1.
Roller skates
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Roller skates are shoes, or bindings that fit onto shoes, that are worn to enable the wearer to roll along on wheels. The first roller skate was effectively an ice skate with wheels replacing the blade, later the quad style of roller skate became more popular consisting of four wheels arranged in the same configuration as a typical car. The first patented roller skate was introduced in 1760 by Belgian inventor John Joseph Merlin and his roller skate wasnt much more than an ice skate with wheels where the blade goes, a style we would call inline today. They were hard to steer and hard to stop because they didnt have brakes and, the initial test piloting of the first prototype of the skate was in the city of Huy, which had a party with Merlin playing the violin. In the 1840s, Meyerbeers Opera, Le prophète featured a scene in which performers used roller-skates to simulate ice-skating on a frozen lake set on stage, the result was to popularize roller skating throughout the Continent. As ice skaters subsequently developed the art of skating, roller skaters wanted the ability to turn in their skates in a similar fashion. The Plimpton skate is used today. Eventually, roller skating evolved from just a pastime to a sport, speed skating, racing on skates. In the mid 1990s roller hockey, played with a rather than a puck. The National Sporting Goods Association statistics showed, from a 1999 study, Roller Skating was considered for the 2012 Summer Olympics but has never become an Olympic event. Other roller skating sports include jam skating and roller derby, Roller skating popularity exploded during the disco era but tapered off in the 80s and 90s. The Roller Skating Rink Operators Association was developed in the U. S in 1937 and it is currently named the Roller Skating Association. The association promotes roller skating and offers classes to the public, the current President is Bobby Pender. The Roller Skating Association headquarters is located in Indianapolis, the Roller Skating Associations web page offers some health benefits of roller skating. Some of these benefits include providing an aerobic workout and burning 350 calories per hour while skating 6 miles per hour or 600 calories while skating 10 miles per hour. In the 1980s rollerskating as aerobic exercise flourished briefly, marnie Bjornsons 1988 exercise video Roller Burn combined rollerskating with tai chi moves. Roller skating is equivalent to jogging in terms of health benefits, the American Heart Association recommends roller skating as an aerobic fitness sport. Roller skating Inline skates Ice skates Roller Skating History of the United States How Ring Rollers Are Made, by George W
2.
Inline skating
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Inline skating is a sport practiced widely internationally. Inline skates typically have 2 to 5 polyurethane wheels, arranged in a single line, the in-line design allows for greater speed than roller skates and better maneuverability. The in-line wheels are coupled with boots designed for skating over, inline-skating is practiced and performed using inline skates designed for race tracks, skate parks, Urban areas, and off-road. Inline skating is known as roller blading due to the popular brand of inline skates. A term used to refer to inline skates on a vert ramp, vert skating is a form of gymnastics performed with skates. The purpose of vert skating is to higher than the coping. It focuses on complicated aerial maneuvers, such as spins. The intent of the skater is to speed until they are of sufficient height above the edge of the ramp to perform various aerial acrobatics. In competitions skaters have limited time, often less than a minute, to impress the judges by landing numerous, the sport was included in the first X Games in 1995. Vert skating is used in a lot of such as the X Games. Vert ramps are present in most skateparks of today. In addition to speed, fitness, artistic, or skating for fun, types of aggressive skating include Park and Street. The range of size for aggressive inline skates range from 40mm to 72mm. Park skating refers to doing tricks within a skatepark, meaning a space that is designed for skating, designed, Street skating specifically refers to tricks performed on non-allocated obstacles. Freestyle skating is a form of inline skating performed on flatland, currently the IFSA has defined three disciplines which must be offered by any competition they sanction, freestyle slalom, speed slalom, and free jump. Two additional disciplines, high jump and jam, are also defined, hockey performed in a special rink on inline skates Originally thought up by ice hockey players who wanted to continue training in their off season. Hockey rollerblades have wheel sizes generally in the 70-78mm range, the toe end of the boot is characteristically squared off
3.
Winter Olympic Games
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The Winter Olympic Games is a major international sporting event that occurs once every four years. Unlike the Summer Olympics, the Winter Olympics feature sports practised on snow, the first Winter Olympics, the 1924 Winter Olympics, was held in Chamonix, France. The original five sports were bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, Nordic skiing, the Games were held every four years from 1924 until 1936, after which they were interrupted by World War II. The Olympics resumed in 1948 and was held every four years. The Winter Games have evolved since its inception, others have been discontinued and later reintroduced, or have been permanently discontinued. Still others, such as speed skiing, bandy and skijoring, were demonstration sports, the rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games. It created a stream, via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising. This allowed outside interests, such as companies and corporate sponsors. The IOC has had to address several criticisms, internal scandals, nations have used the Winter Games to showcase the claimed superiority of their political systems. The Winter Olympics has been hosted on three continents by eleven different countries, the Games have been held in the United States four times, in France three times, and in Austria, Canada, Japan, Italy, Norway, and Switzerland twice. Also, the Games have been held in Germany, Yugoslavia, the IOC has selected Pyeongchang, South Korea, to host the 2018 Winter Olympics and Beijing, China, to host the 2022 Winter Olympics. Twelve countries – Austria, Canada, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States – have sent athletes to every Winter Olympic Games. Six of those – Austria, Canada, Finland, Norway, Sweden and the United States – have earned medals at every Winter Olympic Games, Norway leads in terms of number of gold medals and overall number of medals. Germany and Japan have been banned at times from competing in the Games, the Olympic Charter limits winter sports to those. Which are practised on snow or ice, since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme, which include short track speed skating, snowboarding, freestyle and moguls skiing. The addition of events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe. While European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports, countries such as South Korea, Australia, the results are more parity in the national medal tables, more interest in the Winter Olympics and higher global television ratings. Figure skating events were held at the 1908 and 1920 Summer Olympics. ^ Note 2, a mens ice hockey tournament was held at the 1920 Summer Olympics. ^ Note 3
4.
Speed skating
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Speed skating is a competitive form of ice skating in which the competitors race each other in travelling a certain distance on skates. Types of speed skating are long track speed skating, short track speed skating, in the Olympic Games, long-track speed skating is usually referred to as just speed skating, while short-track speed skating is known as short track. The ISU, the body of both ice sports, refers to long track as speed skating and short track as short track skating. The standard rink for long track is 400 meters long, but tracks of 200,250 and it is one of two Olympic forms of the sport and the one with the longer history. An international federation was founded in 1892, the first for any winter sport, the sport enjoys large popularity in the Netherlands and Norway. There are top international rinks in a number of countries, including Canada. A World Cup circuit is held with events in those countries, International Skating Union rules allow some leeway in the size and radius of curves. Short track speed skating takes place on a rink, normally the size of an ice hockey rink. Distances are shorter than in long-track racing, with the longest Olympic individual race being 1500 meters, races are usually held as knockouts, with the best two in heats of four or five qualifying for the final race, where medals are awarded. Disqualifications and falls are not uncommon, there are variations on the mass-start races. In the regulations of roller sports, eight different types of mass starts are described, races usually have some rules about disqualification if an opponent is unfairly hindered, these rules vary between the disciplines. In mass-start races, skaters will usually be allowed some physical contact, relay races are also held in short track and inline competitions, but here, exchanges may take place at any time during the race, though exchanges may be banned during the last couple of laps. Most speed skating races are held on a course. Oval sizes vary, in track speed skating, the rink must be an oval of 111.12 metres. Inline skating rinks are between 125 and 400 metres, though banked tracks can only be 250 metres long, inline skating can also be held on closed road courses between 400 and 1,000 metres, as well as open-road competitions where starting and finishing lines do not coincide. This is also a feature of outdoor marathons and it was much later, in the 16th century, that people started seeing skating as fun and perhaps even a sporting activity. Later, in Norway, King Eystein Magnusson, later King Eystein I of Norway, however, skating and speed skating was not limited to the Netherlands and Scandinavia, in 1592, a Scotsman designed a skate with an iron blade. It was iron-bladed skates that led to the spread of skating and, in particular, while in the Netherlands, people began touring the waterways connecting the 11 cities of Friesland, a challenge which eventually led to the Elfstedentocht
5.
