1.
Carburetor
–
A carburetor, or carburettor, or carburator, or carburetter is a device that blends air and fuel for an internal combustion engine in the proper ratio for combustion. It is sometimes shortened to carb in North America or carby in Australia. To carburate or carburet is to blend the air and fuel or to equip with a carburetor for that purpose, carburetors have largely been supplanted in the automotive and, to a lesser extent, aviation industries by fuel injection. They are still common on engines for lawn mowers, rototillers. The word carburetor comes from the French carbure meaning carbide, carburer means to combine with carbon. In fuel chemistry, the term has the specific meaning of increasing the carbon content of a fluid by mixing it with a volatile hydrocarbon. The first carburetor was invented by Samuel Morey in 1826, a carburetor was invented by an Italian, Luigi De Cristoforis, in 1876. Another carburetor was developed by Enrico Bernardi at the University of Padua in 1882, for his Motrice Pia, a carburetor was among the early patents by Karl Benz as he developed internal combustion engines and their components. Early carburetors were the surface type, in which air is charged with fuel by being passed over the surface of gasoline. In 1885, Wilhelm Maybach and Gottlieb Daimler developed a float carburetor for their engine based on the atomizer nozzle, hungarian engineers János Csonka and Donát Bánki patented a carburetor for a stationary engine in 1893. Frederick William Lanchester of Birmingham, England, experimented with the wick carburetor in cars, in 1896, Frederick and his brother built the first gasoline-driven car in England, a single cylinder 5 hp internal combustion engine with chain drive. Unhappy with the performance and power, they re-built the engine the next year into a horizontally opposed version using his new wick carburetor design. Carburetors were the method of fuel delivery for most US-made gasoline-fueled engines up until the late 1980s. 1991, Jeep Grand Wagoneer with the AMC360 cu in V8 engine, low-cost commercial vans and 4WDs in Australia continued with carburetors even into the 2000s, the last being the Mitsubishi Express van in 2003. Elsewhere, certain Lada cars used carburetors until 2006, many motorcycles still use carburetors for simplicitys sake, since a carburetor does not require an electrical system to function. EEC legislation required all vehicles sold and produced in countries to have a catalytic converter after December 1992. This legislation had been in the pipeline for some time, with cars becoming available with catalytic converters or fuel injection from around 1990. Fords first fuel-injected car was the Ford Capri RS2600 in 1970, general Motors launched its first fuel-injected car around the same time, when began to introduce fuel-injected engines to its Vauxhall Cavalier/Opel Ascona range
2.
Automotive engineering
–
It also includes modification of vehicles. The study of engineering is to design, develop, fabricate. Production, development, and manufacturing are the three functions in this field. Automobile Engineering is mainly divided into three such as production or design engineering focuses on design components, testing of parts, coordinating tests. Automobile Engineering is a study of engineering which teaches manufacturing, designing. It is an introduction to vehicle engineering which deals with motorcycles, cars and it include branch study of mechanical, electronic, software and safety elements. These are tested against very stringent governmental regulations, some of these requirements include, seat belt and air bag functionality testing, front and side impact testing, and tests of rollover resistance. Assessments are done with various methods and tools, including Computer crash simulation, crash test dummies, Fuel economy/emissions, Fuel economy is the measured fuel efficiency of the vehicle in miles per gallon or kilometers per litre. Emissions testing includes the measurement of vehicle emissions, including hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, Vehicle dynamics, Vehicle dynamics is the vehicles response of the following attributes, ride, handling, steering, braking, comfort and traction. NVH engineering, NVH is the feedback from the vehicle. While sound can be interpreted as a rattle, squeal, or hoot and this feedback is generated by components either rubbing, vibrating, or rotating. NVH response can be classified in various ways, powertrain NVH, road noise, wind noise, component noise, note, there are both good and bad NVH qualities. The NVH engineer works to eliminate bad NVH, or change the “bad NVH” to good. Vehicle Electronics, Automotive electronics is an important aspect of automotive engineering. Modern vehicles employ dozens of electronic systems and it would not be possible for automobiles to meet modern safety and fuel economy requirements without electronic controls. Performance, Performance is a measurable and testable value of an ability to perform in various conditions. Performance can also reflect the amount of control in inclement weather, Shift quality, Shift quality is the driver’s perception of the vehicle to an automatic transmission shift event. This is influenced by the powertrain, and the vehicle Shift feel is both a tactile and audible response of the vehicle, Shift quality is experienced as various events, Transmission shifts are felt as an upshift at acceleration, or a downshift maneuver in passing
3.
Engine
–
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
4.
Fuel
–
A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. The concept was applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy. The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine, other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a known as cellular respiration. Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy or mechanical energy. The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by Homo erectus near 2,000,000 years ago, throughout most of human history fuels derived from plants or animal fat were only used by humans. Charcoal, a derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around the 18th century, charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking. Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China, coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the use of coal is to generate electricity. Fossil fuels were rapidly adopted during the revolution, because they were more concentrated and flexible than traditional energy sources. They have become a part of our contemporary society, with most countries in the world burning fossil fuels in order to produce power. Currently the trend has been towards renewable fuels, such as biofuels like alcohols, chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of combustion. Most of the energy released in combustion was not stored in the chemical bonds of the fuel. Chemical fuels are divided in two ways, first, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence, primary and secondary, solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, and pellets made from wood, corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel, solid fuels have been used by humanity for many years to create fire
5.
Atmosphere of Earth
–
The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earths gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention. By volume, dry air contains 78. 09% nitrogen,20. 95% oxygen,0. 93% argon,0. 04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains an amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level. The atmosphere has a mass of about 5. 15×1018 kg, the atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km, or 1. 57% of Earths radius, is used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km, several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition. The study of Earths atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science, early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann. The three major constituents of air, and therefore of Earths atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor accounts for roughly 0. 25% of the atmosphere by mass. The remaining gases are often referred to as gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide. Filtered air includes trace amounts of other chemical compounds. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine, fluorine compounds, sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution. In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere, however, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions. In this way, Earths atmosphere can be divided into five main layers, excluding the exosphere, Earth has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km where it merges into the solar wind. This layer is composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another, thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind, the exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible
6.
Cylinder (engine)
–
A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block. Cylinders may be sleeved or sleeveless, a sleeveless engine may also be referred to as a parent-bore engine. A cylinders displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by multiplying its cross-sectional area by the distance the piston travels within the cylinder, the engine displacement can be calculated by multiplying the swept volume of one cylinder by the number of cylinders. The rings make near contact with the walls, riding on a thin layer of lubricating oil. The first illustration depicts a longitudinal section of a cylinder in a steam engine, the sliding part at the bottom is the piston, and the upper sliding part is a distribution valve that directs steam alternately into either end of the cylinder. Refrigerator and air compressors are heat engines driven in reverse cycle as pumps. Internal combustion engines operate on the inherent volume change accompanying oxidation of gasoline, diesel fuel or ethanol and they are not classical heat engines since they expel the working substance, which is also the combustion product, into the surroundings. The reciprocating motion of the pistons is translated into crankshaft rotation via connecting rods, as a piston moves back and forth, a connecting rod changes its angle, its distal end has a rotating link to the crankshaft. A typical four-cylinder automobile engine has a row of water-cooled cylinders. V engines use two angled cylinder banks, the V configuration is utilized to create a more compact configuration relative to the number of cylinders. For example, there are also rotary turbines, the Wankel engine is a rotary adaptation of the cylinder-piston concept which has been used by Mazda and NSU in automobiles. Rotary engines are relatively quiet because they lack the clatter of reciprocating motion, air-cooled engines generally use individual cases for the cylinders to facilitate cooling. Inline motorcycle engines are an exception, having two-, three-, four-, water-cooled engines with only a few cylinders may also use individual cylinder cases, though this makes the cooling system more complex. The Ducati motorcycle company, which for years used air-cooled motors with individual cylinder cases, in some engines, especially French designs, the cylinders have wet liners. They are formed separately from the casting so that liquid coolant is free to flow around their outsides. Wet-lined cylinders have cooling and a more even temperature distribution. During use, the cylinder is subject to wear from the action of the piston rings
7.
Exhaust manifold
–
In automotive engineering, an exhaust manifold collects the exhaust gases from multiple cylinders into one pipe. The word manifold comes from the Old English word manigfeald and refers to the folding together of multiple inputs and outputs, Exhaust manifolds are generally simple cast iron or stainless steel units which collect engine exhaust gas from multiple cylinders and deliver it to the exhaust pipe. These consist of individual exhaust headpipes for each cylinder, which usually converge into one tube called a collector. Headers that do not have collectors are called zoomie headers and they may be coated with a ceramic-type finish, or painted with a heat-resistant finish, or bare. Chrome plated headers are available but these tend to blue after use, polished stainless steel will also color, but less than chrome in most cases. Another form of modification used is to insulate a standard or aftermarket manifold and this decreases the amount of heat given off into the engine bay, therefore reducing the intake manifold temperature. There are a few types of thermal insulation but three are common, Ceramic paint is sprayed or brushed onto the manifold and then cured in an oven. These are usually thin, so have little insulatory properties, however, a ceramic mixture is bonded to the manifold via thermal spraying to give a tough ceramic coating with very good thermal insulation. This is often used on production cars and track-only racers. Exhaust wrap is wrapped completely around the manifold, although this is cheap and fairly simple, it can lead to premature degradation of the manifold. The goal of performance exhaust headers is mainly to decrease flow resistance, the processes occurring can be explained by the gas laws, specifically the ideal gas law and the combined gas law. When an engine starts its exhaust stroke, the piston moves up the cylinder bore and this forms the medium-pressure body component of the exhaust pulse The remaining exhaust gas forms the low-pressure tail component. The effect is known as scavenging, length, cross-sectional area, and shaping of the exhaust ports and pipeworks influences the degree of scavenging effect, and the engine speed range over which scavenging occurs. The magnitude of the exhaust scavenging effect is a function of the velocity of the high. Performance headers work to increase the exhaust velocity as much as possible, one technique is tuned-length primary tubes. This technique attempts to time the occurrence of each exhaust pulse, great care must be used when selecting the length and diameter of the primary tubes. Tubes that are too large will cause the exhaust gas to expand and slow down, since engines produce more exhaust gas at higher speeds, the header are tuned to a particular engine speed range according to the intended application. Typically, wide primary tubes offer the best gains in power and torque at higher engine speeds, many headers are also resonance tuned, to utilize the low-pressure reflected wave rarefaction pulse which can help scavenging the combustion chamber during valve overlap
8.
