in black. The rosin is acid resistant and typically adhered to the plate by controlled heating, the tonal variation is controlled by the level of mordant exposure over large areas, and thus the image is shaped by large sections at a time. Another tonal technique, mezzotint, begins with a surface that is evenly indented so that it will carry a fairly dark tone of ink. The mezzotint plate is then smoothed and polished to make areas carry less ink, alternatively, beginning with a smooth plate, areas are roughened to make them darker. Occasionally these two techniques are combined, the painter and printmaker Jan van de Velde IV invented the aquatint technique in Amsterdam, around 1650. The cartographer Peter Perez Burdett later introduced his secret aquatint technique to England in the 1770s, an aquatint requires a metal plate, an acid, and something to resist the acid. Traditionally copper or zinc plates were used, the artist applies a ground that will resist acid. Ground is applied by either dissolving powdered resin in spirits, applying the powder directly to the surface of the plate, in all forms of etching the acid resist is commonly referred to as the ground. An aquatint box is used to apply resin powder, the powder is at the bottom of the box, a crank or a bellows is used to blow the powder up into the air of the box. A window allows the engraver to see the density of flowing powder, when the powder covers the plate, it can be extracted from the box for the next operations. The plate is then heated, if the plate is covered with powder, the resin melts forming a fine and even coat, if it is in spirits, the spirits evaporate and the result is essentially the same. Now the plate is dipped in acid, producing an even, at this point, the plate is said to carry about a 50% halftone. This means that, were the plate printed with no further biting, at some point the artist will then etch an outline of any aspects of the drawing s/he wishes to establish with line, this provides the basis and guide for the later tone work. S/he may also have applied an acid-resistant stop out if s/he intends to keep any areas totally white and free of ink, the artist then begins immersing the plate in the acid bath, progressively stopping out any areas that have achieved the designed tonality. These tones, combined with the limited line elements, give aquatints a distinctive, also, aquatints, like mezzotints, provide ease in creating large areas of tone without laborious cross-hatching, but aquatint plates, it is noted, are generally more durable than mezzotint plates
9.
Lithography
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Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
10.
Chromolithography
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Chromolithography is a unique method for making multi-colour prints. This type of colour printing stemmed from the process of lithography, when chromolithography is used to reproduce photographs, the term photochrome is frequently used. Lithographers sought to find a way to print on flat surfaces with the use of chemicals instead of relief or intaglio printing, hand-colouring also remained important, elements of the official British Ordnance Survey maps were coloured by hand by boys until 1875. The initial technique involved the use of multiple lithographic stones, one for each colour, depending on the number of colours present, a chromolithograph could take months to produce, by very skilled workers. However much cheaper prints could be produced by simplifying both the number of used, and the refinement of the detail in the image. Cheaper images, like advertisements, relied heavily on a black print. The process is based on the rejection of grease by water, the image is applied to stone, grained zinc or aluminium surfaces, with a grease-based crayon or ink. Limestone and zinc are two commonly used materials in the production of chromolithographs, as aluminium unfortunately corrodes easily, after the image is drawn onto one of these surfaces, the image is gummed-up with a gum arabic solution and weak nitric acid to desensitize the surface. Before printing, the image is proved before finally inking up the image with oil based transfer or printing ink, the inked image under pressure is transposed onto a sheet of paper using a flat-bed press. This describes the form of printing. The offset indirect method uses a cylinder that transfers the image from printing surface to the paper. Colours may be overprinted by using stones or plates to achieve a closer reproduction of the original. Accurate registration for multi-coloured work is achieved by the use of a key outline image, ben-Day medium, uses a raised gelatin stipple image to give tone gradation. An air-brush sprays ink to give soft edges and these are just two methods used to achieve gradations of tone. The use of twelve overprinted colours would not be considered unusual, each sheet of paper will therefore pass through the printing press as many times as there are colours in the final print. In order that each colour is placed in the position, each stone or plate must be precisely ‘registered, ’ or lined up. Chromolithographs are considered to be reproductions that are smaller than double demi, autolithographs are prints where the artist draws and perhaps prints his or her own limited number of reproductions. This is the true art form
11.
Rotary printing press
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
12.
Hectograph
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While the original use of the technology has diminished, it has recently been revived for use in the art world. The hectograph has been modernized and made practical for anyone to use, the special aniline dyes for making the master image came in the form of ink or in pens, pencils, carbon paper and even typewriter ribbon. Hectograph pencils and pens are still available. Various other inks have been found usable to varying degrees in the process, unlike a spirit duplicator master, a hectograph master is not a mirror image. The master is placed on the gelatin and spirits applied to transfer the ink from the master to the gelatin, after transfer of the image to the inked gelatin surface, copies are made by pressing paper against it. When a pad ceased to be useful, the gelatin could be soaked with spirits and the ink could be sponged away, a grey-colored, thick, absorbent paper pad was supplied to cover the gelatin surface for storage. This also removed ink from the surface, but took hours to do so. Care needed to be taken that the surface was kept clean. The gelatin process produced print runs of somewhere between 20 and 80 copies, depending upon the skill of the user and the quality of the original. At least eight different colors of ink were available at one time. Hectography, requiring limited technology and leaving few traces behind, has deemed useful both in low-technology environments and in clandestine circumstances where discretion was necessary. In the earlier 20th century, the process lent itself to small runs of school classroom test papers, church newsletters, prisoners-of-war at Stalag Luft III and at Colditz Castle during World War II used an improvised hectograph to reproduce documents for a planned escape attempt. It has also used, though not very extensively, as an artistic medium in printmaking. The Russian Futurists used it for book illustrations, and the German expressionist Emil Nolde made four hectographs, stephen King, in his book On Writing, talks about how he and his older brother Dave used the process to create their newspaper, Daves Rag. Before the popularization of spirit duplicators and the mimeograph, there were mechanized hectography machines that used a drum, in the final chapters of The Pothunters by P. G. Wodehouse the major characters use a jellygraph to produce a school magazine at very short notice. Wodehouse assumes his reader knows exactly what a jellygraph is and alludes to its being unattractive, I think well keep to print in future. The young, even those who had been too young to fight, were in a bad temper with their elders, as well they might be, meanwhile the old—those over sixty, say—were running in circles like hens, squawking about subversive ideas. Gordon and his friends had quite a time with their subversive ideas
13.
Offset printing
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Offset printing is a commonly used printing technique in which the inked image is transferred from a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface. The modern web process feeds a large reel of paper through a press machine in several parts, typically for several metres. Development of the press came in two versions, in 1875 by Robert Barclay of England for printing on tin, and in 1904 by Ira Washington Rubel of the United States for printing on paper. Lithography was initially created to be a method of reproducing artwork. This printing process was limited to use on flat, porous surfaces because the plates were produced from limestone. In fact, the word lithograph historically means an image from stone or printed from stone, tin cans were popular packaging materials in the 19th century, but transfer technologies were required before the lithographic process could be used to print on the tin. The first rotary offset lithographic printing press was created in England and this development combined mid-19th century transfer printing technologies and Richard March Hoes 1843 rotary printing press—a press that used a metal cylinder instead of a flat stone. The offset cylinder was covered with specially treated cardboard that transferred the image from the stone to the surface of the metal. Later, the covering of the offset cylinder was changed to rubber. As the 19th century closed and photography became popular, many lithographic firms went out of business, photoengraving, a process that used halftone technology instead of illustration, became the primary aesthetic of the era. Many printers, including Ira Washington Rubel of New Jersey, were using the low-cost lithograph process to produce copies of photographs, Rubel discovered in 1901—by forgetting to load a sheet—that when printing from the rubber roller, instead of the metal, the printed page was clearer and sharper. After further refinement, the Potter Press printing Company in New York produced a press in 1903, by 1907 the Rubel offset press was in use in San Francisco. The Harris Automatic Press Company also created a similar press around the same time, charles and Albert Harris modeled their press on a rotary letter press machine. One of the most important functions in the process is prepress production. This stage makes sure that all files are processed in preparation for printing. This includes converting to the proper CMYK color model, finalizing the files, Offset lithography is one of the most common ways of creating printed materials. A few of its common applications include, newspapers, magazines, brochures, stationery, compared to other printing methods, offset printing is best suited for economically producing large volumes of high quality prints in a manner that requires little maintenance. Many modern offset presses use computer-to-plate systems as opposed to the older computer-to-film work flows, advantages of offset printing compared to other printing methods include, consistent high image quality
14.
Hot metal typesetting
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In printing and typography, hot metal typesetting refers to technologies for typesetting text in letterpress printing. This method injects molten type metal into a mold that has the shape of one or more glyphs, the resulting sorts and slugs are later used to press ink onto paper. Two different approaches to mechanising typesetting were independently developed in the late 19th century, one, known as the Monotype composition caster system, produced texts with the aid of perforated paper-ribbons, all characters are cast separate. These machines could produce texts also in large-composition up to 24 point, the Super-caster, another machine produced by Monotype, was similar in function to the Thompson, Bath, pivotal and others casters but designed to produce single type for hand setting. The other approach was to cast complete lines as one slug, in this way headings could be produced to complement text produced on other machines. There is another difference between Monotype and all the slug-producing machines, a Monotype machine functions with a minimal set of matrices. Linecasters cannot function this way, and these systems need quite large magazines of matrices to be able to set a line of text with the usual character repetitions. The key feature of the Linotype is the use of molds which circulate through the machine in its various stages of operation, one type is a space band and the other is a letter matrix made of brass. The matrices are stored in one or more magazines on top of the machine while the bands are stored in a box closer to the keyboard. When the space band key near the keyboard is pressed, one of the space bands drops out of the box, the assembling elevator is adjustable for different lengths of line. Once the line approaches its correct length, the operator is aware of this by a bell or other indicator. If the line is ‘tight’ or too long, the carrying the matrices. Both scenarios, if not stopped by these safety features, usually result in a “squirt” of molten metal, encasing the matrices. Not only is it time-consuming to clean up after a squirt, therefore, it is considered very poor form for an operator to permit this to happen. When the line is assembled to the length, the operator presses down on a lever which raises the assembling elevator up into the delivery channel. The delivery channel transfers the matrices out of the assembler and into the first elevator, if the justification bar has made a full cycle and the line is still not fully justified, the second safety—the pump stop—prevents the plunger in the metal pot from going down. The space bands were an important feature of this machine, providing automatic justification of each line by equally adjusting the space between each word. Since the type used was proportional and not fixed in width, some later models had a feature that permitted the lines to be cast with the alignment to either left, right or centered
15.