Life (magazine)
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Life was an American magazine that ran weekly from 1883 to 1936 as a humor magazine with limited circulation. Time owner Henry Luce bought the magazine in 1936, solely so that he could acquire the rights to its name, Life was published weekly until 1972, as an intermittent special until 1978, and as a monthly from 1978 to 2000. After 2000 Time Inc. continued to use the Life brand for special, Life returned to regularly scheduled issues when it became a weekly newspaper supplement from 2004 to 2007. The website life. com, originally one of the channels on Time Inc. s Pathfinder service, was for a time in the late 2000s managed as a joint venture with Getty Images under the name See Your World, LLC. On January 30,2012 the LIFE. com URL became a channel on Time. com. When Life was founded in 1883, it was developed as similar to the British magazine and it was published for 53 years as a general-interest light entertainment magazine, heavy on illustrations, jokes and social commentary. The Luce Life was the first all-photographic American news magazine, the magazines role in the history of photojournalism is considered its most important contribution to publishing. Life was wildly successful for two generations before its prestige was diminished by economics and changing tastes, Life was founded January 4,1883, in a New York City artists studio at 1155 Broadway, as a partnership between John Ames Mitchell and Andrew Miller. Mitchell held a 75 per cent interest in the magazine with the remainder by Miller, both men retained their holdings until their deaths. Miller served as secretary-treasurer of the magazine and was very successful managing the side of the operation. Mitchell, a 37-year-old illustrator who used a $10,000 inheritance to invest in the weekly magazine, Mitchell created the first Life name-plate with cupids as mascots, he later drew its masthead of a knight leveling his lance at the posterior of a fleeing devil. Mitchell took advantage of a new printing process using zinc-coated plates. This edge helped because Life faced stiff competition from the humor magazines Judge and Puck. Edward Sandford Martin was brought on as Lifes first literary editor, the motto of the first issue of Life was, While theres Life, theres hope. The new magazine set forth its principles and policies to its readers and we shall try to domesticate as much as possible of the casual cheerfulness that is drifting about in an unfriendly world. The magazine was a success and soon attracted the leading contributors. Among the most important was Charles Dana Gibson, three years after the magazine was founded, the Massachusetts native first sold Life a drawing for $4, a dog outside his kennel howling at the moon. Encouraged by a publisher who was also an artist, Gibson was joined in Life early days by such illustrators as Palmer Cox
6.
Eric Heiden
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Eric Arthur Heiden is an American former long track speed skater, road cyclist and track cyclist. Heiden won an unprecedented five individual medals, and set four Olympic records and one world record at the 1980 Winter Olympic Games in Lake Placid, New York. He was the most successful athlete at those Olympic Games, single-handedly winning more medals than all nations except for the Soviet Union. Indeed, he is the most successful Winter Olympian from an edition of any Winter Olympics. He also delivered the Athletes Oath at those same 1980 Games, Heiden is an icon in the speed skating community. His victories are significant as few speed skaters have won competitions in both sprint and long-distance events. Heiden is the athlete in the history of speed skating to have won all five events in a single Olympic tournament. He is considered by some to be the best overall speedskater in the sports history. Heiden ranked No.46 in ESPNs SportsCentury 50 Greatest Athletes of the 20th Century in 1999, the speed skater to make the list, in 2000. His sister, Beth Heiden, is also an accomplished cyclist, speedskater, after his sports career, Heiden became a physician, and as of 2012 is the team doctor for the BMC Racing Team. Heiden won the World Junior Speed Skating Championships in 1977 and 1978, during his short speed skating career, Heiden won three World Allround Championships and four World Sprint Championships. Three times he broke the record in the 1000 metres, twice in the 3000 metres. He also broke the world record in both allround and the sprinting distances. Heiden finished his speed skating career by finishing second behind Hilbert van der Duim at the 1980 World Allround Championships in Heerenveen. He stood at the top of the Adelskalender, a system for long-track speed skating, for a record 1,495 days. As of 2016, he still is the only skater who has won the four times. He received the 1980 James E. Sullivan Award as the top athlete in the United States. In 1983, he was inducted into the United States Olympic Hall of Fame and he was elected to the Wisconsin Athletic Hall of Fame in 1990
7.
Minneapolis
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Minneapolis is the county seat of Hennepin County, and the larger of the Twin Cities, the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the United States. As of 2015, Minneapolis is the largest city in the state of Minnesota, Minneapolis and Saint Paul anchor the second-largest economic center in the Midwest, after Chicago. Minneapolis lies on both banks of the Mississippi River, just north of the confluence with the Minnesota River, and adjoins Saint Paul. It was once the worlds flour milling capital and a hub for timber, the city and surrounding region is the primary business center between Chicago and Seattle, with Minneapolis proper containing Americas fifth-highest concentration of Fortune 500 companies. As an integral link to the economy, Minneapolis is categorized as a global city. Noted for its music and performing arts scenes, Minneapolis is home to both the award-winning Guthrie Theater and the historic First Avenue nightclub. The name Minneapolis is attributed to Charles Hoag, the citys first schoolteacher, who combined mni, a Dakota Sioux word for water, and polis, Dakota Sioux had long been the regions sole residents when French explorers arrived around 1680. For a time relations were based on fur trading, gradually more European-American settlers arrived, competing for game and other resources with the Dakota. In the early 19th century, the United States acquired this territory from France, fort Snelling was built in 1819 by the United States Army, and it attracted traders, settlers and merchants, spurring growth in the area. The United States government pressed the Mdewakanton band of the Dakota to sell their land, the Minnesota Territorial Legislature authorized present-day Minneapolis as a town in 1856 on the Mississippis west bank. Minneapolis incorporated as a city in 1867, the rail service began between Minneapolis and Chicago. It later joined with the city of St. Anthony in 1872. Minneapolis developed around Saint Anthony Falls, the highest waterfall on the Mississippi River, forests in northern Minnesota were a valuable resource for the lumber industry, which operated seventeen sawmills on power from the waterfall. By 1871, the west river bank had twenty-three businesses, including mills, woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes. Due to the hazards of milling, six local sources of artificial limbs were competing in the prosthetics business by the 1890s. The farmers of the Great Plains grew grain that was shipped by rail to the citys thirty-four flour mills, a father of modern milling in America and founder of what became General Mills, Cadwallader C. Some ideas were developed by William Dixon Gray and some acquired through industrial espionage from the Hungarians by William de la Barre, pillsbury Company across the river were barely a step behind, hiring Washburn employees to immediately use the new methods. The hard red spring wheat that grows in Minnesota became valuable, not until later did consumers discover the value in the bran that Minneapolis
8.