Exhaust gas
–
Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas, gasoline, petrol, biodiesel blends, diesel fuel, fuel oil, or coal. According to the type of engine, it is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe, flue gas stack and it often disperses downwind in a pattern called an exhaust plume. A2013 study by MIT indicates that 53,000 early deaths occur per year in the United States alone because of vehicle emissions. According to another study from the university, traffic fumes alone cause the death of 5,000 people every year just in the United Kingdom. The largest part of most combustion gas is nitrogen, water vapor, and carbon dioxide, Exhaust gas temperature is important to the functioning of the catalytic converter of an internal combustion engine. It may be measured by an exhaust gas temperature gauge, EGT is also a measure of engine health in gas-turbine engines. During the first two minutes after starting the engine of a car that has not been operated for several hours, inefficient catalytic converter under cold conditions, Catalytic converters are very inefficient until up to their operating temperature. This time has much reduced by moving the converter closer to the exhaust manifold. The small converter handles the start-up emissions, which enough time for the larger main converter to heat up. Further improvements can be realised in many ways, including heating, thermal battery, chemical reaction preheating, flame heating. The requirements were phased in beginning with 2004 vehicles and all new cars, in spark-ignition engines the gases resulting from combustion of the fuel and air mix are called exhaust gases. The composition varies from petrol to diesel engines, but is around these levels, The 10% oxygen for diesel is likely if the engine was idling and it is much less if the engine is running under load. People exposed to it should wear a gas mask, in aircraft gas turbine engines, exhaust gas temperature is a primary measure of engine health. Typically the EGT is compared with an engine power indication called engine pressure ratio. For example, at full power EPR there will be a maximum permitted EGT limit, once an engine reaches a stage in its life where it reaches this EGT limit, the engine will require specific maintenance in order to rectify the problem. The amount the EGT is below the EGT limit is called EGT margin, the EGT margin of an engine will be greatest when the engine is new, or has been overhauled. For most airlines, this information is monitored remotely by the airline maintenance department by means of ACARS. In jet engines and rocket engines, exhaust from propelling nozzles which in some applications shows shock diamonds, Flue gas Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion In steam engine terminology the exhaust is steam that is now so low in pressure that it can no longer do useful work
9.
Piston
–
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder, in some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall. An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts downwards through the rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a swivelling gudgeon pin and this pin is mounted within the piston, unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead. The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, a few designs use a fully floating design that is loose in both components. All pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder wall, gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of iron rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston. The rings are split at a point in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of ring are used, the rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing, lower rings have narrow edges. There are many proprietary and detail design features associated with piston rings, pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing pistons may be forged instead, early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and Hiduminium, a few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the US submarine Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H. O. R, although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine was not repeated. Media related to Internal combustion engine pistons at Wikimedia Commons Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter and they act both as a piston and cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for much of its rotation, a longer piston helps to support this
10.
Reciprocating engine
–
A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the features of all types. The main types are, the combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution. There may be one or more pistons, the hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is known as the Bottom Dead Center, or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the top by a flywheel. This is where the forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or exhausted gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke, the exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction, in some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod. A flywheel is used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders an engine has, generally, the more vibration-free it can operate. The power of an engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons displacement. A seal must be made between the piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the wall to form a seal. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm³ or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimetres in ships engines, the compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine
11.
Vacuum
–
Vacuum is space void of matter. The word stems from the Latin adjective vacuus for vacant or void, an approximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressure. In engineering and applied physics on the hand, vacuum refers to any space in which the pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure. The Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object that is surrounded by a vacuum, the quality of a partial vacuum refers to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum. Other things equal, lower gas pressure means higher-quality vacuum, for example, a typical vacuum cleaner produces enough suction to reduce air pressure by around 20%. Ultra-high vacuum chambers, common in chemistry, physics, and engineering, operate below one trillionth of atmospheric pressure, outer space is an even higher-quality vacuum, with the equivalent of just a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter on average. In the electromagnetism in the 19th century, vacuum was thought to be filled with a medium called aether, in modern particle physics, the vacuum state is considered the ground state of matter. Vacuum has been a frequent topic of debate since ancient Greek times. Evangelista Torricelli produced the first laboratory vacuum in 1643, and other techniques were developed as a result of his theories of atmospheric pressure. A torricellian vacuum is created by filling a glass container closed at one end with mercury. Vacuum became an industrial tool in the 20th century with the introduction of incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes. The recent development of human spaceflight has raised interest in the impact of vacuum on human health, the word vacuum comes from Latin an empty space, void, noun use of neuter of vacuus, meaning empty, related to vacare, meaning be empty. Vacuum is one of the few words in the English language that contains two consecutive letters u. Historically, there has been dispute over whether such a thing as a vacuum can exist. Ancient Greek philosophers debated the existence of a vacuum, or void, in the context of atomism, Aristotle believed that no void could occur naturally, because the denser surrounding material continuum would immediately fill any incipient rarity that might give rise to a void. Almost two thousand years after Plato, René Descartes also proposed a geometrically based alternative theory of atomism, without the problematic nothing–everything dichotomy of void, by the ancient definition however, directional information and magnitude were conceptually distinct. The explanation of a clepsydra or water clock was a topic in the Middle Ages. Although a simple wine skin sufficed to demonstrate a partial vacuum, in principle and he concluded that airs volume can expand to fill available space, and he suggested that the concept of perfect vacuum was incoherent. However, according to Nader El-Bizri, the physicist Ibn al-Haytham and the Mutazili theologians disagreed with Aristotle and Al-Farabi, using geometry, Ibn al-Haytham mathematically demonstrated that place is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body
12.
Atmospheric pressure
–
Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of Earth. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. On average, a column of air one square centimetre in cross-section, measured from sea level to the top of the atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kilograms and that force is a pressure of 10.1 N/cm2 or 101 kN/m2. A column 1 square inch in cross-section would have a weight of about 14.7 lb or about 65.4 N and it is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature and variations in composition. The standard atmosphere is a unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa, the mean sea level pressure is the average atmospheric pressure at sea level. This is the pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television. When barometers in the home are set to match the weather reports, they measure pressure adjusted to sea level. The altimeter setting in aviation, is an atmospheric pressure adjustment, average sea-level pressure is 1013.25 mbar. In aviation weather reports, QNH is transmitted around the world in millibars or hectopascals, except in the United States, Canada, however, in Canadas public weather reports, sea level pressure is instead reported in kilopascals. The highest sea-level pressure on Earth occurs in Siberia, where the Siberian High often attains a sea-level pressure above 1050 mbar, the lowest measurable sea-level pressure is found at the centers of tropical cyclones and tornadoes, with a record low of 870 mbar. Pressure varies smoothly from the Earths surface to the top of the mesosphere, although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, one can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature and humidity affect the atmospheric pressure, and it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate figure. The graph at right was developed for a temperature of 15 °C, at low altitudes above the sea level, the pressure decreases by about 1.2 kPa for every 100 meters. See pressure system for the effects of air pressure variations on weather, Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a few millibars and these variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian cycle and semi-circadian cycle. The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure recorded on Earth was 1085.7 hPa measured in Tosontsengel
13.
Manifold vacuum
–
Manifold vacuum, or engine vacuum in an internal combustion engine is the difference in air pressure between the engines intake manifold and Earths atmosphere. Manifold vacuum is an effect of a movement on the induction stroke. It is a measure of the amount of restriction of airflow through the engine, in some engines, the manifold vacuum is also used as an auxiliary power source to drive engine accessories and for the crankcase ventilation system. It is also used in airplanes to provide airflow for pneumatic gyroscopic instruments. The rate of airflow through a combustion engine is an important factor determining the amount of power the engine generates. Manifold vacuum is present in all naturally aspirated engines that use throttles, the mass flow through the engine is determined by the rotation rate of the engine, multiplied by the displacement of the engine, and the density of the intake stream in the intake manifold. In most applications the rotation rate is set by the application, the displacement is dependent on the engine geometry, which is generally not adjustable while the engine is in use. Restricting the input reduces the density in the intake manifold. It is also a source of engine drag, as the engine must pump material from the low-pressure intake manifold into the exhaust manifold. When the throttle is opened, ambient air is free to fill the intake manifold, a carburetor or fuel injection system adds fuel to the airflow in the correct proportion, providing energy to the engine. When the throttle is opened all the way, the air induction system is exposed to full atmospheric pressure. In a naturally aspirated engine, output power is limited by the ambient barometric pressure, superchargers and turbochargers boost manifold pressure above atmospheric pressure. Modern engines use a MAP sensor to measure air pressure in the intake manifold, manifold Absolute Pressure is one of a multitude of parameters used by the engine control unit to optimize engine operation. It is important to differentiate between absolute and gage pressure when dealing with applications, particularly those that experience changes in elevation during normal operation. Electric vacuum pumps are now used for powering pneumatic accessories. Manifold vacuum is caused by a different phenomenon than venturi vacuum, venturi vacuum is caused by the venturi effect which, for fixed ambient conditions, depends on the total mass flow through the carburetor. In engines that use carburetors, the vacuum is approximately proportional to the total mass flow through the engine. As ambient pressure or temperature change, the carburetor may need to be adjusted to maintain this relationship, manifold pressure may also be ported
14.