Mimeograph
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The stencil duplicator or mimeograph machine is a low-cost duplicating machine that works by forcing ink through a stencil onto paper. The mimeograph process should not be confused with the spirit duplicator process, mimeographs, along with spirit duplicators and hectographs, were a common technology in printing small quantities, as in office work, classroom materials, and church bulletins. Early fanzines were printed with this technology, because it was widespread, in the late 1960s, mimeographs, spirit duplicators, and hectographs began to be gradually displaced by photocopying. Its earliest form was invented in 1874 by Eugenio de Zuccato, a young Italian studying law in London, zuccato’s system involved writing on a sheet of varnished paper with caustic ink, which ate through the varnish and paper fibers, leaving holes where the writing had been. This sheet – which had now become a stencil – was placed on a sheet of paper. The process was commercialized and Zuccato applied for a patent in 1895 having stencils prepared by typewriting, thomas Edison received US patent 180,857 for Autographic Printing on August 8,1876. The patent covered the electric pen, used for making the stencil, the word mimeograph was first used by Albert Blake Dick when he licensed Edisons patents in 1887. Dick received Trademark Registration no.0356815 for the term Mimeograph in the US Patent Office and it is currently listed as a dead entry, but shows the A. B. Dick Company of Chicago as the owner of the name. Over time, the term became generic and is now an example of a genericized trademark, in 1891, David Gestetner patented his Automatic Cyclostyle. This was one of the first rotary machines that retained the flatbed and this invention provided for more automated, faster reproductions since the pages were produced and moved by rollers instead of pressing one single sheet at a time. By 1900, two types of mimeographs had come into use, a single-drum machine and a dual-drum machine. The single-drum machine used a drum for ink transfer to the stencil. The single drum machine could be used for multi-color work by changing the drum - each of which contained ink of a different color. This was spot color for mastheads, the mimeograph became popular because it was much cheaper than traditional print - there was neither typesetting nor skilled labor involved. One individual with a typewriter and the equipment became his own printing factory. The image transfer medium was originally a stencil made from waxed mulberry paper, later this became an immersion-coated long-fibre paper, with the coating being a plasticized nitrocellulose. This flexible waxed or coated sheet is backed by a sheet of card stock. Once prepared, the stencil is wrapped around the drum of the rotary machine
16.
Photostat machine
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The Photostat machine, or Photostat, was an early projection photocopier created in the decade of the 1900s by the Commercial Camera Company, which became the Photostat Corporation. The Photostat name, which was originally a trademark of the company, became genericized, the growth of business during the industrial revolution created the need for a more efficient means of transcription than hand copying. Carbon paper was first used in the early 19th century, by the late 1840s copying presses were used to copy outgoing correspondence. One by one, other methods appeared and these included the manifold writer, developed from Christoph Scheiners pantograph and used by Mark Twain, copying baths, copying books, and roller copiers. Among the most significant of them was the Blue process in the early 1870s, stencil duplicators surfaced in 1874, and the Cyclostyle in 1891. All were manual and most involved messy fluids, the Rectigraph Company was acquired by the Haloid Company in 1935. In 1948 Haloid purchased the rights to produce Chester Carlsons xerographic equipment and in 1958 the firm was reorganized to Haloid Xerox, Haloid continued selling Rectigraph machines into the 1960s. The Photostat brand machine, differing in operation from the Rectigraph, a directory of the city from 1909 shows his Gregory Commercial Camera Company. By 1910, Gregory had co-filed a patent application with Norman W, by 1912, Photostat brand machines were in use, as evidenced by a record of one at the New York Public Library. By 1913, advertisements described the Commercial Camera Company as headquartered at Rochester, the pair filed another U. S. patent application in 1913 further developing their ideas. By 1920, distribution agency in various European markets was by the Alfred Herbert companies, for at least 40 years the brand was widespread enough that its name was genericized by the public. The Photostat Corporation was eventually absorbed by Itek in 1963, a prism was placed in front of the lens to reverse the image. After a 10-second exposure, the paper was directed to developing and fixing baths, the result was a negative print, which took about two minutes in total to produce, which could in turn be photographed to make any number of positive prints. The photographic prints produced by such machines are referred to as photostats. People who operated these machines were known as photostat operators and it was the expense and inconvenience of photostats that drove Chester Carlson to study electrophotography. In the mid-1940s Carlson sold the rights to his invention – which became known as xerography – to the Haloid Company and photostatting soon sank into history
17.
Screen printing
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Screen printing is a printing technique whereby a mesh is used to transfer ink onto a substrate, except in areas made impermeable to the ink by a blocking stencil. A blade or squeegee is moved across the screen to fill the open mesh apertures with ink, and this causes the ink to wet the substrate and be pulled out of the mesh apertures as the screen springs back after the blade has passed. Screen printing is also a method of print making in which a design is imposed on a screen of polyester or other fine mesh. Ink is forced into the mesh openings by the blade or squeegee and by wetting the substrate. As the screen away from the substrate the ink remains on the substrate. It is also known as silk-screen, screen, serigraphy, one color is printed at a time, so several screens can be used to produce a multicoloured image or design. There are various terms used for what is essentially the same technique, traditionally the process was called screen printing or silkscreen printing because silk was used in the process prior to the invention of polyester mesh. Currently, synthetic threads are used in the screen printing process. The most popular mesh in general use is made of polyester, there are special-use mesh materials of nylon and stainless steel available to the screen printer. There are also different types of mesh size which will determine the outcome, Screen printing first appeared in a recognizable form in China during the Song Dynasty. It was then adapted by other Asian countries like Japan, and was furthered by creating newer methods, Roy Beck, Charles Peter and Edward Owens studied and experimented with chromic acid salt sensitized emulsions for photo-reactive stencils. Commercial screen printing now uses sensitizers far safer and less toxic than bichromates, currently there are large selections of pre-sensitized and user mixed sensitized emulsion chemicals for creating photo-reactive stencils. Serigraphy is a word formed from Latin sēricum and Greek graphein. The Printers National Environmental Assistance Center says Screenprinting is arguably the most versatile of all printing processes, credit is generally given to the artist Andy Warhol for popularising screen printing as an artistic technique, identified as serigraphy, in the United States. Sister Mary Corita Kent, gained fame for her vibrant serigraphs during the 1960s and 1970s. Her works were rainbow colored, contained words that were political and fostered peace and love and caring. American entrepreneur, artist and inventor Michael Vasilantone started to use, develop, Vasilantone later filed for patent on his invention in 1967 granted number 3,427,964 on February 18,1969. The original machine was manufactured to print logos and team information on bowling garments, the Vasilantone patent was licensed by multiple manufacturers, the resulting production and boom in printed T-shirts made this garment screen printing machine popular
18.
Spirit duplicator
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A spirit duplicator was a printing method invented in 1923 by Wilhelm Ritzerfeld and commonly used for much of the rest of the 20th century. The term spirit refers to the alcohols which were a major component of the solvents used as inks in these machines. The device coexisted alongside the mimeograph, the spirit duplicator was invented in 1923 by Wilhelm Ritzerfeld. In both cases the trademark became a name for both the copiers and the process in their respective markets. Spirit duplicator technology gradually fell into disuse starting in the 1970s after the availability of low-cost, by the turn of the 21st century, the use of the technology was rare. The technology remains useful where electrical power is unavailable, or where the only remaining originals of legacy documents requiring duplication are in spirit master form. Tattoo artists use the master copies these machines produce as the design makes a very durable print on the skin that resists smudging as excess ink is wiped off during the process. The faintly sweet aroma of pages fresh off the duplicator was a feature of school life in the spirit-duplicator era. A pop culture reference to the aroma can be found in the 1982 film Fast Times At Ridgemont High, at one point a teacher distributes a duplicated schedule of class quizzes, and almost every student immediately lifts it to his or her nose and inhales. The rest of the follow suit seconds later. The duplicator used two-ply spirit masters, the first sheet could be typed, drawn, or written upon. The second sheet was coated with a layer of wax that had been impregnated with one of a variety of colorants. The pressure of writing or typing on the first sheet transferred the colored wax from the sheet to the shiny/coated back side of the first sheet. This produced the result of a sheet of carbon paper put in backwards. The two sheets were separated, and the first sheet was fastened onto the drum of the machine, with the back side facing out. There is no separate ink used in spirit duplication, as the wax transferred to the side of the first sheet contained the ink. As the paper to be printed moved through the printer, the solvent was spread across each sheet by an absorbent wick, all except black reproduced in pastel shades, pink, mint, sky blue, and so on. Spirit duplicators had the ability to print multiple colors in a single pass
19.