Trademark
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The trademark owner can be an individual, business organization, or any legal entity. A trademark may be located on a package, a label, for the sake of corporate identity, trademarks are often displayed on company buildings. A trademark identifies the owner of a particular product or service. The unauthorized usage of trademarks by producing and trading counterfeit consumer goods is known as brand piracy, the owner of a trademark may pursue legal action against trademark infringement. Most countries require formal registration of a trademark as a precondition for pursuing this type of action, the United States, Canada and other countries also recognize common law trademark rights, which means action can be taken to protect an unregistered trademark if it is in use. Still, common law trademarks offer the holder in general less legal protection than registered trademarks. A trademark may be designated by the symbols, ™ ℠ ® A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these categories, such as those based on colour, smell. Trademarks which are considered offensive are often rejected according to a nations trademark law, the term trademark is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such as the well-known characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used in relation to services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a service mark, in other words, trademarks serve to identify a particular business as the source of goods or services. The use of a trademark in this way is known as trademark use, certain exclusive rights attach to a registered mark. Different goods and services have been classified by the International Classification of Goods, in trademark treatises it is usually reported that blacksmiths who made swords in the Roman Empire are thought of as being the first users of trademarks. Other notable trademarks that have used for a long time include Löwenbräu. The first trademark legislation was passed by the Parliament of England under the reign of King Henry III in 1266, the first modern trademark laws emerged in the late 19th century. In France the first comprehensive system in the world was passed into law in 1857 with the Manufacture. In Britain, the Merchandise Marks Act 1862 made it an offense to imitate anothers trade mark with intent to defraud or to enable another to defraud. In 1875 the Trade Marks Registration Act was passed which allowed formal registration of marks at the UK Patent Office for the first time. Registration was considered to comprise prima facie evidence of ownership of a trade mark, in the United States, Congress first attempted to establish a federal trademark regime in 1870
9.
John Joseph Merlin
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He was born Jean-Joseph Merlin in 1735 in the city of Huy, Belgium. He was an inventor, noted for the invention of inline skates in 1760 and he also improved musical instruments and manufactured automata, such as Coxs timepiece. He created Merlins Mechanical Museum to display his machines, in conjunction with London inventor James Cox, Merlin was also responsible for the Silver Swan automaton now on display at the Bowes Museum in County Durham, England. He worked in Paris and later in London, where he died in 1803
10.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
11.
D. Napier & Son
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D. Napier & Son Limited was a British engineering company best known for its luxury motor cars in the Edwardian era and for its aero engines throughout the early to mid-20th century. Napier was founded as an engineering company in 1808 and for nearly a century produced machinery for the financial, print. In the early 20th century it moved for a time into internal combustion engines and its powerful Lion dominated the UK market in the 1920s and the World War Two era Sabre produced 3500 hp in its later versions. Many world speed records on land and water, as well as the Hawker Typhoon, during World War Two the company was taken over by English Electric and engine manufacture eventually ceased. Today, Napier Turbochargers is a subsidiary of the American company Wabtec, david Napier, second son of the blacksmith to the Duke of Argyll, was born in 1785. While cousins became shipbuilders, he took engineering training in Scotland before coming to London, there in 1808 he founded the firm that was to become D. Napier & Son in Lloyds Court, St Giles, London. He designed a printing press, some of which went to Hansard. The company moved to Lambeth, South London in 1830, between 1840 and 1860, Napier was prosperous, with a well-outfitted factory and between 200 and 300 workers. Napier made a variety of products, including a centrifuge for sugar manufacturing, lathes and drills, ammunition-making equipment for the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. Davids younger son James Murdoch, born 1823, joined the firm in 1837 and became a partner in 1847, James proved an excellent engineer, but a poor businessman, considering salesmanship undignified. It became so bad that there were as few as seven employees in 1895, and James attempted to sell the business, James son Montague, born 1870, inherited the business in 1895, along with his fathers engineering talents. Montague was a racing cyclist, and at the Bath Road Club. Edge Edge persuaded Napier to improve his Panhard, converting from a tiller to a steering wheel, dissatisfied, Napier offered to fit an engine of his own design, an 8 hp vertical twin, with electric ignition, superior to the Panhards hot tube type. By June 1900, eight 16 hps had been ordered, and Edge entered one in the 837 mi Paris-Toulouse-Paris race, the 301.6 cu in sidevalve suffered problems with its ignition coils and cooling system, and failed to finish. For 1901, Montague designed a car not to lack speed, having a 16. 3-liter sidevalve four capable of 103 bhp at 800 rpm, on a wheelbase of 115 inches with four-speed gearbox. Called the 50 hp, only two or three were completed, including one for Rolls, in the concurrent Paris-Bordeaux rally, it retired with clutch trouble. For the 1902 Gordon Bennett, three entrants contested for France, with Edge in a Napier and two Wolseleys, the Napier was a three-speed, shaft-drive 6. 44-litre four of 44.5 hp. Piloted by Edge and his cousin, Cecil, it wore what would become known as British racing green and it was the first British victory in international motorsport, and would not be repeated until Henry Segrave took the French Grand Prix in 1923
12.
Rollerskating
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Roller skating is the traveling on surfaces with roller skates. It is a form of activity as well as a sport. 1743, First recorded use of roller skates, in a London stage performance, the inventor of this skate is unknown. 1760, First recorded skate invention, by John Joseph Merlin,1818, Roller skates appeared on the ballet stage in Berlin. 1819, First patented roller skate design, in France by M. Petitbled and these early skates were similar to todays inline skates, but they were not very maneuverable. It was difficult with these skates to do anything but move in a straight line, rest of the 19th century, inventors continued to work on improving skate design. 1823, Robert John Tyers of London patented a skate called the Rolito and this skate had five wheels in a single row on the bottom of a shoe or boot. 1857, Finally, roller skating had gained momentum to warrant the opening of the first public skating rinks. The Strand, London and Floral Hall had these first roller rinks, the skate contained a pivoting action using a rubber cushion that allowed the skater to skate a curve just by pressing his weight to one side or the other, most commonly by leaning to one side. The design of the quad skate allowed easier turns and maneuverability,1876, William Brown in Birmingham, England, patented a design for the wheels of roller skates. Browns design embodied his effort to keep the two bearing surfaces of an axle, fixed and moving, apart, Brown worked closely with Joseph Henry Hughes, who drew up the patent for a ball or roller bearing race for bicycle and carriage wheels in 1877. Hughes patent included all the elements of an adjustable system and these two men are thus responsible for modern roller skate and skateboard wheels, as well as the ball bearing race inclusion in velocipedes—later to become motorbikes and automobiles. This was arguably the most important advance in the use of roller skates as a pleasurable pastime. 1876, The toe stop was first patented and this provided skaters with the ability to stop promptly upon tipping the skate onto the toe. Toe stops are used today on most quad skates and on some types of inline skates. 1877, The Royal Skating indoor skating ring building is erected rue Veydt, 1880s, Roller skates were being mass-produced in America from then. This was the sports first of several boom periods, henley of Richmond, Indiana produced thousands of skates every week during peak sales. Henley skates were the first skate with adjustable tension via a screw,1884, Levant M. Richardson received a patent for the use of steel ball bearings in skate wheels to reduce friction, allowing skaters to increase speed with minimum effort
13.