Automobile accessory power
–
Automobile accessory power can be transferred by several different means. However, it is ultimately derived from the automobiles internal combustion engine, battery. The advent of high-powered batteries in hybrid and all-electrical vehicles is shifting the balance of technologies even further in the direction of electrically powered accessories, modern vehicles run most accessories on electrical power. Typically, only 2% of a total power output has gone towards powering accessories. Electrical and hybrid vehicles may use a proportion of energy for accessories, due to reduced inefficiencies in the drive train. Some automobile accessories are connected directly to the engine through gears or belts and these usually require large amounts of power. The air conditioning compressor has been an example, though new all-electric refrigerant compressors are starting to be used in production vehicles. Early automobiles used a magneto for ignition, which provided no accessory power, the first electrical accessory connection was supplied by a DC generator. Voltage varied with engine speed and because of limitations, complicated mechanical devices were used to regulate it. Even so, voltage at idle was too low to be useful, a lead-acid battery was used to provide proper voltage when the generator could not, and was recharged at higher engine speed or lower electrical load. The automobile self starter was an engine system to use this. Lighting, which had previously provided by kerosene lamps or gas lamps, was one of the first common electrical accessories. Early systems used 6 volts, but 12 volts became the standard because it provided power with less current. The original DC generator was replaced by a controlled by a voltage regulator. Due to mechanical and electrical properties, it is efficient to first produce alternating current. By regulating the current sent to the rotor and thus the strength of the magnetic field. Starting, lighting and ignition systems of most gasoline-powered vehicles remain as 12 volt systems, diesel-powered vehicles, including mobile construction equipment and heavy trucks use 24 volt electrical systems, as do many military vehicles. The main advantage of higher voltage is that components can be made with less metal, saving weight and cost
15.
Brake
–
A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving system. It is used for slowing or stopping a vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion. Most brakes commonly use friction between two surfaces pressed together to convert the energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example, regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp, most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight, notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a speed in a steep descent. The Saab B17 dive bomber and Vought F4U Corsair fighter used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake, Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake, when the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed against the master cylinder, ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down, Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. Typically the term brake is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes. Friction brakes are often rotating devices with a pad and a rotating wear surface. Other brake configurations are used, but less often, a drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of brake shoes that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is connected to the rotating roadwheel hub, drum brakes generally can be found on older car and truck models. However, because of their low production cost, drum brake setups are also installed on the rear of some low-cost newer vehicles, compared to modern disc brakes, drum brakes wear out faster due to their tendency to overheat
16.
Cruise control
–
Cruise control is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle. The system is a servomechanism that takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a speed as set by the driver. Speed control was used in automobiles as early as 1900 in the Wilson-Pilcher, Peerless advertised that their system would maintain speed whether up hill or down. The technology was adopted by James Watt and Matthew Boulton in 1788 to control steam engines, on an engine the governor adjusts the throttle position as the speed of the engine changes with different loads, so as to maintain a near constant speed. Modern cruise control was invented in 1948 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor and his idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer, who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked. The first car with Teetors system was the 1958 Imperial using a dial on the dashboard. This system calculated ground speed based on driveshaft rotations off the rotating speedometer-cable, patent for a Constant Speed Regulator was filed in 1950 by M-Sgt Frank J. Riley. He installed his invention, which he conceived while driving on the Pennsylvania Turnpike, despite this patent, the inventor, Riley, and the subsequent patent holders were not able to collect royalties for any of the inventions using cruise control. In 1965, American Motors introduced an automatic speed control for its large-sized cars with automatic transmissions. Daniel Aaron Wisner invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control in 1968 as an engineer for RCAs Industrial and Automation Systems Division in Plymouth, Michigan. His invention described in two patents filed that year, with the second modifying his design by debuting digital memory, was the first electronic device in controlling a car. Two decades passed before a circuit for his design was developed by Motorola. As the MC14460 Auto Speed Control Processor in CMOS, the advantage of electronic speed control over its mechanical predecessor was that it could be integrated with electronic accident avoidance and engine management systems. Following the 1973 oil crisis and rising prices, the device became more popular in the U. S. Cruise control can save gas by avoiding surges that expel fuel while driving at steady speeds, in 1974, AMC, GM, and Chrysler priced the option at $60 to $70, while Ford charged $103. The driver must bring the vehicle up to speed manually and use a button to set the control to the current speed. The cruise control takes its speed signal from a driveshaft, speedometer cable, wheel speed sensor from the engines RPM. Most systems do not allow the use of the cruise control below a certain speed - typically around 25 mph, all cruise control systems must be capable of being turned off both explicitly and automatically when the driver depresses the brake, and often also the clutch
17.
Ignition system
–
The widest application for spark ignition internal combustion engines is in petrol road vehicles, cars, four-by-fours, motorcycles, pickups, vans, trucks, and buses. Compression ignition Diesel engines ignite the mixture by the heat of compression. They usually have glowplugs that preheat the combustion chamber to allow starting in cold weather, other engines may use a flame, or a heated tube, for ignition. While this was common for very early engines it is now rare, the first electric spark ignition was probably Alessandro Voltas toy electric pistol from the 1780s. The simplest form of ignition is that using a magneto. The spark plugs are connected directly from the magneto output, early magnetos had one coil, with the contact breaker inside the combustion chamber. In about 1902, Bosch introduced a double-coil magneto, with a fixed sparking plug, and they are also used on piston-engined aircraft engines. Although an electrical supply is available, magneto systems are used mainly because of their higher reliability, magnetos were used in these engines because their simplicity and self-contained operation was more reliable, and because magnetos weighed less than having a battery and dynamo or alternator. The Wright brothers used a magneto invented in 1902 and built for them in 1903 by Dayton, Ohio inventor and this gave the benefits of easy starting with reliable sparking at speed. Many modern magneto systems have removed the second coil from the magneto itself, in this development, the induced current in the coil in the magneto also flows through the primary of the external coil, generating a high voltage in the secondary as a result. Such a system is referred to as a transfer system. Energy transfer systems provide the ultimate in ignition reliability, the output of a magneto depends on the speed of the engine, and therefore starting can be problematic. Some magnetos include a system, which spins the magnet quickly at the proper moment. Some engines, such as aircraft but also the Ford Model T, used a system which relied on non rechargeable dry cells, the operator would manually switch the ignition over to magneto operation for high speed operation. To provide high voltage for the spark from the low voltage batteries, a tickler was used, in this mode of operation, the coil would buzz continuously, producing a constant train of sparks. The entire apparatus was known as the Model T spark coil, in the UK these devices were commonly known as trembler coils and were popular in cars pre-1910, and also in commercial vehicles with large engines until around 1925 to ease starting. In either case, the low voltage was switched to the spark plug by the timer mounted on the front of the engine. This performed the equivalent function to the distributor, although by directing the low voltage
18.
Windscreen wiper
–
A windscreen wiper or windshield wiper is a device used to remove rain, snow, ice and debris from a windscreen or windshield. Almost all motor vehicles, including cars, trucks, train locomotives, watercraft with a cabin and some aircraft, are equipped with such wipers, a wiper generally consists of a metal arm, pivoting at one end and with a long rubber blade attached to the other. The arm is powered by a motor, often an electric motor, the blade is swung back and forth over the glass, pushing water or other precipitation from its surface. The speed is adjustable, with several continuous speeds and often one or more intermittent settings. Most automobiles use two synchronized radial type arms, while commercial vehicles use one or more pantograph arms. On some vehicles, a windshield washer system is also used and this system sprays water or an antifreeze window washer fluid at the windshield using several nozzles. The windshield washer system helps to remove dirt or dust from the windshield when it is used in concert with the wiper blades, when antifreeze windshield washer fluid is used, it can help the wipers to remove snow or ice. For winter conditions, some vehicles have additional heaters aimed at the windows or embedded heating wire in the glass and these defroster systems help to keep snow and ice from building up on the windshield. In rare cases, miniature wipers are installed on headlights, at least three inventors patented windscreen cleaning devices at around the same time in 1903, Mary Anderson, Robert Douglass, and John Apjohn. In April 1911, a patent for windscreen wipers was registered by Sloan & Lloyd Barnes, patent agents of Liverpool, England, American inventor Mary Anderson is popularly credited with devising the first operational windshield wiper in 1903. In Andersons patent, she called her invention a window cleaning device for electric cars, operated via a lever from inside a vehicle, her version of windshield wipers closely resembles the windshield wiper found on many early car models. Anderson had a model of her design manufactured, then filed a patent on June 18,1903 that was issued to her by the US Patent Office on November 10,1903. A similar device is recorded 3 months prior to Andersons patent, the brushes or wipers were intended to clean either both up and down or in just one direction on a vertical window. Apjohns invention had a priority date in the UK of 9 October 1903, John R. Oishei formed the Tri-Continental Corporation in 1917. This company introduced the first windshield wiper, Rain Rubber, for the slotted, today Trico Products is one of the worlds leading manufacturers of windshield wiping systems, windshield wiper blades and refills, with wiper plants on five continents. Bosch has the worlds biggest windscreen wiper factory in Tienen, Belgium, inventor William M. Folberth applied for a patent for an automatic windscreen wiper apparatus in 1919, which was granted in 1922. It was the first automatic mechanism, Trico later settled a patent dispute with Folberth and purchased Folberths Cleveland company, the Folberth Auto Specialty Co. The new vacuum-powered system quickly became standard equipment on automobiles, today, an electronic timer is used, but originally a small vacuum cylinder mechanically linked to a switch provided the delay as the vacuum leaked off
19.