Dot matrix printing
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However, unlike a typewriter or daisy wheel printer, letters are drawn out of a dot matrix, and thus, varied fonts and arbitrary graphics can be produced. Each dot is produced by a metal rod, also called a wire or pin. Facing the ribbon and the paper is a guide plate named ribbon mask holder or protector. It is pierced with holes to serve as guides for the pins and this plate may be made of hard plastic or an artificial jewel such as sapphire or ruby. The portion of the containing the pins is called the print head. When running the printer, it generally prints one line of text at a time, there are two approaches to achieve this, The common serial dot matrix printers use a horizontally moving print head. The print head can be thought of featuring a vertical column of seven or more pins approximately the height of a character box. Thereby, up to 48 pins can be used to form the characters of a line while the print head moves horizontally. In a considerably different configuration, so called line dot matrix printers use a print head almost as wide as the paper path utilizing a horizontal line of thousands of pins for printing. Sometimes two horizontally slightly displaced rows are used to improve the effective dot density through interleaving, while still line-oriented, these printers for the professional heavy-duty market effectively print a whole line at once while the paper moves forward below the print head. The printing speed of serial dot matrix printers with moving heads varies from 30 to 1550 cps, in contrast to this, line matrix printers are capable of printing much more than 1000 cps, resulting in a throughput of up to 800 pages/hour. Because the printing involves mechanical pressure, both of these types of printers can create carbon copies and carbonless copies and these machines can be highly durable. A variation on the dot matrix printer was the cross hammer dot printer, the smooth cylindrical roller of a conventional printer was replaced by a spinning, fluted cylinder. The print head was a hammer, with a vertical projecting edge. Where the vertical edge of the hammer intersected the horizontal flute of the cylinder, compressing the paper, characters were built up of multiple dots. Although nearly all inkjet, thermal, and laser printers also print closely spaced dots rather than lines or characters. In 1925, Rudolf Hell invented the Hellschreiber, an early facsimile-like dot matrix-based teletypewriter device, like the earlier Hellschreiber, it still used electromechanical means of coding and decoding, but it used a start-stop method rather than synchronous transmission for communication. In 1956, while he was employed at Telefonbau und Normalzeit GmbH, the device was introduced to the Deutsche Bundespost, when Preikschat emigrated into the USA in 1957 he sold the rights to utilize the applications in any countries to TuN
20.
Phototypesetting
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The photographic paper or film is then fed into a processor, a machine that pulls the paper or film strip through two or three baths of chemicals, where it emerges ready for paste-up or film make-up. Phototypesetting machines project characters onto film for offset printing, in 1949 the Photon Corporation in Cambridge, Mass. Developed equipment based on the Lumitype of Rene Higonnet and Louis Moyroud, the Lumitype-Photon was first used to set a complete published book in 1953, and for newspaper work in 1954. Mergenthaler produced the Linofilm using a different design, and Monotype produced Monophoto, other companies followed with products that included Alphatype and Varityper. This cold-type technology could also be used in environments where hot-metal machines could not. The use of phototypesetting grew rapidly in the 1960s when software was developed to convert marked up copy, usually typed on paper tape, to the codes that controlled the phototypesetters. To provide much greater speeds, the Photon Corporation produced the ZIP200 machine for the MEDLARS project of the National Library of Medicine, the ZIP200 can produce text at 600 characters per second using high-speed flashes behind plates with images of the characters to be printed. Each character has a separate xenon flash constantly ready to fire, a separate system of optics positions the image on the page. An enormous advance was made by the mid-1960s with the development of equipment that projects the characters from CRT screens, alphanumeric Corporation produced the APS series. Rudolf Hell developed the Digiset machine in Germany, the RCA Graphic Systems Division manufactured this in the U. S. as the Videocomp, later marketed by Information International Inc. Software for operator-controlled hyphenation was a component of electronic typesetting. Early work on this topic produced paper tape to control hot-metal machines, C. J. Duncan, at the University of Durham in England, was a pioneer. Berthold successfully developed its Diatype, Diatronic, and ADS machines, Compugraphic produced phototypesetting machines in the 1970s that made it economically feasible for small publications to set their own type with professional quality. One model, the Compugraphic Compuwriter, uses a filmstrip wrapped around a drum that rotates at several hundred revolutions per minute, the filmstrip contains two fonts in one point size. To get different-sized fonts, the loads a different font strip or uses a 2x magnifying lens built into the machine. The CompuWriter II automated the lens switch and let the operator use multiple settings, other manufacturers of photo compositing machines include Alphatype, Varityper, Mergenthaler, Autologic, Berthold, Dymo, Harris, Monotype, Star/Photon, Graphic Systems Inc. Hell AG, MGD Graphic Systems, and American Type Founders, released in 1975, the Compuwriter IV holds two filmstrips, each holding four fonts. It also has a turret which has eight lenses giving different point sizes from the font, generally 8 or 12 sizes
21.
Dye-sublimation printer
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A dye-sublimation printer is a computer printer which uses heat to transfer dye onto materials such as a plastic, card, paper, or fabric. The sublimation name was first applied because the dye was considered to make the transition between the solid and gas states without going through a liquid stage and this understanding of the process was later shown to be incorrect. There is some liquifying of the dye, since then, the process is sometimes known as dye-diffusion, though this has not eliminated the original name. Many consumer and professional dye-sublimation printers are designed and used for producing photographic prints, ID cards, clothing and these are done at lower temperatures but higher pressures, particularly in all-over print processes. Some dye-sublimation printers use CMYO colors, which differs from the more recognized CMYK colors in that the black is eliminated in favour of a clear overcoating. This overcoating is also stored on the ribbon and is effectively a thin layer protects the print from discoloration from UV light. For ID card printing, text and bar codes are necessary and this overall process is then sometimes called D2T2. Dye-sublimation printing is a printing technology using full color artwork that works with polyester. The process uses the science of sublimation, in heat and pressure are applied to a solid. In sublimation printing, unique sublimation dyes are transferred to sheets of paper via liquid gel ink through a piezoelectric print head. The ink is deposited on these high-release inkjet papers, which are used for the step of the sublimation printing process. After the digital design is printed onto sublimation transfer sheets, it is placed on a heat press along with the substrate to be sublimated. In order to transfer the image from the paper to the substrate, it requires a press process that is a combination of time. The heat press applies this special combination, which can change depending on the substrate, the most common dyes used for sublimation activate at 350 degrees Fahrenheit. However, a range of 380 to 420 degrees Fahrenheit is normally recommended for optimal color, the end result of the sublimation process is a nearly permanent, high resolution, full color print. Because the dyes are infused into the substrate at the level, rather than applied at a topical level. The most common process lays one color at a time, the dye being stored on a ribbon that has each color on a separate panel. Each colored panel is the size of the medium that is being printed on, for example, tiny heating elements on the head change temperature rapidly, laying different amounts of dye depending on the amount of heat applied
22.
Laser printing
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Laser printing is an electrostatic digital printing process. It produces high-quality text and graphics by repeatedly passing a laser beam back, the drum then selectively collects electrically charged powdered ink, and transfers the image to paper, which is then heated in order to permanently fuse the text and/or imagery. As with digital photocopiers, laser printers employ a xerographic printing process, however, laser printing differs from analog photocopiers in that the image is produced by the direct scanning of the medium across the printers photoreceptor. This enables laser printing to copy images more quickly than most photocopiers, invented at Xerox PARC in the 1970s, laser printers were introduced for the office and then home markets in subsequent years by IBM, Canon, Xerox, Apple, Hewlett-Packard and many others. Over the decades, quality and speed have increased as price has fallen, in the 1960s, the Xerox Corporation held a dominant position in the photocopier market. In 1969, Gary Starkweather, who worked in Xeroxs product development department, had the idea of using a beam to draw an image of what was to be copied directly onto the copier drum. After transferring to the recently formed Palo Alto Research Center in 1971, in 1972, Starkweather worked with Butler Lampson and Ronald Rider to add a control system and character generator, resulting in a printer called EARS —which later became the Xerox 9700 laser printer. The first commercial implementation of a printer was the IBM3800 in 1976. It was designed for data centers, where it replaced line printers attached to mainframe computers, the IBM3800 was used for high-volume printing on continuous stationery, and achieved speeds of 215 pages per minute, at a resolution of 240 dots per inch. Over 8,000 of these printers were sold, the Xerox 9700 was brought to market in 1977. Unlike the IBM3800, the Xerox 9700 was not targeted to any particular existing printers. The Xerox 9700 excelled at printing high-value documents on paper with varying content. In 1979, inspired by the Xerox 9700s commercial success, Japanese camera and optics company, Canon, developed a low-cost, desktop laser printer, Canon then began work on a much-improved print engine, the Canon CX, resulting in the LBP-CX printer. Lacking experience in selling to computer users, Canon sought partnerships with three Silicon Valley companies, Diablo Data Systems, Hewlett-Packard, and Apple Computer, the first laser printer designed for office use reached market in 1981, the Xerox Star 8010. The system used a metaphor that was unsurpassed in commercial sales. Although it was innovative, the Star workstation was an expensive system, affordable only to a fraction of the businesses. The first laser printer intended for mass-market sales was the HP LaserJet, released in 1984, it used the Canon CX engine, the LaserJet was quickly followed by printers from Brother Industries, IBM, and others. First-generation machines had large photosensitive drums, of greater than the loaded papers length
23.