Jason Lewis (adventurer)
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Jason Lewis is an English award-winning author, explorer and sustainability campaigner credited with being the first person to circumnavigate the globe by human power. He is also the first person to cross North America on inline skates, together with Stevie Smith, Lewis completed the first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean from mainland Europe to North America by human power. By July 2007, Lewis had travelled over 60,000 km and he successfully ended his 4, 833-day expedition on 6 October 2007, having travelled 74,842 km. In mid-1994, Lewis and Smith mountain-biked 1,700 miles through France, Spain and Portugal to the port of Lagos, Portugal. Departing on 13 October 1994, Lewis and Smith then pedaled 111 consecutive days and 4,500 miles across the Atlantic Ocean from Portugal to Miami, Lewis then roller bladed thousands of miles across North America. He was struck by a driver in Pueblo, Colorado. He finished the North American expedition leg in 1996, in 1998 and 1999, Lewis and Smith spent 53 days pedaling Moksha across the Pacific Ocean from San Francisco, California to Hilo, Hawaii, where Smith ended his journey. In four days, Lewis and a group of supporters hiked the 80 miles across Hawaii. After 73 days of solo pedaling Moksha across the doldrums, Lewis completed the Pacific Ocean crossing from Hawaii to the atoll of Tarawa. In May 2000, he was accompanied by Mokshas builder, Chris Tipper, to pedal the 1, with the help of friend and expedition supporter April Abril, Lewis then pedaled Moksha 1,450 miles for 32 days across the Coral Sea to Australia. After spending many years raising funds to continue Expedition 360, Lewis was reunited with Moksha in 2005 and he and expedition supporter Lourdes Arango pedaled 450 nautical miles from Darwin, Australia to Dili, East Timor. Throughout 2005, Lewis kayaked thousands of miles through the Indonesian archipelago from East Timor to Singapore, in 2006, he biked from Singapore to the Himalayas, and biked and hiked through the Himalayas to the port of Mumbai. Covering 2,000 nautical miles in 46 days during early 2007, Lewis and friend Sher Dhillon pedaled Moksha from Mumbai, India, Lewis then planned to travel through Ethiopia, Sudan, Egypt, and the Middle East before reaching Europe – encountering a problem in Sudan. The Egyptian authorities would not let him pass through their waters, and he attempted to kayak across Lake Nasser to Abu Simbel but was arrested on suspicion of spying. He was released, but the Egyptian authorities forbade him from mountain-biking the 178-mile journey to Aswan and he completed this section illegally by riding partly at night. During his journey through Sudan he encountered actors Ewan McGregor and Charley Boorman who were travelling south as part of their Long Way Down motorbike trip. In July 2007, Lewis reached Syria, and then cycled across Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Austria, Germany, pulling Moksha in tow, Lewis crossed the Greenwich Meridian Line where he had begun his expedition 13 years earlier. During his expedition, Lewis twice survived malaria, septicaemia, a bout of mild schizophrenia,2005 Recognized by Guinness World Records as the first individual human-powered circumnavigation of the Earth,2013
14.
Expedition 360
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Expedition 360 is the name of a successful attempt by Briton Jason Lewis to be the first person to circumnavigate the globe using only human power – no motors or sails. It was begun by Lewis and Stevie Smith in 1994 and ended at 12,24 pm on 6 October 2007, a true circumnavigation of the world must pass through two points antipodean to each other. Norris McWhirter, founding editor of Guinness,1971, Angus journey did not cross the equator or hit the minimum of two antipodal points as stipulated by the rules of Guinness World Records or AdventureStats by Explorersweb. As journalist Nick Heil pointed out, this alone was enough to disqualify a human-powered claim of any description, Expedition 360 conformed to the rules of adjudicating bodies Guinness World Records and AdventureStats by Explorers Web. This unique concept of going around the world by human power first came as an idea to Stevie Smith as he worked in his office in Paris. He soon set about making the idea a reality and got the help of his friend Jason Lewis who agreed to come with him, the pair set about spreading the idea, and began to raise money for a pedal boat built by Chris Tipper and Hugo Burnham. The specially-built boat was named Moksha, Sanskrit for freedom, to raise cash Stevie cycled to Marrakesh, Morocco. The pair had no training in either cycling or riding pedal boats. Smith and Lewis set off on bicycles from Greenwich, London at midday on 12 July 1994 and they cycled south-east across Britain to the coast at Rye, then pedalled across the English Channel, and then cycled south again across France through major cities including Paris and Orléans. The pair split up for a short while, meeting back up in Spain and they then travelled through Madrid, across Portugal and through Lisbon, finally arriving at Lagos on 29 September 1994. According to Smith, they slept outdoors, taking their sleeping bags into open places, the trip across the Atlantic took 111 days, pedaling in two-hour day and four-hour night shifts. They crossed the North American continent on bicycles and skates, skating near Pueblo, Colorado, Lewis was hit by a drunk driver and broke both of his legs. He spent 9 months in Colorado healing and resting, Lewis completed the journey across the Pacific in the Moksha. Smith quit the project in Hawaii, the next leg to be completed was Australia and Indonesia. The journey north used pedal boats, kayaks and bicycle and this leg of the circumnavigation in Australia was especially noteworthy, as Jason reached the antipode to his Atlantic crossing path. During his expedition, Lewis twice survived malaria, septicaemia, a bout of mild schizophrenia, Colin Angus and Julie Wafaei Smith, Stevie, Pedaling To Hawaii, A Human-Powered Odyssey, US, Countryman, UK Summersdale Publishers Ltd foreword by the Dalai Lama. Carter, Mike, One Man and his Bike, Ebury Press, the author meets Stevie Smith on his ride around the UK, giving him pause for thought as to the reason for his own journey. Smith has left the circumnavigation and is working as a ferryman in Salcombe, Devon, Lewis, Jason, Dark Waters, True Story of the First Human-Powered Circumnavigation of the Earth, BillyFish Books
15.
Bearing (mechanical)
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A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion, and reduces friction between moving parts. Most bearings facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction, Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads applied to the parts. Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles within mechanical systems, the simplest form of bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a hole. Lubrication is often used to reduce friction, a wide variety of bearing designs exists to allow the demands of the application to be correctly met for maximum efficiency, reliability, durability and performance. The term bearing is derived from the verb to bear, a bearing being an element that allows one part to bear another. The simplest bearings are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of control over the form, size, roughness, other bearings are separate devices installed into a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most demanding applications are very precise devices, the invention of the rolling bearing, in the form of wooden rollers supporting, or bearing, an object being moved is of great antiquity, and may predate the invention of the wheel. Though it is claimed that the Egyptians used roller bearings in the form of tree trunks under sleds. They are depicted in their own drawings in the tomb of Djehutihotep as moving massive stone blocks on sledges with liquid-lubricated runners which would constitute a plain bearing, there are also Egyptian drawings of bearings used with hand drills. The earliest recovered example of a rolling element bearing is a ball bearing supporting a rotating table from the remains of the Roman Nemi ships in Lake Nemi. The wrecks were dated to 40 BC, leonardo da Vinci incorporated drawings of ball bearings in his design for a helicopter around the year 1500. This is the first recorded use of bearings in an aerospace design, however, Agostino Ramelli is the first to have published sketches of roller and thrust bearings. An issue with ball and roller bearings is that the balls or rollers rub against each other causing additional friction which can be reduced by enclosing the balls or rollers within a cage, the captured, or caged, ball bearing was originally described by Galileo in the 17th century. The first practical caged-roller bearing was invented in the mid-1740s by horologist John Harrison for his H3 marine timekeeper and this uses the bearing for a very limited oscillating motion but Harrison also used a similar bearing in a truly rotary application in a contemporaneous regulator clock. The first modern recorded patent on ball bearings was awarded to Philip Vaughan and his was the first modern ball-bearing design, with the ball running along a groove in the axle assembly. Bearings played a role in the nascent Industrial Revolution, allowing the new industrial machinery to operate efficiently. For example, they saw use for holding wheel and axle to greatly reduce friction over that of dragging an object by making the act over a shorter distance as the wheel turned. The first plain and rolling-element bearings were wood closely followed by bronze, over their history bearings have been made of many materials including ceramic, sapphire, glass, steel, bronze, other metals and plastic which are all used today
16.