Power window
–
Power windows or electric windows are automobile windows which can be raised and lowered by pressing a button or switch, as opposed to using a hand-turned crank handle. Packard introduced the first power windows in the 1940 Packard 180 series, in 1941, the Ford Motor Company followed with the first power windows on the Lincoln Custom. Cadillac had a straight-electric divider window on their series 75, Power assists originated in the need and desire to move convertible body-style tops up and down by some means other than human effort. The earliest power assists were vacuum-operated and were offered on Chrysler Corporation vehicles, shortly before World War II, General Motors developed a central hydraulic pump for working convertible tops. This system was introduced on 1942 convertibles built by GM, previously, GM had used a vacuum system which did not have the power to handle increasingly larger and complex convertible top mechanisms. These systems were based on major hydraulic advances made in weapons in preparation for World War II. The Hydro-Electric system was standard on 1947 model year, the seat and window assist system became available on GM closed cars. The full system was only on the high-end GM convertibles made by Oldsmobile, Buick. It was only available as a package, that is, power assisted windows, front seat and this feature can be identified in 1948 and later General Motors model numbers with an X at the end, such as the 1951 Cadillac Sixty Special sedan, model 6019X. The electrically operated hydraulic pump system was shared by Hudson and Packard for their 1948 through 1950 models, the drivers door contained four buttons in addition to the remaining individual windows. Ford also had a similar system on higher-end convertibles. Mercury and Ford Sportsman convertibles were equipped with windows on four windows from 1946 through 1948 and Mercury. These systems were used by luxury car models until Chrysler introduced the all-electric operation on the 1951 Imperial. The availability of power windows increased with the use of small, General Motors also followed with full electric operation in 1954. This included four-way and then six-way seats, which were introduced in 1956, chevrolet introduced the oddity of power front windows in the 1954 model. Ford also introduced full four-door power windows in sedans in 1954, the full-sized 1955 Nash Airflyte models featured optional power windows. Electrically-operated vent windows were available as early as 1956 on the Continental Mark II, the 1960s Cadillac Fleetwood came standard with power front and rear vent windows, in addition to standard power side windows, for a total of eight power window controls on the drivers door panel. Modern heavy-duty highway tractors frequently have an option for power window controls, however and that is, the compressed air system used for air brakes is also used for the windows
20.
Crankcase
–
In an internal combustion engine of the reciprocating type, the crankcase is the housing for the crankshaft. The enclosure forms the largest cavity in the engine and is located below the cylinder, crankcases have often been discrete parts, but more often they are integral with the cylinder bank, forming an engine block. Nevertheless, the area around the crankshaft is still called the crankcase. Crankcases and other basic engine components are typically made of cast iron or cast aluminium via sand casting. Today the foundry processes are highly automated, with a few skilled workers to manage the casting of thousands of parts. A crankcase often has an opening in the bottom to which an oil pan is attached with a bolted joint. Some crankcase designs fully surround the main bearing journals, whereas many others form only one half. Some crankcase areas require no structural strength from the oil pan itself, besides protecting the crankshaft and connecting rods from foreign objects, the crankcase serves other functions, depending on engine type. A large number of small engines use a sealed crankcase as a compression chamber for their mixture. These are hugely common as petrol or gasoline engines for motorcycles, generator sets. Both sides of the piston are used as working surfaces, the side is the power piston. As the piston rises, it pushes out exhaust gases and produces a vacuum in the crankcase. As the piston downward, the compressed fuel/air charge is pushed from the crankcase into the cylinder. Unlike larger engines, the crankcase does not contain only engine oil because it handles the fuel/air mixture, instead, oil is mixed in with the fuel supply as petroil, and this mixture provides splash lubrication for the cylinder walls, crankshaft and connecting rod bearings. These engines have used in larger sizes for small cars. Small diesel engines may use this type of crankcase compression. Such engines are uncommon, compared to petrol engines, but they are used for generators. Large two stroke engines do not use compression, but instead a separate scavenge blower or supercharger
21.
Crankcase ventilation system
–
A crankcase ventilation system is a one way passage for gases to escape in a controlled manner from the crankcase of an internal combustion engine. For control of the pressure inside it, a PCV valve is used to vent the crankcase, from the late 19th century through the early 20th, blow-by gases from internal combustion were allowed to find their own way out to the atmosphere past seals and gaskets. It was considered normal for oil to be found both inside and outside an engine, and for oil to drip to the ground in small, the latter had also been true for steam engines and steam locomotives in the decades before. Even bearing and valve designs generally made little to no provision for keeping oil or waste gases contained, sealed bearings and valve covers were for special applications only. Gaskets and shaft seals were meant to limit loss of oil, on internal combustion engines, the hydrocarbon-rich blow-by gases would diffuse through the oil in the seals and gaskets into the atmosphere. Engines with high amounts of blow-by would leak profusely via those routes, when the vehicle is moving, airflow across the open end of the tube creates a draft that pulls gases out of the crankcase. The high location of the end of the pipe minimises liquid oil loss. And non-road vehicles such as boats never generated a draft on the tube, the draft tube discharged the crankcase gases, composed largely of unburnt hydrocarbons, directly into the air. This created pollution as well as objectionable odors, moreover, the draft tube could become clogged with snow or ice, in which case crankcase pressure would build and cause oil leaks and gasket failure. The PCV system and its control valve were invented to meet this need, the GM Research Laboratory discovered in 1958 that the road draft tube was a major source—about half—of the hydrocarbons coming from the automobile. The PCV system thus became the first real vehicle emissions control device, positive crankcase ventilation was first factory-installed on a widespread basis by law on all new 1961-model cars first sold in California. The following year, New York required it, by 1964, most new cars sold in the U. S. were so equipped by voluntary industry action so as not to have to make multiple state-specific versions of vehicles. PCV quickly became standard equipment on all vehicles worldwide because of its benefits not only in emissions reduction but also in engine internal cleanliness, in 1967, several years after its introduction into production, the PCV system became the subject of a U. S. In the decades since, legislation and regulation of emissions has tightened substantially. Todays petrol engines continue to use PCV systems, in order for the PCV system to sweep fumes out of the crankcase, the crankcase must have a source of fresh, clean air, called the crankcase breather. To achieve this, the air inlet is usually ducted to the engines air cleaner. The breather is usually provided with baffles and filters to prevent oil mist, intake manifold vacuum is applied to the crankcase via the PCV valve, drawing fresh air into the crankcase via the breather. The airflow through the crankcase and engine interior sweeps away combustion byproduct gases and this mixture of air and crankcase gases then exits, often via another simple baffle, screen, or mesh to exclude oil droplets, through the PCV valve and into the intake manifold
22.
Aluminium
–
Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
23.
Ford Zetec engine
–
Ford Motor Company used the Zetec name on a variety of Inline-4-cylinder automobile engines. It was coined to replace Zeta on a range of 1.6 L to 2.0 L multi-valve engines introduced in 1991 because Ford was threatened with legal action by Lancia who owned the Zeta trademark. The company used the name widely in European advertising and later introduced it to the North American market with the Contour, the Zetec name was so recognized that Ford decided to apply it to other high-tech four-cylinder engines. It is used across many types in Europe today even though the original Zeta design ended production in 2004. Ford also used the Zetec name for a trim level designation in certain markets, the engine was originally available in 1.6 and 1.8 liter versions with a 2.0 liter version appearing in 1993 in the all-new Mondeo. The Zeta name was dropped in favour of Zetec when Italian car maker Lancia threatened to sue Ford for trademark infringement, the codename Zeta was originally used for the design of the cylinder head. A number of different systems were evaluated, and each one had a different codename using the Greek alphabet, the Zeta concept was the winner and the 4-valve-per-cylinder, DOHC design was used for the head of the replacement for the CVH in Europe and the US. The original manufacturing plan involved replacing the Dearborn manufactured CVH with Zeta and this resulted in the need to retain much of the architecture of the US CVH block. However, later in the development process, the plan was changed, for Europe the decision was taken to build Zetas in Bridgend and in Cologne. The US and European base engines were almost identical, however, crucially, the US management insisted that the US engines had to be freewheeling, or a non-interference engine design. The fuel economy penalty with the system was considered to be too great for European engines. The result was that the engines used different pistons, another difference was that the US engines featured sinter forged connecting rods versus conventional cast rods in Europe. After small changes in 1995 to fix this problem the engine was known as the Zetec-E and this engine received a plastic inlet manifold and EGR derived from the Mondeo. The Zetec had another redesign in 1998 and this engine was used in turbocharged form in the Focus RS and had 212 bhp. It was also used in the Focus ST170 with a cylinder head modified by Cosworth with Variable Valve Timing on the cam and had 170 bhp. The Zetec can be identified by having a silver cam cover with DOHC 16v on the bottom left, the Zetec-E has ZETEC 16v on the bottom left, and the Zetec-R has a black plastic cam cover. The Focus RS and ST170 are both Zetec-R engines, despite being branded Duratec, production of the Zeta family lasted from September 1991 through December 2004. Displacement ranged from 1.6 L to 2.0 L and it was replaced in most applications by the Mazda MZR-based Duratec 20, though some Zetec-SE engines were used as replacements on the lower end
24.