Thermal printing
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The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing an image. Two-colour direct thermal printers can print both black and an additional colour by applying heat at two different temperatures, thermal transfer printing is a very different method that uses a heat-sensitive ribbon instead of heat-sensitive paper, but uses similar thermal print heads. The printer sends a current to the heating elements of the thermal head. The heat activates the thermo-sensitive coloring layer of the thermosensitive paper, such a printing mechanism is known as a thermal system or direct system. The heating elements are arranged as a matrix of small closely spaced dots—thermal printers are actually dot-matrix printers. The paper is impregnated with a mixture of a dye and a suitable matrix, a combination of a fluoran leuco dye. Controller boards are embedded with firmware to manage the thermal printer mechanisms, the firmware can manage multiple bar code types, graphics and logos. They enable the user to choose between different resident fonts and character sizes. Controller boards can drive various sensors such as low, paper out, door open and so on. For point of sale application some boards can also control the cash drawer, thermal printers print more quietly and usually faster than impact dot matrix printers. They are also smaller, lighter and consume less power, making them ideal for portable and its efficiency can be utilized in retail sectors. Roll-based printers can be rapidly refilled and they often used unusually-sized supplies and were often used for making permanent records of information in the computer, rather than for correspondence. Through the 1990s many fax machines used thermal printing technology, thermal Receipt Printers are very efficient and quick. Its efficiency can be utilized in retail sectors, thermal printers are still commonly used in seafloor exploration and engineering geology due to their portability, speed, and ability to create continuous reels or sheets. Typically, thermal printers found in applications are used to print realtime records of side scan sonar. In data processing, thermal printers are used to quickly create hard copies of continuous seismic or hydrographic records stored in digital SEG Y or XTF form. The Game Boy Printer, released in 1998, was a thermal printer used to print out certain elements from some Game Boy games. Early formulations of the coating used in thermal paper were sensitive to incidental heat, abrasion, friction, light
24.
3D printing
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Objects can be of almost any shape or geometry and are produced using digital model data from a 3D model or another electronic data source such as an Additive Manufacturing File file. The term 3D printing originally referred to a process that deposits a binder material onto a bed with inkjet printer heads layer by layer. More recently, the term is being used in popular vernacular to encompass a variety of additive manufacturing techniques. United States and global technical standards use the term additive manufacturing for this broader sense. Early additive manufacturing equipment and materials were developed in the 1980s, but on July 16,1984 Alain Le Méhauté, Olivier de Witte and Jean Claude André filed their patent for the stereolithography process. It was three weeks before Chuck Hull filed his own patent for stereolithography, the application of French inventors were abandoned by the French General Electric Company and CILAS. The claimed reason was for lack of business perspective, Hull defined the process as a system for generating three-dimensional objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern of the object to be formed, but this had been already invented by Kodama. Hulls contribution is the design of the STL file format widely accepted by 3D printing software as well as the digital slicing, the term 3D printing originally referred to a process employing standard and custom inkjet print heads. The technology used by most 3D printers to date—especially hobbyist and consumer-oriented models—is fused deposition modeling, AM processes for metal sintering or melting usually went by their own individual names in the 1980s and 1990s. But AM-type sintering was beginning to challenge that assumption, by the mid 1990s, new techniques for material deposition were developed at Stanford and Carnegie Mellon University, including microcasting and sprayed materials. Sacrificial and support materials had become more common, enabling new object geometries. The umbrella term additive manufacturing gained wider currency in the decade of the 2000s, as the various additive processes matured, it became clear that soon metal removal would no longer be the only metalworking process done under that type of control. It was during this decade that the term subtractive manufacturing appeared as a retronym for the family of machining processes with metal removal as their common theme. The term subtractive has not replaced the term machining, instead complementing it when a term that covers any removal method is needed, both terms reflect the simple fact that the technologies all share the common theme of sequential-layer material addition/joining throughout a 3D work envelope under automated control. The 2010s were the first decade in which metal end use parts such as engine brackets, agile tooling uses a cost effective and high quality method to quickly respond to customer and market needs. It can be used in hydro-forming, stamping, injection molding, as technology matured, several authors had begun to speculate that 3D printing could aid in sustainable development in the developing world. 3D printable models may be created with a computer-aided design package, via a 3D scanner, or by a digital camera. 3D printed models created with CAD result in reduced errors and can be corrected before printing, allowing verification in the design of the object before it is printed, the manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting
25.
Solid ink
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Solid ink is a technology used in computer printers and multifunction devices originally credited with creation by Tektronix in 1986. After Xerox acquired the Tektronix Color Printing and Imaging Division in 2000, early offerings focused on the graphic arts industry. However, after a battle with Dataproducts Corporation, Tektronix ended up paying royalties to Dataproducts for the use of the technology. The first solid ink printer, the SI-480, was developed and released to the market in 1988 by Dataproducts Corporation and this was a monochrome printer that met with limited success. The first color solid ink printer was released by Dataproducts Corporation. The Tektronix Phaser III product introduced in 1991 cost $10,000 US, as the technology improved and costs were reduced, the focus shifted to office printing environments where quality and cost efficiency are important. Solid ink printers are still expensive, Xerox remains the only producer, a wide format printer, the Phaser 600. was introduced in 1996. The Phaser 600 was capable of using roll fed or sheet fed paper up to 48 inches wide, as of July 2015, the Xerox ColorQube 8580, ColorQube 8880, ColorQube 8700, and ColorQube 8900 printers are the current solid ink printer models. Solid ink technology utilizes solid ink sticks instead of the ink or toner powder usually used in printers. Some types of solid ink printers use small spheres of solid ink, after the solid ink is loaded into the printing device, it is melted and used to produce images on paper in a process similar to offset printing. The sticks are non-toxic and safe to handle, in the mid-1990s, the president of Tektronix actually ate part of a stick of solid ink, demonstrating that they are safe to handle and presumably, eat. The medium of the ink was made from food-grade processed vegetable oils, due to the way solid ink printers put the ink onto the page, print quality is considered to be excellent, with bright colors. Excellent results can be achieved with low-quality stock, as the wax covers the stock with a glossy, almost opaque, Solid ink printers are able to print on many different types and thicknesses of media. They are much less sensitive to changes in media type than are color laser printers, a loose ink block does not leave any residual cartridge after it is consumed - only a crushable, thin, plastic packing tray and a recyclable cardboard packaging box. Solid ink printers have an advantage over ink-jet printers for situations involving intermittent use with long periods of downtime and this is because melted solid ink that has subsequently cooled and re-solidified inside the ink-delivery pathways is a normal part of printer operation. So, this cooled-and-solidified ink does not dry out, and, while the printer is not operating, the solidified wax helps to prevent oxygen and moisture from interacting with many internal parts of the ink-delivery components. Solid contaminants in ink blocks can clog printhead nozzles when using original or compatible inks, for this reason, many third-party ink manufacturers provide a guarantee and will pay for the replacement of a damaged printhead. Xerox also provides its own warranty, when the device is cold, the first page may take several minutes to print
26.
Digital printing
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Digital printing refers to methods of printing from a digital-based image directly to a variety of media. It usually refers to professional printing where small-run jobs from desktop publishing and it also allows for on-demand printing, short turnaround time, and even a modification of the image used for each impression. This results in quicker turnaround time and lower cost when using digital printing, fine art digital inkjet printing is printing from a computer image file directly to an inkjet printer as a final output. Initially, these printers were limited to glossy papers, but the IRIS Graphics printer allowed the use of a variety of papers that included traditional and non-traditional media. Substrates in fine art inkjet printmaking include traditional fine-art papers such as Rives BFK, Arches watercolor paper, treated and untreated canvas, experimental substrates, inkjet reproductions can be printed and sold individually in accordance with demand. Digital inkjet printing also allows for the output of art of all types as finished pieces or as an element in a further art piece. Experimental artists often add texture or other media to the surface of a final print, many terms for the process have been used over the years, including digigraph and giclée. Thousands of print shops and digital printmakers now offer services to painters, photographers, digital images are exposed onto true, light sensitive photographic paper with lasers and processed in photographic developers and fixers. These prints are true photographs and have continuous tone in the image detail, the archival quality of the print is as high as the manufacturers rating for any given photo paper used. In large format prints, the greatest advantage is that, since no lens is used, digital printing technology has grown significantly over the past few years with substantial developments in quality and sheet sizes. Digital printing has many advantages over traditional methods, print on Demand – digital printing is used for personalized printing for example, childrens books customized with a childs name, photo books, or any other books. Advertising – often used for banner advertising and event signage, in trade shows, in the retail sector at point of sale or point of purchase. Photos – digital printing has revolutionized photo printing in terms of the ability to retouch, architectural Design – new media that conforms to a variety of surfaces has enabled interior and exterior spaces to be transformed using digitally printed wall murals and floor graphics
27.