Aggressive inline skating
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Aggressive inline skating is a form of inline skating executed on specially designed inline skates with focus on grinding and spins. Participants refer to the activity as rollerblading, blading, skating, Aggressive skating can take place on found street obstacles or at skateparks. Street skating primarily consists of performing grinds on ledges and rails, park skating recreates these obstacles with the additions of bowls and ramps on which vert skating can be performed. Since 1994, the sport has been chronicled in various skating films, in 1980, a group of ice hockey players in Minnesota were looking for a way to practice during the summer. Scott and Brennan Olson formed the company Rollerblade, Inc. to sell skates with four wheels arranged in a straight line on the bottom of a padded boot. In 1988, Rollerblade introduced the first aggressive inline skate, the Rollerblade Lightning TRS, Aggressive inline skating finally developed as an organized sport in the early 1990s. In 1994, the first ever series was launched on the beaches of Southern California by two childhood friends turned promoters Rick Stark and Mark Billik. The event was called The National Inline Skate Series better known as NISS to aggressive skaters around the world and their company Anywhere Sports Productions sold Taco Bell on sponsoring the series for $150,000 and a six stop series was born. Chris Edwards and Arlo Eisenberg were the champions of the 1994 series. NISS, went strong for 5 years holding contests in LA, NEW YORK, ROME, NISS, was the first series to put aggressive inline on TV with an ESPN deal for the 1994 series and later moving the competition series to PRIME TICKET-Fox Sports. The Aggressive Skaters Association was formed by a number of aggressive inline skaters in 1995 as a forum to develop rules governing competitions, the sport was included in the first ESPN X-Games in 1995 and included vertical ramp and street event competitions. It reached its height in popularity in the late 90s, with movies like Disneys Brink. The Senate brand, run by Arlo Eisenberg, was popular during the 1990s. The WRS circuit started in 2009 with 10 established professional contests in France, Netherlands, England, Spain, Argentina, Australia, in 2012, WRS now includes 100+ Amateurs and Professional events categorized from 1 to 5 stars in over 20 countries. This involves skaters grinding hand rails and concrete ledges, jumping stairs, ramping off of embankments and generally turning anything on the street into an obstacle, ramp. Park skating refers to skating that occurs in private and community skateparks. This style differs from street skating due to the nature of skate parks. Park skating often emphasizes the technical side of aggressive inline, focusing on the variety of tricks a skater can do, a series of tricks connected together in a fluid motion over different obstacles is known as a line
17.
Inline speed skating
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Inline speed skating is the roller sport of racing on inline skates. It is often called inline racing by participants, an inline speed skate is a specialized shoe version of the inline skate. The boot or shoe is close-fitting, without padding and usually made of leather. The lower part of the boot is made of carbon fiber. This also protects the boot from getting damaged on hitting other boots during a race and it is also quite common to have boots custom-made for improved fit. Speed skating boots are low-cut and offer little support, allowing the skater extra ankle movement. The frame which holds the wheels is made of aircraft-quality aluminum, magnesium, frames flex during skating, and the amount of flex can be a personal factor in which one to choose. Very stiff frames are usually favoured by heavy skaters, a frame which is too stiff for a particular skater may feel unstable on corners, and a frame that is not stiff enough will be slower. Frame stiffness also works along with boot and wheel stiffness, so there are endless possible variations, the new-age frames that are being developed are designed to absorb minute shocks and jerks that are usually experienced, thereby not hindering the skaters momentum. Ideal frame length is affected by size and wheel size. A slightly shorter frame is preferred for the tight curves of smaller tracks but is slower. A longer frame is faster but much harder to turn, the frame position can usually be adjusted with respect to the skate, to adjust for a skaters individual foot, ankle and leg characteristics. Frame positioning is very critical as even a change from the skaters actual frame position can lead to severe foot pain. Also, many times it leads to locking of the skaters ankle and/or calf muscle and it may take a skater several days to weeks to test and adjust the frame position of his new skates. The typical Inline mounting is 195mm, which is different from the ice mounting of 165mm, the frame usually mounts three, four, or five polyurethane wheels. The three wheel frames are used by skaters with small feet, otherwise 4 wheel frames are commonly used, five-wheel frames with smaller wheel have lost favor. Each wheel contains two ball bearings with a spacer, held in place with an axle screwed into the frame. Larger wheels require better skating technique, so skaters generally progress upwards in size as they gain experience
18.
Roller in-line hockey
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It is considered a contact sport but body checking is prohibited. However, there are exceptions to that with the NRHL which involves fighting, Inline hockey teams are composed of up to four lines of players including two forwards and two defensemen on each line. There are five players including the goalie from each team on the rink at a time and it is the goalies job to prevent the other teams players from scoring. Teams normally consist of 16 players that sit on the bench until it is their turn to play, as the name suggests it is played on inline skates. Inline hockey is a very fast paced and free flowing game, there are no blue lines or defensive zones in roller hockey unlike ice hockey. This means that, according to most rule codes, there are no offsides or icings that can occur during game play, there are traditionally two 20-minute periods or four 10-minute periods with a stopped clock. In the United States, the highest governing body for the sport is USA Roller Sports which is referred to as USARS. USARS is credited with the development of the present day rules and they organize tournaments across the United States but they are not the only tournament provider. Some of the other independent tournament providers include Amateur Athletic Union, North American Roller Championships, internationally, inline hockey is represented by two different union, the Fédération Internationale de Roller Sports and the International Ice Hockey Federation. Both of them organize their own annual World Championships, some of the earliest video evidence of the sport is newsreel footage from the Giornale Luce taken in Vienna, Austria in 1938. The video shows players using inline skates with five metal wheels, each team has four skaters plus a netminder. They are using ice hockey sticks, with taped blades, the game is being played with a ball on a rectangular outdoor court, which appears to be asphalt. In the United States, the USA Roller Sports predecessor organization was the Roller Skating Rink Operators Association, in 1940 the RSROA published a set of roller hockey rules drawn from a booklet by the National Hockey League which was designed to grow interest in playing hockey on roller skates. However, because of the intervention of World War II, the organization of hockey tournaments did not receive significant development until after this war in the late 1940s. At first skating club interest was confined to the tier of the United States. The American Roller Hockey Association was formed with Joe Spillman, a roller rink operator from San Antonio, under Spillmans direction, the sport of hockey on roller skates grew rapidly throughout the United States. During the 1960 RSROA National Roller Skating Championships held in Little Rock, Arkansas, exhibition games for ball, following these Nationals, the first full competitive season officially began in North America for roller hockey. This, of course, had puck roller hockey entirely performed on quad skates, state and Regional competitions determined the teams that would move on to the North American Championships
19.
Artistic roller skating
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Artistic roller skating is a sport similar to figure skating but where competitors wear roller skates instead of ice skates. Generally quad and inline skaters compete in events and not against each other. Inline figure skating has been included in the championships since 2002 in Wuppertal. The sport looks very similar to its counterpart on ice, and although there are some differences, famous champion ice skaters who once competed in roller skating include Brian Boitano, Tara Lipinski, and Marina Kielmann. Roller figure skating is considered to be more difficult because the ice allows the skater to draw a deep. Also, roller skates are generally heavier than their ice equivalents, making jumping harder, in the figures discipline, skaters trace figure circles painted on the skating surface. This is different from skaters of compulsory figures on ice, who skate on blank ice, the official dimension of plain figure circles, measured at their diameter along the long axis, is 6 meters. The official dimension of the smaller loop figure circles measured similarly is 2.4 meters, circles are typically painted in serpentines—sets of three circular lobes. The basic figures skated are typically referred to by numbers, the same as those skated by ice skaters, ranging from simple circle eights through serpentines, paragraphs, and loops. Some of the basic figures are numbered 1,2, 1B, 5A, 5B, 7A, 7B, 111A, 111B, 112A. These figures are often taught as beginning figures for those just starting and they include simple circle eights, circle eights with, and serpentines. The harder figures include counters, brackets, rockers, etc. and they are number 19,21,22,26, judges in figure events consider the quality of the skaters tracing of the circle, clean takeoffs, edges and correct placement of turns. The skaters form and posture is emphasized as well, Dance roller skating contains three major sub-disciplines, Compulsory dance, original dance, and free dance. Compulsory dance contains prescribed compulsory dances and steps that must be performed, such as the Imperial Tango, the 14 Step, some of the dances are the same as performed in ice dancing competition, while others are unique to roller skating. American Dance is performed only at the United States National level and below, some examples of American dances are the Fascination Foxtrot, Progressive Tango, and the California Swing. Original Dance consists of a constructed of two rhythms chosen from a set of rhythms that FIRS changes every year. In 2008 the set rhythms were Spanish Melody, free Dance is similar to the ice free dance, although with some rules changes. Skaters do not need to follow a pattern around the floor, dancers cannot do any jumps or spins that are recognizable in freestyle skating
20.