GM Ecotec engine
–
The GM Ecotec engine, also known by its codename L850, is a family of all-aluminium inline-four engines, displacing between 2.0 and 2.5 litres. While these engines were based on the GM Family II engine and this engine family replaced the GM Family II engine, the GM122 engine, the Saab H engine, and the Quad 4 engine. It is manufactured in multiple locations, to include Spring Hill Manufacturing, in Spring Hill, the Ecotec name was adopted in 2000 for the new generation of Family II engines. The name was used for the Opel GM Family II engine, Family 1. GM intends this new Ecotec to become its global 4-cylinder, the Ecotec engine is a DOHC 4-valve design with an forged steel block and head, designed for displacements from 1.8 to 2.4 L. Much of the development work on this project was carried out by Lotus Engineering, Hethel, the engine uses aluminum pistons and cast iron cylinder liners. Vibration is reduced with twin balance shafts, the first engine in the Ecotec Gen I line-up was Ecotec 2.2 L61, introduced in 2000. The current Ecotec line is manufactured in Tonawanda, New York and this engine is also known as B207 when used by Saab and Z20NET by Opel for use in the Vectra C and Signum. LK9 is a turbocharged 2.0 L—1,998 cc —version of the L850 series Ecotec utilizing an all-new reinforced sand cast aluminum cylinder head, the exhaust valves are liquid sodium-cooled. All vehicles using this engine feature Saabs Trionic 8 engine management system as well as a valve train. The timing chain and timing gears are also new, along with Saabs Direct Ignition system, the reinforcements, turbocharging, intercooling, internals, dual overhead camshaft, and such were developed by GM Powertrain Sweden. It features an 86 millimetres bore and stroke and a 9.5,1 compression ratio, maximum power is 210 horsepower at 5300 rpm and 221 ft·lb of torque at 2500 rpm. The LSJ shares many of its components with the LK9 such as, piston cooling jets, oil cooler, pistons, connecting rods, crankshaft, oil pan, sodium-filled exhaust valves and cylinder head. It is rated at 205 hp at 5600 rpm and 200 ft·lb at 4400 rpm with a ratio of 9.5,1. With the end of the Chevy Cobalt S/C SS and Saturn Ion Red Line, in late 2005 Brammo Motorsports struck a deal with GM for the Supercharged 2.0 L Ecotec for their Ariel Atom. The engine came in various ratings from 205 hp to 300 hp, the LSJ was on the Wards 10 Best Engines list for 2006. This engine is used in, This engine is known as a Z22SE in other countries such as The United Kingdom. The basic Family II architecture was substantially re-engineered in 2000 to become the Ecotec Gen I, unlike its notably harsh predecessor, the engine was designed for smoothness
25.
Fuel injection
–
Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector. All diesel engines use fuel injection by design, petrol engines can use gasoline direct injection, where the fuel is directly delivered into the combustion chamber, or indirect injection where the fuel is mixed with air before the intake stroke. On petrol engines, fuel injection replaced carburetors from the 1980s onward, the functional objectives for fuel injection systems can vary. All share the task of supplying fuel to the combustion process. Carburetors have the potential to atomize fuel better, Fuel injection also dispenses with the need for a separate mechanical choke, which on carburetor-equipped vehicles must be adjusted as the engine warms up to normal temperature. Furthermore, on spark ignition engines, fuel injection has the advantage of being able to facilitate stratified combustion which have not been possible with carburetors, Fuel injection generally increases engine fuel efficiency. With the improved cylinder-to-cylinder fuel distribution of multi-point fuel injection, less fuel is needed for the power output. Exhaust emissions are cleaner because the precise and accurate fuel metering reduces the concentration of toxic combustion byproducts leaving the engine. The more consistent and predictable composition of the exhaust makes emissions control devices such as catalytic converters more effective, herbert Akroyd Stuart developed the first device with a design similar to modern fuel injection, using a jerk pump to meter out fuel oil at high pressure to an injector. This system was used on the engine and was adapted and improved by Bosch. Fuel injection was in commercial use in diesel engines by the mid-1920s. Another early use of direct injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925. Hesselman engines use the ultra lean-burn principle, fuel is injected toward the end of the compression stroke and they are often started on gasoline and then switched to diesel or kerosene. Direct fuel injection was used in notable World War II aero-engines such as the Junkers Jumo 210, the Daimler-Benz DB601, the BMW801, German direct injection petrol engines used injection systems developed by Bosch from their diesel injection systems. Later versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Wright R-3350 used single point fuel injection, due to the wartime relationship between Germany and Japan, Mitsubishi also had two radial aircraft engines utilizing fuel injection, the Mitsubishi Kinsei and the Mitsubishi Kasei. Alfa Romeo tested one of the first electronic systems in Alfa Romeo 6C2500 with Ala spessa body in 1940 Mille Miglia. The engine had six electrically operated injectors and were fed by a semi-high-pressure circulating fuel pump system, all diesel engines have fuel injected into the combustion chamber. The invention of mechanical injection for gasoline-fueled aviation engines was by the French inventor of the V8 engine configuration, Leon Levavasseur in 1902, the first post-World War I example of direct gasoline injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925
26.
Atomizer nozzle
–
An atomizer nozzle can take on many forms. His device was used for spraying medicine on the back of his patients throats, atomizer nozzles can create atomization from a variety of mechanical means, which includes but is not limited to electrostatics processes, ultrasonic nozzle and centrifugal forces. When a fast gas stream is injected into the atmosphere and across the top of the tube, it is forced to follow a curved path up, over. This curved path creates a pressure on the inside of the curve at the top of the tube. This curve-caused lower pressure near the tube and the pressure further up is the net force causing the curved, velocity-changed path shown by Bernoullis principle. They may be automated or manually operated, the latter being typically by means of a manual pump, atomizer nozzles are used for spraying perfumes, for applying paint, in fuel injection systems, and in spray drying installations. Nebulizer Spray nozzle Flit gun Humidifier Dehumidifier
27.
Cylinder head porting
–
Cylinder head porting refers to the process of modifying the intake and exhaust ports of an internal combustion engine to improve the quality and quantity of the air flow. Cylinder heads, as manufactured, are usually due to design. Porting the heads provides the finely detailed attention required to bring the engine to the highest level of efficiency, more than any other single factor, the porting process is responsible for the high power output of modern engines. Daily human experience with air gives the impression that air is light, however, an engine running at high speed experiences a totally different substance. In that context, air can be thought of as thick, sticky, elastic, gooey, pumping it is a major problem for engines running at speed, so head porting helps to alleviate this. For major modifications the ports must be welded up or similarly built up to add material where none existed, the Ford two-liter shown above in stock trim was capable of delivering 115 horsepower@5500 rpm for a BMEP of 136 psi. Contrast this with the Pro Stock ports shown below and this aftermarket racing GM Pro Stock head was capable of 1300 horsepower@9500 rpm with a BMEP of 238 psi. Since BMEP is an excellent efficiency measure and closely related to volumetric efficiency, in fact a BMEP of 238 puts it near the top of the racing engine world. It is close to the limit for a naturally aspirated gas-burning engine, formula 1 four-valve/cylinder engines typically achieve BMEP values of 220 psi. Of course cam profiles, engine rpm, engine height constraints and other limitations play a role in this difference as well, when the valve opens, the air doesn’t flow in, it decompresses into the low-pressure region below it. All the air on the side of the moving disturbance boundary is completely isolated and unaffected by what happens on the downstream side. The air at the entrance does not move until the wave reaches all the way to the end. It is only then that the runner can begin to flow. Up until that point all that can happen is the higher pressure gas filling the volume of the runner decompresses or expands into the low-pressure region advancing up the runner. Conversely, the closing of the valve does not immediately stop flow at the runner entrance, the closing valve causes a buildup of pressure that travels up the runner as a positive wave. The runner entrance continues to flow at full speed, forcing the pressure to rise until the signal reaches the entrance and this very considerable pressure rise can be seen on the graph below, it rises far above atmospheric pressure. It is this phenomenon that enables the so-called “ram tuning” to occur, the principle is the same as in the water hammer effect so well known to plumbers. The speed that the signal can travel is the speed of sound within the runner and this is why port/runner volumes are so important, the volumes of successive parts of the port/runner control the flow during all transition periods
28.
Volumetric efficiency
–
The term is also used in other engineering contexts, such as hydraulic pumps and electronic components. Volumetric efficiency in a combustion engine design refers to the efficiency with which the engine can move the charge of fuel and air into. Volumetric efficiency is also the ratio of air drawn into the cylinder to the cylinders swept volume. The flow restrictions in the intake system create a drop in the inlet flow which reduces the density. In the case of forced induction volumetric efficiency can exceed 100%, there are several ways to improve volumetric efficiency, but a system wide approach must be used to fully realize potential. Many high performance cars use carefully arranged air intakes and tuned exhaust systems that use pressure waves to push air into and out of the cylinders, two-stroke engines are very sensitive to this concept and can use expansion chambers that return the escaping air-fuel mixture back to the cylinder. Volumetric efficiencies above 100% can be reached by using forced induction such as supercharging or turbocharging, with proper tuning, volumetric efficiencies above 100% can also be reached by naturally aspirated engines. The limit for naturally aspirated engines is about 130%, these engines are typically of a DOHC layout with four valves per cylinder. This process is called inertial supercharging and uses the resonance of the intake manifold, with proper tuning, VEs of up to 130% have been reported in various experimental studies. More radical solutions include the sleeve design, in which the valves are replaced outright with a rotating sleeve around the piston. In this system the ports can be as large as necessary, however, there is a practical upper limit due to the strength of the sleeve, at larger sizes the pressure inside the cylinder can pop the sleeve if the port is too large. Volumetric efficiency in a hydraulic pump refers to the percentage of actual fluid flow out of the pump compared to the out of the pump without leakage. In other words, if the out of a 100cc pump is 92cc. The volumetric efficiency will change with the pressure and speed a pump is operated at, therefore when comparing volumetric efficiencies, when a single number is given for volumetric efficiency, it will typically be at the rated pressure and speed. In electronics, volumetric efficiency quantifies the performance of electronic function per unit volume. This is desirable since advanced designs need to cram increasing functionality into smaller packages, for example, the concept of volumetric efficiency can be applied to any measurable electronic characteristic, including resistance, capacitance, inductance, voltage, current, energy storage, etc. Two-stroke power valve system Variable compression ratio 2 Stroke Tuned Pipe Design Software
29.