Printer (computing)
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In computing, a printer is a peripheral which makes a persistent human-readable representation of graphics or text on paper or similar physical media. The worlds first computer printer was a 19th-century mechanically driven apparatus invented by Charles Babbage for his difference engine, the plotter was used for those requiring high quality line art like blueprints. Laser printers using PostScript mixed text and graphics, like dot-matrix printers, by 1990, most simple printing tasks like fliers and brochures were now created on personal computers and then laser printed, expensive offset printing systems were being dumped as scrap. The HP Deskjet of 1988 offered the same advantages as laser printer in terms of flexibility, inkjet systems rapidly displaced dot matrix and daisy wheel printers from the market. By the 2000s high-quality printers of this sort had fallen under the price point. Even the desire for printed output for offline reading while on mass transit or aircraft has been displaced by e-book readers, today, traditional printers are being used more for special purposes, like printing photographs or artwork, and are no longer a must-have peripheral. Starting around 2010, 3D printing became an area of intense interest and these devices are in their earliest stages of development and have not yet become commonplace. Personal printers are designed to support individual users, and may be connected to only a single computer. These printers are designed for low-volume, short-turnaround print jobs, requiring minimal setup time to produce a copy of a given document. However, they are generally slow devices ranging from 6 to around 25 pages per minute, however, this is offset by the on-demand convenience. Some printers can print documents stored on cards or from digital cameras. Networked or shared printers are designed for high-volume, high-speed printing and they are usually shared by many users on a network and can print at speeds of 45 to around 100 ppm. The Xerox 9700 could achieve 120 ppm, a virtual printer is a piece of computer software whose user interface and API resembles that of a printer driver, but which is not connected with a physical computer printer. It is called a printer by analogy with a printer which produces a two-dimensional document by a similar process of depositing a layer of ink on paper. The choice of print technology has an effect on the cost of the printer and cost of operation, speed, quality and permanence of documents. Some printer technologies dont work with certain types of physical media, cheques can be printed with liquid ink or on special cheque paper with toner anchorage so that alterations may be detected. The machine-readable lower portion of a cheque must be printed using MICR toner or ink, banks and other clearing houses employ automation equipment that relies on the magnetic flux from these specially printed characters to function properly. The following printing technologies are found in modern printers, A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text
28.
Hewlett-Packard
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The Hewlett-Packard Company or shortened to Hewlett-Packard was an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California. The company was founded in a garage in Palo Alto by William Bill Redington Hewlett and David Dave Packard. HP was the worlds leading PC manufacturer from 2007 to Q22013 and it specialized in developing and manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. HP also had services and consulting business around its products and partner products.4 billion in 2008, in November 2009, HP announced the acquisition of 3Com, with the deal closing on April 12,2010. On April 28,2010, HP announced the buyout of Palm, on September 2,2010, HP won its bidding war for 3PAR with a $33 a share offer, which Dell declined to match. On October 6,2014, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to split the PC and printers business from its enterprise products, the split closed on November 1,2015, and resulted in two publicly traded companies, HP Inc. and Hewlett Packard Enterprise. William Redington Hewlett and David Packard graduated with degrees in engineering from Stanford University in 1935. The company originated in a garage in nearby Palo Alto during a fellowship they had with a past professor, Terman was considered a mentor to them in forming Hewlett-Packard. In 1939, Packard and Hewlett established Hewlett-Packard in Packards garage with a capital investment of US$538. Hewlett and Packard tossed a coin to decide whether the company they founded would be called Hewlett-Packard or Packard-Hewlett, HP incorporated on August 18,1947, and went public on November 6,1957. Of the many projects they worked on, their very first financially successful product was an audio oscillator. This allowed them to sell the Model 200A for $54.40 when competitors were selling less stable oscillators for over $200, the Model 200 series of generators continued until at least 1972 as the 200AB, still tube-based but improved in design through the years. They worked on technology and artillery shell fuses during World War II. Hewlett-Packards HP Associates division, established around 1960, developed semiconductor devices primarily for internal use, instruments and calculators were some of the products using these devices. HP partnered in the 1960s with Sony and the Yokogawa Electric companies in Japan to develop several high-quality products, the products were not a huge success, as there were high costs in building HP-looking products in Japan. HP and Yokogawa formed a joint venture in 1963 to market HP products in Japan, HP bought Yokogawa Electrics share of Hewlett-Packard Japan in 1999. HP spun off a company, Dynac, to specialize in digital equipment. The name was picked so that the HP logo hp could be turned upside down to be a reverse image of the logo dy of the new company
29.
Canon Inc.
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It is headquartered in Ōta, Tokyo, Japan. Canon has a listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the TOPIX index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. At the beginning of 2015, Canon was the tenth largest public company in Japan when measured by market capitalization, the company was originally named Seikikōgaku kenkyūsho. In 1934 it produced the Kwanon, a prototype for Japan’s first-ever 35 mm camera with a plane based shutter. In 1947 the company name was changed to Canon Camera Co. Inc. shortened to Canon Inc. in 1969, the name Canon comes from Buddhist bodhisattva Guan Yin, previously transliterated as Kuanyin, Kwannon, or Kwanon in English. The origins of Canon date back to the founding of Precision Optical Instruments Laboratory in Japan in 1937 by Takeshi Mitarai, Goro Yoshida, Saburo Uchida and Takeo Maeda. During its early years the company did not have any facilities to produce its own optical glass, between 1933 and 1936 ‘The Kwanon’, a copy of the Leica design, Japan’s first 35 mm focal plane-shutter camera, was developed in prototype form. In 1940 Canon developed Japans first indirect X-ray camera, Canon introduced a field zoom lens for television broadcasting in 1958 and in 1959 introduced the Reflex Zoom 8, the world’s first movie camera with a zoom lens, and the Canonflex. In 1961 Canon introduced the Rangefinder camera, Canon 7, in 1965 Canon introduced the Canon Pellix, a single lens reflex camera with a semi-transparent stationary mirror which enabled the taking of pictures through the mirror. In 1971 Canon introduced the F-1, a high-end SLR camera, in 1976 Canon launched the AE-1, the world’s first camera with an embedded micro-computer. In 1982 Wildlife as Canon Sees It print ads first appeared in National Geographic magazine, Canon introduced the world’s first Inkjet printer using bubble jet technology in 1985. Canon introduced Canon Electro-Optical System in 1987, named after the goddess of the dawn, EOS650 autofocus SLR camera is introduced. Also in 1987 the Canon Foundation was established, in 1988 Canon introduced Kyosei philosophy. The EOS1 Flagship Professional SLR line was launched in 1989, in the same year the EOS RT, the worlds first AF SLR with a fixed, semi-transparent pellicle mirror, was unveiled. In 1992 Canon launched the EOS5, the camera with eye-controlled AF. In 1995 Canon introduced the first commercially available SLR lens with image stabilization. EOS-1N RS, the worlds fastest AF SLR camera with a shooting speed of 10 frame/s at the time
30.
Piezoelectricity
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Piezoelectricity /piˌeɪzoʊˌilɛkˈtrɪsɪti/ is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials in response to applied mechanical stress. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure and it is derived from the Greek piezō or piezein, which means to squeeze or press, and ēlektron, which means amber, an ancient source of electric charge. Piezoelectricity was discovered in 1880 by French physicists Jacques and Pierre Curie, the piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear electromechanical interaction between the mechanical and the electrical state in crystalline materials with no inversion symmetry. The piezoelectric effect is a process in that materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect also exhibit the reverse piezoelectric effect. For example, lead zirconate titanate crystals will generate measurable piezoelectricity when their structure is deformed by about 0. 1% of the original dimension. Conversely, those same crystals will change about 0. 1% of their static dimension when an electric field is applied to the material. The inverse piezoelectric effect is used in the production of sound waves. The pyroelectric effect, by which a material generates a potential in response to a temperature change, was studied by Carl Linnaeus. Drawing on this knowledge, both René Just Haüy and Antoine César Becquerel posited a relationship between stress and electric charge, however, experiments by both proved inconclusive. The first demonstration of the piezoelectric effect was in 1880 by the brothers Pierre Curie. Quartz and Rochelle salt exhibited the most piezoelectricity, the Curies, however, did not predict the converse piezoelectric effect. The converse effect was mathematically deduced from fundamental principles by Gabriel Lippmann in 1881. For the next few decades, piezoelectricity remained something of a laboratory curiosity, more work was done to explore and define the crystal structures that exhibited piezoelectricity. The first practical application for piezoelectric devices was sonar, first developed during World War I, in France in 1917, Paul Langevin and his coworkers developed an ultrasonic submarine detector. The detector consisted of a transducer, made of quartz crystals carefully glued between two steel plates, and a hydrophone to detect the returned echo. The use of piezoelectricity in sonar, and the success of that project, over the next few decades, new piezoelectric materials and new applications for those materials were explored and developed. Piezoelectric devices found homes in many fields, ceramic phonograph cartridges simplified player design, were cheap and accurate, and made record players cheaper to maintain and easier to build. The development of the ultrasonic transducer allowed for easy measurement of viscosity and elasticity in fluids and solids, ultrasonic time-domain reflectometers could find flaws inside cast metal and stone objects, improving structural safety
31.
Solder paste
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Solder paste is a material used in the manufacture of printed circuit boards to connect surface mount components to pads on the board. It is also possible to solder through hole pin in paste components by print solder paste in/over the holes, the paste initially adheres components in place by being sticky, it is then heated melting the paste and forming a mechanical connection as well as an electrical connection. The paste is applied to the board by stencil printing and then the components are put in place by a machine or by hand. A majority of the defects in assembly are caused due to issues in the solder-paste printing process or due to defects in the solder paste. There are many different types of possible, i. e. too much solder, or the solder melts and connects too many wires. Insufficient amounts of paste result in incomplete circuits, head-in-pillow defects, or incomplete coalescence of ball grid array sphere and solder paste deposit, is a failure mode that has seen increased frequency since the transition to lead-free soldering. An electronics manufacturer needs experience with the process, specifically the paste characteristics. The pastes physical characteristics, like viscosity and flux levels, need to be monitored periodically by performing in-house tests, when making PCBs, manufacturers often test the solder paste deposits using SPI. SPI systems measure the volume of the pads before the components are applied. SPI systems can reduce the incidence of solder-related defects to statistically insignificant amounts, inline systems are manufactured by Sinic-Tek, Koh Young, CyberOptics, Parmi and Test Research, Inc. Offline systems are manufactured by VisionMaster, Inc. and Sinic-Tek A solder paste is essentially powder metal solder suspended in a medium called flux. Flux is added to act as an adhesive, holding the components until the soldering process melts the solder. The paste is a gray, putty-like material, the composition of the solder paste varies, depending upon its intended use. For example, when soldering plastic component packages to a FR-4 glass epoxy circuit board, if one needs high tensile and shear strength, tin-antimony alloys might be used with such a board. Generally, solder pastes are made of an alloy, with possibly a third metal alloyed. Solder paste is thixotropic, meaning that its viscosity changes over time with applied shear force, the thixotropic index is a measure of the viscosity of the solder paste at rest, compared to worked paste. Depending upon the formulation of the paste, it may be important to stir the paste before it is used. The size and shape of the particles in the solder paste determines how well the paste will print
32.