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
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Carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic, is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers. The spelling fibre is common in British Commonwealth countries, the binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used. The composite may contain other fibers, such as an aramid, aluminium, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene or glass fibers, the properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix. The most frequent additive is silica, but other such as rubber. The material is referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer. In product advertisements, it is referred to simply as graphite fiber for short. In this case the composite consists of two parts, a matrix and a reinforcement, in CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a resin, such as epoxy. Because CFRP consists of two elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity, measured by stress, unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber, the following equation, E c = V m E m + V f E f is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0. 5% strain to failure, although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material, One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive, despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, a design limitation of CFRP is its lack of a definable fatigue endurance limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out, environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum. The primary element of CFRP is a filament, this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile, rayon. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers, after drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms, producing the final carbon fiber
21.
Polyurethane
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Polyurethane is a polymer composed of organic units joined by carbamate links. While most polyurethanes are thermosetting polymers that do not melt when heated, polyurethane polymers are traditionally and most commonly formed by reacting a di- or polyisocyanate with a polyol. Both the isocyanates and polyols used to make polyurethanes contain, on average, some noteworthy recent efforts have been dedicated to minimizing the use of isocyanates to synthesize polyurethanes, because the isocyanates raise severe toxicity issues. Non-isocyanate based polyurethanes have recently developed as a new class of polyurethane polymers to mitigate health. Polyurethane products often are simply called “urethanes”, but should not be confused with ethyl carbamate, polyurethanes neither contain nor are produced from ethyl carbamate. Otto Bayer and his coworkers at IG Farben in Leverkusen, Germany, the new polymers had some advantages over existing plastics that were made by polymerizing olefins or by polycondensation, and were not covered by patents obtained by Wallace Carothers on polyesters. Early work focused on the production of fibres and flexible foams, polyisocyanates became commercially available in 1952, and production of flexible polyurethane foam began in 1954 using toluene diisocyanate and polyester polyols. These materials were used to produce rigid foams, gum rubber. Linear fibers were produced from hexamethylene diisocyanate and 1, 4-butanediol, in 1956 DuPont introduced polyether polyols, specifically poly glycol, and BASF and Dow Chemical started selling polyalkylene glycols in 1957. Polyether polyols were cheaper, easier to handle and more water-resistant than polyester polyols, union Carbide and Mobay, a U. S. Monsanto/Bayer joint venture, also began making polyurethane chemicals. In 1960 more than 45,000 metric tons of flexible polyurethane foams were produced, in 1967, urethane-modified polyisocyanurate rigid foams were introduced, offering even better thermal stability and flammability resistance. During the 1960s, automotive interior safety components, such as instrument, in 1969, Bayer exhibited an all-plastic car in Düsseldorf, Germany. Further increases in stiffness were obtained by incorporating pre-placed glass mats into the RIM mold cavity, also known broadly as resin injection molding, polyurethane foams are now used in high-temperature oil filter applications. Polyurethane foam is made using small amounts of blowing agents to give less dense foam. In the early 1990s, because of their impact on ozone depletion, polyurethanes are in the class of compounds called reaction polymers, which include epoxies, unsaturated polyesters, and phenolics. The properties of a polyurethane are greatly influenced by the types of isocyanates, long, flexible segments, contributed by the polyol, give soft, elastic polymer. High amounts of crosslinking give tough or rigid polymers, the crosslinking present in polyurethanes means that the polymer consists of a three-dimensional network and molecular weight is very high. In some respects a piece of polyurethane can be regarded as one giant molecule, one consequence of this is that typical polyurethanes do not soften or melt when they are heated, they are thermosetting polymers
22.
Extrusion
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Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed through a die of the desired cross-section and it also forms parts with an excellent surface finish. Drawing is a process, which uses the tensile strength of the material to pull it through the die. This limits the amount of change which can be performed in one step, so it is limited to simpler shapes, Drawing is the main way to produce wire. Metal bars and tubes are often drawn. Extrusion may be continuous or semi-continuous, the extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold. Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, play dough, the products of extrusion are generally called extrudates. Hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced using a simple flat extrusion die, instead, the die assumes the shape of a block with depth, beginning first with a shape profile that supports the center section. The die shape then internally changes along its length into the final shape, the material flows around the supports and fuses together to create the desired closed shape. The extrusion process in metals may increase the strength of the material. In 1797, Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process for making out of soft metals. It involved preheating the metal and then forcing it through a die via a hand-driven plunger, in 1820 Thomas Burr implemented that process for lead pipe, with a hydraulic press. At that time the process was called squirting, in 1894, Alexander Dick expanded the extrusion process to copper and brass alloys. The process begins by heating the stock material and it is then loaded into the container in the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then presses on the material to push it out of the die, afterward the extrusion is stretched in order to straighten it. If better properties are required then it may be treated or cold worked. The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-sectional area divided by the area of the final extrusion. One of the advantages of the extrusion process is that this ratio can be very large while still producing quality parts
23.
Aluminium
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Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
24.
Axle
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An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating them, or fixed to the vehicle. In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the points where the axle is supported. In the latter case, a bearing or bushing sits inside a hole in the wheel to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter type axle is referred to as a spindle, on cars and trucks, several senses of the word axle occur in casual usage, referring to the shaft itself, its housing, or simply any transverse pair of wheels. Strictly speaking, a shaft which rotates with the wheel, being either bolted or splined in fixed relation to it, is called an axle or axle shaft, however, in looser usage an entire assembly including the surrounding axle housing is also called an axle. An even broader sense of the word refers to every pair of wheels on opposite sides of the vehicle, regardless of their mechanical connection to each other. Thus, transverse pairs of wheels in an independent suspension may be called an axle in some contexts, axles are an integral component of most practical wheeled vehicles. In a live-axle suspension system, the serve to transmit driving torque to the wheel, as well as to maintain the position of the wheels relative to each other. The axles in this system must also bear the weight of the vehicle plus any cargo. A non-driving axle, such as the front beam axle in heavy duty trucks and some 2-wheel drive light trucks and vans, will have no shaft, conversely, many front wheel drive cars have a solid rear beam axle. In other types of systems, the axles serve only to transmit driving torque to the wheels. This is typical of the independent suspension found on most newer cars and SUVs and these systems still have a differential, but it will not have attached axle housing tubes. It may be attached to the frame or body, or integral in a transaxle. The axle shafts then transmit driving torque to the wheels, like a full floating axle system, the drive shafts in a front wheel drive independent suspension system do not support any vehicle weight. A straight axle is a rigid shaft connecting a wheel on the left side of the vehicle to a wheel on the right side. The axis of rotation fixed by the axle is common to both wheels, such a design can keep the wheel positions steady under heavy stress, and can therefore support heavy loads. Straight axles are used on trains, for the axles of commercial trucks
25.