Helmholtz resonance
–
Helmholtz resonance or wind throb is the phenomenon of air resonance in a cavity, such as when one blows across the top of an empty bottle. Helmholtz described in his 1862 book, On the Sensations of Tone, when the resonators nipple is placed inside ones ear, a specific frequency of the complex sound can be picked out and heard clearly. The proper tone of the resonator may even be sometimes heard cropping up in the whistling of the wind, the rattling of carriage wheels, a set of varied size resonators was sold to be used as discrete acoustic filters for the spectral analysis of complex sounds. This type of resonator is in use in the Fourier analyzer, when air is forced into a cavity, the pressure inside increases. When the external force pushing the air into the cavity is removed, due to the inertia of the moving air the cavity will be left at a pressure slightly lower than the outside, causing air to be drawn back in. This process repeats, with the magnitude of the pressure oscillations increasing and decreasing asymptotically after the sound starts, the port is placed in the external meatus of the ear, allowing the experimenter to hear the sound and to determine its loudness. The resonant mass of air in the chamber is set in motion through the second hole, a gastropod seashell can form a low Q Helmholtz resonator, amplifying many frequencies, resulting in the sounds of the sea. The term Helmholtz resonator is now generally applied to include bottles from which sound is generated by blowing air across the mouth of the bottle. In this case the length and diameter of the neck also contribute to the resonance frequency. By one definition a Helmholtz resonator augments the amplitude of the motion of the enclosed air in a chamber by taking energy from sound waves passing in the surrounding air. In the other definition the sound waves are generated by a stream of air flowing across the open top of an enclosed volume of air. This value is usually 1.4 for air and diatomic gases, a is the cross-sectional area of the neck, m is the mass in the neck, P0 is the static pressure in the cavity, V0 is the static volume of the cavity. From the definition of mass density, V n m =1 ρ, thus, ω H = γ P0 ρ A V0 L e q, and f H = ω H2 π, where, fH is the resonant frequency. The speed of sound in a gas is given by, v = γ P0 ρ, thus, the length of the neck appears in the denominator because the inertia of the air in the neck is proportional to the length. The volume of the cavity appears in the denominator because the constant of the air in the cavity is inversely proportional to its volume. The area of the neck matters for two reasons, increasing the area of the neck increases the inertia of the air proportionately, but also decreases the velocity at which the air rushes in and out. Depending on the shape of the hole, the relative thickness of the sheet with respect to the size of the hole and the size of the cavity. More sophisticated formulae can still be derived analytically, with physical explanations
30.
Venturi effect
–
The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a constricted section of a pipe. The Venturi effect is named after Giovanni Battista Venturi, an Italian physicist, thus any gain in kinetic energy a fluid may accrue due to its increased velocity through a constriction is balanced by a drop in pressure. By measuring the change in pressure, the rate can be determined, as in various flow measurement devices such as venturi meters, venturi nozzles. The limiting case of the Venturi effect is when a fluid reaches the state of choked flow, when a fluid system is in a state of choked flow, a further decrease in the downstream pressure environment will not lead to an increase in the mass flow rate. However, mass flow rate for a fluid can increase with increased upstream pressure. This is the principle of operation of a de Laval nozzle, the simplest apparatus, as shown in the photograph and diagram, is a tubular setup known as a Venturi tube or simply a venturi. Fluid flows through a length of pipe of varying diameter, to avoid undue aerodynamic drag, a Venturi tube typically has an entry cone of 30 degrees and an exit cone of 5 degrees. Venturi tubes are used in processes where permanent pressure loss is not tolerable, Venturi tubes are more expensive to construct than a simple orifice plate which uses the same principle as a tubular scheme, but the orifice plate causes significantly more permanent energy loss. Venturis are used in applications and in scientific laboratories for measuring the flow rate of liquids. A venturi can be used to measure the flow rate. At the end of the system, a mixture of liquid, see aspirator and pressure head for discussion of this type of siphon. As fluid flows through a venturi, the expansion and compression of the cause the pressure inside the venturi to change. This principle can be used in metrology for gauges calibrated for differential pressures and this type of pressure measurement may be more convenient, for example, to measure fuel or combustion pressures in jet or rocket engines. In fact, some gusts were so high that travel had to be aided by ropes. Venturi tubes are used to measure the speed of a fluid. Placing a liquid in a U-shaped tube and connecting the ends of the tubes to both ends of a Venturi is all that is needed. When the fluid flows though the Venturi the pressure in the two ends of the tube will differ, forcing the liquid to the low pressure side, the amount of that move can be calibrated to the speed of the fluid flow
31.
Honda J engine
–
The J-series is Hondas fourth V6 engine family, introduced in 1996. It is a 60° V6 – Hondas existing C-series were 90° engines, the J-series was designed for transverse mounting. It has a bore spacing, shorter connecting rods. All current J-series engines are gasoline-powered SOHC 4-valve designs with VTEC variable valve timing, the J-series engine was designed in the United States by Honda engineers. It is built at Hondas Anna, Ohio and Lincoln, Alabama engine plants, one unique feature of some J-family engine models is Hondas Variable Cylinder Management system. The system uses VCM to turn off one bank of cylinders under light loads, the J25A was only used in the Japanese domestic motors Inspire/Saber models. The J25A displaced 2.495 L, Bore was 86 mm, output was 200 hp @6200 rpm and 24.5 kg·m of torque @4600 rpm. It had variable intake manifold to optimize torque output at all engine speeds, J25A 1998-2003 Honda Inspire 1999 Honda Saber The J30A displaces 2,997 cc and is a SOHC VTEC design. Bore is 86 mm and stroke is 86 mm, output for the light weight 250 lb J30A1 was 200 hp @5500 rpm and 195 lb·ft of torque @4800 rpm. The J30A4 pushed output to 242 hp and 212 lb·ft using a three-way VTEC system, higher ratio. It weighs nearly 20 lb less and is a shorter than J30A1. This version was on the Wards 10 Best Engines list for 2003 and 2004, the IMA hybrid version was on the list for 2005. In 2006 to mark the 30th anniversary of the Accord, Honda created the J30A5, according to Honda, horsepower gains were achieved with improvements to the airflow of the intake and exhaust system. J30A1 1997-2003 Honda Odyssey 1997-1999 Acura 3.2 L and is a SOHC VTEC design, Bore is 89 mm and stroke is 86 mm. Output was 225 hp @5600 rpm and 217 lb·ft @4700 rpm for the J32A1, a more aggressive camshaft, more free flowing intake/exhaust, and a 2-stage intake manifold all result in a 33.55 hp increase over the J32A1. The J32A3s output in the 2004/2005 TL is 270 hp, SAE changed the way they tested engine hp for the 2006-2008 TL is 258 hp. The J32A3 also includes the one-piece exhaust manifold cast with the cylinder head, J32A1 1999-2003 Acura TL 2001-2003 Acura CL 1998-2003 Honda Inspire J32A2 2001-2003 Acura CL Type-S 2002-2003 Acura TL Type-S J32A3 2004-2008 Acura TL The J35A is an SOHC VTEC design. Primarily due to the cylinder liners being made from aluminum instead of cast-iron the engine weighs less than the J35Z engines, the intake manifold is made from a cast magnesium alloy
32.
Bimetallic strip
–
A bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical displacement. The strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand at different rates as they are heated, usually steel and copper, or in some cases steel, the strips are joined together throughout their length by riveting, brazing or welding. The different expansions force the flat strip to one way if heated. The metal with the coefficient of thermal expansion is on the outer side of the curve when the strip is heated. The sideways displacement of the strip is much larger than the small expansion in either of the two metals. This effect is used in a range of mechanical and electrical devices, in some applications the bimetal strip is used in the flat form. In others, it is wrapped into a coil for compactness, the greater length of the coiled version gives improved sensitivity. The earliest surviving bimetallic strip was made by the eighteenth-century clockmaker John Harrison who is credited with its invention. He made it for his marine chronometer of 1759 to compensate for temperature-induced changes in the balance spring. It should not be confused with the mechanism for correcting for thermal expansion in his gridiron pendulum. His earliest examples had two metal strips joined by rivets but he also invented the later technique of directly fusing molten brass onto a steel substrate. A strip of this type was fitted to his last timekeeper, harrisons invention is recognized in the memorial to him in Westminster Abbey, England. Mechanical clock mechanisms are sensitive to temperature changes which lead to errors in time keeping, a bimetallic strip is used to compensate for this in some mechanisms. The most common method is to use a construction for the circular rim of the balance wheel. As the spring controlling the balance becomes weaker with increasing temperature, in the regulation of heating and cooling, thermostats that operate over a wide range of temperatures are used. In these, one end of the strip is mechanically fixed and attached to an electrical power source. In adjustable thermostats another contact is positioned with a knob or lever. The position so set controls the temperature, called the set point
33.