Printed circuit board
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Components are generally soldered on the PCB. Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate, PCBs can be single sided, double sided or multi-layer. Conductors on different layers are connected with vias, multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density. FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate, a basic building block of the PCB is an FR-4 panel with a thin layer of copper foil laminated to one or both sides. In multi-layer boards multiple layers of material are laminated together, printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction, PCBs require the additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than other wiring methods as components are mounted and wired with one single part. A minimal PCB with a component used for easier prototyping is called a breakout board. When the board has no embedded components it is correctly called a printed wiring board or etched wiring board. However, the printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly, the IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit card assembly, and for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term PCB is used both for bare and assembled boards. The world market for bare PCBs exceeded $60.2 billion in 2014, initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a photomask on a clear mylar sheet, usually at two or four times the true size. Starting from the diagram the component pin pads were laid out on the mylar. Rub-on dry transfers of common component footprints increased efficiency, traces were made with self-adhesive tape. Pre-printed non-reproducing grids on the mylar assisted in layout, to fabricate the board, the finished photomask was photolithographically reproduced onto a photoresist coating on the blank copper-clad boards. Modern PCBs are designed with dedicated software, generally in the following steps. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the PCB, the positions of the components and heat sinks are determined
33.
Biosensor
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A biosensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of an analyte, that combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector. The sensitive biological element is a biologically derived material or biomimetic component that interacts with the analyte under study, the biologically sensitive elements can also be created by biological engineering. The biosensor reader device with the electronics or signal processors that are primarily responsible for the display of the results in a user-friendly way. This sometimes accounts for the most expensive part of the device, however it is possible to generate a user friendly display that includes transducer. The readers are usually custom-designed and manufactured to suit the different working principles of biosensors, a biosensor typically consists of a bio-recognition component, biotransducer component, and electronic system which include a signal amplifier, processor, and display. Transducers and electronics can be combined, e. g. in CMOS-based microsensor systems, the recognition component, often called a bioreceptor, uses biomolecules from organisms or receptors modeled after biological systems to interact with the analyte of interest. This interaction is measured by the biotransducer which outputs a signal proportional to the presence of the target analyte in the sample. The general aim of the design of a biosensor is to enable quick, in a biosensor, the bioreceptor is designed to interact with the specific analyte of interest to produce an effect measurable by the transducer. High selectivity for the analyte among a matrix of other chemical or biological components is a key requirement of the bioreceptor, an immunosensor utilizes the very specific binding affinity of antibodies for a specific compound or antigen. The specific nature of the interaction is analogous to a lock. Binding events result in a change that in combination with a tracer, such as a fluorescent molecules, enzymes, or radioisotopes. There are limitations with using antibodies in sensors,1. The antibody binding capacity is dependent on assay conditions and 2. The antibody-antigen interaction is generally irreversible, however, it has been shown that binding can be disrupted by chaotropic reagents, organic solvents, or even ultrasonic radiation. The use of antibodies as the component of biosensors has several drawbacks. They have high molecular weights and limited stability, contain essential disulfide bonds and are expensive to produce, in one approach to overcome these limitations, recombinant binding fragments or domains of antibodies have been engineered. The elements of the family that specifically bind to a target antigen, are often selected in vitro by display techniques, phage display, ribosome display. They are thus especially suitable to create biosensors, the specific binding capabilities and catalytic activity of enzymes make them popular bioreceptors. Notably, since enzymes are not consumed in reactions, the biosensor can easily be used continuously, the catalytic activity of enzymes also allows lower limits of detection compared to common binding techniques
34.
Tissue engineering
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Tissue engineering is the use of a combination of cells, engineering and materials methods, and suitable biochemical and physicochemical factors to improve or replace biological tissues. Tissue engineering involves the use of a scaffold for the formation of new viable tissue for a medical purpose, while it was once categorized as a sub-field of biomaterials, having grown in scope and importance it can be considered as a field in its own. While most definitions of tissue engineering cover a range of applications. Often, the tissues involved require certain mechanical and structural properties for proper functioning, the term has also been applied to efforts to perform specific biochemical functions using cells within an artificially-created support system. Tissue engineering has also defined as understanding the principles of tissue growth. Powerful developments in the field of tissue engineering have yielded a novel set of tissue replacement parts. In 2003, the NSF published a report entitled The Emergence of Tissue Engineering as a Research Field, bioartificial windpipe, The first procedure of regenerative medicine of an implantation of a bioartificial organ. In vitro meat, Edible artificial animal muscle tissue cultured in vitro, bioartificial liver device, several research efforts have produced hepatic assist devices utilizing living hepatocytes. Artificial pancreas, research involves using islet cells to produce and regulate insulin, Artificial bladders, Anthony Atala has successfully implanted artificially grown bladders into seven out of approximately 20 human test subjects as part of a long-term experiment. Cartilage, lab-grown tissue was used to repair knee cartilage. Scaffold-free cartilage, Cartilage generated without the use of exogenous scaffold material, in this methodology, all material in the construct is cellular or material produced directly by the cells themselves. Artificial bone marrow Artificial bone Laboratory-grown penis Oral mucosa tissue engineering Foreskin Tissue engineering utilizes living cells as engineering materials, examples include using living fibroblasts in skin replacement or repair, cartilage repaired with living chondrocytes, or other types of cells used in other ways. Cells became available as engineering materials when scientists at Geron Corp. discovered how to extend telomeres in 1998, before this, laboratory cultures of healthy, noncancerous mammalian cells would only divide a fixed number of times, up to the Hayflick limit, before dying. From fluid tissues such as blood, cells are extracted by bulk methods, from solid tissues, extraction is more difficult. Usually the tissue is minced, and then digested with the enzymes trypsin or collagenase to remove the matrix that holds the cells. After that, the cells are free floating, and extracted using centrifugation or apheresis, digestion with trypsin is very dependent on temperature. Higher temperatures digest the matrix faster, but create more damage, collagenase is less temperature dependent, and damages fewer cells, but takes longer and is a more expensive reagent. Cells are often categorized by their source Autologous cells are obtained from the individual to which they will be reimplanted
35.
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
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William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, OM, GCVO, PC, FRS, FRSE was a Scots-Irish mathematical physicist and engineer who was born in Belfast in 1824. He worked closely with mathematics professor Hugh Blackburn in his work and he also had a career as an electric telegraph engineer and inventor, which propelled him into the public eye and ensured his wealth, fame and honour. For his work on the telegraph project he was knighted in 1866 by Queen Victoria. He had extensive maritime interests and was most noted for his work on the mariners compass, absolute temperatures are stated in units of kelvin in his honour. He was ennobled in 1892 in recognition of his achievements in thermodynamics and he was the first British scientist to be elevated to the House of Lords. The title refers to the River Kelvin, which close by his laboratory at the University of Glasgow. His home was the red sandstone mansion Netherhall, in Largs. William Thomsons father, James Thomson, was a teacher of mathematics and engineering at Royal Belfast Academical Institution, James Thomson married Margaret Gardner in 1817 and, of their children, four boys and two girls survived infancy. Margaret Thomson died in 1830 when William was six years old, William and his elder brother James were tutored at home by their father while the younger boys were tutored by their elder sisters. James was intended to benefit from the share of his fathers encouragement, affection. In 1832, his father was appointed professor of mathematics at Glasgow, the Thomson children were introduced to a broader cosmopolitan experience than their fathers rural upbringing, spending mid-1839 in London and the boys were tutored in French in Paris. Mid-1840 was spent in Germany and the Netherlands, language study was given a high priority. His sister, Anna Thomson, was the mother of James Thomson Bottomley FRSE, Thomson had heart problems and nearly died when he was 9 years old. In school, Thomson showed a keen interest in the classics along with his natural interest in the sciences, at the age of 12 he won a prize for translating Lucian of Samosatas Dialogues of the Gods from Latin to English. In the academic year 1839/1840, Thomson won the prize in astronomy for his Essay on the figure of the Earth which showed an early facility for mathematical analysis. Throughout his life, he would work on the problems raised in the essay as a strategy during times of personal stress. On the title page of this essay Thomson wrote the lines from Alexander Popes Essay on Man. These lines inspired Thomson to understand the world using the power and method of science, Go
36.