Ball bearing
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A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing that uses balls to maintain the separation between the bearing races. The purpose of a bearing is to reduce rotational friction. It achieves this by using at least two races to contain the balls and transmit the loads through the balls, in most applications, one race is stationary and the other is attached to the rotating assembly. As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well, because the balls are rolling they have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were sliding against each other. Ball bearings tend to have lower capacity for their size than other kinds of rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races. However, they can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races and his was the first modern ball-bearing design, with the ball running along a groove in the axle assembly. There are several designs of ball bearing, each offering various trade-offs. They can be made many different materials, including, stainless steel, chrome steel. A hybrid ball bearing is a bearing with ceramic balls and races of metal, an angular contact ball bearing uses axially asymmetric races. An axial load passes in a line through the bearing. So the angle of contact on the race is the same as that on the outer race. Angular contact bearings better support combined loads and the angle of the bearing should be matched to the relative proportions of each. The larger the angle, the higher the axial load supported. In high speed applications, such as turbines, jet engines, and dentistry equipment, ceramics such as silicon nitride are now regularly used in such applications due to their low density. These materials significantly reduce centrifugal force and function well in high temperature environments and they also tend to wear in a similar way to bearing steel—rather than cracking or shattering like glass or porcelain. Most bicycles use angular-contact bearings in the headsets because the forces on these bearings are in both the radial and axial direction, an axial ball bearing uses side-by-side races. An axial load is transmitted directly through the bearing, while a radial load is supported and tends to separate the races. In a deep-groove radial bearing, the dimensions are close to the dimensions of the balls that run in it
26.
Roller hockey
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Roller hockey is a form of hockey played on a dry surface using wheeled skates. Most professional-inline hockey games take place on an indoor or outdoor sport court, otherwise, any dry surface can be used to host a game, typically a roller rink, macadam, or cement. The term Roller Hockey is often used interchangeably to refer to two variant forms chiefly differentiated by the type of skates and sticks used, there is traditional Roller hockey, played with quad skates, and Inline hockey, played with inline skates. Combined, roller hockey is played in nearly 60 countries worldwide, a minor variant of roller hockey is called skater hockey, played on both quad and inline skates. Roller Hockey is played on both Quad skates and Inline skates, have different rules and equipment, and involve different types of skating but share the category, the stick is more or less the same as in bandy and shinty. Roller Hockey bears close resemblance to ice hockey and is played on Inline skates, uses an ice hockey stick and includes a lot of fast racing back and forth action. Inline hockey goalies use a glove called a catcher to catch shots made on goal, the Quad hockey goalie uses a flat batting glove that provides rebound characteristics when blocking a shot on goal. Quad hockey is a variation of roller hockey, Roller Hockey is the overarching name for a rollersport that has existed long before inline skates were re-invented in the 70s. Roller Hockey has been played on quad skates, in sixty countries worldwide, Roller hockey was a demonstration rollersport in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. Inline hockey is a variation of roller hockey very similar to ice hockey, like ice hockey, Inline hockey is a contact sport therefore body checking isnt penalized. It is similar to ice hockey in that teamwork, skill, excepting the use of inline roller skates in lieu of ice skates, the equipment of inline roller hockey is similar to that of ice hockey. The game is played by two teams, consisting of four skaters and one goalie, on a dry rink divided into two halves by a line, with one net at each end of the rink. When played more informally, the game takes place on a smooth asphalt surface outdoors. The game is played in three 15-minute periods or if it is higher standard its played 20-minutes in each of the three periods. The game rules differ from ice hockey in a few ways, there is no icing. Generally speaking, only competitive level Inline hockey is strictly bound by the governing bodys rules, recreational hockey leagues may make modifications to certain aspects of the rules to suit local requirements. Roller hockey is a sport in Britain with teams cropping up all over the country. The fact that it can be played on any dry surface means that you can play it in almost any leisure center, most competitive youth hockey teams play in tournaments
27.
Freestyle slalom skating
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Freestyle slalom skating is a highly technical field of skating that involves performing tricks around a straight line of equally spaced cones. The most common spacing used in competitions is 80 cm, with larger competitions also featuring lines spaced at 50 cm and 120 cm, most freestyle slalomers use inline skates although some use quad skates. Those who use inline skates tend to use a full rocker wheel configuration, some skaters prefer to use a full hi-lo rocker, which means the largest wheel is the second in from the back, with the smallest at the front. A short frame is used to them the maximum possible maneuverability. The inline skates are very tight with a very strong cuff, the list of basic moves from easiest to hardest. There are many more moves than the ones shown in the list, the names of these moves may differ between countries. They also expand instructors ability in identifying and solving problems in slalom skating, the Art of Falling by Naomi Grigg, a renowned freestyle slalom instructor and former champion freestyle slalom skater, was published in June 2014. com Freestyle Slalom Information in Germany
28.
Rolling resistance
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Rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the force resisting the motion when a body rolls on a surface. It is mainly caused by non-elastic effects, that is, not all the energy needed for deformation of the wheel, roadbed, two forms of this are hysteresis losses, and permanent deformation of the object or the surface. Another cause of rolling resistance lies in the slippage between the wheel and the surface, which dissipates energy, note that only the last of these effects involves friction, therefore the name rolling friction is to an extent a misnomer. In analogy with sliding friction, rolling resistance is often expressed as a coefficient times the normal force and this coefficient of rolling resistance is generally much smaller than the coefficient of sliding friction. Factors that contribute to rolling resistance are the deformation of the wheels, the deformation of the roadbed surface, additional contributing factors include wheel diameter, speed, load on wheel, surface adhesion, sliding, and relative micro-sliding between the surfaces of contact. The losses due to also depend strongly on the material properties of the wheel or tire. For example, a tire will have higher rolling resistance on a paved road than a steel railroad wheel on a steel rail. Also, sand on the ground will give more rolling resistance than concrete, the primary cause of pneumatic tire rolling resistance is hysteresis, A characteristic of a deformable material such that the energy of deformation is greater than the energy of recovery. The rubber compound in a tire exhibits hysteresis, as the tire rotates under the weight of the vehicle, it experiences repeated cycles of deformation and recovery, and it dissipates the hysteresis energy loss as heat. Hysteresis is the cause of energy loss associated with rolling resistance and is attributed to the viscoelastic characteristics of the rubber. -- National Academy of Sciences This main principle is illustrated in the figure of the rolling cylinders, if two equal cylinders are pressed together then the contact surface is flat. In the absence of friction, contact stresses are normal to the contact surface. Consider a particle that enters the area at the right side, travels through the contact patch. Initially its vertical deformation is increasing, which is resisted by the hysteresis effect, therefore, an additional pressure is generated to avoid interpenetration of the two surfaces. Later its vertical deformation is decreasing and this is again resisted by the hysteresis effect. In this case this decreases the pressure that is needed to keep the two bodies separate, the resulting pressure distribution is asymmetrical and is shifted to the right. The line of action of the vertical force no longer passes through the centers of the cylinders and this means that a moment occurs that tends to retard the rolling motion. Low rolling resistance tires typically incorporate silica in place of black in their tread compounds to reduce low-frequency hysteresis without compromising traction
29.