Mazda B engine
–
It was used from front-wheel drive economy applications to the turbocharged full-time 4WD323 GTX and rear-wheel drive Miata as well as numerous other models. 1.1 L B1 - - came only as a SOHC 8-valve and it was available in the 1987-1989 Mazda 121 and later model Kia Sephia in European and Asian markets. A fuel-injected variant was used in select European market 1991-1995 Mazda 121s The 1.3 L BJ engine was a DOHC 16-valve engine, used only in the Japanese market Ford Festiva GT, GT-X, and GT-A models. It develops 88 PS at 7000 rpm and is equipped with Mazdas EGi single-point fuel injection and it is a short-stroke version of the B5/B6 engines. It was also fitted to the Mazda Étude coupé and fifth-generation BF-series Familia Wagon, there was also a 16-valve, SOHC B5-MI version of the B5, usually fitted with single-point fuel injection. This engine was used in the Japanese domestic market. The B5-ME, equipped with fuel injection, was used by Kia for several of their cars as well as in the Mazda Demio. 1.5 L B5D - - A Japanese-only variant of the B5 with fuel injection, found in the 1989-1994 BG Familia and Ford Laser S. Power output is 120 PS at 6,500 rpm and 13.5 kg·m at 5,500 rpm. The Timor S515i also used a B5D, with 110 PS at 5,500 rpm and 145 Nm at 4,400 rpm without variable valve timing and with a 9.2,1 compression ratio. The B5D was also found in the Autozam AZ-3, a Japanese market version of the Mazda MX-3,1.6 L B6 — — This was a bored-out version of the B3. The 16-valve SOHC B6 was found in the 1985-1989 and 1990-1994 Mazda 323, 1991-1993 Mazda MX-3 the 1987-1990 Mercury Tracer, the 16-valve DOHC B6 was also found in the 1994-1998 Ford Laser KJ/KL, 1997-2004 Kia Sephia, Kia Shuma, 2000-2004 Kia Spectra and 2000-2005 Kia Rio. In Japan, the United Kingdom, and Australia a fuel-injected version called the B6F was available, in Europe, the B6 also came in a 16-valve DOHC version, mostly found in the Mazda 323 BG and 323F BG models from 1989-1994. This engine was the same 1.6 liter fuel-injected, kias version of the B6 had a marginally shorter stroke, for a total displacement of 1,594 cc. This engine was used in the Rio, Sephia II, and Shuma.6 L B6-2E - and this engine was most commonly found mated to a 4WD drivetrain although FWD models were also available. Power and torque outputs varied across markets due to emission and fuel standards, the B6T available in North America came with 132 hp and 136 lb·ft. The Japanese version was more powerful, producing 140 PS and 19.0 kg·m due to better intake manifold design. 1.6 L B6D - - The same strengthened and fuel-injected 16-valve DOHC B6 but with higher compression, no turbo, the third-generation B6D features an alloy cam cover, a VLIM intake, had a 9,1 compression ratio and produced 107 hp. The engine uses a DOHC 16-valve alloy head with a lightened crankshaft, an aluminium sump with cooling fins is an unusual feature of this engine
34.
Variable-length intake manifold
–
In internal combustion engines, a variable-length intake manifold, variable intake manifold, or variable intake system is an automobile internal combustion engine manifold technology. The first patent issued for a variable intake manifold was published in 1958. There are two effects of variable intake geometry, Swirl Variable geometry can create a beneficial air swirl pattern. At low revolutions per minute, the speed of the airflow is increased by directing the air through a path with limited capacity -. At high rpms, the shorter and larger path opens when the load increases, in double overhead camshaft designs, the air paths may sometimes be connected to separate intake valves so the shorter path can be excluded by de-activating the intake valve itself. Pressurisation A tuned intake path can have a light pressurising effect similar to a low-pressure supercharger - due to Helmholtz resonance, however, this effect occurs only over a narrow engine speed band. A variable intake can create two or more pressurized hot spots, increasing engine output, when the intake air speed is higher, the dynamic pressure pushing the air inside the engine is increased. The dynamic pressure is proportional to the square of the air speed. Many automobile manufacturers use similar technology with different names, another common term for this technology is variable resonance induction system. BMWs DIVA is the worlds first continuously variable intake manifold. Citroën — XM3,0 V6.24 used during 1991 to 1997, Ford — Dual-Stage Intake, on their Duratec 2.5 and 3. 0-litre V6s, and it was also found on the Yamaha V6 in the Taurus SHO. The Ford Modular V8 engines and the V6 Cologne use either the Intake Manifold Runner Control for four-valve engines, the SVT edition and ST170 edition of the Ford Focus added IMRC to the Ford Zetec engine. A system called Split Port Induction was used on the 2. 0L CVH I4 of the 1997-2002 Escort and 2000-2004 Focus, general Motors —3. 9-litre LZ8/LZ9 V6,3. 2-litre LA3 V6, LT55. 2-litre Rodeos. An updated version of this technology is employed on the new Mazda Z engine, Rover — Variable Geometry Induction, Rover 825, Rover 75 V6 Subaru - Subaru Legacy JDM only using EJ2042. Volkswagen —1. 6-litre inline-four engine, V6 engines, VR6 engines, W8 engines, V8 engines Volvo — VVIS Volvo B52 engine as found on the Volvo 850 and S70/V70 vehicles, and their successors. Longer inlet ducts used between 1,500 and 4,100 rpm at 80% load or higher
35.
Internal combustion engine
–
An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
36.
Power (physics)
–
In physics, power is the rate of doing work. It is the amount of energy consumed per unit time, having no direction, it is a scalar quantity. In the SI system, the unit of power is the joule per second, known as the watt in honour of James Watt, another common and traditional measure is horsepower. Being the rate of work, the equation for power can be written, because this integral depends on the trajectory of the point of application of the force and torque, this calculation of work is said to be path dependent. As a physical concept, power requires both a change in the universe and a specified time in which the change occurs. This is distinct from the concept of work, which is measured in terms of a net change in the state of the physical universe. The output power of a motor is the product of the torque that the motor generates. The power involved in moving a vehicle is the product of the force of the wheels. The dimension of power is divided by time. The SI unit of power is the watt, which is equal to one joule per second, other units of power include ergs per second, horsepower, metric horsepower, and foot-pounds per minute. One horsepower is equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or the required to lift 550 pounds by one foot in one second. Other units include dBm, a logarithmic measure with 1 milliwatt as reference, food calories per hour, Btu per hour. This shows how power is an amount of energy consumed per unit time. If ΔW is the amount of work performed during a period of time of duration Δt and it is the average amount of work done or energy converted per unit of time. The average power is simply called power when the context makes it clear. The instantaneous power is then the value of the average power as the time interval Δt approaches zero. P = lim Δ t →0 P a v g = lim Δ t →0 Δ W Δ t = d W d t. In the case of constant power P, the amount of work performed during a period of duration T is given by, W = P t
37.
Torque
–
Torque, moment, or moment of force is rotational force. Just as a force is a push or a pull. Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt, the symbol for torque is typically τ, the lowercase Greek letter tau. When it is called moment of force, it is denoted by M. The SI unit for torque is the newton metre, for more on the units of torque, see Units. This article follows US physics terminology in its use of the word torque, in the UK and in US mechanical engineering, this is called moment of force, usually shortened to moment. In US physics and UK physics terminology these terms are interchangeable, unlike in US mechanical engineering, Torque is defined mathematically as the rate of change of angular momentum of an object. The definition of states that one or both of the angular velocity or the moment of inertia of an object are changing. Moment is the term used for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis. For example, a force applied to a shaft causing acceleration, such as a drill bit accelerating from rest. By contrast, a force on a beam produces a moment, but since the angular momentum of the beam is not changing. Similarly with any force couple on an object that has no change to its angular momentum and this article follows the US physics terminology by calling all moments by the term torque, whether or not they cause the angular momentum of an object to change. The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers, the term torque was apparently introduced into English scientific literature by James Thomson, the brother of Lord Kelvin, in 1884. A force applied at an angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the levers fulcrum is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two metres from the fulcrum, for example, exerts the same torque as a force of one newton applied six metres from the fulcrum. More generally, the torque on a particle can be defined as the product, τ = r × F, where r is the particles position vector relative to the fulcrum. Alternatively, τ = r F ⊥, where F⊥ is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle, any force directed parallel to the particles position vector does not produce a torque
38.
Dual overhead cam
–
Compared to OHV pushrod systems with the same number of valves, the reciprocating components of the OHC system are fewer and have a lower overall mass. Though the system drives the camshafts may be more complex, most engine manufacturers accept that added complexity as a trade-off for better engine performance. The fundamental reason for the OHC valvetrain is that it offers an increase in the ability to exchange induction. Another performance advantage is gained as a result of the better optimised port configurations made possible with overhead camshaft designs, with no intrusive pushrods, the overhead camshaft cylinder head design can use straighter ports of more advantageous cross-section and length. The OHC design allows for higher speeds than comparable cam-in-block designs. The higher engine speeds thus allowed increases power output for a given torque output, in earlier OHC systems, including inter-war Morrises and Wolseleys, oil leaks in the lubrication systems were also an issue. Single overhead camshaft is a design in which one camshaft is placed within the cylinder head, in the SOHC design, the camshaft operates the valves directly, traditionally via a bucket tappet, or via an intermediary rocker arm. SOHC cylinder heads are less expensive to manufacture than double overhead camshaft cylinder heads. Timing belt replacement can be easier since there are fewer camshaft drive sprockets that need to be aligned during the replacement procedure, SOHC designs offer reduced complexity compared to overhead valve designs — when used for multivalve cylinder heads, in which each cylinder has more than two valves. Exhaust and inlet manifolds were both on the side of the engine block. This did, however, offer excellent access to the spark plugs, in the early 1980s, Toyota and Volkswagen Group also used a directly actuated, SOHC parallel valve configuration with two valves for each cylinder. The Toyota system used hydraulic tappets, the Volkswagen system used bucket tappets with shims for valve clearance adjustment. Honda later used a similar system in their motorcycles, using the term Unicam for the concept. This system uses one camshaft for each bank of cylinder heads, with the cams operating directly onto the valve and indirectly, through a short rocker arm. This allows a compact, light valvetrain to operate valves in a combustion chamber. The Unicam valve train was first used in single cylinder dirt bikes, a dual overhead camshaft valvetrain layout is characterised by two camshafts located within the cylinder head, one operating the intake valves and the other one operating the exhaust valves. This design reduces valvetrain inertia more than is the case with a SOHC engine, a DOHC design permits a wider angle between intake and exhaust valves than do SOHC engines. This can allow for a less restricted airflow at higher engine speeds, DOHC with a multivalve design also allows for the optimum placement of the spark plug which, in turn, improves combustion efficiency
39.