Syphon recorder
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The syphon or siphon recorder is an obsolete electromechanical device used as a receiver for submarine telegraph cables invented by William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin in 1867. It automatically records an incoming telegraph message as an ink line on a roll of paper tape. Later a trained telegrapher would read the tape, translating the pulses representing the dots, the disadvantage of the mirror galvanometer was that it required two operators, one with a steady eye to read and call off the signal, the other to write down the characters received. Its use spread to ordinary telegraph lines and radiotelegraphy radio receivers, a major advantage of the syphon recorder was that no operator has to monitor the line constantly waiting for messages to come in. The paper tape preserved a record of the message before translation to text. The siphon recorder works on the principle of a dArsonval galvanometer, a light coil of wire is suspended between the poles of a permanent magnet so it can turn freely. The coil is attached via two wire linkages to the metal plate siphon support, which pivots on a suspension thread. From this plate a narrow glass siphon tube hangs down vertically with its end almost touching a paper tape, the paper tape is pulled by motorized rollers at a constant speed under the siphon pen. Ink is drawn up from a reservoir into the tube by siphon action and comes out a tiny orifice in the end of the siphon tube, in order not to affect the motion of the coil, the siphon tube itself never touches the paper, only the ink. The current from the line is applied to the coil. The wire linkages cause the siphon support plate to rotate about its horizontal axis and this draws a displacement in the ink line on the tape as long as the current is present in the coil. Thus the ink line on the forms a graph of the current in the telegraph line, with displacements representing the dots. An operator knowing Morse code later translates the line on the tape to characters of the text message, the siphon and an ink reservoir are together supported by an ebonite bracket, separate from the rest of the instrument, and insulated from it. This separation permits the ink to be electrified to a potential while the body of the instrument, including the paper and metal writing tablet, are grounded. The tendency of a body is to move from a place of higher to a place of lower potential. The only avenue of escape for it is by the fine glass siphon, the natural repulsion between its like-electrified particles causes the shower to issue in spray. Power to pull the roll of paper tape through the recorder was usually supplied by one Froments mouse mill motors. These also drove a machine to generate the electricity to power the syphon
37.
Chart recorder
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A chart recorder is an electromechanical device that records an electrical or mechanical input trend onto a piece of paper. Chart recorders may record several inputs using different color pens and may record onto strip charts or circular charts, chart recorders are built in three primary formats. Strip chart recorders have a strip of paper that is ejected out of the recorder. Circular chart recorders have a disc of paper that must be replaced more often. Roll chart recorders are similar to strip chart recorders except that the data is stored on a round roll. Chart recorders pre-dated electronic data loggers which have replaced them in many applications, charles Babbage incorporated a chart recorder into the dynamometer car that he built in 1838 or 1839. Here is how he described it, A roll of paper a thousand feet in length was slowly unwinding itself upon the long table, about a dozen pens connected with a bridge crossing the middle of the table were each marking its own independent curve gradually or by jumps. The paper advance was geared to the wheels of the carriage, while pens recorded time, the drawbar pull of the locomotive. In 1848-1850 a system of registers was used by John Locke to improve the precision of astronomical observations of stars. This method was adopted by astronomers in other countries as well, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvins syphon recorder of 1858 was a sensitive instrument that provided a permanent record of telegraph signals through long underwater telegraph cables. These recorders came to be referred to as pen registers, although this later became part of law enforcement jargon referring to the use of such a register to record dialed telephone numbers. A patent for a Pressure Indicator and Recorder was issued to William Henry Bristol, Bristol went on to form the Bristol Manufacturing Company in 1889. However, dataloggers decreasing cost and power requirements allow them to increasingly replace chart recorders, the paper chart is driven past the pen at a steady rate by a clockwork or electrical drive mechanism. One common method is to use a synchronous motor which turns at a constant speed related to the power frequency. Industrial strip-chart recorders may have two-speed gear trains that allow a speed to be used for initial adjustments of a process or to follow process upsets. Medical and scientific recorders allow a range of accurately-controlled speeds to be set. An X-Y recorder drives the chart depending on the value of another process signal, for example, a universal testing machine may plot the tension force on a specimen against its length. Depending on the recorder, either the paper chart is moved or else the pen carriage has two axes of motion
38.
Siemens
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Siemens AG is a German conglomerate company headquartered in Berlin and Munich and the largest manufacturing and electronics company in Europe with branch offices abroad. The principal divisions of the company are Industry, Energy, Healthcare, and Infrastructure & Cities, the company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. Siemens and its subsidiaries employ approximately 362,000 people worldwide, the von Siemens family remain the largest shareholder with a stake of 6. 9% percent. Siemens & Halske was founded by Werner von Siemens and Johann Georg Halske on 12 October 1847, based on the telegraph, their invention used a needle to point to the sequence of letters, instead of using Morse code. The company, then called Telegraphen-Bauanstalt von Siemens & Halske, opened its first workshop on 12 October, in 1848, the company built the first long-distance telegraph line in Europe,500 km from Berlin to Frankfurt am Main. In 1850, the younger brother, Carl Wilhelm Siemens, later Sir William Siemens. The London agency became an office in 1858. In the 1850s, the company was involved in building long distance telegraph networks in Russia, in 1855, a company branch headed by another brother, Carl Heinrich von Siemens, opened in St Petersburg, Russia. In 1867, Siemens completed the monumental Indo-European telegraph line, in 1867, Werner von Siemens described a dynamo without permanent magnets. A similar system was independently invented by Charles Wheatstone. In 1881, a Siemens AC Alternator driven by a watermill was used to power the worlds first electric lighting in the town of Godalming. The company continued to grow and diversified into electric trains and light bulbs, in 1890, the founder retired and left running the company to his brother Carl and sons Arnold and Wilhelm. In 1887, it opened its first office in Japan, Siemens & Halske was incorporated in 1897, and then merged parts of its activities with Schuckert & Co. Nuremberg in 1903 to become Siemens-Schuckert, in 1907, Siemens had 34,324 employees and was the seventh-largest company in the German empire by number of employees. In 1919, S & H and two companies jointly formed the Osram lightbulb company. During the 1920s and 1930s, S & H started to manufacture radios, television sets, in the 1920s, Siemens constructed the Ardnacrusha Hydro Power station on the River Shannon in the then Irish Free State, and it was a world first for its design. The company is remembered for its desire to raise the wages of its workers only to be overruled by the Cumann na nGaedheal government. Siemens exploited the forced labour of deported people in extermination camps, the company owned a plant in Auschwitz concentration camp
39.
Volatility (chemistry)
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In chemistry and physics, volatility is quantified by the tendency of a substance to vaporize. Volatility is directly related to a vapor pressure. At a given temperature, a substance with higher vapor pressure vaporizes more readily than a substance with a vapor pressure. The vapor pressure of a substance is the pressure at which its gas phase is in equilibrium with its condensed phases and it is a measure of the tendency of molecules and atoms to escape from a liquid or a solid. The higher the pressure of a liquid at a given temperature, the higher the volatility. The vapor pressure chart displays the vapor pressures dependency for a variety of liquids as a function of temperature, for example, at any given temperature, chloromethane has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point, which is where the pressure curve intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere of absolute vapor pressure
40.
Ketone
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In chemistry, a ketone /ˈkiːtoʊn/ is an organic compound with the structure RCR, where R and R can be a variety of carbon-containing substituents. Ketones and aldehydes are simple compounds that contain a carbonyl group and they are considered simple because they do not have reactive groups like −OH or −Cl attached directly to the carbon atom in the carbonyl group, as in carboxylic acids containing −COOH. Many ketones are known and many are of importance in industry. Examples include many sugars and the industrial solvent acetone, which is the smallest ketone, the word ketone is derived from Aketon, an old German word for acetone. According to the rules of IUPAC nomenclature, ketones are named by changing the suffix -ane of the parent alkane to -anone, the position of the carbonyl group is usually denoted by a number. For the most important ketones, however, traditional names are still generally used. The common names of ketones are obtained by writing separately the names of the two alkyl groups attached to the group, followed by ketone as a separate word. The names of the groups are written alphabetically. When the two groups are the same, the prefix di- is added before the name of alkyl group. The positions of other groups are indicated by Greek letters, the α-carbon being the adjacent to carbonyl group. If both alkyl groups in a ketone are the same then the ketone is said to be symmetrical, although used infrequently, oxo is the IUPAC nomenclature for a ketone functional group. Other prefixes, however, are also used, for some common chemicals, keto or oxo refer to the ketone functional group. The term oxo is used widely through chemistry, for example, it also refers to an oxygen atom bonded to a transition metal. The ketone carbon is often described as sp2 hybridized, a description that includes both their electronic and molecular structure, ketones are trigonal planar around the ketonic carbon, with C−C−O and C−C−C bond angles of approximately 120°. Ketones differ from aldehydes in that the group is bonded to two carbons within a carbon skeleton. In aldehydes, the carbonyl is bonded to one carbon and one hydrogen and are located at the ends of carbon chains, ketones are also distinct from other carbonyl-containing functional groups, such as carboxylic acids, esters and amides. The carbonyl group is polar because the electronegativity of the oxygen is greater than that for carbon, thus, ketones are nucleophilic at oxygen and electrophilic at carbon. Because the carbonyl group interacts with water by bonding, ketones are typically more soluble in water than the related methylene compounds
41.