Shore durometer
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Durometer is one of several measures of the hardness of a material. Hardness may be defined as a resistance to permanent indentation. The durometer scale was defined by Albert Ferdinand Shore, who developed a device to measure Shore hardness in the 1920s, the term durometer is often used to refer to the measurement as well as the instrument itself. Durometer is typically used as a measure of hardness in polymers, elastomers, shores device was not the first hardness tester nor the first to be called a durometer, but today that name usually refers to Shore hardness. There are several scales of durometer, used for materials with different properties, the two most common scales, using slightly different measurement systems, are the ASTM D2240 type A and type D scales. The A scale is for softer plastics, while the D scale is for harder ones. However, the ASTM D2240-00 testing standard calls for a total of 12 scales, depending on the use, types A, B, C, D, DO, E, M, O, OO, OOO, OOO-S. Each scale results in a value between 0 and 100, with higher values indicating a harder material, durometer, like many other hardness tests, measures the depth of an indentation in the material created by a given force on a standardized presser foot. This depth is dependent on the hardness of the material, its properties, the shape of the presser foot. ASTM D2240 durometers allows for a measurement of the initial hardness, the basic test requires applying the force in a consistent manner, without shock, and measuring the hardness. If a timed hardness is desired, force is applied for the required time, the material under test should be a minimum of 6.4 mm thick. The ASTM D2240 standard recognizes twelve different durometer scales using combinations of specific spring forces and indentor configurations. These scales are properly referred to as types, i. e. a durometer type is specifically designed to determine a specific scale. The table below provides details for each of these types, with the exception of Type R. Note, Type R is a designation, rather than a true type. The R designation specifies a presser foot diameter of 18 ±0.5 mm in diameter, while the spring forces, the final value of the hardness depends on the depth of the indenter after it has been applied for 15 seconds on the material. If the indenter penetrates 2.54 mm or more into the material, if it does not penetrate at all, then the durometer is 100 for that scale. It is for this reason that multiple scales exist, durometer is a dimensionless quantity, and there is no simple relationship between a materials durometer in one scale, and its durometer in any other scale, or by any other hardness test. Using linear elastic indentation hardness, a relation between the ASTM D2240 hardness and the Youngs modulus for elastomers has been derived by Gentand by Mix and Giacomin
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Inline figure skating
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Inline figure skating is figure skating on inline figure skates -- three or fourwheel frames with a toe-stop, mounted on figure skating boots in rockered configuration. Inline figure skating began as an off-ice training alternative for ice figure skaters, the International Roller Sports Federation has recognized it as artistic roller skating on inline skates and includes inline figure skating freestyle competitions at its world championships. Most of the participants are quad/inliners, Ice / Inliners Ice figure skaters who train off-ice on inline figure skates. Quad / Inliners Artistic roller skaters who skate on inline figure skates. International Roller Sports Federation Off-Ice Skating World Inline Figure Skating Association - WIFSA The World Inline Figure Skating Association was established in Paris January 302011, see www. wifsa. net The President is Fernand Fedronic. The 5th inline skating Worlds will be held in Geneva June 26-292015, teams from France, Spain, Italy, Russia, Romania, United States, Ireland and others will compete. Reported by John Petell founding board member
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Figure skating jumps
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Figure skating jumps are an element of three competitive figure skating disciplines — mens singles, ladies singles, and pair skating but not ice dancing. Different jumps are identified by the edge and the number of revolutions completed. There are six kinds of jumps currently counted as jump elements in ISU regulations. Three are edge jumps — the Salchow, loop, and Axel — and three are toe jumps which use the toe picks on the front of the blade — the toe loop, flip, the Axel is the most difficult due to an extra half rotation. Each jump receives a score according to its value and grade of execution. The GOE ranges from +3 to −3 and is weighted according to the base value. Quality of execution, technique, height, speed, flow, an under-rotated jump is missing rotation of more than ¼, but less than ½ revolution and receives 70% of the base value. A downgraded jump is missing rotation of ½ revolution or more, a triple which is downgraded is treated as a double, while a downgraded double is treated as a single jump. The ISU defines a fall as a loss of control with the result that the majority of the body weight is not on the blade but supported by hands, knees. An edge violation occurs when a skater executes a jump on the incorrect edge, the hollow is a groove on the bottom of the blade which creates two distinct edges, inside and outside. The inside edge of the blade is closest to the center of the body, the outside edge is on the outer edge of the foot. A flat refers to skating on both edges at the time, which is discouraged. An unclear edge or edge violation is indicated with an e, flutz and lip are the colloquial terms for a Lutz and a flip jump with an edge violation, respectively. In 1982, the International Skating Union enacted a rule stating that a skater may perform each type of only once. For a set of jumps to be considered a combination, each jump must take off from the edge of the previous jump, with no steps, turns. Toe loops and loops are commonly performed as the second or third jump in a combination because they take off from the back outside edge. To perform a Salchow or flip on the end of a combination. In contrast, jump sequences are sets of jumps which may be linked by non-listed jumps or hops, sequences are worth 80% of what the same jumps executed in combination would be worth
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Vert skating
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Vert skating is a sport and a term used to refer to riding inline skates or roller skates on a vert ramp, a half-pipe with some vertical in it usually between 6in to 24in. Vert skating is a form of acrobatics performed with skates, the purpose of vert skating is to ride higher than the coping and perform spins or flips. It focuses on complicated aerial maneuvers, such as spins and flips, the intent of the skater is to build speed until they are of sufficient height above the edge of the ramp to perform various aerial acrobatics. The sport was included in the first X-Games in 1995, vert skating is considered a challenging sport, as of 2012 there are fewer than 15 professional vert skaters attending competitions. Vert skating is used in such as the X Games. Vert ramps are found in many modern skateparks, half-pipe skiing Mega Ramp Superpipe siyanaphotography
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Road skating
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Road skating is the sport of skating on roads, much like road cycling. It shares much with inline speed skating, roadskaters often skate in tight packs, drafting each other and sharing the lead, which allows a pack to travel faster than an individual skater. The individual members of a pack use comparatively less energy than the lone skater traveling at the same speed, even the lead skater in the pack enjoys an advantage from the drafting skaters behind. While gliding downhill, a skater in a tucked position can achieve speeds that exceed the speed of a tucked cyclist. This is due to wind resistance. The rolling resistance is similar for a cyclist and a skater — it is only when actively skating that the skater incurs greater resistance, Skating is roughly 50% slower than cycling on flat ground. Skaters routinely achieve downhill speeds of 60 km/h, similar to cyclists, compared to cyclists, though, skaters particularly suffer on uphills, when the drafting advantage disappears. A skating paceline going down hills may easily achieve speeds faster than a cycling paceline of equal length, the reason is that the road skating paceline has a much more efficient draft effect. Skating is much more like cycling than running in terms of the muscles employed, cyclists and skaters commonly participate in each others sports as cross-training. Runners often switch to road skating due to associated with the impact of running. Many skiers use road skating for off-season and pre-season conditioning as well, in addition, skating is an excellent cross-training activity for a wide range of other sports due to the lateral motion involved in the skating stride. Road skating in a pack has some rules that most skaters follow. Pulling is associated with up to 30% higher energy exertion, thus, it is accepted that skaters rotate through pulls. A skater who has finished pulling steps out of the pack, the skater in front of the pack has a better view of the road ahead and points and calls out road hazards. Street skating is the practice of roller skating in groups on public roads, street skates can be formal affairs, with prespecified routes, marshals and, at times, police escorts or ad hoc gatherings of like minded individuals. There are organized street skates in a number of cities around the world, some of the largest are in Paris, Munich and Berlin. London also has an active street skating scene, londonSkate runs free events on Wednesday evenings, and a smaller scene can be found in Nottingham. Therefore, the route must be decided in advance, volunteer marshals help to control traffic at busy junctions
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