Poppet valve
–
A poppet valve is a valve typically used to control the timing and quantity of gas or vapour flow into an engine. It consists of a hole, usually round or oval, the portion of the hole where the plug meets with it is referred to as the seat or valve seat. The shaft guides the plug portion by sliding through a valve guide, in exhaust applications a pressure differential helps to seal the valve and in intake valves a pressure differential helps open it. Poppet valves date from at least the 1770s, when James Watt used them on his steam engines, the word poppet shares etymology with puppet, it is from the Middle English popet, from Middle French poupette, which is a diminutive of poupée. The use of the poppet to describe a valve comes from the same word applied to marionettes. In the past, puppet valve was a synonym for poppet valve, however, the main advantage of the poppet valve is that it has no movement on the seat, thus requiring no lubrication. In most cases it is beneficial to have a balanced poppet in a direct-acting valve, less force is needed to move the poppet because all forces on the poppet are nullified by equal and opposite forces. However, they are most well known for their use in combustion and steam engines. Presta and Schrader valves used on pneumatic tyres are examples of poppet valves, the Presta valve has no spring and relies on a pressure differential for opening and closing while being inflated. Poppet valves are employed extensively in the launching of torpedoes from submarines, poppet valves are used in most piston engines to open and close the intake and exhaust ports in the cylinder head. The valve is usually a disk of metal with a long rod known as the valve stem attached to one side. The stem is used to push down on the valve to open it, at high revolutions per minute, the inertia of the spring means it cannot respond quickly enough to return the valve to its seat between cycles, leading to valve float. The engine normally operates the valves by pushing on the stems with cams, the shape and position of the cam determines the valve lift and when and how quickly the valve is opened. The cams are normally placed on a camshaft which is then geared to the crankshaft. On high-performance engines, the camshaft is movable and the cams have a height so, by axially moving the camshaft in relation with the engine RPM. For certain applications the valve stem and disk are made of different steel alloys, or the stem may be hollow and filled with sodium to improve heat transport. Although a better conductor, an aluminium cylinder head requires steel valve seat inserts. Such a condition occurs when changing gear, five valve designs are also in use
40.
Engine tuning
–
Engine tuning is an adjustment, modification of the internal combustion engine, or modification to its control unit, otherwise known as its ECU. It is adjusted to yield performance, to increase an engines power output, economy. These goals may be exclusive, and an engine may be detuned with respect to output in exchange for better economy or longer engine life due to lessened stress on engine components. It has a history, almost as long as the development of the automobile in general, originating with the development of early racing cars. Tuning can describe a variety of adjustments and modifications, from the routine adjustment of the carburetor. At the other end of the scale, performance tuning of an engine can involve revisiting some of the decisions taken at quite an early stage in the development of the engine. On modern engines, equipped with electronic ignition and fuel injection, some or all of tasks are automated. A tune-up usually refers to the servicing of the engine to meet the manufacturers specifications. Tune-ups are needed periodically as according to the recommendations to ensure an automobile runs as expected. Modern automobiles now typically only a small number of tune-ups over the course of an approximate 250. Modern engines are equipped with a management system /Engine Control Unit which can be modified to different settings. This also allows for an engine to be used by several different brands. Performance tuning focuses on tuning an engine for motorsport, although many such automobiles never compete, in this context, the power output, torque, and responsiveness of the engine are of premium importance, but reliability and fuel efficiency are also relevant. In particular, the transmission, driveshaft and any other load-transmitting powertrain components may need to be modified in order to withstand the load from the increased power, in almost all cases, people are interested in increasing the power output of an engine. Many well tried and tested techniques have been devised to achieve this, in order to check the amount of the air/fuel mixture, air fuel ratio meters are often used. The weight of fuel will affect the overall performance of the automobile. This also means that the tuning of an engine should take place in the context of the development of the overall automobile. Using larger or multiple carburetors, to create a more controllable air/fuel mixture to burn, in modern engines, fuel injection is more often used, and may be modified in a similar manner
41.
Supercharger
–
A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to an internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the more oxygen, letting it burn more fuel and do more work. Power for the supercharger can be provided mechanically by means of a belt, gear, shaft, when power is provided by a turbine powered by exhaust gas, a supercharger is known as a turbosupercharger – typically referred to simply as a turbocharger or just turbo. Common usage restricts the term supercharger to mechanically driven units, in 1848 or 1849 G. Jones of Birmingham, England brought out a Roots-style compressor. The worlds first functional, actually tested engine supercharger was made by Dugald Clerk, gottlieb Daimler received a German patent for supercharging an internal combustion engine in 1885. Louis Renault patented a centrifugal supercharger in France in 1902, an early supercharged race car was built by Lee Chadwick of Pottstown, Pennsylvania in 1908 which reportedly reached a speed of 100 mph. The worlds first series-produced cars with superchargers were Mercedes 6/25/40 hp, both models were introduced in 1921 and had Roots superchargers. They were distinguished as Kompressor models, the origin of the Mercedes-Benz badging which continues today, on March 24,1878 Heinrich Krigar of Germany obtained patent #4121, patenting the first ever screw-type compressor. Later that same year on August 16 he obtained patent #7116 after modifying and improving his original designs and his designs show a two-lobe rotor assembly with each rotor having the same shape as the other. Although the design resembled the Roots style compressor, the screws were clearly shown with 180 degrees of twist along their length, unfortunately, the technology of the time was not sufficient to produce such a unit, and Heinrich made no further progress with the screw compressor. Nearly half a century later, in 1935, Alf Lysholm and he also patented the method for machining the compressor rotors. There are two types of superchargers defined according to the method of gas transfer, positive displacement. Positive displacement blowers and compressors deliver an almost constant level of pressure increase at all engine speeds, dynamic compressors do not deliver pressure at low speeds, above a threshold speed, pressure increases with engine speed. Positive-displacement pumps deliver a nearly fixed volume of air per revolution at all speeds, Roots superchargers are external compression only. External compression refers to pumps that transfer air at ambient pressure into the engine, if the engine is running under boost conditions, the pressure in the intake manifold is higher than that coming from the supercharger. That causes a backflow from the engine into the supercharger until the two reach equilibrium and it is the backflow that actually compresses the incoming gas. This is an inefficient process and the factor in the lack of efficiency of Roots superchargers when used at high boost levels. The lower the boost level the smaller is this loss, and Roots blowers are very efficient at moving air at low pressure differentials, all the other types have some degree of internal compression
42.
Audi
–
Audi is a German automobile manufacturer that designs, engineers, produces, markets and distributes luxury vehicles. Audi is a member of the Volkswagen Group and has its roots at Ingolstadt, Bavaria, audi-branded vehicles are produced in nine production facilities worldwide. The modern era of Audi essentially began in the 1960s when Auto Union was acquired by Volkswagen from Daimler-Benz. After relaunching the Audi brand with the 1965 introduction of the Audi F103 series, Volkswagen merged Auto Union with NSU Motorenwerke in 1969, the company name is based on the Latin translation of the surname of the founder, August Horch. Horch, meaning listen in German, becomes audi in Latin, the four rings of the Audi logo each represent one of four car companies that banded together to create Audis predecessor company, Auto Union. Audis slogan is Vorsprung durch Technik, meaning Advancement through Technology, however, since 2007 Audi USA has used the slogan Truth in Engineering. Audi, along with BMW and Mercedes are among the luxury automobile brands in the world. Originally in 1885, automobile company Wanderer was established, later becoming a branch of Audi AG, another company, NSU, which also later merged into Audi, was founded during this time, and later supplied the chassis for Gottlieb Daimlers four-wheeler. On 14 November 1899, August Horch established the company A. Horch & Cie. in the Ehrenfeld district of Cologne, three years later in 1902 he moved with his company to Reichenbach im Vogtland. On May, 10th,1904 he founded the August Horch & Cie. Motorwagenwerke AG, after troubles with Horch chief financial officer, August Horch left Motorwagenwerke and founded in Zwickau on 16 July 1909, his second company, the August Horch Automobilwerke GmbH. His former partners sued him for trademark infringement, the German Reichsgericht in Leipzig, eventually determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company. Since August Horch was prohibited from using Horch as a name in his new car business, he called a meeting with close business friends, Paul and Franz Fikentscher from Zwickau. At the apartment of Franz Fikentscher, they discussed how to come up with a new name for the company, during this meeting, Franzs son was quietly studying Latin in a corner of the room. Horch. in German means Hark. or hear, which is Audi in the imperative form of audire – to listen – in Latin. The idea was accepted by everyone attending the meeting. On 25 April 1910 the Audi Automobilwerke GmbH Zwickau was entered in the register of Zwickau registration court. The first Audi automobile, the Audi Type A 10/22 hp Sport-Phaeton, was produced in the same year, followed by the successor Type B 10/28PS in the same year. Audi started with a 2,612 cc inline-four engine model Type A, followed by a 3,564 cc model and these cars were successful even in sporting events