CMYK color model
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The CMYK color model is a subtractive color model, used in color printing, and is also used to describe the printing process itself. CMYK refers to the four used in some color printing, cyan, magenta, yellow. Though it varies by print house, press operator, press manufacturer, the K in CMYK stands for key because in four-color printing, cyan, magenta and yellow printing plates are carefully keyed, or aligned, with the key of the black key plate. Some sources suggest that the K in CMYK comes from the last letter in black and was chosen because B already means blue. Some sources claim this explanation, although useful as a mnemonic, is incorrect, the CMYK model works by partially or entirely masking colors on a lighter, usually white, background. The ink reduces the light that would otherwise be reflected, such a model is called subtractive because inks subtract brightness from white. In additive color models such as RGB, white is the combination of all primary colored lights. In the CMYK model, it is the opposite, white is the color of the paper or other background. To save cost on ink, and to produce deeper black tones, unsaturated and dark colors are produced by using black ink instead of the combination of cyan, magenta, with halftoning, a full continuous range of colors can be produced. To improve print quality and reduce moiré patterns, the screen for each color is set at a different angle. Common reasons for using black ink include, In traditional preparation of color separations, in some cases a black keyline was used when it served as both a color indicator and an outline to be printed in black. Because usually the black plate contained the keyline, the K in CMYK represents the keyline or black plate, also sometimes called the key plate. A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks soaks the paper with ink, making it slower to dry, causing bleeding, adding black ink absorbs more light and yields much better blacks. Using black ink is less expensive than using the corresponding amounts of colored inks. When a very dark area is desirable, a colored or gray CMY bedding is applied first, then a black layer is applied on top, making a rich, deep black. A black made with just CMY inks is sometimes called a composite black, the amount of black to use to replace amounts of the other ink is variable, and the choice depends on the technology, paper and ink in use. Processes called under color removal, under addition, and gray component replacement are used to decide on the final mix. CMYK or process color printing is contrasted with spot color printing, some printing presses are capable of printing with both four-color process inks and additional spot color inks at the same time
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Lexmark
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Lexmark International, Inc. is a Chinese-owned corporation based in the United States that manufactures laser printers and imaging products. The company is headquartered in Lexington, Kentucky, Lexmark became a publicly traded company on the New York Stock Exchange on November 15,1995. It was reported in April 2016 that Lexmark would be acquired by Apex Technology, Lexmark was set to be acquired at $40.50 per share in the transaction. Initial talks for the acquisition were begun at the Remax World Expo in 2015, the deal was closed on November 29,2016. Lexmark stated that its headquarters would remain in Lexington, and that its enterprise software line of business would be spun off, Lexmark has offices throughout North and South America, Asia, Africa and Europe. The company has more than 12,000 employees worldwide, in May 2010, Lexmark acquired Perceptive Software for $280 million to build upon its software offerings. Perceptive Software was a firm that developed enterprise content management and document output management applications. In 2011, Lexmark International purchased Netherlands-based Pallas Athena in a transaction valued at approximately $50.2 million. The purchase of Pallas Athena added business process management, document output management, in March 2012, Lexmark announced the acquisition of Luxembourg-based BDGB Enterprise, including its U. S. subsidiary Brainware, Inc. for a cash purchase price of approximately $148 million. In March 2012, Lexmark acquired Australia-based ISYS Search Software and U. S. -based Nolij Corporation, ISYS built enterprise search solutions and Nolij developed Web-based document imaging and workflow software. In January 2013, Lexmark acquired Minnesota-based Acuo Technologies for $45 million, Acuo Technologies developed medical imaging document management software. In March 2013, Lexmark announced acquisitions of AccessVia and Twistage for a purchase price of approximately $31.5 million. In late August 2013, Lexmark signed an agreement to acquire Germany-based Saperion AG, Saperion was a developer and provider of enterprise content management and business process management software in Europe. The company was purchased for $72 million, in early October 2013, Lexmark acquired PACSGEAR. PACSGEAR was a provider of connectivity solutions for medical image management, the company was purchased for approximately $54 million. In September 2014, Lexmark acquired Stockholm, Sweden-based ReadSoft for $251 million, ReadSoft was a financial process automation solutions company that specialized in software solutions for document process automation on-premises or in the cloud. In May 2015, Lexmark announced that it had acquired Kofax for roughly $1 billion, Kofax, headquartered in Irvine, California, was a provider of smart process applications. They combined capture, process management, analytics and mobile capabilities to organizations and this line of business was, in turn, spun off from Lexmark when it was acquired by Apex Technology in November 2016
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Photolithography
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Photolithography, also termed optical lithography or UV lithography, is a process used in microfabrication to pattern parts of a thin film or the bulk of a substrate. It uses light to transfer a geometric pattern from a photomask to a light-sensitive chemical photoresist, or simply resist, on the substrate. A series of chemical treatments then engraves the exposure pattern into, or enables deposition of a new material in the desired pattern upon. For example, in integrated circuits, a modern CMOS wafer will go through the photolithographic cycle up to 50 times. This procedure is comparable to a high precision version of the used to make printed circuit boards. Subsequent stages in the process have more in common with etching than with lithographic printing and its main disadvantages are that it requires a flat substrate to start with, it is not very effective at creating shapes that are not flat, and it can require extremely clean operating conditions. The root words photo, litho, and graphy all have Greek origins, with the light, stone. As suggested by the name compounded from them, photolithography is a method in which light plays an essential role. In the 1820s, Nicephore Niepce invented a process that used Bitumen of Judea. In 1954, Louis Plambeck Jr. developed the Dycryl polymeric letterpress plate, a single iteration of photolithography combines several steps in sequence. Modern cleanrooms use automated, robotic wafer track systems to coordinate the process, the procedure described here omits some advanced treatments, such as thinning agents or edge-bead removal. Other solutions made with trichloroethylene, acetone or methanol can also be used to clean, the wafer is initially heated to a temperature sufficient to drive off any moisture that may be present on the wafer surface,150 °C for ten minutes is sufficient. Wafers that have been in storage must be cleaned to remove contamination. A liquid or gaseous adhesion promoter, such as Bisamine, is applied to promote adhesion of the photoresist to the wafer. The surface layer of silicon dioxide on the wafer reacts with HMDS to form tri-methylated silicon-dioxide, in order to ensure the development of the image, it is best covered and placed over a hot plate and let it dry while stabilizing the temperature at 120 °C. The wafer is covered with photoresist by spin coating, a viscous, liquid solution of photoresist is dispensed onto the wafer, and the wafer is spun rapidly to produce a uniformly thick layer. The spin coating typically runs at 1200 to 4800 rpm for 30 to 60 seconds, the spin coating process results in a uniform thin layer, usually with uniformity of within 5 to 10 nanometres. Thus, the top layer of resist is quickly ejected from the edge while the bottom layer still creeps slowly radially along the wafer
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Surface tension
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Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which makes it acquire the least surface area possible. Surface tension allows insects, usually denser than water, to float, at liquid-air interfaces, surface tension results from the greater attraction of liquid molecules to each other than to the molecules in the air. The net effect is a force at its surface that causes the liquid to behave as if its surface were covered with a stretched elastic membrane. Thus, the surface becomes under tension from the imbalanced forces, because of the relatively high attraction of water molecules for each other through a web of hydrogen bonds, water has a higher surface tension compared to that of most other liquids. Surface tension is an important factor in the phenomenon of capillarity, Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two are equivalent, but when referring to energy per unit of area, it is common to use the surface energy. In materials science, surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy, the cohesive forces among liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, the molecules at the surface do not have the same molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards. This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area, Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a shape by the imbalance in cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be approximately spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the necessary wall tension of the surface according to Laplaces law. Another way to view surface tension is in terms of energy, a molecule in contact with a neighbor is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone. The interior molecules have as many neighbors as they can possibly have, for the liquid to minimize its energy state, the number of higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized. The minimized quantity of boundary molecules results in a surface area. As a result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can, since any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area, a higher energy will also result. Consequently, the surface will push back against any curvature in much the way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy. Bubbles in pure water are unstable, the addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles
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Pigment
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A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, many materials selectively absorb certain wavelengths of light. Materials that humans have chosen and developed for use as pigments usually have properties that make them ideal for coloring other materials. A pigment must have a high tinting strength relative to the materials it colors and it must be stable in solid form at ambient temperatures. For industrial applications, as well as in the arts, permanence, pigments that are not permanent are called fugitive. Fugitive pigments fade over time, or with exposure to light, pigments are used for coloring paint, ink, plastic, fabric, cosmetics, food, and other materials. Most pigments used in manufacturing and the arts are dry colorants. This powder is added to a binder, a neutral or colorless material that suspends the pigment. A distinction is made between a pigment, which is insoluble in its vehicle, and a dye, which either is itself a liquid or is soluble in its vehicle. A colorant can act as either a pigment or a dye depending on the vehicle involved, in some cases, a pigment can be manufactured from a dye by precipitating a soluble dye with a metallic salt. The resulting pigment is called a lake pigment, the term biological pigment is used for all colored substances independent of their solubility. In 2006, around 7.4 million tons of inorganic, organic, asia has the highest rate on a quantity basis followed by Europe and North America. By 2020, revenues will have risen to approx, the global demand on pigments was roughly US$20.5 billion in 2009, around 1. 5-2% up from the previous year. It is predicted to increase in a growth rate in the coming years. The worldwide sales are said to increase up to US$24.5 billion in 2015, pigments appear the colors they are because they selectively reflect and absorb certain wavelengths of visible light. White light is an equal mixture of the entire spectrum of visible light with a wavelength in a range from about 375 or 400 nanometers to about 760 or 780 nm. When this light encounters a pigment, parts of the spectrum are absorbed by the molecules or ions of the pigment, in organic pigments such as diazo or phthalocyanine compounds the light is absorbed by the conjugated systems of double bonds in the molecule. Some of the inorganic pigments such as vermilion or cadmium yellow absorb light by transferring an electron from the ion to the positive ion
